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\IEQD@MHDCE AI FDEMX
QIHEC@CBÆM AI @CX \IEQD@MA \IEQD@MACÎX CÎX SSSSSSSSSS

SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
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SSS 9
= DEQ^CAYH
DEQ^CAYHHDØE HDØE SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
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SSSSSSSS
> \IEQD@
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H@MXDLDHMHDØE.
HMHDØE. LYEAMFI
LYEAMFIEQCX EQCX SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS SS 2
SSSSSSS
>.= Aildedhdøe. Aishrdphdøe ai `cs pmrífitrcs prdehdpmìs ai luehdcemfdietc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS 2
`cs pmrífitrcs
>.> H`msd
H`msdldhmh
ldhmhdøe
døe ai `cs vietd`macris
vietd`macris SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
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SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 2
SSSSSSSSS
>.8
>.1 Hcfp
Hcfpmrmtd
Qdpcs mrmtdvm
vm ai vietd`macr
vietd`macris
ai hceldburmhdceis isue
ai mxdmìs lrieti
lrieti m vietd`macr
vietd`macr hietrælubcs.
hietrælubcs. SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
vietd`macrSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSS =;
==
8 \IEQD@
\IEQD@MACÎX
MACÎX MWDM@I
MWDM@IX.
X. HCF[C
HCF[CEIEQIX
EIEQIX SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =1
SSSSSSSSSS
8.= [irl
[irld`
d` mircadeíf
mircadeífdhc
dhc ai` í`mniSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
í`mniSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS =9
8.> Høfc si prcauhi
prcauhi prisdøe
prisdøe ie vietd`mac
vietd`macris
ris SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS =2
8.8 Eÿfirc ai í`mnisSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
í`mnisSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =7
8.1 Adíf
Adífitrc
itrc ai` rcaiti SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSS =7
8.9 \i`chd
\i`chdama
ama ai bdrc ai` fctcrSSSSSSSSSS
fctcrSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS =7
8.< Adífi
Adífitrc
trc ai` hunc
hunc SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSS =4
1 I@ \IEQD@MAC^
\IEQD@MAC^ M
MWDM@
WDM@ T XYX MH
MHHIXC^DC
HIXC^DCX
X FMX LÎH
LÎHYIEQIX SSSSSSS >;
YIEQIX.. SSSSS
1.= \ietd`
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macr SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS >;
SSSSSSSSSSS
1.> Mhhis
Mhhiscrdcs
crdcs SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS >1
SSSSSSSSSSS
9 HY^\M HM^MHQ
HM^MHQI^ÆXQD
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HM AI@ \IEQD@
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MAC^. SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSS >4
SSSSSSSS
9.= Mhcp`m
Mhcp`mfdie
fdietc
tc ai vietd`macris
vietd`macris SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 8;
SSSSSSSSSS
9.>
9.8 Lieøf
Lieøfiec
ociec
Qrmnmoc
Qrmnm ie ai
hceNcfnic
ouetc aiSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
hceouetc SSSSSSS
vietd` SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
vietd`macr
macr y ai` SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
ai` tdrc emturm`SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
emturm` SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 8=
87
9.1 îbu`m
îbu`mhdøe
hdøe ai` rcaiti
rcaiti ai` vietd`macr
vietd`macr SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 84
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
< FMEQI
FMEQIEDFDIEQ
EDFDIEQC
C AI @CX \IEQD@
\IEQD@MACÎX
MACÎX SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 1>
SSSSSSSSSS
<.= Detrc
Detrcauhhd
auhhdøe
øe m` fmetiedf
fmetiedfdietcSS
dietcSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS 1>
<.> Qrmnm
Qrmnmocs
ocs ai fmetiedfd
fmetiedfdietc
ietc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSS 18
<.>.= Hcetrc`
Hcetrc` ai vdnrmhdcei
vdnrmhdceiss SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSS
SSS 11
<.>.> Hcetrc`
Hcetrc` ai ^camfdietcsSSS
^camfdietcsSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS 19
<.>.8 Despihhdøe
Despihhdøe ai` rctcr SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS 1<
<.>.1 Ifp`mzmf
Ifp`mzmfdietc.
dietc. îsdstiehdms
îsdstiehdms ai Hmàic.
Hmàic.SSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SS 1<
<.>.9 Hceixdøe
Hceixdøe i`ähtrdhm
i`ähtrdhm SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSS 12
<.8 îvds
îvdsdceis
dceis ai siburdama eihismrdms
eihismrdms SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS 14
<.8.= Hmam
Hmam > fisis
fisis SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS 14
<.8.> Hmam
Hmam < fisis
fisis SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS 14
<.8.8 Hmam
Hmam => fisis
fisis SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS 9;
<.1 [uistm ie luehdc
luehdcemfd
emfdietc
ietc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSS 9=
<.9
<.< Qrmes
Qrmespcrti
pcrti yyfmedpu`mhd
M`fmhiemoi
M`fm hiemoi fmed pu`mhdøeSSSSSSSS
tdifp cs aiøeSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
tdifpcs pmrmam SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
pmrmam / Fmetie SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
Fmetiedfdie
dfdietc SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
tc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS 9>
91
<.2 Aisfcetmoi
Aisf cetmoi y ridestm`mh
ridestm`mhdøe
døe ai iqudpcs
iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøeSSSSSSS
vietd`mhdøeSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS 99
<.7 Destm`mhdøe
Destm`mhdøe y fcetmoi
fcetmoi fihíedhc
fihíedhcSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS 99
\IEQD@MHDØE [^DEHD[M@ SSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSS 92
= DEQ^CAYH
DEQ^CAYHHDØE HDØE SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS SS 97
SSSSSSS
=.= @m mtføslirm
mtføslirm ai `m fdem SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSS 94
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
=.> îb`m
îb`mfiet
fietmhdøe
mhdøe y `æfdtisSSSSSSSSSSSS
`æfdtisSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <=
SSSSSSSSS
=.>.= Hcehietrmh
Hcehietrmhdceis
dceis `æfdtis ai bmsisSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
bmsisSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <=
SSSSSSSSS
=.>.> Aildedhdøe
Aildedhdøe ai æeadhis
æeadhis ai pi`dbrc
pi`dbrcsdama
sdama ai `cs
`cs bmsis SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <>
SSSSSSSSSS
=.8 Cnoitd
Cnoitdvc
vc ai `m vietd`mh
vietd`mhdøe
døe SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <1
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
> HCEHI[
HCEHI[QC QC AI ÎXDXQ
ÎXDXQIEHDMIEHDM MI^C MI^CADEÍFDHM
ADEÍFDHM SSSSS SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS SSS <9
SSSSSSSS
>.= Ixpri
Ixprisdøe
sdøe bieirm`
bieirm` ai `m risdstieh
risdstiehdm
dm ai uem bmìræm
bmìræm SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <<
SSSSSSSSSSS
>.> îsdstiehdm ai bmìræms
bmìræms (\m`cris hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc)SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <2
(\m`cris ai` hcildhdieti
>.8
>.1 Bmìr
Bmìræms
æms hcemadhdcem`
îsdstiehdm cnstíhu`cs
cnstíhu`cs SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSS
aindam SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS <7
m `ms tuniræmsSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <4
>.9 îsds
îsdstiehd
tiehdmm ai `ms hdetms trmespcrtm
trmespcrtmacrms
acrms SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS <4
SSSSSSSSSS
> ai =7;

>.< îsds
îsdstiehd
tiehdms
ms `chmìs SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 2;
SSSSSSSSSSSS
8 YEDAMAI
YEDAMAIX
X AI ÎXDXQI
ÎXDXQIEHDM
EHDMSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 2=
SSSSSSSSSSS
8.= Crdld
Crdldhdc
hdc Iqudvmìet
Iqudvmìetii SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 21
SSSSSSSSSS
1 [@MEDLD
[@MEDLDHMHDØE
HMHDØE AI @M \IEQD@MHDØE
\IEQD@MHDØESSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 29
SSSSSSSSSS
1.= Írims ai istuadc
istuadc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 22
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
1.> \ietd`
\ietd`macri
macriss SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
1.8 Hdrhu
Hdrhudtc
dtc ai mdriSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
mdriSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 27
SSSSSSSSS
1.1 Hmetda
Hmetdama
ma ai mdri eihismrdc
eihismrdc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSS 27
1.9 \i`chd
\i`chdamais
amais ai mdri
mdri SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSS
SSSS 24
1.=.= \i`chdamais
\i`chdamais fæedfms
fæedfms SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS 24
1.=.> \i`chdamais
\i`chdamais fíxdfmsS
fíxdfmsSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS 7;
9 HMF[MÝ
HMF[MÝM
M AI FIADHDCEIX. MEM@D
MEM@DXDX
XDX SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 7=
SSSSSSSSSS
9.= I` hcetrc`
hcetrc` ai `m vietd`mhdø
vietd`mhdøee ie `ms fdems
fdems SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS 7=
9.> @ms fiadhdceis
fiadhdceis ai `m vietd`mhdøe
vietd`mhdøe SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS 7=
9.8 @cs Debiedirc
Debiedircss ai vietd`mhdøe
vietd`mhdøe aiai `ms zcems SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS 7>
9.1 Xirvdhdc
Xirvdhdc ai vietd`mh
vietd`mhdøe
døe ie `ms
`ms fdems
fdems SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSS 78
9.9 Fiadhdøe
Fiadh døe ai hmuam`
hmuam` ai mdri
mdri SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSS 78
9.< Xceams ai fiadam.
fiadam. Qunc ai [dtct SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS 79
9.2 Fiadamm ai `m supirldhdi
Fiada supirldhdi ai `cs
`cs hcrtis
hcrtis trmesvir
trmesvirsmìs
smìs m `ms
`ms bmìræms
bmìræms SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSS 72
9.7 Iìhhdøe
Iìhh døe ai `cs puetcs
puetcs ai mlcrc SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS 4;
< HM@HY@C AI ÎAIX SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSS 4>
SSSSSSSS
<.= Aishr
Aishrdphdø
dphdøee ai `cs fätcacs
fätcacs ai hí`hu`c
hí`hu`c SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 4>
SSSSSSSSSSSS
<.> [rip
[ripmrmhd
mrmhdøe
øe ai `cs amtcsSSSSSSSSSSSSS
amtcsSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SS 48
<.8 Hí`hu
Hí`hu`c
`c ai `ms risdstiehd
risdstiehdms
ms SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 48
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.1 Iìhh
Iìhhdøe
døe ai` vietd`macrSSS
vietd`macrSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 49
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.9 Hí`hu
Hí`hu`c
`c ai` ripmrtc
ripmrtc ai hmuamìs SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
<.< Ivmùm
Ivmùmhdøe
hdøe ai `cs risu`tma
risu`tmacs
cs SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 47
SSSSSSSSSSSS
<.2 M`buem
M`buemss hcesdairmh
hcesdairmhdceis
dceis príhtdhmsSSSSSSS
príhtdhmsSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 44
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.7 Amtcs ai` prcnìfm
prcnìfm SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;=
SSSSSSSSSSS
<.4 Dehøb
Dehøbedtms
edtms ai` prcnìfm
prcnìfmSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;=
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.=; Xcùhd
Xcùhdceis
ceis delcrfítd
delcrfítdhms
hms SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;8
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.== [rip
[ripmrmhd
mrmhdøe
øe y ietrmam
ietrmam ai amtcsSSSSSSSSSSSS
amtcsSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;8
SSSSSSSSSSSS
<.=> Detrc
Detrcauhhd
auhhdøe
øe ai `m ria
ria ai vietd`mhdø
vietd`mhdøee ie i` prcbrmf
prcbrmfmm SSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;1
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.=8 Adsiýc ai `m ria
ria ie i` craiemacr
craiemacr SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;1
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.=1 [rchi
[rchisc
sc ai hí`hu`c SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;9
SSSSSSSSSSSS
<.=9 Amtcs ai sm`damSSSSSSS
sm`dam SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;<
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
<.=< Mfp`d
Mfp`dmhdøe
mhdøe ai` hcehiptc ai crdldhdc
crdldhdc iqudvmìetiSSSSSSSSSSS
iqudvmìetiSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =;<
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
\IEQD@MHDCE
= DEQ^CAYH XIHYEAM^DM
DEQ^CAYHHDØE HDØE SSSSS SSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS ==;
SSSSSSS =;4
> I@IFI
I@IFIEQCX EQCX AI Y YEM
EM DEXQM@MH
DEXQM@MHDØE DØE AI \ \IEQD@M
IEQD@MHDØE
HDØE XIHYEAM
XIHYEAM^DM ^DM ===
>.= \ietd`
\ietd`macri
macriss SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSS ===
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
>.> Qunir
Quniræmæm SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSS ==1
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
>.8 Ld`tr
Ld`trcs
cs SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSS ==9
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
>.1 Hmssi
Hmssitis
tis SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSS ==4
SSSSSSSSSSSS
8 XDXQIF
XDXQIFMX MX AI \I \IEQD@MHD
EQD@MHDØE ØE SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS SSSS =>=
SSSSSSSSS

8.= Qdpcs ai sdstifm
sdstifmss ai vietd`mhdøe
vietd`mhdøe SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSS =>=
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
8.> Hceld
Hceldburmh
burmhdceis
dceisSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSS =>9
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
1 H^DQI^D
H^DQI^DCX CX AI AILDED
AILDEDHDCE
HDCE AI HMYAM@I
HMYAM@IXSSSSS
XSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSS =>4
SSSSSSSSSS
1.= \i`chd
\i`chdama
ama fæedfm
fæedfm SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSS =>4
SSSSSSSSSSSS
1.> Adùhd
Adùhdøeøe ai fitmec
fitmec SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSS =>4
SSSSSSSSSSS
1.8 Adùhd
Adùhdøeøe ifdsdcei
ifdsdceiss adisi`
adisi` SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSS =8;
SSSSSSSSSSSSS
1.1 Adùhd
Adùhdøe
øe bmsis ai `m vc`maurmsSSSSSSSSSSS
vc`maurmsSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS =81
SSSSSSS =81
8 ai =7;

