Baltic/ Lithuanian pre-

Christian religion and

mythology

Assoc. prof. dr. Dalia Senvaityte

Historical periods the pagan past was/is
actualized
1. 15-16 c.: Lithuanian aristocracy search evidences of their high
origin (connections with ancient Rome); competing with Poles;
2. 19 c. – the beginning of 20th c. (formation of the modern
Lithuanian nation); distinction from Poles (Catholics);
3. Soviet times (especially from the 7-8th decades); keeping own
national identity during period of savage atheism;
4. The end of 20th c. – the beginning of 21st c.; modern pagan
movements;
• Pantheism / polytheism

• Nature worship
Sources for (re-)constructions

Written historical sources

Folklore

Archeological evidences, language, ethnographic

material, etc.
Written historical sources: problems of study
Reliability
Fairness
“Correct” reading (perusal and decrypting)
Understanding information correctly
Interpretation
Connecting different fragments properly
Etc.
Historical sources

Sources before Christianity

• Information of Ancient Greeks and Romans

• Information of later travelers
• Influence of Crusades

Sources after Christianity

• Influences of Renaissance
• Influence of Reformation and Counter Reformation
Important historical sources

Hypatian Codex (13thc.)

Slavic translation of the Malalas’ chronicle (13thc.)
Annales seu cronicae incliti Regni Poloniae by Jan Długosz (15thc.)
De Diis Samagitarum (16th) by Jan Łasicki.
Kronika Polska, Litewska, Zmodska y Wszystkiej Rusi by Maciej Stryjkowski (16thc.)
Reports from Jesuit missions in 17th c.
Deliciae Prussicae or Prussian theater by M. Prätorius (17thc.)
Etc.
 • Scientific interest arose in the beginning of 19th
c.
Studies of • It is connected with:
• 1) romantic ideas those spread in all Europe
ancient and stimulated interest in history, traditional
religion and folk culture.
• 2) ideas about independent national state:
mythology interest in Lithuanian history, language, folk
culture, mythology was specific form of
struggle for national independence.
Teodoras Narbutas
1784 - 1864

• Study “Lithuanian Mythology” (in Polish,

1835)
• The main aim of this work - to carry back
Lithuanian nobility to their noble past.
• Mythology was described very wide.
• The model of antique mythologies was
taken as an example.
• Attention to Lithuanian pantheon, myths
and rituals.
• The study made a huge impact on later
studies of Lithuanian mythology.
• It became an object of scientific interest
by many foreign researches
Simonas Daukantas
1793 - 1864

• Author of the first Lithuanian

history in Lithuanian.
• Active ideologist of Lithuanian
national revival.
• Put attention on ancient
Lithuanian beliefs as well.
• The main work of this kind – study
“Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir
žemaičių” (1845)
Positivistic trend
Arose in the middle of the 19th c. when linguists entered mythological studies.

They criticized romantics because of simplified approach to ancient historical sources, invalid etymologies, etc.

The criticism became stronger in the end of 19th c. with the spread of positivistic ideas in all fields of science.
Positivists searched for more accurate methodology.
In the field of folk and mythological studies the ideas of the anthropological school became very popular;

Ideas that Lithuanians worshiped objects of nature, the animas that are in those objects became very popular;

Johann Wilhelm Mannhardt, Antoni Mierzynski, and others;

They collected ancient historical sources and interpret them carefully;

