Psychology and Social Practice

Author(s): John Dewey

Source: Science , Mar. 2, 1900, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 270 (Mar. 2, 1900), pp. 321-333
Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1627092

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 SCIENCE
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE: S. NEWCOMB, Mathematics; R. 8. WOODWARD, Mechanics; E. C. PICKERING;
Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering; IRA REMSEN, Chemistry;
J. LE CONTE, Geology; W. M. DAVIS, Physiography; HENRY F. OSBORN, Paleontology; W. K.
BROOKS, C. HART. MERRIAM, Zoology; S. H. SCUDDER, Entomology; C. E. BESSEY, N. L.
BRITTON, Botany; C. S. MINOT, Embryology, Histology; H. P. BOWDITCH, Physiology;
J. S. BILLINGS, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology;
J. W. POWELL, Anthropology.

FRIDAY, MARCH 2, 1900. PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL PRACTICE.*

IN coming before you I had hoped to deal

CONTENTS: with the problem of the relation of psychol-
Psychology and Social Practice: PROFESSOR JOHN ogy to the social sciences-and through
DEW EY .................................................... 321
them to social practice, to life itself. Nat-
The Marine Biological Laboratory: PROFESSOR E.
G. CONKLIN .............................................. 333 urally, in anticipation, I had conceived a
Report on the Initial Work of the State Geological systematic exposition of fundamental prin-
Survey of Nebraska: PROFESSOR ERWIN HINCK- ciples covering the whole ground, and giv-
LEY BARBOUR .......................................... 343
ing every factor its due rating and position.
Scientific Books:-
Kingsley's Vertebrate Zoology: PROFESSOR That discussion is not ready to-day. I am
JACOB REIGHARD. Folwell's Water-Supply En- loath, however, completely to withdraw
gineering; Hazen' s Filtration of Public Water
Supplies: PROFESSOR MANSFIELD MERRI- from the subject, especially as there hap-
MAN. Benjamin on California Mines and Miner- pens to be a certain phase of it with which
als: R. H. T. Books Received ..................... 344
I have been more or less practically occu-
Scientific Journals and Articles . ........................ 348
pied within the last few years. I have in
Societies and Academies:-
Geological Society of Washington: F. L. RAN- mind the relation of Psychology to Educa-
SOME, DAVID WHITE. Biological Society of tion. Since education is primarily a social
Washington: T. W. STANTON. The Philosoph-
ical Society of Washington: E. D. PRESTON. affair, and since educational science is first
Torrey Botanical Club: EDWARD S. BURGESS. of all a social science, we have here a sec-
The New York Section of the American Chemical
Society: DR. DURAND WOODMAN. The Acad- tion of the whole field. In some respects
emy of Science of St. Louis: PROFESSOR WIL- there may be an advantage in approaching
LIAM TRELEASE ......................................... 348
the more comprehensive question through
Notes on Physics:-
Dr,ade's Annalen; Radiant FHeat; Thermal Con- the medium of one of its special cases. The
ductivity. W. S. F ...................................... 352 absence of elaborated and coherent views
Engineering Notes: R. H. T ............................ 353 may be made up for by a background of ex-
Botanical Notes:-
Botany at Wood's Holl; Minnesota Botanical
perience, which shall check the projective
Studies; Harper's Studies in Cell Division; Short power of reflective abstraction, and secure
Notes: PROFESSOR CHARLES E. BESSEY ........ 354 a translation of large words and ideas into
Scientific Notes and News ................................. 356
specific images. This special territory,
University and Educational News:- moreover, may be such as to afford both
Instruction in Archeology and Ethnology in the
University of Pennsylvania. General ............... 359 sign-posts and broad avenues to the larger

MSS. intended for publication and books, etc., intended

* Address of the President of the American Psycho-
for review should be sent to the responsible editor, Profes- logical Association, New Haven meeting, December,
sor, J. McKeen Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, N. Y. 1899.

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322 S'CIENCE. [N. S. VOL. XI. No. 270.

sphere-the place of psychology among theis precisely the permeating persistence of