9 [ÄÂDAM
[ÄÂDAMX
X AI HM^
HM^BM
BM AI @
@M
M DEXQM@
DEXQM@MHDØE
MHDØE SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =82
SSSSSSSSSS
9.= Emturmìzm ai `ms päradams ai ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =82
sihueamrdm
9.> Fitca
Fitcac`cbæm
c`cbæm bieirm`
bieirm` pmrm
pmrm i` hí`hu`c
hí`hu`c ai päradams ai hmrbm.
hmrbm. SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSS =1=
SSSSSSSSSS
< ÎB@MX AI C^C AI @M \IEQD@MH
\IEQD@MHDØESSSSSS
DØESSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS =14
SSSSSSSSS
<.= Dfpc
Dfpcrtmeh
rtmehdm
dm ai` adífitrc
adífitrc ie `m iìhhdøe ai` vietd`macr
vietd`macr SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =14
SSSSSSSSSSSS
<.> Dfpc
Dfpcrtmeh
rtmehdm
dm ai` usc ai` vmrdmacr ai lrihuieh
lrihuiehdm
dm SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =14
SSSSSSSSSSS
<.8 Dfpc
Dfpcrtmehd
rtmehdmm ai` eÿfirc ai ouetms ai `m tuniræm
tuniræm SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS =9=
2 ADX[CXDH
ADX[CXDHDCE
DCE A
AI
I @M \IEQD@
\IEQD@MHDØE
MHDØE XIHYEAM
XIHYEAM^DM
^DM IE I@ IEQCÊC SS =9>
IEQCÊC
2.= [csdhdøe ri`mtdvm
[csdhdøe ri`mtdvm rispiht
rispihtcc m `m vietd`mhdøe
vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm
prdehdpm`` SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS =9>
2.> Bí`dncss fíxdfcs
Bí`dnc fíxdfcs SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS =9>
2.8 Quniræms
Qunir æms ispihdmìs
ispihdmìs Cvm` @my l`mt / QRDESSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
QRDESSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSS =9>
2.1 Destm`mhdø
Destm`mhdøee ai tuniræm usmam SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS =98
7 HCEQ^C
HCEQ^C@
@ T XIBYDF
XIBYDFDIEQC
DIEQC AI @
@M
M \I
\IEQD@MH
EQD@MHDØE
DØE X
XIHYEAM^DM SSSSS =91
IHYEAM^DM
7.= Xdstifítd
Xdstifítdhm
hm ai hcetrc`
hcetrc` SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =91
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
7.> Fiada
Fiadams
ms ai vi`chdama
vi`chdama ai mdriSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
mdriSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =99
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
MHHDCEMFDIEQC T HCEQ^C@ AI@ \IEQD@MAC^
\IEQD@MAC^ SSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSS =92
= DEQ^CAYH
DEQ^CAYHHDCE
HDCE SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =97
SSSSSSSSSS
> FCQC^
FCQC^SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =94
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
8 [^CQIHHDCEI
[^CQI HHDCEIX
8.= Xceam
Xceams QifXpirmturms.
T FCEDQC^
s ai QifpirmtFCEDQCÎC
SSSSSSSIC SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
urms. SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =<=
SSSSSSS =<;
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSS
8.=.= Xceams
Xceams ai Qifpirmt
Qifpirmturms
urms [QH
[QH SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS
SS =<=
8.> Xceam
Xceamss ai Qifpirmt
Qifpirmturms
urms [Q=;;.
[Q=;;. Qirfcrrisds
Qirfcrrisdstcris
tcris SSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSS =<>
8.>.= Meí`dsds
Meí`dsds ai `m prcnìf
prcnìfítdhm
ítdhm ai `ms [Q=;;
[Q=;; ai > y 8 gd`cs
gd`cs SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS =<>
8.8 Xiesc
Xiescrr ai vdnrmhdceisSS
vdnrmhdceisSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS =<9
8.1 îsds
îsdstiehd
tiehdmm ai Hmàic
Hmàic SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSS =<2
8.9 Xceam [itirfmee.
[itirfmee. [riscstmtc
[riscstmtc ai ncfnicSSSSSSSSSSSS
ncfnicSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS
SSSSS =<7
1 QD[CX AI M^^ME]YI SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =2;
SSSSSSSSSS
9 \M^DMAC
\M^DMACÎX
ÎX AI LÎHYIEHDM SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSS =29
SSSSSSS
< MGC^^C AI IEI
IEI^BDM
^BDM SSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSS
SSSSSSSSSSSSSSS =22
SSSSSSSSSS
<.= Hcstis ai luehdcemfdietc
luehdcemfdietc y vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm. Ioifp`c
Ioifp`c príhtdhc hcfpmrmtdvm. SSS =24
príhtdhc y hcfpmrmtdvm.
1 ai =7;

QIHEC@CBÆM AI @CX \IEQD@MACÎX
9 ai =7;

= DEQ^CAYHHDØE
@cs tÿeiìs, `ms fdems, línrdhms c nmrhcs ai euistrcs aæms eihisdtme ue sdstifm ai
vietd`mhdøe qui vm sdieac fís hcfpìoc hmam aæm. Istc dfp`dhm `m eihisdama ai hcechir hce
fís prclueadama i` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe, pirc scnri tcac i` vietd`macr y tcacs sus
iìfietcs muxd`dmris qui ouetc hce `cs sdstifms ai mrrmequi y hcetrc` lcrfme `m pmrti
prdfcradm` ai adhgc sdstifm.
sdstifm.
[cr i``c, m` dbum` qui is lueamfietm` i` fmeioc ai `cs hcechdfdietcs ai `cs sdstifms ai
vietd`mhdøe y su nuiem príhtdhm, si gm ai tieir ie huietm i` rmebc ai mp`dhmhdøe ai `ms
fíqudems qui hcelcrfme adhgc sdstifm. Isti hcechdfdietc ecs myuamrí m riauhdr `cs
prcnìfms y sus
sus hcesihuie
hcesihuiehdms
hdms aisai i` ccrdbie.
rdbie.
Aisai sus dedhdcs gmstm gcy aæm, `m \ietd`mhdøe ai Fdems tieæm hcfc cnoitdvc hietrm` i`
sufdedstrc ai mdri lrishc pmrm `m rispdrmhdøe ai `ms pirscems y adùhdøe-ixtrmhhdøe ai pc`vc
y bmsis prcauhtc ai `ms cpirmhdceis suntirríeim (vc`maurm, ixtrmhhdøe, hmrbm y trmespcrti).
Ie istcs ÿ`tdfcs mýcs, gme mufietmac luirtifieti `cs riquirdfdietcs ai mdri hce i` cnoitc
ai pcair adùdr y mrrmstrmr luirm ai `m fdem `ms luirtis hcehietrmhdceis ai bmsis tøxdhcs
ifdtdacs pcr `cs iqudpcs adisi` -ai m`tc tcei`moi- dehcrpcrmacs ie lcrfm fmsdvm m `ms
cpirmhdceis suntirríeims devcùhrmams ie `cs advirscs fätcacs ai ixp`ctmhdøe.
Is virama qui bieirm`fieti `cs riquirdfdietcs mhtumìs ec si amnme ie i` pmsmac hce tmetm
detiesdama, ym qui ietcehis `cs rdtfcs ai ixp`ctmhdøe ie `ms fdems ec irme hcfc `cs
mhtumìs, y, pcr tmetc, ec pcaifcs pirair ai vdstm qui `cs edviìs ai hcelcrt y siburdama
macptmacs gcy aæm sce fuhgc fís ixdbietis, `c qui trmi hcfc hcesihuiehdm i` mufietc
ai` eÿfirc y tmfmýc ai `cs vietd`macris pmrm hmam sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe msæ hcfc su
cptdfdzmhdøe ie i` hcetrc` ai `cs fdsfcs.
Aietrc ai` hcetixtc ai `m vietd`mhdøe ecs rilirdfcs m` vcùfie ai mdri fcvdac pcr i`
vietd`macr hcfc ‐hcrrdieti ai mdri c ai vietd`mhdøe‖, fdietrms qui i` dehrifietc ai prisdøe
qui si prcauhi ie i` sdstifm si suiì aiecfdemr hcfc aiprisdøe ai` vietd`macr. Istm
ÿ`tdfm aiecfdemhdøe ec sirí ai` tcac hcrrihtm humeac i` vietd`macr trmnmom hcfc dfpu`scr.
< ai =7;

> \IEQD@MAC^. H@MXDLDHMHDØE. LYEAMFIEQCX

>.= Aildedhdøe. Aishrdphdøe ai `cs pmrífitrcs prdehdpmìs ai luehdcemfdietc
>.=
Ye vietd`macr is uem fmqudem qui trmesfdti ieirbæm m ue lùdac (mdri c bmsis), prcauhdieac
i` dehrifietc ai prisdøe eihismrdc ([risdøe Qctm`) hce `m qui fmetieir ue lùoc hcetdeuc
ai adhgc lùdac.
[mrm rim`dzmr isti trmnmoc i` vietd`macr riqudiri ai uem pctiehdm ie i` ioi ai` fctcr qui `c
mhhdcem qui vdiei amam pcr `m ixprisdøe?
Hmuam` Z f 8 / s V  [r isdøe Qctm` Z [mV

[ctiehdm Z wmtdcs V 
 vietd`macr Z%V
Hmam vietd`macr viearí aildedac pcr su hurvm hmrmhtiræstdhm, qui is i` ùbmr bicfätrdhc ai
`cs puetcs ai luehdcemfdietc ai` fdsfc pmrm hmam íebu`c ai ribu`mhdøe ai `cs í`mnis. [cr
tmetc, tiearifcs uem hurvm hmrmhtiræstdhm adstdetm pmrm hmam íebu`c. I` puetc ai hcrti ai `m
hurvm hmrmhtiræstdhm hce `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc is i` puetc ai luehdcemfdietc ai`
vietd`macr.
>.> H`msdldhmhdøe ai `cs vietd`macris

>.>
Hce i` aismrrc``c ai `m hdiehdm mircadeífdhm, ie `cs mýcs pcstirdcris m `m sibueam buirrm

fueadm` si aismrrc``mrce `cs prdfircs vietd`macris ai lùoc mxdm`, is aihdr, `cs vietd`macris
mxdmìs, `cs humìs sce `cs fís utd`dzmacs, ie `m mhtum`dama y m edvi` b`cnm`, pmrm fcvir
brmeais hmuamìs ai mdri ie `cs trmnmocs suntirríeics, cpirmeac -adhgms uedamais- tmetc ie
detirdcr fdem, hcfc ie supirldhdi. @cs vietd`macris ai tdpc hietrælubc, mhtum`fieti sce
mfp`dmfieti utd`dzmacs ie Xdstifms ai \ietd`mhdøe Deaustrdm` amac su hmpmhdama ai bieirmr
m`tms hmæams ai prisdøe hce hmuamìs ri`mtdvmfieti nmocs.
@cs vietd`macris
mxdmìs si advdaie
y hietrælubcs. ie iùec
[mrm hmam sietdac fís bieirm`
ai istcs tdpcs si ie 8 tdpcs?
puiaie \ietd`macris
adspceir ai gä`dhi,
hce vmrdiama ai
pcsdhdceis ai aishmrbm y adstde
adstdetcs
tcs tdpcs ai mhhdcemfdietc
mhhdcemfdietc ai` rcaiti.
\IEQD@MAC^ HIEQ^DLYBC.-I`
vietd`macr hietrælubc hcesdsti ie ue
rctcr iehirrmac ie uem ievc`vieti ai
lcrfm ispdrm`: i` mdri, qui ietrm m
trmväs ai` coc ai` rctcr pmrmì`c m `m
lìhgm ai` vietd`macr, is suhhdcemac
pcr i` rctcr y mrrcomac hcetrm `m
ievc`vieti si aishmrbm pcr `m sm`dam ie
íebu`c rihtc m `m lìhgm: puiai sir ai
ietrmam siehd``m c ai ietrmam acnì.
Xce vietd`macris ai lùoc rmadm`. @m
trmyihtcrdm ai` lùdac sdbui `m adrihhdøe
2 ai =7;

ai` ioi ai` rcaiti m `m ietrmam y istí pirpieadhu`mr m` fdsfc m `m sm`dam. Xd i` mdri m `m sm`dam
si rihcbi pirdfitrm`fieti ie uem vcùtm, ietcehis si adhi qui i` vietd`macr is ai vcùtm.
Ie ue vietd`macr ai ietrmam acnì, i` mdri ietrm pcr mfncs `macs ai `m ievc`vieti

suhhdcemac pcr ue
rctcr acnì c pcr acs
rctcris siehd``cs
fcetmacs `mac m `mac.
@cs rctcris si puiaie
h`msdldhmr, ie bieirm`,
ie mqui``cs huycs
í`mnis sce rmadmìs, c
deh`demacs gmhdm
^caiti ai ietrmam acnì mai`meti, c deh`demacs
gmhdm mtrís ai` sietdac
ai `m rctmhdøe.
Ec cnstmeti, ie `m mhtum`dama y ie hdirtcs pmæsis, si istí utd`dzmeac vietd`macris ai tdpc

hietrælubc -ai m`tm hmpmhdama, ie tärfdecs ai hmuam` ai mdri- pmrm vietd`mr cpirmhdceis
fdeirc-suntirríeims, hce `m hmrmhtiræstdhm pmrtdhu`mr y prdehdpm` ai qui, tmìs uedamais sce
destm`mams fmycrdtmrdmfieti
ixhmvmhdceis ie i` detirdcr `mie supirldhdi
fdem mtieadieac
suntirríeim `m ristrdhhdceis
(ec rihcfieamnì aisaiai ivdtmr ai
i` puetc brmeais
vdstm
bicfihíedhc ym qui isti tdpc ai vietd`macr eihisdtm ue ispmhdc fuy mfp`dc pmrm su
destm`mhdøe).
Istcs vietd`macris tdieie tris tdpcs

nísdhcs ai rcaitis?
rcaitis?
m) í`mnis hurvmacs gmhdm mai`meti,
Z=V.
n) í`mnis rihtcs, Z>V.
h) í`mnis deh`demacs gmhdm
mtrís/hurvmacs gmhdm mtrís.
Z8V,Z1V,Z9V y Z<V.
@cs vietd`macris ai í`mnis hurvmacs gmhdm

gmhdm mai`meti (tmfndäe si ``mfme ai omu`m ai mrad``m)
tdieie uem gä`dhi c rcaiti hce `ms í`mnis hurvmams ie i` fdsfc sietdac qui `m adrihhdøe ai
bdrc. Istcs vietd`macris eihisdtme pchc ispmhdc, nmom vi`chdama pirdlärdhm y sce sdìehdcscs.
Xi utd`dzme humeac `m prisdøe istítdhm eihismrdm is ai nmom m fiadm, tm` hcfc `m qui si
iehuietrme ie `cs sdstifms ai hmìlmhhdøe, mdri mhceadhdcemac c riecvmhdøe ai mdri, ith. Ec
is rihcfieamnì utd`dzmr isti tdpc ai vietd`macr hce mdri pc`vcrdietc, ym qui `ms pmrtæhu`ms
si magdirie m `cs piquiýcs í`mnis hurvmacs y puiaie prcvchmr i` aisiqud`dnrmac ai` rcaiti.
Istcs vietd`macris tdieie ue rieadfdietc nmoc luirm

l uirm ai` puetc ai adsiýc. Maifís, hcfc su
hmrmhtiræstdhm ai pctiehdm mnscrndam hrihi rípdamfieti hce i` hmuam`, gm ai tieirsi fuhgc
hudamac hce i` hí`hu`c ai `m prisdøe eihismrdm ie `m destm`mhdøe pmrm ec scnrihmrbmr`c. Ie
bieirm` sce nmstmeti deistmnìs luehdcemeac ie pmrmì`c aindac m su hmrmhtiræstdhm hmuam`-
prisdøe.
7 ai =7;

