3 Confined aquifers ‘When a fully penetrating well pumps a confined aquifer (Figure 2.1), te influence ‘of the pumping extends radially outwards from the well with time, andthe aamped ‘water is withdrawn entirely from the storage within the aquifer. In theory, because the pumped water must come from a reduction of storage within the aguifr, only unsteady-state flow ean exist, In practice, however, the Flow to the well considered to be ina steady state ifthe change in drawdown has become negligibly sll with, ‘Methods for evaluating pumping tests in confined aquifers are av ‘steady-state low (Section 3.1) and unsteady state low (Section 3.2). ble for both ‘The assumptions and conditions underlying the methods in this chapter ae: 1) The aquifer iscoafined; 2) Theaguifer has seemingly infinite areal extent; 3) The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropi, and of uniform thickness over the area influenced by the test 4) Prior to pumping, the piezometrc surface is horizontal (or nearly so) overthe area that wll be influenced by the tet 5) Theaquiferis pumped ata constant discharge rate; 6) The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer and thus receives water by horizontal Now. oe puns se is 55o Figure 32 Lithloilcosastion of he pupil "Oude Kore, The Nara ar ‘And, in addition, for unsteady state methods: 17) Thewater removed from storageis discharged instantaneously with decline of head: 8) Thediameter ofthe wells small, the torage in the well can be neglected ‘The methods described inthis chapter will be illustrated with data from a pumping test conducted inthe polder ‘Oude Korendijk, south of Rotterdam, The Netherlands (Wit 1963), Figure 3.2 shows a lithological eross-section of the test site as derived from the borings. The fist 18 m below the surface, consisting of clay, peat and clayey fine sand, form the impermeable confining ayer. Between 18 snd 25 m below the sure los the aquifer, which consists of eourse sind with some gravel. The base of the aquifer isformed by fine sandy and clayey sediments, which are considered impermeable ‘The wel screen was installed over the whole thickness of the aquifer, and piez= lometers were placed at distances of 08, 30,90, and 215m from thewellardat diferent ‘depths. The two piezometers at a depth of 30 m, Hy and Hy. showed drawdown, ‘during pumping, from which it could be concluded thatthe clay ayes between 25 tnd 27 mis not completely impermeable, For our purposes, however, weshall assume that all the water as derived from the aquifer betwoen 18 and 25 m, and that the base is impermeable. The well was pumped at a constant discharge 09.12 Ii (or 788 md) for nearly 14 hours. 31 Steady-state flow S11 Thiem's method ‘Thiem (1906) was one of the first to use two or more piezometers to = F30tog 6 here ad are the respective steady-state drawdown in the pzometrsin Incases where only one plezometer at distance om the wells available 2K Dis. Q Sat0g (alta Where sy is the steady-state drawdown in the wel, and te the radius ofthe wel Equation 3.3 is of limited use because local hydraulic conditions in and rear the ‘wel strongly inluence the drawdown in the well (es, i influenced by wel losses ‘caused by the flow through the well screen and the flow inside the well to the pump. intake). Equation 3.3 should therefore be used with caution and only when othe meth fds cannot be applied. Preferably, two or more piezometers should be used, located ose enough to the well that their drawdovns are appreciable and ean reel) be measured, 6) With the Thiem (or equilibrium) equation, wo procedures canbe followed to deter= mine the transmissivity of a confined aquifer The following assumptions and condi- tions should be satisfied ‘The assumptions listed at the beginning ofthis chapter; = The flow tothe wellisin steady sate, Procedure 3.1 Plot the observed drawdown in each piezometer against the corresponding time ‘on a sheet of semi-tog paper: the drawdowns on the verival axis on linear sce and the time onthe horizontal axis on a logarithmic sale ‘Construct the time-drawddown curve foreach piezometer; this isthe curve that fits best through the points It willbe seen that for the late-tme data the curves ofthe diferent piezemeters run