social sciences. Because I anticipate such the underlying psychological creed. Traced
an outcome, and because I shall make a back to its psychological ultimates, there
survey of the broad field from the special are two controlling bases of existing methods
standpoint taken, I make no apology for of instruction. One is the assumption of a
presenting this discussion to an Associa- fundamental distinction between child psy-
tion of Psychologists rather than to a gath- chology and the adult psychology where, in
ering of educators. reality, identity reigns; viz.: in the region
In dealing with this particular question, of the motives and conditions which make
it is impossible not to have in mind the for mental power. The other is the assump-
brilliant and effective discourses recently tion of likeness where marked difference is
published by my predecessor in this chair. the feature most significant for educational
I shall accordingly make free to refer topurposes; I mean the specialization of aims
points, and at times to words, in his treat- and habits in the adult, compared with the
ment of the matter. Yet, as perhaps I absence of specialization in the child, and
hardly need say, it is a problem of the most the connection of undifferentiated status
fundamental importance for both psychology with the full and free growth of the child.
and social theory that I wish to discuss, not The adult is primarily a person with a
any particular book or article. Indeed with certain calling and position in life. These
much of what Dr. Miinsterberg says about devolve upon him certain specific responsi-
the uselessness and the danger for the teacher bilities which he has to meet, and call into
of miscellaneous scraps of child study, of play certain formed habits. The child is
unorganized information regarding the nerv- primarily one whose calling is growth. He
ous system, and of crude and uninterpreted is concerned with arriving at specific ends
results of laboratory experiment, I am in and purposes-instead of having a general
full agreement. It is doubtless necessary framework already developed., He is en-
to protest against a hasty and violent bolt- gaged in forming habits rather than in defi-
ing of psychological facts and principles nitely utilizing those already formed. Con-
which, of necessity, destroys their scientific sequently he is absorbed in getting that all
form. It is necessary to point out the need around contact with persons and things,
of a preliminary working over of psycho- that range of acquaintance with the physical
logical material adapting it to the needs and ideal factors of life, which shall afford
of education. But these are minor points. the background and material for the spec-
The main point is whether the standpoint ialized aims and pursuits of later life. He
of psychological science, as a study of is, or should be, busy in the formation of a
mechanism, is indifferent and opposed to flexible variety of habits whose sole im-
the demands of education with its free in- mediate criterion is their relation to full
terplay of personalities in their vital atti-
growth, rather than in acquiring certain
tudes and aims. skills whose value is measured by their
I.
reference to specialized technical accom-
The school practice of to-day has a defi-
plishments. This is the radical psycho-
nite psychological basis. Teachers arelogical
al- and biological distinction, I take
ready possessed by specific psychological
it, between the child and the adult. It is
assumptions which control their theorybecause
and of this distinction that children
their practice. The greatest obstacle toare
theneither physiologically nor mentally de-
introduction of certain educational reforms scribable as 'little men and women.'

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MARCH 2, 1900.] SCIENCE. 323

The full recognition of this distinction But in another direction there is the
assumption of a fundamental difference
means of course the selection and arrange-
ment of all school materials and methods Namely, as to the conditions which secure
for the facilitation of full normal growth,
intellectual and moral progress and power.*
No one seriously questions that, with an
trusting to the result in growth to provide
the instrumentalities of later specialized
adult, power and control are obtained
adaptation. If education means thethrough
period realization of personal ends and
of prolonged infancy, it means nothingproblems,
less through personal selection of
than this. But look at our school system
means and materials which are relevant,
and ask whether the 3 R's are taught, and through personal adaptation and ap-
either as to subject matter or as to method, plication of what is thus selected, together
with reference to growth, to its presentwith whatever of experimentation and of
demands and opportunities; or as techni- testing is involved in this effort. Practi-
cal acquisitions which are to be needed cally every one of these three conditions of
in the specialized life of the adult. Ask increase in power for the adult is denied for
the same questions about geography, gram- the child. For him problems and aims are
mar and history. The gap between psy-determined by another mind. For him the
chological theory and the existing schoolmaterial that is relevant and irrelevant is
practice becomes painfully apparent. Weselected in advance by another mind. And,
readily realize the extent to which the upon the whole, there is such an attempt
present school system is dominated by to teach him a ready-made method for apply-
carrying over into child life a standpoint
ing his material to the solution of his prob-
and method which are significant in the lems, or the reaching of his ends that the
psychology of the adult. factor of experimentation is reduced to the
The narrow scope of the traditional ele-minimum. With the adult we unquestion-
mentary curriculum, the premature and ex- ingly assume that an attitude of personal in-
cessive use of logical analytic methods, the quiry, based upon the possession of a problem
assumption of ready-made faculties of ob-which interests and absorbs, is a necessary
servation, memory, attention, etc., whichprecondition of mental growth. With the
can be brought into play if only the childchild we assume that the precondition is
chooses to do so, the ideal of formal dis- rather the willing disposition which makes
cipline-all these find a large measure ofhim ready to submit to any problem and
material presented from without. Alert-
their explanation in neglect of just this psy-
chological distinction between the child and ness is our ideal in one case; docility in the
the adult. The hold of these affairs upon other. With one, we assume that power of
the school is so fixed that it is impossible attention develops in dealing with problems
to shake it in any fundamental way, ex- which make a personal appeal, and through
cepting by a thorough appreciation of the personal responsibility for determining what
actual psychology of the case. This appre- is relevant. With the other we provide
ciation cannot be confined to the educa- next to no opportunities for the evolution
tional leaders and theorists. No individual of problems out of immediate experience,
instructor can be sincere and whole hearted, and allow next to no free mental play for
to say nothing of intelligent, in carrying selecting, assorting and adapting the ex-
into effect the needed reforms, save as* Ihe owe this point specifically (as well as others
genuinely understands the scientific more basisgenerally) to my friend and colleague, Mrs.
and necessity of the change. Ella Flagg Young.