@cs vietd`macris hietrælubcs rmadmìs tdieie i` rcaiti hce

`cs í`mnis adspuistcs ie lcrfm rmadm`. @m hmrhmsm istí
adsiýmam ai lcrfm qui m `m ietrmam y m `m sm`dam si puiame
m`hmezmr vi`chdamais ai trmespcrti ai fmtirdmìs. Ixdstie
uem brme vmrdiama ai adsiýcs ai rcaitis qui vme aisai `cs
ai "m`tm ildhmhdm hce pchc fmtirdm`" gmstm `cs ai "m`tm
risdstiehdm m dfpmhtc". @m adspcsdhdøe rmadm` ai `cs í`mnis ivdtm `m mhufu`mhdøe ai
fmtirdmìs scnri `ms fdsfms. Isti tdpc ai vietd`macr is i` hcfÿefieti utd`dzmac ie `ms
destm`mhdceis ai ixtrmhhdøe `chm`dzmam ie `ms qui i` mdri hcetmfdemac hce pmrtæhu`ms aini
hdrhu`mr m trmväs ai` vietd`macr. Ie isti tdpc ai vietd`macris `m vi`chdama pirdlärdhm is
fiadm y si utd`dzmr ie fuhgcs sdstifms ai ixtrmhhdøe `chm`dzmam qui fcvd`dzmr mdri suhdc c
`dfpdc.
@cs vietd`macris hietrælubcs ai í`mnis hurvmacs

gmhdm mtrís tdieie ue rcaiti hce `cs í`mnis
deh`demacs ie sietdac hcetrmrdc m` ai rctmhdøe. Isti
tdpc ai vietd`macr is i` ai fmycr vi`chdama
pirdlärdhm y fmycr rieadfdietc hce ue edvi` scecrc
ri`mtdvmfieti nmoc y uem hmrmhtiræstdhm ai hcesufc
ai ieirbæm"ec
vietd`macr ai`scnrihmrbmnì",
tdpc "ec scnrihmrbmnì". Ie ue
i` hcesufc fíxdfc
ai ieirbæm si prcauhi ie ue puetc prøxdfc m` ai
rieadfdietc øptdfc ai lcrfm qui hum`qudir hmfndc m pmrtdr ai isti puetc aindac m hmfndcs
ai `m risdstiehdm ai` sdstifm risu`tmrí ie ue hcesufc ai ieirbæm fiecr. @m lcrfm ai `cs
í`mnis hceadhdcem `m mhufu`mhdøe ai fmtirdmìs scnri i``ms, ai lcrfm qui i` usc ai istcs
vietd`macris aini `dfdtmrsi hcfc si deadhm m hcetdeumhdøe?
c í`mnis ai ispiscr uedlcrfi? @cs í`mnis fmhdzcs pirfdtie i` trmnmoc hce mdri
`dbirmfieti suhdc c gÿfiac. Ec aini ifpìmrsi hce mdri hcetiedieac fmtirdmìs
sø`dacs ym qui tdieie tieaiehdm m mhufu`mrsi ie `m pmrti pcstirdcr ai `cs í`mnis.
c í`mnis ai m`m pcrtmeti? @cs í`mnis ai m`m pcrtmeti pirfdtie fmycris rieadfdietcs y
uem cpirmhdøe fís sdìehdcsm. @cs í`mnis guihcs si ircsdceme rípdamfieti y si
puiaie `ìemr ai `æqudac sd `m gufiama is m`tm, pcr i``c su usc quiam `dfdtmac m
mp`dhmhdceis ie `ms qui si fmedpuì mdri `dfpdc.
\IEQD@MAC^ AI GI@DHI.-Isti vietd`macr istí

lcrfmac pcr ue rcaiti aietrc ai ue med``c c hmrhmsm ai
fcetmoi. @m adrihhdøe ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri is pmrmì`m m `m
lìhgm ai` vietd`macr. Xi ifpìm pmrm fcvd`dzmr mdri ie
hdrhudtcs huym risdstiehdm is fuy piquiým.
[uiai fmeiomr brmeais vc`ÿfieis ai mdri m uem prisdøe

istítdhm nmom.
4 ai =7;

\IEQD@MAC^ MWDM@.-I` vietd`macr mxdm` is

ai adsiýc mircadeífdhc. Isti tdpc ai vietd`macr
hcesdsti isiehdm`fieti ie ue rcaiti m`comac ie
uem ievc`vieti hd`æeardhm c hmrhmsm. @m madhdøe
ai í`mnis-buæm, aitrís ai` rctcr, hcevdirti m`
vietd`macr turnc-mxdm` ie ue vietd`macr mxdm` hce
mìtms buæm.
[uiai luehdcemr ie ue mfp`dc rmebc ai

vc`ÿfieis ai mdri, m prisdceis istítdhms qui vme
ai nmoms m fcairmamfieti m`tms y is hmpmz ai
aismrrc``mr fmycris prisdceis istítdhms qui i`
vietd`macr hietrælubc m `m viz qui is fuhgc fís
ildhdieti. @cs í`mnis-buæm, ie `m suhhdøe c ie `m
aishmrbm, c ie mfnms pmrtis, si gme mýmadac
pmrm ieairizmr i` lùoc ai` mdri luirm ai `m
uedama m `m viz qui sdrvie ai mpcyc ie i` adsiýc.
>.8 Hcfpmrmtdvm ai vietd`macris mxdmìs lrieti m vietd`macr hietrælubcs.

>.8
@ms adliriehdms qui si tdiei m` utd`dzmr ue vietd`macr mxdm` lrieti m ue hietrælubc sce `ms
sdbudietis?
@cs vietd`macris mxdmìs clrihie fiocr ildhdiehdm ie ue mfp`dc rmebc ai puetcs ai

luehdcemfdietc, fdietrms qui `cs vietd`macris hietrælubcs puiaie tieir ue rieadfdietc
fuy m`tc, pirc sc`mfieti scnri ue rmebc fuy riauhdac, y sø`c scnri uem hurvm
hmrmhtiræstdhm. Isti pmrífitrc is fuy dfpcrtmeti ym qui i` hcsti ai `m ieirbæm is ue lmhtcr
qui si gm ai tieir ie huietm. [cr tmetc, i` rieadfdietc tdiei uem dfpcrtmehdm prdfcradm`, y
hcfc is `øbdhc, prdfmrí hcesibudr rieadfdietcs iìvmacs ie brmeais bmfms ai puetcs ai
luehdcemfdietc, cnoitdvc fuhgc fís adlæhd` ai hcesibudr hce vietd`macris hietrælubcs qui
hce vietd`macris mxdmìs.
Xd ue vietd`macr hietrælubc adsiýmac pmrm ue puetc ai

luehdcemfdietc aitirfdemac gm ai trmnmomr ie ctrms
hceadhdceis, aindac, pcr ioifp`c, m ue hmfndc ie `ms
hceadhdceis risdstietis ai `m fdem, tiearí
prisufdnìfieti uem adsfdeuhdøe ai rieadfdietc
hcesdairmnì.
Fmycr rieadfdietc fihíedhc ai `cs vietd`macris

mxdmìs, ym qui `cs vietd`macris hietrælubcs trmesfdtie
i` fcvdfdietc aisai fctcr m` rcaiti hce trmesfdsdøe
pcr hcrrims c fiadmeti ctrcs tdpcs trmesfdsdceis. Istc dfp`dhm uem sirdi ai hcfp`dhmhdceis
madhdcemìs lrieti m ue vietd`macr mxdm`, ym qui maifís ai `m päradam ai rieadfdietc pcr
trmesfdsdøe, pcaræme mpmrihir fís lrihuietifieti lieøfiecs ai vdnrmhdceis aindac m qui
is ue sdstifm fihíedhc fís hcfpìoc.
=; ai =7;

Ie hdirtcs vietd`macris hietrælubcs si p`metime prcnìfms ie `m trmesfdsdøe hcfc puiai

sir i` ais`dzmfdietc ai `m hcrrim, aistiesmac, ixhisc ai tiesmac qui ripirhuti scnri `cs
rcamfdietcs, y hce hdirtc pi`dbrc ai rcturm ai `ms hcrrims humeac istíe ixpuistms m
tifpirmturms ixtrifms.
Ye vietd`macr mxdm`, pmrm `ms fdsfms pristmhdceis ai

prisdøe y hmuam`, riqudiri fiecr ispmhdc læsdhc qui ue
vietd`macr hietrælubc, ym qui pcr i` adsiýc puiai utd`dzmr
fctcris ai fmycr vi`chdama. I` vietd`macr hietrælubc m`
hcetrmrdc, eihisdtm hdfietmhdceis fmycris pmrm i`
vietd`macr y tcam su auhtiræm dehrifietmeac i` hcstc ai `m
destm`mhdøe sdbedldhmtdvmfieti.
@m prisiehdm ai mbum is pirouadhdm` pmrm `cs vietd`macris

hietrælubcs, ym qui i` rcaiti ai istcs, prisietme ie su hceldburmhdøe guihcs qui mhufu`me
mbum fdietrms trmnmome, prcauhdieac ue aisiqud`dnrdc ie i` vietd`macr qui aibieirm ie
vdnrmhdceis.
Ye vietd`macr mxdm` tdiei fís virsmtd`dama ie `m ribu`mhdøe qui ue vietd`macr hietrælubc,

aindac m qui is pcsdnì mhtumr scnri i` íebu`c ai pcsdhdøe ai `cs í`mnis y scnri `m
vi`chdama
puetcs ai ailuehdcemfdietc,
rctmhdøe hce uefdietrms
vmrdmacr ai
quilrihuiehdm, puadieac
i` vietd`macr m`hmezmr
hietrælubc uemribu`mhdøe
tdiei brme bmfmpcr
ai
vi`chdama, y sd quirifcs hcesibudr ctrc puetc ai luehdcemfdietc, sirí m nmsi ai mufietmr
`m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc (hce ue amfpir ai ribu`mhdøe, p.i.), `c qui sdbedldhmræm ue
dehrifietc ai pctiehdm aindac m `m ribu`mhdøe.
Ie isti hmpætu`c ecs hietrmrifcs ispihdm`fieti

ispihdm`fieti ie `cs vietd`macris mxdmìs qui sce `cs qui
si utd`dzme ie `m fmycræm ai `ms destm`mhdceis.
>.1 Qdpcs ai hceldburmhdceis ai ue vietd`macr

>.1
Ye vietd`macr puiai sir, sibÿe su lcrfm hcestruhtdvm,

gcrdzcetm` c virtdhm` . @cs vietd`macris gcrdzcetmìs sce `cs
fís usumìs, pirc `cs virtdhmìs sce fís mhcesiomnìs pmrm
hdirtcs tdpcs ai mp`dhmhdceis. Is isti i` hmsc ie `cs
vietd`macris ixtirdcris ai fdeiræm prclueam y hmuamìs
dfpcrtmetis, aceai `m hceldburmhdøe virtdhm` riauhi `ms
päradams ai hmrbm ai` hdrhudtc, m` ivdtmrsi i` tieir qui
hcestrudr ue hcac pmrm adrdbdr i` lùoc. Isti hcac bieirm uems
päradams ai hmrbm dfpcrtmetis, qui si trmauhie ie fís
pctiehdm m destm`mr. Qcac istc si ivdtm hce uem hceldburmhdøe
ai vietd`macr virtdhm`.
Ie `ms ldburms pcaifcs cnsirvmr `ms tris hceldburmhdceis

h`ísdhms pmrm vietd`macris mxdmìs ai ixtrmhhdøe ai mdri ie
fdems suntirríeims. Mrrdnm m `m dzqudiram `m hceldburmhdøe
virtdhm`. Mrrdnm m `m airihgm `m hceldburmhdøe gcrdzcetm` hce \ietd`macr \irtdhm`
sm`dam virtdhm`. M `m dzqudiram tieifcs `m hceldburmhdøe
== ai =7;

gcrdzcetm` hce sm`dam gcrdzcetm`. Xi mprihdm `m eihisdama ai hcestrudr ue hcac pmrm adrdbdr i`
lùoc ai mdri gmhdm i` vietd`macr, hce `cs dehceviedietis qui hcfc gifcs vdstc mhmrrim.
\ietd`macr Gcrdzcetm`
[cr ctrm pmrti, ym gifcs vdstc qui sibÿe i` tdpc ai mhhdcemfdietc ue vietd`macr puiai sir
mhhdcemac adrihtmfieti pcr i` fctcr , pcr fiadc ai ue ioi ai trmesfdsdøe hmrame c pcr
fiadc ai pcìms/hcrrim. @c fís lrihuieti is i` mhcpì adrihtc ai` fctcr m` rcaiti, pirc ie
m`buems mp`dhmhdceis is eihismrdc i` mhcp`mfdietc hmrame, humeac i` mdri m ixtrmir is
hcrrcsdvc c pctiehdm`fieti ixp`csdvc, c sdfpìfieti pmrm cptdfdzmr `ms tmrims ai
fmetiedfdietc ai` fctcr. @m trmesfdsdøe pcr pcìms y hcrrims, pcr su pmrti, gm hmæac ie
aisusc pcr su nmoc rieadfdietc.
\ietd
\ietd`macris
`macris ai acnì
acn` i ishm`øe
ishm`øe
Ctrc tdpc ai h`msdldhmhdøe pcaræm gmhirsi ie luehdøe ai` eÿfirc ai itmpms c ishm`ceis. @m
fmycræm ai `ms mp`dhmhdceis riqudirie uem sc`m itmpm. Xde ifnmrbc, mp`dhmhdceis hce
prisdceis fuy iìvmams (fís ai 9;;; [m) ec si hcesdbuie hce ue vietd`macr ai ue sc`c
ishm`øe. Ie istcs hmscs is humeac si usme `cs vietd`macris ai acs ishm`ceis, qui sce
hmpmhis ai hcesibudr prisdceis fmycris.
=> ai =7;

Qiørdhmfieti ue acnì ishm`øe hcesibudræm i` acnì ai prisdøe qui ue rcaiti ai ue sc`c

ishm`øe, pirc ie `m príhtdhm i` mdri smì tme tcrsdcemac ai` prdfir rcaiti qui i` sibueac
pdirai m`bc ai ildhdiehdm, hce `c qui si rim`fieti si hcesdbuie fiecs prisdøe. @m
utd`dzmhdøe ai istcs vietd`macris is iqudvmìeti m` usc ai vmrdcs vietd`macris ie sirdi.
\i
\ietd`macr
etd`macr Gcrdzcetm` deyihtcr / dfp u`scr
Ctrm h`msdldhmhdøe pcaræm

istmnìhirsi ie nmsi m `m luehdøe
qui vm m rim`dzmr i` vietd`macr.
Ilihtdvmfieti, ue vietd`macr
puiai sir ai ixtrmhhdøe ai mdri
vdhdmac c ai dfpu`sdøe ai mdri
lrishc. @cs vietd`macris ai
dfpu`sdøe ai mdri bieirm`fieti
sce fís siehd``cs qui `cs ai
ixtrmhhdøe. [ríhtdhmfieti
fcvd`dzmríe mdri `dfpdc. Istcs
ÿ`tdfcs gme ai istmr pripmrmacs,
sibÿe `m mp`dhmhdøe, pmrm ixtrmir
mdri mnrmsdvc,
bmsis gufcs
ixp`csdvcs. hm`dietis
Ie istcs hmscs,c
`m prctihhdøe ai` vietd`macr ie su
hceouetc is fís rdburcsm.
Maifís, `cs fctcris puiaie sir
iehmpsu`macs pmrm ivdtmr qui si
amýie pcr `m mnrmsdøe c `m
mtføslirm hcrrcsdvm (hmscs
tæpdhcs ai fdeiræm), c risdstietis
m `m tifpirmturm aurmeti ue hdirtc \ietd`macr Gcrdzcetm` ixtrmhtcr
detirvm`c ai tdifpc (hmsc ai
vietd`macris ai ixtrmhhdøe ai
gufcs pmrm ifirbiehdms ie tÿeiìs). Ie `m ldburm ai `m airihgm pcaifcs vir ue vietd`macr
virtdhm` ai hcestruhhdøe rcnustm pmrm mp`dhmhdceis fdeirms.
=8 ai =7;