parallel. This means thatthe hydraulic gradient is constant and that the flow in the aquifer can be considered to be ina steady state; ~ Real for each piezometer the value ofthe steady-state drandown sy: Shite the valuos of the steady-state drawdown ty nd oy, for two piszometers into Equation 3.2, together withthe corresponding values of rand the Know value (of Q, and solvefor KD; 7Repeat this procedure fr all possible combinations of piezometers. Theoretically, the results should show a close agreement: in practice, however, the calculations ‘may give more or less different values of KD, eg, because the conditien of homoge- nity ofthe aquifer was not satisfied. The mean is used us the inal result. Example 3.1 We shall illustrate Procedure 3.1 of the Thiem method with data fom the pumping test “Oude Korendijk- On semi-log paper and using Table 3.1, we plot the drawdown versus time forall the piezometers, and draw the curves through the plotted points (Figure 3.3), As can be seen from this figure, the water levels in the fiezometers at the end of the test (afer 830 minutes of pumping) had not yet stabilzed. In other words, steady-state flow had not been reached "From Figure 33, however, it cam also he seen thatthe curves ofthe piezometers Hy and Hoy sat to un paral approximately 10 minutes after pumping began. This means that the drawdown diference between these piczometers after t = 10 minutes remained constant, ie. the hydraulic gradient between these piezomesrs remained constant. Thisis the primary condition for which Thiem’s equation i valid “The reader will note that during the whole pumping peri the cone of depression ‘deepened and expanded. Even at late pumping times, the water levels in the pez ‘meters continued to drop clear example of unsteady state low! Although the cone of depression deepened during the whole pumping period, after IO minut of pumping it deepened uniformly betwoen the two piezometers under consideration: atypical ase of whats sometimes called transient steady-state ow! ‘Wenzel (1942) was probably the first who proved the transient nature ofthe Thiem ‘squation, bu this important work has received tle atention i the Tirature, until ‘cently when Butler (1988) discussed the matter in detail Bi a Figure 33 Tinedtondowo plat te piezo Hy Haan Hs paige Kore 58“able. Data pumping es Oade Koren ltr W969) Seen dh 20 Goin) sim) Cen) imi) ata) rnin) oe ° oss 30x Oy om tot aS 02 Om bh Botan ker oo One Hom a% om ol tmews om to 63 tinea aye To 03 tse ass Ka 2 tm 0a} ah Ss ass Togs at 2B be ie ams to 0k i ao3s a Se teas Bs te fos ae So oom 3 Ss Sot So toot kt fs asta so ts S53 rs jo ts Ga 08 Sarat) So oo Ow ein? Se! Peony Seen depen ons) Ci) in) stain) oe » er rer Ls gos asa SaaS 20 Gm 2 @ ba Sa hte ome 3 bas) Sab aw de tow 3 so in se oast 3 ws hse En Ss ws ah > tse a Stam aH 1 sats fs oom 3s BD sha SP ons me 398 ae 6 tis Fa, Soltek Ts 00s Skt See me Tne tes St oko haw S20) a ams he @ baw ons so bm aw Bae Gos ws MT Sat 0 Soe? tone Peron Scene on Goin) stm) Wine) min) am) Pin’) oo ° Ome wax oe 09 ase ae Sa te Hr aie?) aldo oe fetes ku? ea TS Ie Bite Staak teFrom Figure 3.3, the reader will also note that the time-drawdown curve of pez meter Ha. does not run parallel to that of the ther piezometers, no: even at very Tate pumping times. In applying Procedure 3.1 of the Thiem method, therefore, we shall distegard the data of this piezometer und shall use only the data fom the piez= fometers Hy and Hy for ¢ > 10 minutes. In doing so, and using Equation 3.2 after rearranging, we find 788 x 2.30 KD = 53.14 (L088 — 0716) Wo = 0m ‘Similar caleuations were made for combinations of these piezometers with the piez- ‘meter Hy, The results are given in Table 3.2, The table shows only miror dilferences {nthe resis, Our conclusion is that the transmissivity ofthe ested aquifer isapproxi- mately 85 n°. “Tble212 Rens of te applstin of Ths’ bod, Posture 31,0 dats om be pumping st ™ fo © tm wie) » tae on 1» tse tase > oe one » en ne Procedie 32 Pot on semi-log paper the observed transient steady-state drawdown sof each piezometer agaist the distance r between the well and the piezometer (Figure 3.8) ~ Draw the bestfiting straight line through the plotted points; thsi the distance Sonn