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324 SCIENCE. [N. S. VOL. XI. No. 270.

periences and ideas that make for their of course no doubt. As a rule, it will not
solution. How profound a revolution in be the one actively employed in instruction
the position and service of text-book and who will be most conscious of the psycho-
teacher, and in methods of instruction de-logical basis and equivalents of the educa-
pending therefrom, would be effected by tional work, nor most occupied in finding
a sincere recognition of the psychologicalthe pedagogical rendering of psychological
identity of child and adult in these respectsfacts and principles. Of necessity, the
can with difficulty be realized. stress of interest will be elsewhere. But
Here again it is not enough that the edu- we have already found reason for question
cational commanders should be aware of ing the possibility of making the somewhat
the correct educational psychology. different
The direction of interest into a rigid
rank and file, just because they are persons dualism of a legislative class on one side
dealing with persons, must have a sufficientand an obedient subject class on the other.
grounding in the psychology of the Can the teacher ever receive 'obligatory
matter
prescriptions '? Can he receive from another
to realize the necessity and the significance
of what they are doing. Any reform a statement
insti- of the means by which he is to
tuted without such conviction on the reach his ends, and not become hopelessly
part
of those who have to carry it intoservile effectin his attitude? Would not such
would never be undertaken in good afaith, result be even worse than the existing
nor in the spirit which its ideal inevitablymixture of empiricism and inspiration ?-
demands; consequently it could lead just only
because it would forever fossilize the
to disaster. empirical eleiment and dispel the inspira-
At this point, however, the issue defines tion which now quickens routine. Can a
passive, receptive attitude on the part of
itself, somewhat more narrowly. It may
the instructor (suggesting the soldier await-
be true, it is true, we are told, that some
should take hold of psychological methods ing orders from a commanding general) be
and conclusions, and organize them with avoided, unless the teacher, as a student of
reference to the assistance which they maypsychology, himself sees the reasons and
import of the suggestions and rules that are
give to the cause of education. But this is
not the work of the teacher. It belongs proffered
to him ?
the general educational theorist-the mid, I quote a passage that seems of signifi-
dleman between the psychologist and the cance: "Do we not lay a special linking
educational practitioner. He should put science everywhere else between the theory
and practical work? We have engineering
the matter into such shape that the teacher
may take the net results in the formbetweenof physics and the practical working-
men in the mills; we have a scientific med-
advice and rules for action; but the teacher
who comes in contact with the living per- icine between the natural science and the
sonalities must not assume the psycholog- physician" (p. 138). The sentences sug-
gest in an almost startling way, that the
ical attitude. If he does he reduces persons
real essence of the problem is found in an
to objects, and thereby distorts, or rather
organic
destroys, the ethical relationship which is connection between the two extreme
the vital nerve of instruction (Psychologyterms-between the theorist and the prac-
and Life, p. 122, and pp. 136-138). tical worker-through the medium of the
That there is some legitimate division linking science. The decisive matter is the
o labor between the general educational extent to which the ideas of the theorist
theorist and the actual instructor, thereactually
is project themselves, through the

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MARCH 2, 1900.] SCIENCE. 325

kind offices of the middle man, intolossthe

to treatment from this point of view;
consciousness of the practitioner. It while
is thethe case is quite different in the ma-
participation by the practical man terial
in thewith which the teacher deals. Here
theory, through the agency of the linking
is personality, which is destroyed when re-
science, that determines at once the garded
effec- as an object. But the gap is not so
tiveness of the work done, and the moral
pronounced nor so serious as this objection
freedom and personal development of implies.
the The physician after all is not
one engaged in it. It is because the dealing
physi-with a lifeless body; with a simple
anatomical structure, or interplay of me-
cian no longer follows rules, which, however
chanical
rational in themselves, are yet arbitrary to elements. Life functions, active
him (because grounded in principles operations,
that are the reality which confront
he does not understand), that his workhim.isWe do not have to go back many
centuries
becoming liberal, attaining the dignity of a in the history of medicine to find
a time when the physician' attempted to
profession, instead of remaining a mixture
deal with these functions directly and im-
of empiricism and quackery. It is because,
alas, engineering makes only a formal mediately.
and They were so overpoweringly
not a real connection between physics present,
and they forced themselves upon him
the practical workingmen in the mills,so obviously
that and so constantly that he had
no resource save a mixture of magic and
our industrial problem is an ethical problem
of the most serious kind. The question of
empiricism: magic, so far as he followed
the amount of wages the laborer receives,
methods derived from uncritical analogy,
of the purchasing value of this wage,or offrom
the purely general speculation on the
hours and conditions of labor, are, after all, and life; empiricism, so long as he
universe
just
secondary. The problem primarily roots in followed procedures which had been
the fact that the mediating science does
found not
helpful before in cases which some-
what resembled the present. We have
connect with his consciousness, but merely
with his outward actions. He does not only to trace the intervening history of
appreciate the significance and bearing of to appreciate that it is precisely
medicine
what he does; and he does not perform the ability
his to state function in terms of
work because of sharing in a larger structure,
scien- to reduce life in its active op-
tific and social consciousness. If he did, erations to terms of a causal mechanism,
he would be free. All other proper ac- which has taken the medical calling out of
companiments of wage, and hours, healthful this dependence upon a vibration between
and inspiring conditions would be added superstition and routine. Progress has
unto him, because he would have entered come by taking what is really an activity
into the ethical kingdom. Shall we seekas if it were only an object. It is the ca-
analogy with the teacher's calling in the pacity to effect this transformation of life
workingmen in the mill, or in the scientific activity which measures both the scientific
physician ? character of the physician's procedure and
It is quite likely that I shall be reminded his practical control, the certainty and effi-
that I am overlooking an essential differ- cacy of what he, as a living man, does in
ence. The physician, it will be said, is relation to some other living man.
dealing with a body which either is in It is an old story, however, that we must
itself a pure object, a causal interplay ofnot content ourselves with analogies. We
anatomical elements, or is something which must find some specific reason in the prin-
lends itself naturally and without essentialciples of the teacher's own activities for