The studies on Lithuanian Mythology
in the first part of the 20th c.
• Jonas Basanavičius
• Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas
• P. Tarasenka
• J. Balys
• A different situation was with the studies of ancient Lithuanian/Baltic religion
abroad.
• Scientists here were familiar with new ideas in humanities, in mythological and
religious studies. But they had a different problem: many sources were
unreachable.
Algirdas Julius Greimas
(1917-1992)
• Linguist who contributed to the theory of
semiotics (a founder of French semiotic school),
• Started the structural studies of ancient
Lithuanian religion.
• “Apie Dievus ir žmones” (Of Gods and Men)
(1979)
• “Tautos atminties beieškant” (In Search of
National Memory )(1990)
Marija Gimbutienė (Gimbutas)
(1921-1994)
• Archeologist.
• Researched the Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures of Old
Europe. In 1956 she introduced her Kurgan hypothesis.
• Her works published between 1946 and 1971 introduced
new views by combining archeology with linguistics and
mythological interpretation.
• The Goddesses and Gods of Old Europe (1974),
• The Language of the Goddess (1989).
• The Civilization of the Goddess (1991)
Vladimir Toporov
(1928-2005)

• Russian linguists (Indo-Europeanist and Baltist).

• Presented Lithuanian mythological studies (with
V. Ivanov) in encyclopedia “World Myths” (in
Russian) that was published in Moscow.
Norbertas Vėlius
(1938-1996)
• Collected and published Lithuanian folk material.
• Was very engaged in popularizing ancient religion and mythology;
• The most important work - “Sources of Baltic Religion and Mythology”
(4 vol.)
• Books:
• “Lithuanian mythical beings in mythical stories” (1983),
• “Ancient Baltic world outlook” (1983)
• “Chtonical world of Lithuanian mythology” (1987).
• “Baltic mythology”
• others
Re-construction of
Pantheon
Pantheon

Common problems with the (re-)construction

Polytheism

Names of gods are mentioned in almost all

written sources (started from 13th c.)
 • There is no common position re question had Lithuanians the main superior god (the
god of sky and heaven) or had not.
• Some maintain that the name of Dievas was taboo and that’s why it wasn’t mentioned
in written sources. Euphemisms as Nunadej and Andaj were used.
• If the researches state that Lithuanians had this kind of god, they usually talk about
Dievas (that literally means The God). It is difficult to distinguish him from Christian God.
• By this name every other god also can be named; so it is not only a proper name, but it

Dievas (The •
is also a common noun.
The theonim has equivalents in many Indo-European languages (for example, Latvian
dievs, Prussian deivs, Hindu deva, Latin deus, etc.).

God; Sky • In Lithuanian folklore Dievas participates in 3 types of stories:

• 1) mythological legends about creation of the World (here he acts with another

Father) god – Velnias)

• 2) in legends about origin of the human beings (human being origins from the
spit of Dievas or from the drop that fall down on ground during the process
Dievas washed himself after stoking the stove).
• 3) in fairytales where he comes incognito as a begging old man.
(P. S.: look proverb: Svečias į namus – Dievas į namus – i.e. Guest comes into the
house, the god comes into the house)
Perkūnas

• The god of thunder.

• He is the most popular god in Lithuanian folklore and in written
historical sources.
• He is common for all Balts and he has equivalents among all the
Indo-Europeans.
• Lithuanian tradition gives us many other names of this god. For
example, Dundulis, Griaustinis, Tarškulis, etc. All these names gives
reference to the thunderstorm.
• All researchers agree that Diveriks recorded in written sources was
the name of this god too.
Perkūnas

• According to folklore Perkūnas lives in the sky.

• He was imagined as a man with flaming attributes
who run across the sky in a cart harnessed by
horses or goats.
• Historical sources note that maintaining of the
eternal fire was a special kind of Perkūnas
worship.
• Scientists maintain him as a god of atmosphere,
thunderstorms and fertility, or sometimes as a god
of war.
Perkūnas’ tree is oak

.
Perkūnas’ bullets (Belemnitida) and
Perkūnas’ goat (Gallinago gallinago)
Perkūnas’ grass (Melilotus officinalis ) and Amalas (viscum) (heat-lightning)(P.S.: in
Lithuanian this word also means lightening without thunder)
• Opposite to Perkūnas in Lithuanian
folklore is Velnias.
Velnias (Devil)

• Velnias - the most popular mythical being in Lithuanian folklore.