8 \IEQD@MACÎX MWDM@IX. HCF[CEIEQIX
I` vietd`macr, hcestruhtdvmfieti, hcestmrm prdehdpm`fieti ai `cs sdbudietis iìfietcs?
Hmrhmsm ^caiti Hmrhmsm Hmom ai

fctcr ncrems
Adrihtrdhis
îod``m [mtms scpcrti ^caiti
[mrti mhtdvm ai` vietd`macr, qui sirí i` iìfietc prdehdpm` ai` vietd`macr aceai
istíe detibrmacs i` fctcr, i` rcaiti ai í`mnis, `ms adrihtrdhis. Bieirm`fieti istmrí
hcestdtudam pcr acs hmrhmsms, `m hmrhmsm ai` rcaiti y `m hmrhmsm ai` fctcr.
Hcfpuirtm fctcrdzmam, tdpc ‐tcac c emam‖, bieirm`fieti ue amfpir ai `mfms

pmrmì`ms c uem bud``ctdem.
Adluscr, huym prdehdpm` fdsdøe is `m ai riauhdr `m vi`chdama ai mdri m `m sm`dam ai `m

pmrti mhtdvm, hce i` lde ai adsfdeudr `m prisdøe adeífdhm y hcfc hcesihuiehdm
riauhdr `m päradam ai hmrbm ie prisdøe.
Hmrhmsmsyaihmuam`
prisdøe fiadhdøe.
ai` Xce hmrhmsms Bieirm`fieti
vietd`macr. madhdcemìs ie `ms
si qui si fdaie
destm`m `cs i`
uem ie pmrífitrcs
`mac ai
mspdrmhdøe ai `m pmrti mhtdvm ai` vietd`macr. Cphdcem`fieti puiai dr detibrmam ie `m
=1 ai =7;

pmrti mhtdvm ai` vietd`macr, aietrc ai `m hmrhmsm rcaiti, muequi pmrm i``c istm
aindirm sir fís `mrbm.
Hceixdøe ai` vietd`macr m` hdrhudtc. Xd i` vietd`macr istí ie ixtirdcr, ie ue ixtrifc

ai` hdrhudtc, `m hceixdøe si rim`dzm c fiadmeti ue hcac sd is qui si hceihtm m ue
pczc c fiadmeti uem hceixdøe m pmria sd is qui si hceihtm m ue tmndqui. Xd i`
vietd`macri` istí
hceihtmr aietrcpcr
vietd`macr aiùec
hdrhudtc,
ai suspmrm
`macsbieirmr `m prisdøe
m ue tmndqui. Xd siscnri ästi,i`gmy
gmhi pcr `macqui
ai
mspdrmhdøe si utd`dzm uem hceixdøe m pmria tdpc riaceac-humarmac, pirc si rim`dzm
pcr i` `mac ai dfpu`sdøe, pcr ioifp`c m` ldem` ai` adluscr, i` vietd`macr `m pmrti
mhtdvm ai` vietd`macr eihisdtmrí uem tcnirm ai mafdsdøe
I` rcaiti ai` vietd`macr si hcfpcei ai `cs í`mnis y i` hunc c scpcrti ai `cs í`mnis, qui is
aceai si mhcp`me ästcs pmrm fmetieir`cs sc`damrdcs fdietrms bdrm i` fctcr qui `c mhhdcem.
8.= [irld` mircadeífdhc ai` í`mni

8.=
Humeac ue m`mni si deh`dem hdirtc íebu`c pmrm msæ

‐fcvir mdri‖, uem luirzm (L) tm` y hcfc deadhm `m
ixprisdøe (=.=) si ioirhirí scnri adhgc m`mni.
Istm luirzm si advdai ie acs hcfpceietis, uem
``mfmam Luirzm ai mrrmstri (LA) qui tdiei `m
adrihhdøe ai` lùdac, y ctrm ``mfmam Luirzm ai
Xustietmhdøe hce adrihhdøe pirpieadhu`mr m `m ai`
lùdac.
L  j  ` >  v >     (î) Luirzm scnri m`mni (=.=)
L
A  H A  M  = >    v > Luirzm ai mrrmstri
L
@  H @  M  = >    v > Luirzm ai sustietmhdøe
Aceai?
- M, is `m supirldhdi ai` m`mni
- \, is `m vi`chdama ai` lùdac (mdri)
-  is `m aiesdama ai` lùdac (mdri)
- HA y H@, `cs hcildhdietis ai mrrmstri y sustietmhdøe rispihtdvmfieti (Luehdøe ai`
eÿfirc ai îyecàs, î)
Xd i` íebu`c ai mtmqui vmrdm, tmfndäe `c gmríe `cs hcildhdietis HA y H@ msæ hcfc `ms luirzms
l uirzms
ai sustietmhdøe y mrrmstri.
=9 ai =7;

@m luirzm ai sustietmhdøe is `m
hcfpceieti ÿtd` ai `m luirzm ioirhdam
scnri i` m`mni, ym qui `m hcfpceieti
ai mrrmstri is `m päradam ai ieirbæm
ai adhgm luirzm.
Ai istc si aiauhi qui ue nuie
adsiýc ai` í`mni sirí i` qui pcsim
uem ri`mhdøe iìvmam ietri
hcfpceieti ai sustietmhdøe y
mrrmstri.
@m luirzm ai sustietmhdøe is hrimam pcr `m lcrfm

ai `m pmrti supirdcr ai` m`mni, qui crdbdem ue
dehrifietc ie `m vi`chdama `chm` ai` lùdac, y pcr
`c tmetc uem riauhhdøe ie `m prisdøe istítdhm. @m
vi`chdama `chm` ie `m pmrti delirdcr ai` m`mni
sulrdrí pchms vmrdmhdceis, y `m luirzm ai
sustietmhdøe si crdbdemrm.
@m fmycr pmrti ai adhgm luirzm ai sustietmhdøe
si crdbdemrm ie i` prdfir >; % ai istm supirldhdi,
i` ristc ai istm supirldhdi tiearí uem lcrfm tm`
qui prcpcrhdcei `m fiecr risdstiehdm pcsdnì.
Humeac i` íebu`c ai mtmqui si dehrifietm ie

ixhisc, si prcauhdrí ue aisprieadfdietc nrushc
ai lùdac qui ec rihcrrirí tcam `m supirldhdi ai` m`mni ai fmeirm uedlcrfi, dehrifietmeac
ai istm lcrfm `m luirzm ai mrrmstri y riauhdieac `m luirzm ai sustietmhdøe. Xi prcauhi
ietcehis ue lieøfiec ai hmvdtmhdøe, qui si hcechi ie i` fueac ai `cs vietd`macris hcfc
lieøfiec ai ‐ ncfnic‖.
Xd ue vietd`macr cpirm ie ncfnic, is

aindac m qui i` hmuam` is aifmsdmac
nmoc pmrm i` íebu`c ai mtmqui ai `cs
í`mnis ribu`mac is isi fcfietc.
Isti hmuam` puadirm gmnir
adsfdeudac aindac m ue dehrifietc
ai risdstiehdm ie i` hdrhudtc mschdmac
m isi sdstifm, prcauhdäeacsi ue
dehrifietc ai prisdøe, ym qui i`
puetc ai luehdcemfdietc si aisp`mzm
m `c `mrbc ai `m hurvm ai Í`mni
Í` mniss
luehdcemfdietc ai` vietd`macr. Hunc ai` vietd`macr
[cr tmetc, i` trmnmoc ai` vietd`macr ie ncfnic aindac m `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc, si puiai
ivdtmr aisai i` crdbie aildedieac mprcpdmamfie
mprcpdmamfieti
ti `m lcrfm ai` m`mni.
=< ai =7;

[mrm `m siìhhdøe ai ue rcaiti si gm ai tieir ie huietm `c sdbudieti?
=. [irld` mircadeífdhc ai` í`mni

>. [irld` mircadeífdhc ai `m adrihtrdz
8. Eÿfirc ai í`mnis
í`mnis
9.
1. Adífitrc ai` hunc
rcaiti
<. \i`chdama ai bdrc ai` fctcr
2. Qifpirmturm fíxdfm ai` lùdac (mdri) qui vm m fcvd`dzmr
7. Hcfprcnmhdøe ai risdstiehdm fihíedhm ai` adsiýc ldem`
8.> Høfc si prcauhi prisdøe ie vietd`macris

8.>
Ye vietd`macr, gmhdieac `m supcsdhdøe ai lùoc dehcfprisdnì, prcauhi ue dehrifietc ai

prisdøe tctm` m` pmsc ai` mdri pcr ä`.
I` ticrifm lueamfietm` ai `ms turncfíqudems adhi qui ietri acs puetcs ai uem `æeim ai
hcrrdieti G6Y \, aceai G is `m ietm`pæm, Y is `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe y \ is `m
hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ai `m vi`chdama ai` mdri. Istc pmrihi fuy hcfp`dhmac pirc hce `cs
trdíebu`cs ai vi`chdamais y supuistc i` hmsc dehcfprisdnì si vui`vi fuy siehd``c.
Ie lùoc dehcfprisdnì G si trmeslcrfm ie [tctm`/ aceai  is `m aiesdama.
R>
\x>6 \x= R>
\>
\>
Y
R=
Y6-R=
\=6 \x=
Ie i` trdíebu`c ai vi`chdamais si tcfm i` mdri qui vm pcr `m `æeim fiadm ai` vietd`macr. Y m
`m ietrmam y m `m sm`dam is dbum` m `m vi`chdama ai bdrc pcr i` rmadc. Hcfc i` rmadc ec hmfndm,
Y ec hmfndm. Istc ec is i` hmsc ie fíqudems rmadmìs, aceai `m prisdøe si mufietm pcr i`
hmfndc ai rmadc.
Ie i` bríldhc metirdcr?
\ vi`chdamais mnscùtms
R vi`chdamais ri`mtdvms
x hcfpceieti mxdm`
 hcfpceieti tmebiehdm`.
=2 ai =7;

M `m ietrmam ai` vietd`macr, i` mdri ietrm mxdm`fieti, su hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` is eu`m. I`

prcauhtc ai Y\ m `m ietrmam is ;. I` rcaiti, muequi i` lùoc ietri mxdm`, vi uem
hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ri`mtdvm m` í`mni, qui is dbum` m `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe.
I` í`mni buæm i` lùoc ai fmeirm qui `m hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ri`mtdvm is adlirieti m `m

sm`dam ai `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe. \  qui si cntdiei m` hcfpceir `m vi`chdama ri`mtdvm hce
`m vi`chdama
prcauhi aitcrctmhdøe
mufie
mufietc ec Xi
ai prisdøe. vm ous
m tdldhm
sir eu`m,
oustdldhm y i` qui
tmfndäe prcauhtc
humetcY\
humetc fís m`tc
 si gmhi adstdetc ai ; y
sim i` rmadc (ri`mh
(ri`mhdøe
døe
hunc hmrhmsm fmycr pmrm i` fdsfc adífitrc ixtirdcr, c fmycr adífitrc ixtirdcr) fmycr is
i` mufietc ai prisdøe.
Xd ec tieifcs adrihtrdz mircadeífdhm, tcac isti mufietc ai prisdøe tctm` ec si trmeslcrfm

ie mufietc ai prisdøe istítdhm, muequi i` lùoc sim dehcfprisdnì. @m rmzøe is `m
hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ai `m vi`chdama qui prcauhi päradams ai fizh`mac m` ifpuomr i`
mdri. @m fdsdøe ai `m adrihtrdz c í`mni buæm is ‐budmr‖ m` lùoc pmrm qui tcac i` dehrifietc
ai prisdøe tctm` vmym ie `m adrihhdøe mxdm`. Ie `m adrihtrdz si pdirai m`bc ai prisdøe tctm` pcr
`m lrdhhdøe hce `m pm`m y i` ispiscr ai` ncrai ai sm`dam, pirc si bmem prisdøe istítdhm, ym qui
tcam `m vi`chdama tmebiehdm` si i`dfdem, y supcedieac qui i` lùoc is dehcfprisdnì, `m
vi`chdama m `m sm`dam aini sir dbum` m `m ai ietrmam pcr hcetdeudama, ‐ec si hrim mdri ie i`
vietd`macr‖.
I` adsiýc øptdfc ai `m adrihtrdz si am humeac tcam `m hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ai `m

vi`chdama is i`dfdemam, y `ms päradams ai prisdøe tctm` si riauhie m` riauhdrsi i` ispiscr, y
hce uem iìhhdøe ai `m huiram y i` eÿfirc ai i``ms øptdfms.
8.8 Eÿfirc ai í`mnis
8.8
I` eÿfirc ai í`mnis ai ue rcaiti istm ri`mhdcemac hce `m prisdøe tctm` qui isti bieirmrí.
Ye dehrifietc ie i` eÿfirc tctm` ai í`mnis, dfp`dhmrí qui i` vietd`macr bieiri ue

dfpørtmti dehrifietc ai prisdøe hce ue fcairmac dehrifietc ai hmuam` ai mdri, sdifpri y
humeac si fmetiebm `m fdsfm vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe ai` fctcr y ec si hmfndi i` adífitrc
ai` vietd`macr.
8.1 Adífitrc ai` rcaiti

8.1
I` adífitrc ai` rcaiti istm ri`mhdcemac hce i` hmuam` qui isti fcvirí.
Ye dehrifietc ai` adífitrc tctm` ai` rcaiti, dfp`dhmrí qui i` vietd`macr ietribui ue hmuam`
ai mdri fmycr fdietrms qui si fmetiebm `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe y fdsfc adsiýc m
hmetdama ai í`mnis.
8.9 \i`chdama ai bdrc ai` fctcr

8.9
Hce i` ristcästm,
dehrifietm ai hcesibudfcs
pmrífitrcs ldomacs, ie luehdøe
fís prisdøe y fís ai `m vi`chdama
hmuam`. [cr tmetc,y hce
m fiadam quihce
ue rcaiti si
hdirtm hceldburmhdøe ai í`mnis, sd i` fctcr i`ähtrdhc is ai > pc`cs (8;;; rpf. m 9;Gz)
=7 ai =7;

tiearí fís hmpmhdama qui sd si utd`dzm ue fctcr ai fmycr eÿfirc ai pc`cs (fiecr
vi`chdama). Hcfc hcesihuiehdm pmrm hmam vi`chdama si tiearíe uems hurvms hmrmhtiræstdhms
ie adstdetm pcsdhdøe. îm`fieti si fmetdieie, pirc istms si aisp`mzme m `c `mrbc ai `m hurvm
risdstieti.
I` hmuam` si dehrifietm prcpcrhdcem`fieti m `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe y `m prisdøe m`

humarmac?
u>
]>  ]= 
u=

u>>
 [ >   [ = 
u=>

Aceai u is `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe.
8.< Adífitrc ai` hunc

8.<
I` adífitrc ai` hunc istm

ri`mhdcemac hce i` hmuam` y hce
`m prisdøe ai` fdsfc.
Ye dehrifietc ai` adífitrc ai`

hunc fmetiedieac hcestmeti i`
adífitrc ai` rcaiti, dfp`dhmrí
qui i` vietd`macr ietribui ue Adí
dífi
fitrc
trc ai
ai`` hunc
hmuam` delirdcr hce ue
dehrifietc ai prisdøe ai mdri
iìvmac. Ai` fdsfc fcac, sd i`
adífitrc ai` hunc si adsfdeuyi, Adífitrc ai` rcaiti
i` hmuam` dehrifietmrm y `m
prisdøe adsfdeudrí.
=4 ai =7;

1 I@ \IEQD@MAC^ MWDM@ T XYX MHHIXC^DCX FMX LÎHYIEQIX.
Ie luehdøe ai `cs cnoitdvcs qui si aisime m`hmezmr hce `m destm`mhdøe ai ue vietd`macr, isti
puiai tieir ue adsiýc u ctrc, msæ hcfc `ìvmr adlirietis mhhiscrdcs. Ie isti mpmrtmac
ripmsmrifcs
ixp`dhmeac su`ms hceldburmhdceis
luehdøe y ífndtc aifís lrihuietis, msæ hcfc `cs mhhiscrdcs fís hcfueis,
mp`dhmhdøe.
1.= \ietd`macr
1.=
Xi hcesdairm vietd`macr, prcpdmfieti adhgc, `m pmrti mhtdvm ai` hceouetc, y istí hcfpuistc
pcr hmrhmsm, rcaiti
rcaiti y fctcr.
Hmrhmsm
Is `m ievc`vieti qui prctibi i` rcaiti y i` fctcr ai` vietd`macr.
Ecrfm`fieti istí hcestrudam pcr mhirc m` hmrncec. Xd `ms

hceadhdceis ai trmnmoc ai` vietd`macr sce ai uem
ixdbiehdm nmom suiì gmhirsi ue trmtmfdietc ai hgcrrimac,
fdietrms qui sd gmy uem ixdbiehdm fmycr, i` trmtmfdietc
sirí ai bm`vmedzmac ie hm`dieti.
[mrm lmhd`dtmr i` trmespcrti, fcetmoi y fmetiedfdietc,

puiaie lmnrdhmrsi hmrhmsms deaipieadietis pmrm fctcr y
rcaiti. [cr i` fdsfc fctdvc, sd i` adífitrc ai vietd`macr
is fuy brmeai (fís ai =7;;ff), `m hmrhmsm c hmrhmsms si
lmnrdhme pmrtdams ie acs pdizms pmrm lmhd`dtmr i` fcetmoi y
trmespcrti
^caiti
I` rcaiti ai` vietd`macr is `m pmrti føvd` ai` fdsfc.