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326 SCIENCE. [N. S. VOL. XI. No. 270.

believing that psychology-the ability youto that a child is careless or inattentive in

transform a living personality into an ob-
the same final way in which they would
jective mechanism for the time being-is tell you that a piece of paper is white. It
not merely an incidental help, but an or-is just a fact, and that is all there is of it.
ganic necessity. Upon the whole, the bestNow it is only through some recognition of
efforts of teachers at present are partlyattention as a mechanism, some awareness
paralyzed, partly distorted, and partly ren-
of the interplay of sensations, images and
dered futile precisely from the fact that motor impulses which constitute it as an
they are in such immediate contact with objective fact that the teacher can deal
sheer, unanalyzed personality. The rela- effectively with attention as a function.
tion is such a purely ethical and personalAnd, of course, the same is true of memory,
one that the teacher cannot get enough
quick and useful observation, good judg-
outside the situation to handle it intelli- ment and all the other practical powers the
gently and effectively. He is in preciselyteacher is attempting to cultivate.
the condition in which the physicianConsideration
was of the abstract concepts of
when he had no recourse save to deal with mechanism and personality is important.
health as entity or force on one side,Too andmuch preoccupation with them in a
disease as opposing agency or invading general
in- fashion, however, without transla-
fluence upon the other. The teacher reacts
tion into relevant imagery of actual condi-
en bloc, in a gross wholesale way, to some-
tions is likely to give rise to unreal difficul-
thing which he takes in an equally unde- ties. The ethical personality does not go
fined and total way in the child. It istothe school naked, it takes with it the body as
inability to regard, upon occasion, both the instrument through which all influences
himself and the child as just objects work-reach it, and through control of which its
ing upon each other in specific ways ideas thatare both elaborated and expressed.
compels him to resort to purely arbitrary The teacher does not deal with personality
measures, to fall back upon mere routine at large, but as expressed in intellectual
traditions of school teaching, or to flyand to practical impulses and habits. The
the latest fad of pedagogical theorists-theethical personality is not formed-it is
latest panacea peddled out in school jour- forming. The teacher must provide stimuli
nals or teachers' institutes-just as theleading
old to the equipment of personality
physician relied upon his magic formula. with active habits and interests. When
I repeat, it is the fundamental weakness we consider the problem of forming habits
of our teaching force to-day (putting asideand interests we find ourselves at once con-
teachers who are actually incompetent fronted
by with matters of this sort: What
reason either of wrong motives or inad- stimuli shall be presented to the sense or-
equate preparation), that they react in gans and how ? What stable complexes of
gross to the child's exhibitions in gross associations shall be organized? What
without analyzing them into their detailed motor impulses shall be evoked, and to
and constituent elements. If the child is what extent? How shall they be induced
angry, he is dealt with simply as an in angry
such a way as to bring favorable stimuli
being; anger is an entity, a force, not undera greater control, and to lessen the dan-
symptom. If a child is inattentive, ger thisof excitation from undesirable stimuli ?
again is treated as a mere case of refusal In a to
word, the teacher is dealing with the
use the faculty or function of attention, of factors that are concerned with
psychical
sheer unwillingness to act. Teachers tell furtherance of certain habits, and the in-

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MARCH 2, 1900. ] SCIENCE. 327