sete cr Ea of hie dete dite of dao per og te Se mcrae inden Egaaion so rehcse 0-28 as oa ~ Substitute the numerical values of Qand As, into Equation 34 and solve for KD. Example 32 Using Procedure 3.2 of the Thiem method, we plot the values of. anc ron semisiog paper (Figure 3.4), We then draw a straight line through the plottee points. Nowe that the plot of piezometer Halls below the straight line and is therefore discarded. ‘The slope ofthe straight lin is equal to a drawdown difference of .74 m per log cycle of Introducing this vale and the value of Qinto Equation 3.4 yields 30 __ 2.20 788 Dns ~ De RIS 74 KD 390m owl 2 eeu a 4g emt ate a Fg 34 Ant daarom pumping "Oot Kore withthe Ths thd, Posts 32 This result agrees very well with the average value obtained with the Thiem method, Procedure 3.1 Remarks ~ Steady-state has heen defined heres the situation where variations ofthe drawdown With ime are neglzile, or where the hydraulic gradient has bocome constant. The Feader will know, however, that iruesteady state. drawdown variations are zero, isimpossiblein a confined aguier ~ Field conditions may be uch that considerable ime is required to reach steady-state Now. Such long pumping times are not always required, however, because transient steady-state flow, ic. flow under a constant hydraulic gradient, may’ be reached ‘much earlier as we have shown in Example 3.1 32 Unsteady.state flow 321 Theis'smethod ‘Theis (1935) was the fest to develop a formula for unsteady-sate low that inttoduces the time factor and the storativty. He noted that when a well penetrating an extensive confined aquifer is pumped at a constant eat, the influence ofthe discharge extends outward with time. The rate of decline of head, multiplied by the storativity and summed over the area of influence, uals the discharge, ‘The unsteady-state (or Theis) equation, which was derived from the analogy be- {cen the flow of groundwater and the conduction of heat, is writen as otQ few _ ap! y ~ aexD™ os the drawdown in m measured in a piezometer at a distance rin m from the well = theconstant wol discharge in m?)d Rd = hetansmsieiy oe sur nn s "kDa y= gfS;andconeguentys = KB" eo 5 = thednewsines stray ofthe agi ¢Z Mbtimeincayesin upg Wa) = —0sT2- Inu hu 2 Ma + “The exponential integrals written symbolically as W(u), which n this usiges general ly read "well function of tor “Theis well function’. It is sometimes Found under the symbol -Eicu) (ahake and Embde 1945). well funetion ike W(u) and its argument ‘warcalso indicated as ‘dimensionless drawdown’ and ‘dimensionless tne’, respective- |y. The values for W(u)asu varies are given in Annex 3.1 From Equation 35, it wil be seen that, is can be measured for one more values ‘of rand for several values oft, and ifthe well discharge Qis Known, § and KD can be determined, The presence ofthe two unknowns and the nature of tke exponential integral make itimpossibleo effet an explicit solution, ‘Using Equations 3.5 and 36, Theis devised the “curve-fitting method (Jacob 1940) to determine Sand KD. Equation 3.5 canalso be written as logs = log Q/4nKD) + log Wu) snd Equation 3.6as log(2/t) = log 4KD)S) + lost) Since Ql4xKD and 4KD)S are constant, the relation between logs andlog (0) must be similar tothe relation between log W(u) and log (u). Thess curve-fitting method is based on the fact that i is plotted against e/t and W(u) against w onthe same log-log paper, the resulting curves (the data curve and the type curve, respectively) willbe ofthe same shape, but willbe horizontally and vertically offset by the constants Qik D and 4KD)S. The two curves can be made to match. The coordinates of an arbitrary matching point are the elated values of s, Fu, and Wu), which ean be used tocaleulate KD andS with Equations 3.Sand 36, Instead of using a plot of W(u) versus (u) (normal type curve) in combination with a data plot of x versus ei is Frequently more convenient to use a plot of Wiu) ‘ets I/u (reversed type curve) and a plot ofs versus UF (Figure 3.5). ‘Theis’ curve-fitting method is based on the assumptions listed at the beginning of this chapter and on the following limiting condition: athe flow tothe well sin unsteady state, ic. the drawdown differences wit time are not