Hcfc gifcs vdstc, si hcfpcei ai í`mnis y hunc c
scpcrti ai `cs í`mnis. Ie luehdøe ai `ms eihisdamais, i`
rcaiti puiai sir ai í`mnis ribu`mnìs c ec ribu`mnìs. Ie
i` hmsc ai í`mnis ribu`mnìs, puiaie sir`c pcr advirscs
sdstifms?
- Í`mnis ribu`mnìs fmeum`fieti

pcr ribu`mhdøe deadvdaum`, í`mni m
í`mni.
- Í`mnis ribu`mnìs fmeum`fieti
pcr ribu`mhdøe hietrm`.
hietrm`.
- Í`mnis ribu`mnìs gdaríu`dhmfieti.
Ie isti hmsc ixdsti `m pcsdnd`dama ai qui adhgm ribu`mhdøe si gmbm
hce i` vietd`macr ie fmrhgm.
>; ai =7;

\irifcs fís mai`meti uem aishrdphdøe fís aitm``mam ai istcs sdstifms ai ribu`mhdøe.
Fctcr
I` tdpc ai fctcr ai` vietd`macr aipieai ai `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai` fdsfc. M`buems
hmrmhtiræstdhms m risiýmr sce?
c @m lcrfm hcestruhtdvm vmræm ietri N8,
N9 y N7 sd i` vietd`macr is gcrdzcetm`, y fctcr

\= y \8 ie hmsc ai vietd`macris
virtdhmìs.
c \ietd`macris pmrm trmnmomr ie mtføslirm

ixp`csdvm, eihisdtme fctcris
metdail`mbrmetis c qui `cs fctcris
istäe iehmpsu`mac
iehmpsu`macs.
s.
c Xd i` vietd`macr gm ai sir risdstieti m

tifpirmturm, pcr ioifp`c, 1;;¿H
aurmeti > gcrms, i` fctcr `øbdhmfieti
tmfndäe aini sir`c, sm`vc qui ästi ec
isti nmýmac pcr i` lùoc ai` mdri qui fcvd`dzm i` vietd`macr.
c Ie humetc m `cs rcamfdietcs ai` fctcr, suiì ixdbdrsi qui tiebme uem vdam @ =;
fmycr ai >;;;; gcrms.
c I` fctcr aini dr pripmrmac pmrm `ìvmr

sceams ai tifpirmturm sd msæ si riqudiri.
c Ie `m siìhhdøe ai` fctcr si hcesdairmrí

tmfndäe i` tdpc ai mrrmequi qui si prcyihti
pmrm i` fdsfc (vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm,
mrrmehmacr sumvi,
mrrmequi istri``m mrrmequi adrihtc c
trdíebu`c).
c Xd i` vietd`macr vm m trmnmomr m brmeais

m`tdtuais (fmycr ai =;;;f), ie
mtføslirms hce brmeais gufiamais
ri`mtdvms (fmycris ai` 4;%) y
tifpirmturms fmycris ai 1;¿H c
fiecris ai ->;¿H, gmy qui trmesfdtdr
istcs lmhtcris m` lmnrdhmeti pmrm qui
adfiesdcei maihumamfieti i` fctcr.
c Ie humetc m `m undhmhdøe ai` fctcr,

ästi puiai dr aietrc ai `m pmrti mhtdvm
ai` vietd`macr, ie `m hmrhmsm ai`
vietd`macr c puiai dr luirm ai` fdsfc,
>= ai =7;

hce trmesfdsdøe pcr ioi hmrame. Isti tdpc ai mhhdcemfdietcs si usm ie vietd`macris

pmrm fdeiræm humeac
humeac si am m`bu
m`buec
ec ai `cs sdbudi
sdbudietis
etis supuistcs
supuistcs ?
 I` mdri qui pmsm pcr i` vietd`macr is hcrrcsdvc, y pcr tmetc i` fctcr si aisim
destm`mr luirm ai `m delùiehdm ai` hdrhudtc ai mdri pmrm uem fmycr aurmhdøe
ai `cs rcamfdietcs.
r camfdietcs.
 Ie hmsc ai mtføslirm pctiehdm`fieti ixp`csdvm, aceai si aisim destm`mr i`
fctcr
mdri pmrmluirmivdtmr
ai` hdrhudtc ai
tieir qui
utd`dzmr ue fctcr
metdail`mbrmeti.
 Xi aisim destm`mr i` fctcr
luirm ai` hdrhudtc pcrqui msæ
si cptdfdzme `ms `mncris ai
fmetiedfdietc c riifp`mzc
ai` fctcr.
@cs vietd`macris hce mhhdcemfdietc
pcr ioi hmrame suiìe sir fíqudems ai fmycris
fmycris adfiesdceis, y pcr tmetc istruhturms
fís hcfpìoms y qui riqudirie ai fís cnrm hdvd` ai hmrm m su destm`mhdøe.
Ec cnstmeti m `c metirdcrfieti ixpuistc,

ixpuistc, `cs vietd`macris mhh
mhhdcemacs
dcemacs pcr ioi hmrame
tdieie uem sirdi ai aisvietmoms qui ec mhcesiome su destm`mhdøe m ec sir qui sim
istrdhtmfieti eihismrdc. Istms aisvietmoms sce?
 Fctcr fiecs rilrdbirmac, ym qui ec ì nmým i` mdri qui pmsm pcr i`

vietd`macr (`c qui dfp`dhm ue fiecr rieadfdietc y pcr tmetc fmycr
hcesufc).
 @m pctiehdm mnscrndam ai `m ria pcr i` fctcr sirí `m pctiehdm eihismrdm ie i`
ioi (aindac m `cs pmrífitrcs mircadeífdhcs) mlihtmam pcr i` rieadfdietc ai`
fctcr fís i` rieadfdietc fihíedhc aindac m `m trmesfdsdøe. Xd ec tieifcs
istm trmesfdsdøe hmrame, aindac m ue mhcp`mfdietc adrihtc ai` fctcr m`
rcaiti, `m pctiehdm mnscrndam sirí fmycr?
[ ioi [ ioi
[ mnscndam( hmrame)    [ mnscndam( adrihtc)
 fctcr  hmramf  fctcr

 Gmnrí fís puetcs ai despihhdøe ie i` fmetiedfdietc (ec tcacs mhhisdnìs)
aindac m qui tiearifcs fmycr eÿfirc ai rcamfdietcs y puetcs ai iebrmsi.
 Hcfc gifcs hcfietmac, si riqudiri ue fmycr ispmhdc riquirdac pmrm `m

destm`mhdøe / hdfietmhdøe. Istí h`mrc qui i` destm`mr i` fctcr luirm ai` prcpdc
vietd`macr dfp`dhm ue ispmhdc eihismrdc pmrm `m undhmhdøe ai` fctcr, msæ
hcfc uem nmehmam ispihdm` pmrm i` fctcr, `m hum`, sd ec tdiei uem nuiem
ioihuhdøe trmirí prcnìfms ai vdnrmhdceis y aitirdcrc ai rcamfdietcs m
`mrbc p`mzc.
 Amac qui i` vietd`macr sirí fís hcfpìoc, `m lmnrdhmhdøe sirí fís hmrm m
dbumàma ai hm`dama.
 I` vietd`macr hce mhhdcemfdietc fiadmeti trmesfdsdøe hmrame, eihisdtm fís

iìfietcs fihíedhcs qui i` vietd`macr hce mhcp`mfdietc adrihtc.
>> ai =7;
>> ai =7;
Madhdcem`fieti, pmrm qui i` fctcr ec ietcrpizhm i` pmsc ai` mdri m vihis si

riqudirie hceldburmhdceis ai vietd`macr qui dfp`dhm hcacs m `m sm`dam ai`
adluscr, hmrame fís `mrbc pmrm sipmrm fctcr ai `m mafdsdøe ai vietd`macr,
ith.
 Fmycr edvi` ai rudac aindac m tieir i` fctcr luirm. Humeac i` fctcr istí
aietrc ai` vietd`macr,
hcrrispceadieti riauhhdøe i` vietd`macr
ai rudac. puiai descecrdzmrsi,
Xd `m destm`mhdøe vm hce hmrame,hce `m
pcr ue
`mac tiearifcs i` rudac mircadeífdhc ai` vietd`macr y pcr ctrc `mac
tiearifcs i` rudac fihíedhc ai` fctcr y ai su trmesfdsdøe. Xd gundisi qui
riauhdr i` edvi` ai rudac, siræm eihismrdc uem descecrdzmhdøe ai` vietd`macr y
uem descecrdzmhdøe ai` fctcr.
 îscemehdm. Xi prcauhi riscemehdm

humeac uem lrihuiehdm ai vdnrmhdøe
hcdehdai hce `m lrihuiehdm emturm` ai`
sdstifm, y puiai chmsdcemr uem
mfp`dmhdøe ispihtmhu`mr ai `m
mfp`dtua qui m su vir, pcaræm amr
ùbmr m ue lm``c prifmturc c dehùsc
hmtmstrøldhc. [uiai trmtmrsi ai uem
lrihuiehdm emturm` ai` rctcr, pirc ie
fuhgcs hmscs puiai tieir su crdbie
ie i` nmstdacr ai scpcrti, nmehmam,
scpcrti hmnm`ìti. Hce `m destm`mhdøe
ai ue ioi hmrame si fu`tdp`dhm pcr
tmetc i` rdisbc ai riscemehdm.
 Fmycr prcnmnd`dama ai aism`deimhdøe

ai` ioi.
 Fmycr prcnmnd`dama ai lìxdøe ai` ioi
Istms aisvietmoms
riquirdr fís puetcspuiaie sir msufdnìs, ymistm
ai fmetiedfdietc, quiadliriehdm
muequi `m ie
destm`mhdøe
i` hcsti,sim fís hmrm y ai
aipieadieac puiai
`ms
hdrhuestmehdms ie hmam hmsc, puiai sir lmvcrmnì m `m iìhhdøe ai` hmrame ie hmsc ai hmfndc
ai fctcr, qui sirí fís rípdac, ie hmsc ai pcsdnì aitirdcrc ai` fctcr pcr mlihtmrì `m fm`m
hm`dama ai` mdri qui ixtrmi i` vietd`macr, ith.
>8 ai =7;
1.> Mhhiscrdcs
1.>
Qcnirm ai mafdsdøe
@m
mdrifdsdøe ai `m tcnirm
ie i` vietd`macr. is `mieaii`fdedfdzmr
Xm`vc hmsc ai `cs`mvietd`macris
päradam ai hmrbm prcauhdam
rivirsdnìs m `madluscris,
hce acs ietrmam ai`
`m
fmycræm ai `cs vietd`macris `ìvme mhcp`mac isti iìfietc sd ec istíe hceihtmacs m`
hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe pcr ue hcac m pczc c
adrihtmfieti m ue tmndqui fiadmeti uem pdizm
ai hceixdøe
îod``m
Isti iìfietc sdrvi pmrm prctibir i` rcaiti ai `m

ietrmam ai iìfietcs ec aisimacs qui puiame
ietcrpihir i` nuie luehdcemfdietc ai`
vietd`macr. Ecrfm`fieti si hc`chm ie `m zcem tcnirm ri d`d``m
`m
ai mspdrmhdøe ai` vietd`macr, muequi sd i`
vietd`macr luisi rivirsdnì, ainiræm hc`chmrsi tmetc ie mspdrmhdøe hcfc ie dfpu`sdøe.
Xcpcrtis metdvdnrmtcrdcs
@cs scpcrtis metdvdnrmtcrdcs istíe aistdemacs m riauhdr `m vdnrmhdøe qui si trmesfdti aisai
i` vietd`macr gmhdm `m hdfietmhdøe. Xi trmtm ai uecs mfcrtdbumacris ai fui`ì c hmuhgc qui
si hc`chme ie `ms pmtms ai`
vietd`macr.
Ie vietd`macris ai fdem si
utd`dzme pchc. Bieirm`fieti, `cs
vietd`macris vme mpcymacs
adrihtmfieti m `m hdfietmhdøe
hce ue meh`moi rcnustc, ai fmeirm qui sim `m hdfietmhdøe qudie mnscrnm `ms vdnrmhdceis.
Hcfpiesmacr tixtd`
I` hcfpiesmacr tixtd` is ue iìfietc qui si hceihtm ecrfm`fieti m

mfncs `macs ai `m pmrti mhtdvm ai` vietd`macr. Xu cnoitdvc is mds`mr i`
vietd`macr ai` ristc ai iìfietcs, ai fmeirm qui ìs trmesfdtm `ms
vdnrmhdceis qui si bieirme ie ä`. [cr ctrc `mac, pirfdti ixtrmir `m
pmrti mhtdvm ai` vietd`macr sd luisi eihismrdc, sde fís qui qudtmrì
`cs meh`mois ai `m hdfietmhdøe.
Adluscr
I` adluscr is ue iìfietc qui si mhcp`m m `m aishmrbm ai` vietd`macr pmrm riauhdr su prisdøe
adeífdhm ai sm`dam. @m prisdøe adeífdhm hce `m qui i` mdri smì ai` vietd`macr is uem
päradam ai ieirbæm, is aihdr, is uem ieirbæm qui i` vietd`macr bieirm, pirc qui ec rim`dzm
>1 ai =7;
trmnmoc. [cr tmetc, pmrm ue hmuam` amac sd

hcesibudfcs ue írim ai sm`dam fmycr `m
vi`chdama ai sm`dam y pcr tmetc `m prisdøe
adeífdhm siríe fiecris, hcesdbudieac msæ qui
i` vietd`macr rim`dhi fís trmnmoc ÿtd`.
Hmnræm piesmr
i` tmfmýc aiietcehis
adluscr qui
siræmhumetc
fiocrfmycr
pmrm sim
i`
rieadfdietc ai` vietd`macr, pirc pmrm i` nuie
adsiýc ai ue adluscr si gme aitieir ie huietm
vmrdcs mspihtcs?
=. I` fíxdfc sifdíebu`c ai mpirturm ai`

mdri is ai mprcxdfmamfieti 2¿, pcr `c
qui ec si ainiræm adsiýmr ue adluscr
hce ue íebu`c ai mpirturm fmycr. Xi
puiai istmnìhir
istmnìhir hcfc `æfdti príhtdhc ai mpirturm =9¿.
>. @ìbmrí ue puetc ie qui i` bmstc ie fmtirdm` aindac m `m destm`mhdøe ai ue adluscr
fmycr ec hcfpiesm `m riauhhdøe ai prisdøe adeífdhm airdvmam ai` mufietc ai
sihhdøe ai sm`dam.
8. @cs hceadhdcemetis pmrm i` trmespcrti ai adhgcs iìfietcs tmfndäe gme ai tieirsi
ie huietm (sd vm dr m su aistdec pcr hmfdøe, nmrhc c mvdøe). Hmam uec ai istcs
fiadcs ai trmespcrti tiearí sus `dfdtmhdceis, ym qui iìfietcs fuy brmeais
riprisietme ue scnrihcsti qui ec hcfpiesmrí `m bmemehdm ie rieadfdietc ai`
vietd`macr. [cr ioifp`c, ue trmespcrti
t rmespcrti ispihdm` pcr hmrritirm y ue hcetieiacr fmycr
ai `c ecrfm` ie ue nmrhc c mvdøe siræme prcgdndtdvcs ie `m fmycr pmrti ai `cs hmscs.
Istm is `m rmzøe pcr `m qui m pmrtdr ai =7;; c >;;;ff ai adífitrc `cs adluscris si
lmnrdhme pmrtdacs, y ie chmsdceis, sd istcs sce fuy `mrbcs, si lmnrdhmríe hcfc acs
adluscris pmrtdacs qui si mhcp`mríe uec trms ctrc ie `m destm`mhdøe ldem`.
Ecrfm`fieti, `cs adluscris si hcestruyie ai hgmpm ai mhirc, y su trmtmfdietc

metdhcrrcsdvc ecrfm`fieti is i` hgcrrimac hce mriem ai sæ`dhi.
\í`vu`ms tdpc amfpir y tdpc bud``ctdem.