hibition of others-habits intellectual, habits with the life of the child can be effective, is,
emotional, habits in overt action. I submit, nothing but an appeal to magic,
Moreover, all the instruments and ma- plus dependence upon servile routine. Sym-
bols in reading and writing and number,
terials with which the teacher deals must
be considered as psychical stimuli. Such
are both in themselves, and in the way in,
which they stand for ideas, elements in a
consideration involves of necessity, a knowl-
mechanism which has to be rendered opera-
edge of their reciprocal reactions-of what
tive within the child. To bring about this
goes by the name of causal mechanism.
influence
The introduction of certain changes into a in the most helpful and econom-
ical way, in the most fruitful and liberating
net-work of associations, the reinforcement
of certain sensori-motor connections, way,
the is absolutely impossible save as the
teacher
weakening or displacing of others-this is the has some power to transmute sym-
bols of
psychological rendering ofthegreater part and contents into their working psych-
the teacher's actual business. It is not that ical equivalents: and save as he also has
one teacher employs mechanical consider- the power to see what it is in the child, as
ations, and that the other does not, appeal- a psychical mechanism, that affords maxi-
ing to higher ends; it is that one doesmum not leverage.
know his mechanism, and consequently acts Probably I shall now hear that at pres-
servilely, superstitiously and blindly, whileent the danger is not of dealing with acts
the other, knowing what he is about, and actspersons in a gross, arbitrary way, but
freely, clearly and effectively.* (so far as what is called new education
The same thing is true on the sideisof concerned) in treating the children too
materials of instruction-the school studies. much as mechanism, and consequently seek-
No amount of exaltation of teleological per- ing for all kinds of stimuli to stir and
sonality (however true, and however neces- attract-that, in a word, the tendency to
sary the emphasis), can disguise from usreducethe instruction to a merely agreeable
fact that instruction is an affair of bring- thing, weakening the child's personality
ing a child into intimate relations with and indulging his mere love of excitement
concrete objects, positive facts, definite and pleasure, is precisely the result of tak-
ing the psycho-mechanical point of view.
ideas and specific symbols. The symbols
I welcome the objection for it serves to
are objective things in arithmetic, reading
clear up the precise point. It is through a
and writing. The ideas are truths of his-
partial and defective psychology that the
tory and of science. The facts are derived
teacher, in his reaction from dead routine
from such specific disciplines as geography
and language, botany and astronomy.and
To arbitrary moral and intellectual dis-
cipline, has substituted an appeal to the sat-
suppose that by some influence of pure per-
isfaction of momentary impulse. It is not
sonality upon pure personality, conjoined
with a knowledge of rules formulated bybecause an the teacher has a knowledge of the
educational theorist, an effective interplay psycho-physical mechanism, but because he
of this body of physical and ideal objects has a partial knowledge of it. He has come
to consciousness of certain sensations, and
*That some teachers get their psychology bycertain
in- impulses, and of the ways in which
stinct more effectively than others by any amount of
these may be stimulated and directed, but
reflective study may be unreservedly stated. It is
he is in ignorance of the larger mechanism
not a question of manufacturing teachers, but of rein-
(just
forcing and enlightening those who have a right to as a mechanism), and of the causal
teach. relations which subsist between the un-

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328 SCIENCE. [N. S. VOL. XI. No. 270.

known part and the elements upon whichis only partially at the service of his ideas,
he is playing. What is needed to correctwith blocked and inert brain paths between
eye and ear, and with a partial and discon-
his errors is not to inform him that he gets
only misleading from taking the psychical nected development of the cerebral paths of
visual imagery. What error in instruction
point of view; but to reveal to him the scope
and intricate interactions of the mechanism is there which could not, with proper psycho-
as a whole. Then he will realize that while logical theory, be stated in just such terms as
he is gaining apparent efficacy in some
these? A wrong method of teaching read-
superficial part of the mechanism, heing,iswrong I mean in the full educational
disarranging, dislocating and disintegrating and ethical sense, is also a case of patholog-
much more fundamental factors in it. In ical use of the psycho-physical mechanism.
a word he is operating not as a psycholo- A method is ethically defective that, while
gist, but as a poor psychologist, and the the child a glibness in the mechan-
giving
only cure for a partial psychology is a ical facility of reading, leaves him at the
fuller
one. He is gaining the momentary atten- mercy of suggestion and chance environ-
tion of the child through an appeal toment pleas-to decide whether he reads the 'yel-
ant color, or exciting tone, or agreeable low as-
journal,' the trashy novel, or the liter-
sociation, but at the expense of isolating ture which inspires and makes more valid
one cog and ratchet in the machinery, and his whole life. Is it any less certain that
making it operate independently of the this failure on the ethical side is repeated in
rest. In theory, it is as possible to demon- some lack of adequate growth and connec-
strate this to a teacher, showing how the tion in the psychical and physiological fac-
faulty method reacts unhappily into the tors involved ? If a knowledge of psychol-
personality, as it is to locate the points of ogy is important to the teacher in the
wrong construction, and of ineffective trans- grosser and more overt cases of mental pa-
fer of energy in a physical apparatus. thology is it not even more important in
This suggests the admission made by these hidden and indirect matters-just be-
writers in many respects as far apart as Dr. cause they are less evident and more cir-
Harris and Dr. Miinsterberg--that scientific cuitous in their operation and manifesta-
psychology is of use on the pathological tion?
side-where questions of 'physical and The argument may be summarized by
mental health' are concerned. But is there saying that there is controversy neither as
anything with which the teacher has to the ethical character of education, nor
con-
cern that is not included in the ideal of as to the abstraction which psychology per-
physical and mental health? Does health forms in reducing personality to an object.
The teacher is, indeed, a person occupied
define to us anything less than the teacher's
whole end and aim ? Where does pathol- with other persons. He lives in a social
ogy leave off in the scale and series of sphere-he is a member and an organ of
vicious aims and defective means? I see a social life. His aims are social aims;
no line between the more obvious methods the development of individuals taking ever
and materials which result in nervous ir- more responsible positions in a circle of
ritation and fatigue; in weakening the social activities continually increasing in
radius and complexity. Whatever he as a
power of vision, in establishing spinal curva-
tures; and others which, in more remote teacher effectively does, he does as a per-
and subtle, but equally real ways, leave theson; and he does with and towards per-
child with, say, a muscular system whichsons. His methods, like his aims, when