negligible, nor isthe hydraulic pradient constant with ime, eProcedure 3.3 ~ Prepare type curve ofthe Theis well function on log-log paper by plotting values ‘of Wu) against the arguments 1/u, using Annex 3.1 (Figure 3.5}, = Plot the observed data curves versus ion another sheet of log-log paper of the same sale ~ Superimpose the data curve on the type curve and, keeping the coordinate axes parallel, adjust until a position is found where most of the plotted points ofthe data ‘eure fall on the type curve (Figure 3.6), = Select an arbitrary match point A on the overlapping portion of the > sheets and read its coordinates Wu), 1, sand UP. Note that icis not necessary forthe match point o be located along the type curve. In fac, calculations are greatly simp Fied ifthe point is selected where the coordinates ofthe type curve are Win) and 1 ~ Substitute the values of W(u),s, and Q into Equation 3 Sand solve for KD; ~ Calculate Sby substituting the values of KD, and winto Equation 3.6 wir ttemd sweety wemti ee gtr ee de S Bete tege se ge segs tess Figue 5 The ypecarefor Wo) versus and Wo) ere i 63Figure 36 Anas dato pumping st Ouse Koren with th Ths method, Rose 3.3 Remarks "When the hydraulic characteristics have to be calculated separately for each pie- zometer, a plot ofs versus tors versus I/{ fr each piezometor is used with a type ‘rurve Wu) versus 1/u or Wu) versus u, respectively ~ Inapplying the Theis curve-(iting method, and consequently all curvesittng meth- ‘ods, one should, in general, give less woight to the early data because they may ‘not closely represent the theoretical drawdown equation on which the type curve js based, Among other things, the theoretical equations are based on the assump tions thatthe well discharge remains constant and that the release of the water stored in the aguifer is immediate and directly proportional to the tate of decline ‘of the pressure head. Infact, there may be atime lag between the pressure decline fand the release of stored water, and initially also the well discharge may vary 28 the pump is adjusting itself (othe changing head. Ths probably causes intial die ‘agreement between theory and actual fl. As the ime of pumpingextends these celfcts ae minimized and closer agreement may be attained: — IF the observed data onthe logarithmic plot exhibit flat curvature several appat- “ently good matching postions, depending on personal judgement, may be obiained. Tn such cases, the graphical solution becomes practically indeterminate and one sus resort to other methods. Example 33 ‘The Theis method will be applied tothe unsteady-state data from the pumping test 64‘Oude Korendi listed in Table 3.1. Figure 3.6 shows a pot of the values of's versus {UP for the piezometers Hy, Hyp and Hay, matched with the Theis type-curve, Wu) versus I/u The reader will note that for late pumping mes the points do rot fall ‘exactly on the type curve. This may be due to leakage effects because the aguiler vas not perfectly confined, Note the anomalous drawdown behaviour of piezomets already noticed in Example 3.2. In the matching procedure, we have discarded the ‘ata ofthis piezometer. The mateh point A has been so chosen that the value o€ W(u) and the value o Iu = 10, On the sheot withthe observed data, the matck point ‘Atha the coordinatess, = 0.16mand (VP) = LS > 10° min) ‘dim’, Introducing these values snd the value of Q’= 788 m'id into Equations 35 and 3.6 yields 188 a peur core * b= 92m Q kD + Swe and AKDU"), Ls 1 = ADI 8g 392 x MAN 16 10+ 822 — Jacob's method ‘The Jacob method (Cooper and Jacob 1946) i based on the Thes formula, Equation 35 ° Q Sak MO = aekD' Fromu = PS/4KDt itwill be sen that w decreases as the time of pumping increases tnd the distance from the well r decreases. Accordingly, for drawdown observations ‘made inthe nea vicinity ofthe well ater a sufiiently Tong pumping time, the terms beyond In u in the series become so small that they’ can be neglected. So for small values ofu(a < 0.01), the drawdown can be approximated by with fanerrorlesihan 1% 2% 5% orusmallerthan 003 005 O.L After being rewritten and changed into decimal logarithms, this equation redoes to 2.300 j,,225KD1 5 = BANG top 225KDt en Because Q, KD, and S are constant, if