• Image is very complicated, multilayer.
• Different names (balinis, baubas, bekulnis, nelabasis, etc.)
• These names are allied to his look (horns, tail, hooves, red
teeth), his character (devil, fearsome) or his places of residence
(water body, swamps, underneath).
• Christianity linked Velnias with the Devil.
• Some scientists think him as an ancient god, but in modern
Lithuanian the maintaining Velnias as god sounds very profane.
• In folklore he is usually portrayed as a man (as a musician, a
smith, a hunter, etc).
Velnias

• In folk legends he is a god that creates an Earth together with

Dievas.
• He often helps people or asks for their help, plays with
shepherds, lends money, influences success of musicians,
hunters.
• Sometimes he can harm people but only those travel, work or
hunt during sacred time or at nighttime.
• He can tempt to a sin, to hang oneself, mislead, etc.
• Image of Velnias is common with Indo-European gods of
chthonic world.
• Velnias is often interpreted as a ancient god of afterlife too.
• It’s hypothesizing that he was displaced by Teliavelis (who was a
god-smith).
Smiths
Velnias can take appearance of hare or wolf
Žvorūna - Medeina

• Scientists think that these too • Picture of K. Ruseckas, XIX c.

names recorded in 13th c. are the

names of the same deity related to
hunting, forests and animals.
Other deities

These sources
The most of deities are
represent deities those
mentioned only in late
were important for
historical sources (16-
agriculturalists (not for
17th c.)
dukes and warriors).
Ragana (Witch)

• Raganos (witches) are very popular in Lithuanian folklore.

• In folk believes they look as ordinary women, but they have an extraordinary
power.
• Raganos can change their appearance.
• Sometimes they can get the look of various animals, birds, reptiles, fishes, but the
most popular their incarnation is a toad.
• Often they harm other people (make them ill, transform into wolves. They can
harm animals, crops, etc.
• Raganos fly into their meetings that take place on the hills.
• They fly on sweeps or on other household goods

• Usually their meetings take place on Midsummer Day.

• Before these flights they use specific ointments (P.S.: probably these ointments
there used in ancient cults and made a vision of flying).
•
Ragana

• There are two versions on etymology of

Ragana name:
• 1) from ragas (horn);)
• 2) from regėti (to see);
• Sometimes Ragana is connected with
Zvoruna/Medeina.
• Other guess Ragana was understood as a
patroness of dead. There are many places in
Lithuania that have the root rag- and in these
places people there buried.
• Raganos - performers of ancient rituals?
Laumė (Pixy ?)

• They described as doing traditional

feminine jobs (spinning, weaving,
washing, and taking care of babies).
• Sometimes they can replace human kids
with their own
• Some of their activities as spinning or
weaving make them similar to the deities
of destiny
Laume’s stone
(Venta regional
park)
Laima
• It is a deity of destiny.
• Her name is relative to the words that mean
“to destine, to determine, to fate, to bless”,
etc.
• She appears at persons’ birth and determines
its future.
• She can get an appearance of cuckoo or
another bird and to predict future
• Dalia is also is a deity of destiny is related to
Laima. She is understood as a personal luck,
personal lot.
Giltinė (Grim reaper???)
• She is a personification of death.
• Her name is link with “bite”.
• In folklore she is described as an old
woman in white clothes.
• Her tongue is full of poison.
• She appears at the moment of deaf
and kills people by biting them.
• The universal image of Giltinė (a
skeleton with the scythe) is also
popular.
• Similar to Giltinė are personifications
of various serious diseases (plague,
cholera)
Aitvarai

• Aitvarai are flying beings that brings various

treasures to their owners.
• Usually they have a flying flaming form (flaming
ball, snake, bird, etc.).
• Indoors they get a form of cocks.
• Sometimes they are called kaukai, pūkiai or kutai.
• People could buy them or to hatch them from
cocks’ eggs themselves.
Barstukai