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MARCH 2, 1900.] SCIENCE. 329

actively in operation, are practical, are so- and equally a machinery that operates in
cial, are ethical, are anything you please no particular direction.
-save merely psychical. In comparison The proposition that a description and
with this, the material and the data, the explanation of stones, iron and mortar, as
standpoint and the methods of psychology, an absolutely necessary causal nexus of
are abstract. They transform specific acts mechanical conditions, makes the results
and relations of individuals into a flow of of physical science unavailable for purposes
processes in consciousness; and these proc- of practical life, would hardly receive at-
esses can be adequately identified and re- to-day. Every sky-scraper, every
tention
railway bridge is a refutation, compared
lated only through reference to a biological
organism. I do not think there is danger
with which oceans of talk are futile. One
of going too far in asserting the social and not find it easy to stir up a problem
would
teleological nature of the work of the even if he went on to include, in this same
teacher; or in asserting the abstract and mechanical system, the steam derricks that
partial character of the mechanism into hoist the stones and iron, and the muscles
which the psychologist, as a psychologist, and nerves of architect, mason and steel
transmutes the play of vital values. worker. The simple fact is still too obvi-
Does it follow from this that any attempt ous; the more thorough-going and complete
on the part of the teacher to perform this the mechanical and causal statement, the
abstraction, to see the pupil as a mechan- more controlled, the more economical is the
ism, to define his own relations and that of discovery and realization of human aims.
the study taught in terms of causal influ- It is not in spite of nor in neglect of,
ences acting upon this mechanism, are use- but because of the mechanical statement
less and harmful? On the face of it, I that human activity has been freed, and
cannot understand the logic which says made effective in thousands of new prac-
that because mechanism is mechanism, and tical directions, upon a scale and with
because acts, aims, values are vital, there-a certainty hitherto undreamed of. Our
fore a statement in terms of one is alien discussion tends to suggest that we enter-
to the comprehension and proper manage- tain a similar question regarding psychol-
ment of the other. Ends are not compro- ogy only because we have as yet made so
mised when referred to the means neces- little headway-just because there is so
sary to realize them. Values do not cease little scientific control of our practice in
to be values when they are minutely and these directions; that at bottom our diffi-
accurately measured. Acts are not de- culty is local and circumstantial, not in-
stroyed when their operative machinerytrinsic
is and doctrinal. If our teachers were
made manifest. The statement of the dis- trained as architects are trained, if our
parity of mechanism and actual life, be it
schools were actually managed on a psy-
never so true, solves no problem. It is chological
no basis as great factories are run
distinction that may be used off-hand on to
the basis of chemical and physical sci-
decide the question of the relation of psy-
ence; if our psychology were sufficiently
chology to any form of practice. It is aorganized
val- and coherent to give as adequate
uable and necessary distinction; but ait is
mechanical statement of human nature as
only preliminary. The purport of our physics
dis- does of its material, we should
cussion has, indeed, led us strongly to never
sus- dream of discussing this question.
pect any ideal which exists purely at large,
I cannot pass on from this phase of the
out of relation to machinery of execution,
discussion without at least incidental re-

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330 SCIENCE. N. S. VOL. XI. NO. 270.

mark of the obverse side of the situation. at large; they are social and practical.
The difficulties of psychological observationBut it approaches the laboratory in so far
and interpretation are great enough as inthe
anyends aimed at are reduced in number,
case. We cannot afford to neglect any arepos-
definite, and thus simplify the condi-
sible auxiliary. The great advantage of tions; and their psychological phase is up-
the psychological laboratory is paid for permost-the formation of habits of atten-
by certain obvious defects. The completer tion, observation, memory, etc.-while in
control of conditions, with resulting greaterordinary life these are secondary and swal-
accuracy of determination, demands an iso- lowed up.
lation, a ruling out of the usual media of If the biological and evolutionary atti-
thought and action, which leads to a cer- tude is right in looking at mind as funda-
tain remoteness, and easily to a certain mentally an instrument of adaptation, there
artificiality. When the result of laboratoryare certainly advantages in any mode of ap-
experiment informs us, for example, that proach which brings us near to its various
repetition is the chief factor influencing re-adaptations while they are still forming,
call, we must bear in mind that the result and under conditions selected with special
is obtained with nonsense material-i. e., reference to promoting these adaptations
by excluding the conditions of ordinary (or faculties). And this is precisely the
memory. The result is pertinent if we situation we should have in a properly
state it thus: The more we exclude the organized system of education. While the
usual environmental adaptations of memory theory would guide and illu-
psychological
the greater importance attaches to sheer
minate the practice, acting upon the theory
repetition. It is dubious (and probably would immediately test it, and thus criticise
perverse) if we say: Repetition is the it, bringing about its revision and growth.
prime influence in memory. In the large and open sense of the words
Now this illustrates a general principle. psychology becomes a working hypothesis,
Unless our laboratory results are to give instruction is the experimental test and
us artificialities, mere scientific curiosities, demonstration of the hypothesis; the result
they must be subjected to interpretation by is both greater practical control and con-
gradual reapproximation to conditions of tinued growth in theory.
life. The results may be very accurate,
II.
very definitive in form; but the task of re-
viewing them so as to see their actual im- I must remind myself that my purpose
port is clearly one of great delicacy anddoes not conclude with a statement of the
liability to error. The laboratory, in a auxiliary relation of psychology to educa-
word, affords no final refuge that enables tion; but that we are concerned with this
us to avoid the ordinary scientific difficul- as a type case of a wider problem-the rela-
ties of forming hypotheses, interpreting re- tion of psychology to social practice in gen-
sults, etc. In some sense (from the very eral. So far I have tried to show that it is
accuracy and limitations of its results) it not in spite of its statement of personal
aims and social relations in terms of
adds to our responsibilities in this direction.
Now the school, for psychological purposes,mechanism that psychology is useful,
stands in many respects midway between because of this transformation and abstrac-
the extreme simplifications of the labora-tion. Through reduction of ethical rela-
tory and the confused complexities of ordi- tions to presented objects, we are enabled
nary life. Its conditions are those of life to get outside of the existing situation; to