we use drawdown observations at a short dis ‘ance r from the well, a plot of drawdown s versus the logarithm oft forms a seat line (Figure 3,7). If this line is extended unt it intercepts the time-axis where + = D0, the interception point has the coordinates s ~ Uvand t ~ ty Substituting these valuesinto Equation 37 gives, 65230Q ,,,225KD1, aeKD PES 2.300 pe otlowsthat22SKD& and because $29 # 0, it follows that 225K Pte _225KDy s = 225K 68) Te slope of he sin me 3.7: th dando ieee Spr ellos hagas QUO ee 20 xo = 282 @9) Si tan sow tn for dn ph os vena on seis parfait owing satan etc G10) and _ 2309 Kp = 2300 oy all the drawdown data ofall piezometers are sed, the values of s versus can be plotted on semi-iog paper. Subsequently, a straight line can be drava through the | | te0.25m0 | | 228 dara 28 ol _N wot 2 « 661 2 4 seni 2 «4 cant 2 Pete 37 Anayisofdatafom pumping "Oat Koredi = 3) ih he ab st, Po 66plotted points, Continuing with the same line of reasoning as above, we derive the following formulas KDI 6.2) and 2300 Kp = 239 oy Jacob's straight-line method can be applied in each ofthe three situations outlined Above. (See Procedure 3.4 fort = constant, Procedure 3.5for ‘ure 36 when values of i are used in the data plot.) ‘The following assumptions and conditions shouldbe satise: The assumptions listed at the beginning ofthis chapter, = The flow tothe well isin unsteady sate; = The values ofuare small (v < 0.01), ris small and tis slficiently large. ‘onstant,andProce: The condition that u be small in confined aquifers is usually satisfied at moderate distances fom the well within an hour or less, The condition = 0.01 is rather rig Fora fiveor even en times higher value(u = 0.0Sand w < 0.10), theerrorinteduced inthe result is less than 2 and 5%, respectively. Further, a visual inspection of the raph in the range = 001 and W ~ O11 shows that it difficult, if not impossible, toindicate precisely where the field data start to deviate rom thestraight-line relation. Ship. For all practical purposes, therefore, we suggest using w < 0.1 asa conltion for Jacob's method. "The reader wll ote thatthe use of Equation 3.7 forthe determination ofthe dier- cence in drawdown s,s between two piezometers at distances r, and from the ‘wel leads oan expresion that sidentia to the Thiem Formula (Equation 3.2. Procedure 34 (for rsconsant) TFor one of the piezometers, plot the values of s versus the corresponding time ¢ ‘on semi-log paper (1 on logarithmic scale), and draw a straight line through the plotted poins (Figure 3) ~ Extend the straight line unt it imtercepts the time axis where s = 0, and read the value = Determine the slope of th straight line, ie. the drawdown diflerence As per log cele of time; = Substitute the values of Q and As into Equation 39 and solve for KD. With the Known values of KD and i calulate S from Equation 38. Remarks = Procedure 3.4 should be repeated for other piezometers at moderate distances from the well. There should be a close agreement between the calculated KD value, 38 well as between those ofS; ‘When the values of KD and Sare determined, they ae introduced into the equation 1u = PS4KDE to chock whether w = 0.1, whieh isa practical condition forthe Applicability ofthe Jacob method 6Example 34 Forthisexample, weuse the drawdown data ofthe piezometer H.yin“Oude Koren (Table 3.1). We plot these data against the corresponding time data onsemilog paper (igure 3.7), and ita steaigh line through the ploted points. The slopeof this straight lines measured on the vertical axis As = 0.375 m per log eye of time. The intercept of the fitted straight line with the absciss (zero 0.001 dort > 14min, u = 0.1, is required, The departure ofthe time-dravdown ccrve from the theoretical straight line is probably due to leakage through one of ‘the assumed impermeable’ ayers ‘The same method applied to the data collected in the piezometer at 90 m gives: KD = 480 m'jd and $= 1.7% 10 with u = 01 for > Il min This result less reliable because few points are available between { = 11 min. and the time that leakage probably starts to influence the drawdown data, s 7x we Procedure 3. (1s constant) Plot fora particular time the values of versus on sem-log paper (2m logarithmic scale), and