• Very popular in Samogitia

• They were imagined as small human beings with
long beards.
• They live under elders.
• They bring various riches to their owners.
• Sometimes they were called kaukai as well.
Žiburiniai (will-o'-
the-wisp???)
• The most terrible Lithuanian mythical beings.
• They were visualized as strolling flame.
• It was possible to see them in swamps or in
cemeteries.
• Sometimes they can appear as flaming parts of
the human bodies.
• They can pursue people they meet or even can
kill them.
• Folk believes record many methods how to act
with them (don’t run, guess their names, baptize
them, etc.)
SACRED PLACES
 • Ancient Lithuanian places of worship are mentioned in almost all
historical sources (starting from 12th century).
• Places of worship were usually arranged outdoors.
• Many of historical sources speak about temples too. It’s possible
that were some specific buildings, but they wasn’t similar to
Christian churches.
• Witnesses about sacred places can be seen in place names.

Sacred places • Generally the Lithuanian ancient sacred places were called Alkai
(pl).
• In Lithuania there are found about 200 sacred places known as
Alkas. Most of them are hills or fields.
• There are many sacred places in Lithuania that have other sacred
names (for example, the names of various gods or mythical beings).
• These are names for some hills, fields, forests, trees, stones, waters,
etc.
View from
Rambynas hill
(Western Lithuania)
Cross hill (near Siauliai)
 • In Lithuania there are about 100 sacred lakes,
60 sacred swamps, 50 sacred rivers and 15
sacred springs.
• The names of lakes or rivers usually show their
specific status. They are called šventas (
Sacred “sacred”).
• There are legends about some lakes that they
WATERS “call for sacrifices “(usually pigs were offered for
them instead of human).
• The specific traits of the sacred springs are
healing qualities or streaming opposite the sun.
• Swamps were connected with velniai (devils).
 Šventoji
(“Sacred
river”)
 • Stones were laid in the places people are buried.
• They also marked specific or sacred place.
• Classification of sacred stones is very complicated. There
are a big variety of sacred stones (there are known more
than 500 sacred stones in Lithuania).
• Very specific group are the stone with footprints and the
Sacred stones with narrow-bottomed bowls.

STONES • Sacred stones were visited with various offerings even in

the beginning of the 20th c.
• There are many legends that some stones were dropped
from the sky, that they are carried and loosed by Velnias.
• Some of stones people believed are petrified people. The
legends usually alert people they must not to touch these
stones because something wrong can happen to them.
Stone with footprints
in Neris regional park
 Devil’s stone
(Velnio
akmuo) in
Joniskis
district
Stone Mokas (“Petrified person”)(Aukstaitija National park )
Sacred animals

• Many historical sources inform Lithuanians

especially respected grass-snakes.
• They were kept them indoors and people
feed them.
• Folklore also give many information about
specific sacred qualities of these reptiles.
• People respected some other animals and
birds (for example, storks) too.
Types of rites
individualistic rites

shamanistic rites

community rites (rituals are performed by a member/members of

community)
rites performed by special stratum (priesthood).
 • Main rituals in different religions are sacrificing and praying.
• The nature of sacrifice depended on the intention, of the
deity to whom the sacrifice was given, etc.
• Historical sources give us information about different forms
of sacrificing: burning, lying in specific places, etc.
• The historical sources or the 13-14th c. inform that also the
prisoners (Christians) were sacrificed to gods.
Rituals • The historical sources of the 16-17th c. talk about sacrificing
of animals (goats, pigs), poultry (hens, cocks), waxy images
of animals, and food products (beer, bread, milk, etc).
• The specific rituals as žemynėliavimas (ritual pouring of beer
onto the ground) and palabinimas (ritual blessing of gods
that was accompanied by the ritual drinking of beer) also are
often mentioned in these sources.
Modern paganism

Influence or Romantic national ideas

Influence of alternative spirituality
Religious revival or the new construct?
Romuva organization.
Former Modern Krivis (J. Trinkūnas)
“Jorė” festival, 2010-04-25