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MARCH 2, 1900.] SCIENCE. 331

see it objectively, not merely in relation grateful

to addition to its normal task, that
our traditional habits, vague aspirations psychology serves us. The essential nature
and capricious desires. We are able to seeof the standpoint which calls it into exist-
clearly the factors which shape it, and there- ence, and of abstraction which it performs,
fore to get an idea of how it may be modi- is to put in our possession the method by
fied. The assumption of an identical re- which values are introduced and effected in
lationship of physics and psychology to life. The statement of personality as an
practical life is justified. Our freedom ofobject; of social relations as a mechanism
action comes through its statement in termsof stimuli and inhibitions, is precisely the
of necessity. By this translation our con-statement of ends in terms of the method of

trol is enlarged, our powers are directed,their realization.

our energy conserved, our aims illuminated. It is remarkable that men are so blind
The school is an especially favorable to the futility of a morality which merel
place in which to study the availability of blazons ideals, erects standards, asserts law
psychology for social practice, because in without finding in them any organic pro-
the school the formation of a certain type vision for their own realization. For ideals
of social personality, with a certain attitude are held up to follow; standards are given
and equipment of working powers, is the ex- to work by; laws are provided to guide ac-
press aim. In idea at least no other pur- tion. The sole and only reason for their
pose restricts or compromises the dominance conscious moral statement is, in a word,
of the single purpose. Such is not the case that they may influence and direct con-
in business, politics and the professions. duct. If they cannot do this, not merely
All these have upon their surface, taken by accident, but of their own intrinsic na-
directly, other ends to serve. In many in- ture, they are worse than inert. They are
stances these other aims are of far greater impudent impostors and logical self-contra-
immediate importance; the ethical result dictions.
is subordinate or even incidental. Yet as When men derive their moral ideas and
laws from custom, they also realize them
it profiteth a man nothing to gain the whole
through custom; but when they are in
world and lose his own self, so indirectly
any way divorced from habit and tradi-
and ultimately all these other social insti-
tion, when they are consciously proclaimed,
tutions must be judged by the contribution
which they make to the value of human there,must
life. be some substitute for custom
as an organ of execution. We must know
Other ends may be immediately uppermost,
but these ends must in turn be means; thethey
method of their operation and know it
must subserve the interests of conscious life in detail. Otherwise the more earnestly
or else stand condemned. we insist upon our categorial imperatives,
and upon their supreme right of control,
In other words, the moment we apply
an ethical standard to the consideration of the more flagrantly helpless we are as to
social institutions, that moment they stand their actual domination. The fact that con-
scious, as distinct from customary, mo-
on exactly the same level as does the school,
viz.: as organs for the increase in depth rality and psychology have had a historic
and area of the realized values of life. In parallel march, is just the concrete recogni-
both cases the statement of the mechanism, tion of the necessary equivalence between
through which the ethical ends are realized,ends consciously conceived, and interest in
is not only permissible, but absolutely there-
means upon which the ends depend.
quired. It is not merely incidentally,We as have
a the same reality stated twice

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332 SCENCE. [N. S. VOL. XI. No. 270.