@cs vietd`macris puiaie `ìvmr ví`vu`ms qui hcrtie i` pmsc
ai mdri m trmväs ai `cs fdsfcs pcr acs fctdvcs?
=. Ixdsti uem destm`mhdøe hce vmrdcs vietd`macris ie

pmrmì`c, pirc is pcsdnì qui ec tcacs luehdceie m`
fdsfc tdifpc. [cr tmetc, pmrm ivdtmr
rihdrhu`mhdceis ai mdri, `cs vietd`macris qui ec
istíe luehdcemeac gme ai sir ‐hirrmacs‖ pcr adhgm
ví`vu`m ai hdirri.
>. Xd ixdsti ue luirti tdrc emturm` c gmy delùiehdm ie i` hdrhudtc ai ctrc vietd`macr qui
adldhu`tm i` mrrmequi ai` vietd`macr. [mrm ivdtmr `m delùiehdm ai adhgc tdrc emturm`,
`cs vietd`macris usme istms ví`vu`ms qui vme mnrdieac m fiadam qui i` vietd`macr
mrrmehm. Istc is ue hmsc fuy tæpdhc ie `ms fdems prclueams y hce vmrdcs pczcs ai
vietd`mhdøe.
>9 ai =7;
@cs amfpirs sce ví`vu`ms qui hcesdstie ai ue nmstdacr aceai si mhcp`me uems `mfms
gcrdzcetmìs fcetmams
fcetmams scnri iois, qui sce mhhdcemacs
mhhdcemacs pcr ue mhtumacr pmrm hirrmr c mnrdr
i` pmsc ai mdri. Xi hc`chme ecrfm`fieti m `m sm`dam ai` vietd`macr, mhcp`mams ecrfm`fieti
ie `m zcem ai aishmrbm ai` adluscr. Isti tdpc ai iìfietc gm ai sir risdstieti m tifpirmturm
sd `ms ixdbiehdms ai` hdrhudtc msæ `c riqudirie. [cr su pmrti, i` mhtumacr i`ähtrdhc ainirí sir
iehmpsu`mac
`ms fdems. c prctibdac sd vm m trmnmomr ie mfndietis hce fuhgc pc`vc, hcfc is i` hmsc ai
@ms bud``ctdems, hcfc su prcpdc ecfnri deadhm, sce ví`vu`ms hce tm` adspcsdhdøe. Xi trmtm ai
uem hgmpm ai hdirri qui si ais`dzm pcr ue nmstdacr gmstm hirrmr hcfpìtmfieti i` pmsc ai
mdri pcr i` vietd`macr. Is ecrfm`fieti mhhdcemam pcr ue mhtumacr i`ähtrdhc, muequi
lrihuietifieti tdieie ue vc`meti ai mhhdcemfdietc fmeum` pmrm ifirbiehdms.
Bieirm`fieti si destm`me ie i` `mac ai mspdrmhdøe ai` vietd`macr, m` hcetrmrdc ai `cs
amfpirs.
Ie `m ldburm si riprisietm uem bud``ctdem virtdhm`, ie uem destm`mhdøe hce hcac y adluscr
virtdhm`.
\ietd`macr ai Fdem hce bud``ctdem, hcac y adluscr ai sm`dam

>< ai =7;
Bieirm`fieti `ms bud``ctdems suiìe sir virtdhmìs, pirc ie chmsdceis aindac m` ioi hmrame y
i` fctcr ie `m zcem ai mspdrmhdøe, cn`dbme m ue nushmr uem destm`mhdøe gcrdzcetm`
undhíeac`m ie `m nmsi ai` hcac qui hceihtm m` pczc.
Hcacs
Ie
istichmsdceis `m pczc
smì ai ue sm`damvirtdhm`
ai` lùocy ai
gmymdri
uemisdestm`mhdøe
virtdhm`, hcfc
hce pcr ioifp`cgcrdzcetm`.
vietd`macr ie `ms fdems humeac
[mrm istcs
hmscs si eihisdtm uem istruhturm ie lcrfm ai hcac qui crdieti i` lùoc ai fcac qui ästi
ietri gcrdzcetm`fieti ie i` vietd`macr
@m destm`mhdøe ai istcs hcacs puiai ivdtmrsi utd`dzmeac vietd`macris virtdhmìs, y maifís si

ivdtmræm msæ `m päradam ai hmrbm airdvmam ai `cs fdsfcs, hce `c qui `m pctiehdm ai
vietd`macr pcaræm sir fiecr.
Ai tcacs fcacs, ie i`
i` hmsc ai qui si tiebm qui destm`mr ue hcac, hce
hce i` lde ai qui `m
päradam ai ai
ailìhtcrms hmrbm aiìefdsfc
lùoc sim fæedfm,
i` detirdcr is fuy
ai` fdsfc, rihcfieamnì
ai fmeirm `m destm`mhdøe
qui myuaie ai i`hgmpms
m adrihhdcem` mdri.
Ye aitm`ì ai istms hgmpms si mprihdm ie `m ldburm sdbudieti.
Hcac hce hgmpms ailìhtcrms.

>2 ai =7;
Hce `m destm`mhdøe ai istms hgmpms ailìhtcrms puiai `ìbmr m riauhdrsi `m päradam ai` hcac
fís ai ue 9; %.
Ctrms chmsdceis ie `ms qui is eihismrdc ue hcac is humeac si destm`m ue fctcr ixtirec hce
mhhdcemfdietc pcr ioi hmrame, y pcr hum`qudir fctdvc ec si puiai smhmr i` ioi gmhdm `m zcem
ai
mdrimspdrmhdøe.
ec sm`bm m Isti supuistc,
hgchmr pcrfctcr,
hcetrm i` tmetc,suiì
cn`dbmpceirsi
m destm`mr i` ioiailìhtcr
ue hcac ie dfpu`sdøe. [mrm qui
ai fmeirm qui i`
i`
mdri si ixpu`si m` ixtirdcr ai lcrfm virtdhm`. Qrms i` hcac suiì hc`chmrsi ue adluscr
virtdhm`.
[dizms ai mamptmhdøe
mamptmhdøe
Humeac i` vietd`macr vm hceihtmac m hceauhtcs ai adlirieti sihhdøe m `m ai` prcpdc

vietd`macr c ie su hmsc i` adluscr, si eihisdtm uem pdizm ai mamptmhdøe. Istm pdizm ai
mamptmhdøe sirí adlirieti ie luehdøe ai `ms sihhdceis ai vietd`macr y hceauhtc, puadieac
dehùsc trmeslcrfmr `m sihhdøe ai humarmac m riaceac c vdhivirsm.
>7 ai =7;
9 HY^\M HM^MHQI^ÆXQDHM AI@ \IEQD@MAC^.
Ye vietd`macr pcaifcs hmrmhtirdzmr`c pcr su hurvm, qui is i` ùbmr bicfätrdhc ai `cs

puetcs ai luehdcemfdietc ai` fdsfc. [mrm hmam íebu`c ai ribu`mhdøe ai `cs í`mnis
tiearifcs uem hurvm adstdetm. I` puetc ai hcrti ai `m hurvm ai` vietd`macr hce `m risdstiehdm
ai` hdrhudtc is i` puetc ai luehdcemfdietc ai` vietd`macr, ([c,]c).
Hce ue puetc ai luehdcemfdietc, istmfcs aildedieac i` puetc ai hcrti ai `m hurvm

hmrmhtiræstdhm ai` vietd`macr hce `m hurvm risdstieti ai` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe. [cr tmetc, i`
puetc [; y ]; pirtieihi m `m hurvm risdstieti ai `m fdem.
[ ;
^ i 6 >

];
[c [c
HMYAM@
]c ]c
îm`fieti, tiearifcs aildedac hce isti puetc `m risdstiehdm iqudvmìeti ai `m fdem, c `c

qui is `c fdsfc, i` crdldhdc iqudvmìeti?
[ ; [ ;  =;;;

^ i 6 >
(J  ) 6 >
(  ):
]; ];
=;;;
y maifís?   ;.87 (f>)
î
Hurvms ai îeadfdietc
Hurvms ai` \ietd`macr

>4 ai =7;
9.= Mhcp`mfdietc ai vietd`macris

9.=
Ie destm`mhdceis dfpcrtmetis ai vietd`mhdøe, humeac is eihismrdc adspceir ai hmuamìs c

prisdceis hce brmeais vmrdmhdceis, puiai risu`tmr hceviedieti ai actmr`ms ai iqudpcs
mhcp`macs ixdbdam
pristmhdøe ai lcrfm
ie qui
hmam trmnmomeac ie `ms
fcfietc. Xd hceouetc c ndie
vmrdmhdceis sipmrmacs
eihismrdms sceprcpcrhdceie `m
adshritms puiai
nmstmr ue ÿedhc vietd`macr hce ue sdstifm ai ribu`mhdøe, pirc humeac sime prihdsms uems
hmpmhdamais fuy iìvmams,
iìvmams, gmy qui rihurrdr m ue sdstifm ai mhcp`mfdietc ai iqudpcs, tmetc
ie sirdi hcfc ie pmrmì`c.
Qrmnmoc ie sirdi ai > vietd`macris
Hce i` trmnmoc ie sirdi ai acs

vietd`macris, i` hmuam` ai mdri qui
îsdstiehdm
pmsm pcr mfncs vietd`macris aini sir ai` sdstifm
dbum`, ai vm`cr ]= y `m aiprisdøe tctm` Hurvm ai >
vietd`macris
is dbum` m `m sufm ai `ms aiprisdceis ie sirdi
prcauhdams pcr hmam vietd`macr [Q 6
[Q/> + [Q/>.
[Q
Ie hcesihuiehdm, `m hurvm M

hmrmhtiræstdhm tctm`dzmam ai mfncs H
D
Q
Í [Q />
vietd`macris si hcestruyi sufmeac Q
X
I
E
`ms craiemams ai sus hurvms Ø
D
X
I
[=
hmrmhtiræstdhms deadvdaumìs. ^
[
I
A
Hurvm ai =
I
O
M
vietd`macr
Q
I` hmuam` tctm` ai acs vietd`macris E
I
H
^
dbumìs, destm`macs ie sirdi y qui C
[
[Q />
bdrme hce dbum` eÿfirc ai
rivcùhdceis, is fmycr qui hmam
hmuam` pmrhdm`, pirc, sdifpri delirdcr C
C HMYAM@
mdeadvdaum`.
`m sufm ai `cs hmuamìs ai` trmnmoc ]= ]Q
Is aihdr, ]=0 ]Q 0 ]=+]> 6>x]=
[mrm uem risdstiehdm amam, hcfc pcaifcs vir ie i` bríldhc maouetc, ue sc`c vietd`macr
pcaræm trmnmomr ie ue puetc prøxdfc m` ncfnic, ie hmfndc, m` mhcp`mrì ctrc vietd`macr, si
puiai cnsirvmr
cnsirvmr qui ([Q, ]Q), istí nmstmeti mìomac ai` räbdfie deistmnì.
Qrmnmoc ie pmrmì`c ai > vietd`macris
Ie ue sdstifm ai trmnmoc ai acs vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c, hmam vietd`macr is hcehindac pmrm

`m fdtma ai` hmuam` ai adsiýc. Humeac acs vietd`macris trmnmome ie pmrmì`c, lcrfme ue
sdstifm qui istmrí hmrmhtirdzmac pcr `m hurvm risu`tmeti ai `m sufm `ms mnshdsms ai sus
hurvms hmrmhtiræstdhms deadvdaumìs.
8; ai =7;
@m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc hcrtm `m hurvm ai` sdstifm ie ue puetc ([ Q,]Q). I` puetc ai
luehdcemfdietc ai hmam vietd`macr, hcfc si puiai vir ie i` bríldhc meixc, hcrrispceai m
([Q,]=6]>), tm` qui ]=+]>6 ]Q pmrm i` hms
hmscc ai acs vietd`macris daä
daäetdhcs.
etdhcs.
Xd sø`c uec ai `cs vietd`macris trmnmomsi, su puetc ai luehdcemfdietc siræm adstdetc, hce
uem prisdøe fís nmom y hce ue hmuam` ai mdri fmycr, ([Q=,]Q=).
_cem ai deistmnd`dama îsdstiehdm ai` sdstifm
=;;
M
H
D
Q
Í
Q
[Q
X
I
E
Ø
D
X
I
Hurvm ai > vietd`macris
^
[
I
A
I
O
M
Q
E
[Q=
I
H
^
C
[
C
C
]= ]> ]Q= ]Q HMYAM@
M` hcetrmrdc ai` trmnmoc ie sirdi ai > vietd`macris, sd `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc ai

vietd`mhdøe is dfpcrtmeti, sd si mrrmehme > vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c, istcs puiaie ietrmr ie
räbdfie deistmnì m pismr ai qui deadvdaum`fieti trmnmoie ndie.
9.> Lieøfiec ai Ncfnic