draw a straight line through the plotted points (Figure 3.8): ~ Extend the straight ine unl itintercepts the r axis wheres = 0, and read the value oft: Determine the slope of the straight line, ie. the drawdown difference As per log exee of stitute the valves of Q ands into Equation 3.11 and solve for KD. With the [known values of KD and r, calelate $ from Equation 3.10, Remarks ~ Note the difference inthe denominator of Equations 3.9 and 3.11; = The data oft least three piezometers are needed for reliable resus; = If the drawdown inthe different piezometers isnot measured at the same time, the drawdown at the chosen moment has tobe interpolated from the time-draw- ddown curve ofeach piezometer used in Procedure 3 ~ Procedure 3.5 should be repeated for several values oft. The valus of KD thus ‘obtained should agree closely, and the same holds true for values oF, Example 3.5 Here we plot he (nterpolated) drawdown data from the piezameters ol Oude Koren dik’ Tor t= 140 min © 0.1 ¢ against the distances between the piezometers and the ‘wel (Figure 38). Inthe previous examples, we explained why we discarded the point 6s\I | on gue 3.8 Analysis of atom pumping tt Korea = 140 min) nit scot mend ‘of piezometer Ha. The slope ofthe straight line As = 0.78 m and the intercept with the abseiss ry = 450m. The discharge rate Q = 788 m’/d Substitution of thes values into Equation 3.1 yields 2309 __ 230. 788 KD = Syas "Do 3.18% 0.78 and into Equation 3.10 25K Dt _ 225 x 3100.1 OSE sTomd = Abe tt Procedure 35 (based ons versus 1° data plot) ~ Plot the values of s versus ton semi-log paper (Fon the logarithmic ays), and aw a taight ine through the plsted points Figure 39). ~ Extend the steaght line until i introepts the /F axis where s = 0, value of WP: ~ Determine the slope ofthe straight line, Le. the drawdown difference As per log yale of; ~ Substitute the values of Q and As into Equation 3.13 and solve for KD. Knowing the values of KD and (ip, caleuateS from Equation 3.12 dread the Example 36 ‘Asan example ofthe Jacob method, Procedure 3.6, we use the values of tf for all the piezometes of ‘Oude Korendijk’ (Fable 3.1). In Figute 3.9, the values of sare plotted on semi-log paper against the corresponding values of tr Through those points, and neglecting the points for Ha we draw a straight line, which inireepts ®“eT ane tne? wi) «eas 2 4 ea? 2 ew awt 2 4 oan mn Figure 39 Anis dt fom pmping ence Koren with he Jcob tod Poxede 36 the s = 0 axis (absciss) in (2h, = 245 > 10 min/m® or (2.45/1440) «104 di ‘On the vertical axis, we measure the drawdown difference per log cycle of Ye? as AS 33m. The discharge rate Q = 788 md Introducing these values into Equation 3.13 gives 2.30 x 188 Ped. x03” BTM $= 225K DQ), = 225487 28 ote 08 33 Summary Using data from the pumping test ‘Oude Korendjk” (Figure 3.2 and Table 3.1), we have illustrated the methods of analyzing (transient) steady and unsteady flow t0 well ina confined aquifer Table 3.3 summarizes the values we obttined for the aquifers hydraulic characters, ‘When we compare the results of Table 3.3, we can conclude that the values of KD and $ agree very wel, except for those of the last two methods, The differences in the results are due to the fet thatthe lae-time data have probably been influenced by leakage and that graphical methods of analysis are never accurate. Minor shifts cof the data plot are often posible, giving an equally good match with type curve, ‘but yielding different values Yor the aquifer characteristics. ‘The ste i tue for 8 semitog plot whose points do not always fit on a straight line because of measuring %errors or otherwise. The analysis ofthe Jacob 2 method, for example is weak, heeause the straight line hasbeen ited through only two points, the third point, that of the piczometer H, being unreliable. The anomalous behaviour ofthis far-fied piez- fometer may be due to Teakge effects, heterogeneity ofthe aquifer (he transmissivity ft Hay, being slighty higher than closer to the well), faulty construction (partly clogged. ‘We could thus conclude that the aguiferat ‘Oude Korendij’ has the fllowing parameters: KD = 390 mdandS = 17 » 104 “uble33 Hyde chara ofthe cote aguie at‘Owe Kori’, oi by their Bo me z ret si = ae 1