over: once as value to be realized, andthrough once knowledge of which we can modify
as mechanism of realization. So long as the practical outcome. There is no logical
custom reigns, as tradition prevails, so long alternative save either to recognize and
as social values are determined by instinctsearch for the mechanism of the interplay
and habit, there is no conscious question as of personalities that controls the existing
to the method of their achievement, and distributions of values, or to accept as final
hence no need of psychology. Social insti- a fixed hierarchy of persons in which the
tutions work of their own inertia, they take leaders assert, on no basis save their own
the individual up into themselves and carry supposed superior personality, certain ends
him along in their own sweep. The indi- and laws which the mass of men passively
vidual is dominated by the mass life of his receive and imitate. The effort to apply
group. Institutions and the customs at-psychology to social affairs means that the
taching to them take care of society both determination
as of ethical values lies not in
to its ideals and its methods. But when any set or class, however superior, but in
once the values come to consciousness, the workings of the social whole; that the
when once a Socrates insists upon the or- explanation is found in the complex inter-
ganic relation of a reflective life and mo- actions and interrelations which constitute
rality, then the means, the machinery by this whole. To save personality in all, we
which ethical ideas are projected and mani- must serve all alike-state the achieve-
fested, comes to consciousness also. Psy- ments of all in terms of mechanism, tha
chology must needs be born as soon as mo- of the exercise of reciprocal influence.
rality becomes reflective. affirm personality independent of mech
Moreover, psychology, as an account of ism is to restrict its full meaning to a f
the mechanism of workings of personality, and to make its expression in the few i
is the only alternative to an arbitrary and regular and arbitrary.
class view of society, to an aristocratic The anomaly in our present social life
view in the sense of restricting the realiza- is obvious enough. With tremendous in-
tion of the full worth of life to a section of crease in control of nature, in ability to
society. The growth of a psychology that, utilize nature for the indefinite extension
as applied to history and sociology, tries and to multiplication of commodities for hu-
state the interactions of groups of men in man use and satisfaction, we find the actual
familiar psychical categories of stimulus realization of ends, the enjoyment of values
and inhibition, is evidence that we are growing unassured and precarious. At
ceasing to take existing social forms as final times it seems as if we were caught in a
and unquestioned. The application of psy- contradiction ; the more we multiply means,
chology to social institutions is the only the less certain and general is the use we
scientific way of dealing with their ethical are able to make of them. No wonder a
values in their present unequal distribu- Carlyle or a Ruskin puts our whole indus-
tion, their haphazard execution and their trial civilization under a ban, while a Tol-
thwarted development. It marks just the stoi proclaims a return to the desert. But
recognition of the principle of sufficient the only way to see the situation steadily,
reason in the large matters of social life. and to see it as a whole, is to keep in mind
It is the recognition that the existing order that the entire problem is one of the de-
is determined neither by fate nor by chance, velopment of science, and of its application
but is based on law and order, on a system to life. Our control of nature with the ac-
of existing stimuli and modes of reaction, companying output of material commodities

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MARCH 2, 1900.] SCIENCE. 333

is
is the
thenecessary
necessary result
result
of of
thethe
growth
growth
of
ticalof
tical strivings
strivingsofofour
our
common
common humanity.
humanity.
The
The psychologist,
physical science-of our ability to state psychologist, inin
hishis
most
most
remote
remote
and and
things as interconnected parts of a me-technical occupation with mechanism, is
chanism. Physical science has for the timecontributing his bit to that ordered knowl-
being far outrun psychical. We have mas-edge which alone enables mankind to se-
cure a larger and to direct a more equal
tered the physical mechanism sufficiently to
flow of values in life.
turn out possible goods; we have not gained
a knowledge of the conditions through which JOHN DEWEY.
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO.
possible values become actual in life, and so
are still at the mercy of habit, of haphazard,
and hence of force. THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY.

Psychology, after all, simply states the THE twelfth annual session of the Marine
mechanism through which conscious value Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl,
and meaning are introduced into human Mass., which was held during the past
experience. As it makes its way, and issummer, was lacking in none of the ele-
progressively applied to history and all thements of interest and success which have
social sciences, we can anticipate no other made former sessions notable, while several
outcome than increasing control in the eth- new and valuable features were added last
ical sphere-the nature and extent of which year for the first time. In addition to the
can be best judged by considering the revo- regular courses of instruction in Zoology,
lution that has taken place in the control Embryology and Botany, there was given
of physical nature through a knowledge last of year, under the direction of Professor
her order. Psychology will never provide Loeb, a course on Comparative Physiology.
ready-made materials and prescriptions for Such a course can be given advanta-
the ethical life, any more than physics dic-geously only at the seashore where living
tates off-hand the steam engine and the animals of all classes may be had in abun-
dynamo. But science, both physical and dance. In the organization of this course
psychological, makes known the conditions the Woods Holl Laboratory has taken a
upon which certain results depend, and unique and advanced position which can-
therefore puts at the disposal of life a not fail to yield valuable results not
method for controlling them. Psychologyonly to research but also to physiological
instruction throughout the country. An-
will never tell us just what to do ethically,
nor just how to do it. But it will afford usother notable feature was the course of
insight into the conditions which control lectures and demonstrations in Compara
the formation and execution of aims, and tive Psychology given by Dr. Thorndike.
thus enable human effort to expend itselfThis course was followed with the keenest
sanely, rationally and with assurance. We
interest by a large number of persons at
are not called upon to be either boasters orWoods Holl. The general lectures, a vol-
sentimentalists regarding the possibilities ume of which is published annually, were
unusually numerous and valuable. The fa-
of our science. It is best, for the most part,
that we should stick to our particular jobscilities for dredging in deep water and for
of investigation and reflection as they comemaking extensive collecting trips were
to us. But we certainly are entitled in never before so good, thanks to the courte-
this daily work to be sustained by the con- sies of the Fish Commission Station. The
viction that we are not working in indiffer-United States Fish Commission steamer,
ence to or at cross-purposes with the prac- Fishhawk and schooner Grampus, were sta-

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