9.>
@cs fmycris prcnìfms hce `m deistmnd`dama ai `cs vietd`macris si prcauhie ie i` trmnmoc

ai fÿ`tdpìs vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c.
Dehùsc, muequi `m risdstiehdm sim mptm pmrm pcair trmnmomr ie pmrmì`c acs vietd`macris,
aindac m` sdstifm c `m sihuiehdm ai mrrmequi, si puadirm ec m`hmezmr euehm `m istmnd`dama,
(Ilihtc Ihj).
[mrm ue sc`c vietd`macr ie luehdcemfdietc, sd `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc luisi fmycr ai `c

istdfmac, i` puetc ai luehdcemfdietc si aisp`mzmræm gmhdm hmuamìs fmycris, pirc, sd `m
risdstiehdm luisi fís
fís iìvmam ie puetc ai luehdcem
luehdcemfdietc
fdietc tieairæm m hmuamìs
hmuamìs delirdcris,
`ìbmeac dehùsc m gmhir qui i` vietd`macr trmnmomsi ie räbdfie deistmnì, is aihdr ie
ncfnic. Isti lieøfiec si ivdtm ym ie lmsi ai adsiýc hm`hu`meac ue tdpc ai í`mni qui
aildem uem hurvm ai` vietd`macr, tm` qui i` hcrti hce `m hurvm risdstieti istä luirm ai `m zcem
deistmnì ai` vietd`macr.
[mrm hmam hurvm hmrmhtiræstdhm ai` vietd`macr tiearifcs ue puetc ai ncfnic, pcr tmetc, sd
tieifcs ie huietm qui ue vietd`macr tdiei ue gmz ai hurvms qui mnmrhm i` rmebc ai
8= ai =7;
ribu`mhdøe ai `cs í`mnis, aildedfcs `m hurvm lcrfmam pcr `cs puetcs ai ncfnic ai` gmz
hcfc ‐hurvm `æfdti ai ncfnic‖.
Ye vietd`macr cpirmeac hirhm ai` puetc ai ncfnic tiearí ue sivirc dehrifietc ai rudac.
Ie m`buecs vietd`macris scemrí hmsd hcfc sd i` rcaiti istuvdisi sdieac dfpmhtmac pcr ue
cnoitc sø`dac (‐gmffirdeb‖).
Ye vietd`macr trmnmomeac hcetdeumfieti ie ncfnic puiai prcvchmr uem lmtdbm istruhturm`

ai `cs í`mnis. Istc is ispihdm`fieti hdirtc pmrm vietd`macris mxdmìs qui tdieie í`mnis
`mrbcs, hcfc is i` hmsc ai `cs vietd`macris qui ietribme ue m`tc hmuam` m prisdceis
fcairmams.
îsdstiehdm rim`
[ÎXDØE îsdstiehdm [ÎXDØE îsdstiehdm
_cem deistmnì istdfmam _cem deistmnì
ai` vietd`macr ai` vietd`macr istdfmam
[c
[c Hurvm îsdstiehdm
Hurvm \ietd`macr rim`
\ietd`macr
HMYAM@ HMYAM@
]c ]c
^ rrim`
im` 5 ^ adsiýc
adsiýc ^ rrim`
im` 0 ^ adsiýc
adsiýc
Ie i` pmsmac, ie hdirtms fdems i` puetc ai ncfnic si fiaæm, ym qui irm ue amtc qui ainæm
sir hcechdac pcr `cs rispcesmnìs ai `m vietd`mhdøe ai `m fdem. I` vm`cr ai hmtí`cbc ai`
`æfdti ai ncfnic aishdieai hce i` usc ai` vietd`macr, m fiadam qui `cs í`mnis sulrie
aisbmsti y i` pirld` vm hmfndmeac.
Fiadhdøe mrtismem` ai` puetc ai ncfnic

ncfnic
Metdbumfieti, si pripmrmnm ie
uem sihhdøe [ ai` mhhisc m`
vietd`macr, m`bc mìomam pmrm
qui i` lùoc ie `m mspdrmhdøe sim
uedlcrfi, ue hdirri ribu`mnì
qui cnstmhu`dhi i` pmsc ai` mdri.
Xi fiaæm i` hmuam` ], ndie
hirhm ai `m sihhdøe [ c ie i`
prcpdc vietd`macr ie med``c ai
fiadhdøe (aipieai ai `m
tähedhm ai fiadam qui si aisii
mp`dhmr). Xi fiaæm m `m viz `m
aiprisdøe ai` vietd`macr g 6 [t, pmrm `c hum` `m sceam ai ìhturm (tunc ai pdtct) gm ai istmr
adrdbdam lrieti m` lùoc ai` mdri.
Humeac i` vietd`macr ietrm ie ncfnic, si cnsirvm?
 Ye hmfndc
cnsirvm quiai
i` rudac mircadeífdhc.
mdri mvmezm y si pmrmXd i` cnsirvmacr si iehuietrm aietrc ai `m fdem
pirdøadhmfieti.
 Ie i` fmeøfitrc `m hcùfem ai mbum cshd`m hcetdeumfieti.
8> ai =7;
 Ie i` mfpiræfitrc, `m mbuom cshd`m.

 Qcac i``c hcrrispceai m qui, pmsmeac i` puetc ai ncfnic, i` räbdfie is deistmnì
y i` puetc ai luehdcemfdietc "pieauìm" scnri `m hcehmvdama ai `m hurvm
hmrmhtiræstdhm.
Aitihhdøe ai` räbdfie deistmnì. Xceam [itirfmee
Ispdbms ie hmrhmsm rcaiti Xceam [itirfmee [riscstmtc ai ncfnic
Mhtum`fieti, `cs vietd`macris,

bistdceme `ms prisdceis fiadams qui suiìeuemsirsceam
fiadmeti iqudpmacs hce ie
[itirfmee ue `mmrfmrdc
‐hmrhmsmaircaiti‖
hcetrc`,y
qui fiadmeti ue priscstmtc aitihtm i` räbdfie deistmnì, ivdtmeac qui i` vietd`macr si amýi.
Xi pritieai rism`tmr i` ilihtc ai` ncfnic ie `ms adfiesdceis ai` sdstifm, tdpc ai vietd`macr,
sdstifm ai hcetrc`, msæ hcfc ie i` tdifpc y tdpc ai mrrmequi.
Delùiehdm ai` mrrmequi ie i` ncfnic
I` trmnmoc ai` vietd`macr ie ncfnic aindac m `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc, si puiai ivdtmr
aisai i` crdbie aildedieac mprcpdmamfieti `m hceldburmhdøe ai` í`mni, pirc gifcs ai tieir
fuy ie huietm, qui maifís, ue vietd`macr puiai istmr ie ncfnic pcr fís fctdvcs?
 Aurmeti i` mrrmequi ai ue vietd`macr.

 Aurmeti i` mrrmequi ai acs vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c.
Xd tieifcs uem istmhdøe ai vietd`mhdøe ai acs vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c, hce ue sc`c
vietd`macr luehdcemeac y ie hdirtc fcfietc gmy qui mrrmehmr i` sibueac vietd`macr, pmrm
hmuam` hirc ai ästi ÿ`tdfc, ym si pmrti ai uem prisdøe ai vm`cr [Q, `m hum` istí bieirmeac i`
vietd`macr ym ie luehdcemfdietc, pcr tmetc `m sdtumhdøe sirí fís hcfp`dhmam.
Ie i` bríldhc sdbudieti, si vi `m ivcùhdøe aurmeti i` mrrmequi ai` sibueac vietd`macr, uem

viz ym ie luehdcemfdietc i` pprdfirc.
rdfirc. Gmstm hdi
hdirtm
rtm vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe `m hurvm ai` >¿
vietd`macr istmrí pcr ainmoc ai `m prisdøe [Q(=). M pmrtdr ai hdirtm vi`chdama, riprisietmam
pcr `m hurvm virai, i` vietd`macr ietrm ie zcem ai istmnd`dama y `m ivcùhdøe tiørdhm ai `cs
puetcs ai luehdcemfdietc tdieai gmstm ([Q(>),]=(>)). Isti puetc is i` qui hcrrispceai m`
räbdfie pirfmeieti, ie i` hum` i` sdstifm fcvd`dzm ue hmuam` ]Q(>).
88 ai =7;
îsdstiehdm ai` sdstifm

[uetcs ai luehdcemfdietc ie
i` mrrmequi ai` >¿ vietd`macr
=;;
H
D
Q
Í
Q
X
I
[
E Q(>)
Ø
D
X
I
^ Hurvm ai > vietd`macris
[
I
A
I
O
M
Q
[
E Q(=)
I
H
^
C
[
C
C HMYAM@
]=(>) ]Q(=) ]Q(>)
_cem ai deistmn
deistmnd`dam
d`damaa aurmeti
aurmeti i` mrrme ui.
Ie `ms hurvms sdbudietis, aceai si riprisietm `m ivcùhdøe ai `cs puetcs ai luehdcemfdietc,

pcaifcs adstdebudr ue lieøfiec qui si amrí hce tcam siburdama, y is qui ie i` fcfietc
qui i` sibueac vietd`macr mrrmehm, tdiei uem adliriehdm ai prisdøe ai pmrtdam aislmvcrmnì
ai vm`cr [Q(=) qui prcvchmrí ie `cs fcfietc dedhdmìs uem rihdrhu`mhdøe ai mdri ai` prdfir
vietd`macr, pcr `c qui `m prisdøe [ Q(=) tieairí m adsfdeudr gmstm qui i` lieøfiec ai
rihdrhu`mhdøe hisi. Aipieadieac ai` tdpc ai deistmnd`dama ai `m hurvm, puiai qui gmym uem
rihdrhu`mhdøe detirfdtietifieti, ai lcrfm pu`smtcrdm. M pmrtdr ai` fcfietc qui ldem`dzm `m
rihdrhu`mhdøe hcfiezmrí m dehrifietmrsi `m prisdøe gmstm i` fcfietc ie qui `ìbui m`
räbdfie pirfmeieti.
=;;% =;;%
[Q(> [Q(>
[Q(= [Q(=
C
Qiørdhm C
îm`
C HMYAM@ C HMYAM@
]=(>) ]=(>)
_cem ai deistmnd`dama _cem ai deistmnd`dama

aurmeti i` mrrmequi. aurmeti i` mrrmequi.
81 ai =7;
Mrrmequi ai ue vietd`macr
I` luehdcemfdietc ai ue vietd`macr ie ncfnic aini ai ivdtmrsi. Ye vietd`macr trmnmom ie

ncfnic sd i` hmuam` vcùfätrdhc rim` istí pcr ainmoc ai` ‐Hmuam` ai ncfnic‖. Aurmeti
isti luehdcemfdietc ie räbdfie deistmnì, puiaie mpmrihir m`tms hmrbms adeífdhms ie `cs
í`mnis, msæ hcfc ue mufietc ai `cs edviìs ai vdnrmhdøe ie i` vietd`macr.
Aurmeti i` mrrmequi, ue
vietd`macr mxdm` trmnmomrí
]ncfnic
ie ncfnic aurmeti ue
m
[ pirdcac hcrtc, sde
[ ifnmrbc isti pirdcac ai`
ncfnic mufietm
sdbedldhmetifieti sd gm
] Zf¸/sV ai mhiìrmrsi uem fmsm
brmeai ai mdri, hce uem
deirhdm dfpcrtmeti, scnri
tcac humeac si tdiei ue hdrhudtc fuy risdstieti.
Ie i` hmsc ai istuadc hcesdairmac, si cnsirvm qui gmstm qui ec trmeshurri ue tdifpc ai
mprcxdfmamfieti
mprcxdfmamfi eti 8; sibueacs, i` vietd`macr ec smì ai` ncfnic. Gmstm ietcehis, i` hmuam`
qui fuivi i` vietd`macr ec si hcrrispceai hce i` tiørdhc qui ainiræm amr i` vietd`macr m `m
vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe hcrrispceadieti aindac, ietri ctrms hcsms, m qui si prcauhi uem
adliriehdm ietri `m prisdøe ai` sdstifm y `m ai vietd`macr, qui sirí `m qui mhiìrmrí `m fmsm
ai` mdri m trmväs ai` hdrhudtc.
[ vietd`macr
e
]
V
f
p V
s
r
Z /
¸
e f
/
V Z
]
m [ ncfnic
[
Z
[
t ZsV
Hcfc hcesihuiehdm, ie i` mrrmequi, hum`qudir prctihhdøe ai` vietd`macr qui puiam istmr
mlihtmam pcr isti lieøfiec ainirí sir aishceihtmac, m` fiecs gmstm qui si tirfdei i`
mrrmequi, aceai pmsmrí ai` räbdfie trmesdtcrdc m` räbdfie pirfmeieti. [rdehdpm`fieti si
viríe mlihtmacs hum`qudir sdstifm ai aitihhdøe ai vdnrmhdceis, msæ hcfc `cs sdstifms
metdncfnic, qui sce deadhmacs pmrm prctibir i` vietd`macr ym ie räbdfie pirfmeieti.
89 ai =7;
Hcfc si puiai vir ie `m ldburm sdbudieti, ie i` ioifp`c qui istmfcs trmtmeac, humeac i`
vietd`macr `ìbm m su vi`chdama ai luehdcemfdietc, i` hmuam` ai mdri hcfdiezm m istmnd`dzmr.
I` vietd`macr ai` ioifp`c is ue vietd`macr mxdm` _\E =->9-9;;/< ai >9;; ff ai adífitrc
y 9;;jR ai pctiehdm destm`mam, pcr `c qui `cs risu`tmacs ecs sdrvie pirlihtmfieti pmrm
smhmr hcehùsdceis mp`dhmnìs m `cs vietd`macris prdehdpmìs ai fdems.
Yem viz qui pmsm `m lmsi ai luehdcemfdietc deistmnì, is aihdr i` ncfnic, i` vietd`macr
hcfdiezm m tieir ym fís prisdøe adspcednì, ym qui gm mhiìrmac `m fmsm ai mdri, hce `c
qui i` hmuam` qui fcvd`dzm i` vietd`macr si dehrifietm hce fís hiìrdama. Is m pmrtdr ai isi
fcfietc humeac si ifpdizm m fmetieir uem prcpcrhdcem`dama ietri `m vi`chdama ai
rctmhdøe ai` rcaiti y ai` hmuam` qui istí fcvdieac.
Isti lieøfiec aishrdtc metirdcrfieti is rilirdac m ue sc`c vietd`macr ie luehdcemfdietc.
luehdcemfdietc.
Mrrmequi ai acs vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c
[mrm acs vietd`macris daäetdhcs, hce mrrmequi sdfu`tmeic, churri qui sdifpri uec ai `cs
acs vietd`macris tdiei ue ncfnic fís prc`cebmac. [mrm i` vietd`macr qui vm ie fiocris
hceadhdceis, su ncfnic ie i` mrrmequi pcaræm supirmr `cs 1; s (lrieti m 8;s ai ue sc`c
vietd`macr), pirc i` ctrc vietd`macr tdiei ue tdifpc ai ncfnic supirdcr, qui pcaræm pmsmr
ai `cs 99s, aipieadieac ai `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc. Isti ncfnic si am ie i` trmesdtcrdc
ai` vietd`macr, ie i` mrrmequi, y humeac m`hmezm i` räbdfie pirfmeieti, `cs acs
vietd`macris gme ai tieir i` fdsfc puetc ai luehdcemfdietc.
[ vietd`macr
]
f
r [ ncfnic s
/
¸
e f
/
m
[
[
Mrrmequi sdfu`tíeic?
\ietd`macr =
t ZsV
Ie i` bríldhc sdbudieti si puiai cnsirvmr musiehdm ai hmuam` gmstm pchc aispuäs ai `cs 8;
sibueacs, msæ hcfc tmfndäe ietri `cs 19 y 9; sibueacs. I` fctdvc is qui i` sdstifm ai
fiadhdøe ai hmuam` ifpìmac ec fiaæm vm`cris eibmtdvcs ai hmuam`, is aihdr, i` prdfir
vietd`macr istmnm prcvchmeac ue rihdrhu`mhdøe ai mdri, qui hisø mprcxdfmamfieti humeac
m`hmezm `ms 29; rpf ai` sibueac vietd`macr.
8< ai =7;
[ vietd`macr
]
V
f V
s
/
¸
r
Z [ ncfnic f
Z
e
/
V
m
[
Z
[
Mrrmequi sdfu`tíeic?
\ietd`macr >
t ZsV
Ie i` hmsc ai qui i` sibueac vietd`macr si pcebm ie fmrhgm ym hce i` prdfirc luehdcemeac,

ästi tiearí ue mrrmequi ie picris hceadhdceis, prc`cebíeacsi i` ncfnic dehùsc gmstm 2>s.
[ vietd`macr
e

V ]
f
r s
/
Z ¸
e [ ncfnic f
/
V
m
[
Z
[
Mrrmequi adlirdac?
\ietd`macr >
t ZsV
Hcfc si puiai mprihdmr `m rihdrhu`mhdøe is fís dfpcrtmeti y i` lieøfiec ai ncfnic fís

prc`cebmac. Ie fuhgcs hmscs ue vietd`macr sd ietrm ie räbdfie deistmnì, puiai churrdr,
hcfc is ndie hcechdac qui ec rihupiri y si fmetiebm ie ncfnic. Ec is i` hmsc ai
ioifp`c qui istmfcs fmeiomeac, pirc sd mhcp`ísifcs m istcs acs vietd`macris ctrcs acs
fís trmnmomeac ie pmrmì`c, si puiai aiauhdr hce lmhd`dama, qui i` lieøfiec si mbuadzmrí,
fís mÿe sd `cs puetcs ai luehdcemfdietc ie räbdfie pirfmeieti sce adstdetcs. I` prcnìfm
ym ec siræm sc`mfieti ie i` mrrmequi, sdec qui ie i` luehdcemfdietc ecrfm`, m fiadam qui
`cs vietd`macris vmyme moustmeac su räbdfie sibÿe `ms eihisdamais ai mdri ie i` tÿei`,
istmríe brme pmrti ai` tdifpc ie i` trmesdtcrdc.
82 ai =7;
Xd `ms hceadhdceis ai mrrmequi ec sce hcetrc`mams, puiai qui i` sibueac vietd`macr ec

sm`bm ai` ncfnic. Isti meí`dsds aishrdtc metirdcrfieti si rildiri m acs vietd`macris
sdfd`mris trmnmomeac ie pmrmì`c, ai hceadhdceis mircadeífdhms daäetdhms y trmnmomeac m `m
fdsfm vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe.
Xcùhdceis macptmams pmrm i` ncfnic
Qiedieac ie huietm `cs hcehiptcs metirdcris, hmni piesmr qui i` trmnmoc ie pmrmì`c ai > c
fís vietd`macris is ue tifm qui gmy qui istuadmr fuy aitiedamfieti y ie hceouetc hce i`
sufdedstrmacr ai iqudpcs pmrm pcair bmrmetdzmr qui `cs vietd`macris ec trmnmoie ie räbdfie
deistmnì.
Xi gm vdstc qui i` lieøfiec ai ncfnic puiai mpmrihir ie acs sdtumhdceis
 Ie i` mrrmequi
 Aurmeti i` luehdcemfdietc.
@cs vietd`macris pmrm ivdtmr su aitirdcrc aindac m` trmnmoc ie räbdfie deistmnì, istíe
actmacs ai uem sceam [itirfmee, qui ie hceouetc hce ue priscstmtc maihumac lcrfme i`
sdstifm metdncfnic.
hcesdbudieti pmrc ai`Xd vietd`macr.
ietrm ie ncfnic i` vietd`macr,
Istm prctihhdøe is istm prctihhdøe
eihismrdm `c aitihtmrí
scnritcac humeachcepcr
i`
fctdvcs ixtrmcrademrdcs `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc si dehrifietm pcr iehdfm ai `cs vm`cris
ai adsiýc ivdtmeac `m rcturm ai `cs í`mnis. Istm prctihhdøe sirvdrí m` vietd`macr ym ie
luehdcemfdietc y ie räbdfie pirfmeieti
[mrm i` mrrmequi ai vmrdcs vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c, fdietrms uec ym istí ie cpirmhdøe,

pcaifcs ivdtmr `m deistmnd`dama nmomeac `m vi`chdama ai` vietd`macr qui ym istä
luehdcemeac m uem vi`chdama qui aiecfdemrifcs ai mhcp`mfdietc y si mrrmehmríe i` ristc
ai vietd`macris gmstm `m fdsfm vi`chdama. M hcetdeumhdøe si dedhdmrí ue dehrifietc
sdfu`tíeic ai `m vi`chdama gmstm qui `ìbuie tcacs `cs vietd`macris m `m hmpmhdama
riquirdam.
Hcfc is ivdaieti, si gm ai adspceir ai vmrdmacris ai lrihuiehdm pmrm pcair rim`dzmr isti

tdpc ai mrrmequi. [cr tmetc, tmfndäe `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms mircadeífdhms ai `cs iqudpcs ie
ri`mhdøe hce `m risdstiehdm ai `m fdem, puiaie hceadhdcemr `m iìhhdøe ai` tdpc ai mrrmequi
y hcetrc` ai uem destm`mhdøe.
I` hcechdfdietc ai` lieøfiec ai ncfnic, sd is ndie ietieadac, fdedfdzm sus

hcesihuiehdms eibmtdvms. I` hcechdfdietc ai` trmesdtcrdc ai` mrrmequi c ai` hmfndc ai
räbdfie ai vietd`macris ie pmrmì`c, ivdtm prcnìfms ‐m pcstirdcrd‖ ie i` hceouetc ai`
sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe, bmrmetdzmeac i` hcrrihtc luehdcemfdietc ai` fdsfc.
9.8 Qrmnmoc ie hceouetc ai vietd`macr y ai` tdrc emturm`

9.8
@m vietd`mhdøe pcr `m mhhdøe hceouetm ai` vietd`macr y ai` tdrc emturm` is sifiometi m `m
vietd`mhdøe
riprisietm `maivietd`mhdøe
`m fdem fiadmeti
emturm`. acs vietd`macris destm`macs ie sirdi, ai `cs humìs uec
87 ai =7;
Isti prcnìfm si risui`vi bríldhmfieti pcr i` prchiadfdietc ym hcechdac: `m adliriehdm

hcesdsti ie qui, ie vdstm ai `m hcestmehdm ai` vm`cr ai `m vietd`mhdøe emturm`, ie `m
hcestruhhdøe ai `m hmrmhtiræstdhm tctm`dzmam, `m craiemam ai `m hmrmhtiræstdhm ai `m
vietd`mhdøe emturm` si mbribm m `m craiemam ai `m hmrmhtiræstdhm ai` vietd`macr, ie lcrfm ai`
sibfietc hcestmeti. Emturm`fieti, sd `m adrihhdøe ai `m vietd`mhdøe emturm` is devirsm m `m
adrihhdøe ai `m aiprisdøe ai` vietd`macr (tdrc emturm` aislmvcrmnì), ietcehis, `m vietd`mhdøe
emturm` si ristm ai `m aiprisdøe ai` vietd`macr.
îsdstiehdm
ai` sdstifm
Hurvm
trmnmoc îsdstiehdm
hceouetc M ai` sdstifm
M H
D
H
D Q
Q
Í [Q Í
Q
X
Q
X I
I Qdrc E Hurvm ai =
E
Ø
[= Emturm` Ø
D
X [= vietd`macr
D
X
I
I
^
Qdrc
[
^
[ I Emturm`
I
A
Hurvm ai = A
I
[Q
O
I
O vietd`macr M
M
Q
Q
E Hurvm
E I
I
H
H
^
trmnmoc
^
C [\
C
[ hceouetc [\
[
C
C
C HMYAM@
C HMYAM@ ]Q ]=
]= ]Q
Qdrc Emturm` lmvcrmnì Qdrc Emturm` aislmvcrmnì
Isti lieøfiec is dfpcrtmeti tieir`c ie huietm, ym qui vietd`macris qui tiebme ue

adfiesdcemfdietc fuy moustmac sde hcesdairmr i` tdrc emturm`, sd ästi is aislmvcrmnì,
puiai gmhir trmnmomr m` vietd`macr ie räbdfie deistmnì. Is fuy lrihuieti ie fdems qui
tdieie vietd`macris vdiocs ie `ms qui `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc is mgcrm fís risdstieti y qui
ie virmec `cs vietd`macris trmnmome ie ncfnic aurmeti i` aæm.
Xd vifcs `cs bríldhcs metirdcris, ie istm ÿ`tdfm sdtumhdøe i` vietd`macr pmsm ai trmnmomr ie
([=,]=) m ([\,]Q) qui ym istí príhtdhmfieti ie ncfnic.
[cr tmetc, sd tieifcs ue tdrc emturm` lmvcrmnì, i` vietd`macr drí fís aismgcbmac, pirc ie
hmfndc, sd i` tdrc emturm` trmnmom ie hcetrm, sd ästi is dfpcrtmeti c i` vietd`macr ym istmnm
hirhmec m` ncfnic, ietcehis i` vietd`macr ldem`fieti trmnmomrí ie räbdfie deistmnì.
9.1 îbu`mhdøe ai` rcaiti ai` vietd`macr

9.1
Hce `m ribu`mhdøe ai `cs í`mnis si hcesdbui hmfndmr ai hurvm hmrmhtiræstdhm aietrc ai` gmz
pcr i` qui istí aildedac
aildedac i` vietd`macr. Ixdstie
Ixdstie adlirietis tdpcs aaii ribu`mhdøe ai íí`mnis
`mnis ai ue
vietd`macr mxdm`?
Ie `æeims bieirmìs pcaifcs adstdebudr?
 îbu`mhdøe hce vietd`macr ie fmrhgm

 îbu`mhdøe m vietd`macr pmrmac
84 ai =7;
@m ribu`mhdøe hce i` vietd`macr ie fmrhgm is ue sdstifm qui si utd`dzm pchms vihis

aindac prdehdpm`fieti tmetc m su hcsti ai maqudsdhdøe hcfc m` hcsti ai fmetiedfdietc.
[irfdti uem ribu`mhdøe fuy ldem,

y si puiai moustmr i` hmuam` ai Xuspiesdce
mdri m `ms eihisdamais ai hmam ai` í`mni
í`mni
fcfietc hce i` vietd`macr ie
fmrhgm. Istc si hcesibudræm hce
hunc
vmrdmacris ai lrihuiehdm, pirc sd
tieifcs ue fctcr ai fiadm
tiesdøe, pmrm i` hum`, hcesibudr
ue vmrdmacr is mhtum`fieti tmrim Iebrmsmacr
dfpcsdnì, istm siræm `m scùhdøe.
Ioi ai
mhcp`mfdietc
Hce isti sdstifm, `cs mrrmequi si
rim`dzme hce i` íebu`c fæedfc Adshc
ai ribu`mhdøe, msæ fdedfdzmfcs
i` pmr ai mrrmequi, lmhd`dtmeac `m
puistm ie fmrhgm
fmrhgm ai` iqudpc.
Ivdaietifieti, si eihisdtm ue
mrfmrdc ai hcetrc` pmrm su
fmeioc. Gcy aæm, hce i` usc ai
`cs vmrdmacris ai lrihuiehdm istí
fís ie aisusc, pirc sd si
eihisdtm uem vmrdmhdøe ai hmuam`
ie fmrhgm y ec si puiaie utd`dzmr istcs aindac m m`buem `dfdtmhdøe, isti sdstifm is `m fiocr
scùhdøe.
@m ribu`mhdøe m vietd`macr pmrmac, prdehdpm`fieti is ai acs tdpcs, deadvdaum` c hietrm`?
Ie `m ribu`mhdøe
deadvdaum` ai rcaiti,
istm cpirmhdøe si rim`dzm M`mni
í`mni m í`mni. Xi prchiai
m ml`comr tcacs `cs
tcred``cs ai ldomhdøe
gmstm qui pirfdtm Hunc
hmfndmr i` íebu`c ai
pcsdhdøe ai trmnmoc. [mrm
i``c si tiearí hcfc
Qc
Qcre
red`
d``c
`css ai ld mh
mhdø
døee
riliriehdm `m ishm`m ai
íebu`cs ai hmam í`mni.
îqudiri ue tdifpc
Ishm`m
dfpcrtmeti pmrm `m
ribu`mhdøe
brme eÿfirc aindac m`
ai tcred``cs
M`mni
m fmeiomr.
1; ai =7;
@m ribu`mhdøe hietrm` pirfdti i` mousti ai tcacs `cs í`mnis sdfu`tíeimfieti. Hce `m myuam

ai ue ``mvi ai ribu`mhdøe y tiedieac ai riliriehdm ue í`mni buæm, qui tdiei ishm`m ai
íebu`cs, si ribu`me tcacs.
Ishm`m ai riliriehdm
Qcred``c ai ribu`mhdøe
Ishctd``m ai ribu`mhdøe
í`mnis
@m vietmom ai isti sdstifm is prdehdpm`fieti `m rmpdaiz ai ribu`mhdøe. Istm is dfpcrtmeti sd

gmy qui ribu`mr lrihuietifieti y ec si adspcei ai fuhgc tdifpc, aindac m ietri ctrms
hcsms ai aiomr sde vietd`mhdøe `m fdem.
Qdiei, ie hmfndc, `m aisvietmom ai `m päradam ai prihdsdøe sd ec si gmhi i` maihumac

fmetiedfdietc, ym qui si mhufu`m suhdiama y ietcrpihi `m trmesfdsdøe ai `cs iebrmemois
qui `ìvm i` sdstifm.
1= ai =7;
< FMEQIEDFDIEQC AI @CX \IEQD@MACÎX

<.= Detrcauhhdøe m` fmetiedfdietc
<.=
@cs vietd`macris, m pismr ai `m rcnustiz y ldmnd`dama qui ìs hmrmhtirdzm, si scfitie

lrihuietifieti m brmeais isluirzcs ‘ tmfndäe deispirmacs. @cs vietd`macris ainie sir
rivdsmacs y fmetiedacs ribu`mrfieti pcr pirscem` ispihdm`dzmac hum`dldhmac pmrm ivdtmr
amýcs y mhhdaietis. Ispihdm`fieti rcamfdietcs ailihtucscs y vdnrmhdceis ixhisdvms
puiaie crdbdemr rcturms
rcturms y amýcs brmv
brmvis
is ie hcesi
hcesihuiehdm.
huiehdm.
M pismr ai `cs m`tcs istíeamris ie siburdama ai `cs rcamfdietcs y su, gmstm hdirtc puetc,
`mrbuæsdfm vdam ÿtd`, lm``m tcac rcamfdietc `ìbmac ue fcfietc. Xi aini supirvdsmr `m
destm`mhdøe ribu`mrfieti, ie luehdøe ai `ms hceadhdceis ai trmnmoc amams, ym qui amýcs
fæedfcs, p. io. ie `ms væms ai rcamaurm, si mbrmvme rípdamfieti. ^camfdietcs istrcpimacs
puiaie prcvchmr
prcvchmr rcturms ai` ioi y aistrczc tctm`.
@ms vdnrmhdceis sce ue ieifdbc ai tcam fíqudem rctmtdvm, ym qui si puiaie prisietmr
rcturms pcr vdnrmhdøe adlæhd`fieti priaihdnìs. @m fiocr prctihhdøe hcesdsti ie fdedfdzmr
`m ieirbæm
puiaie ai vdnrmhdøe.
crdbdemr Ai línrdhm
aisiqud`dnrdcs vdiei iàindacs,
pi`dbrcscs vietd`macr hcectrms
ietri uem m`tm hm`dama
rmzceis, ie vdnrmhdøe. Xi
m mbmrrctmfdietcs,
aisbmsti, rcamfdietcs aitirdcrmacs y scnri-tifpirmturms. Hceouetmfieti hce `m rivdsdøe
ai hcodeitis si aini, pcr tmetc, rivdsmr i` lmhtcr ai vdnrmhdøe ribu`mrfieti.
[rivdmfieti m `cs trmnmocs ie i` vietd`macr si tdiei qui qudtmr `m hceixdøe i`ähtrdhm. Xi

aini ivdtmr uem puistm ie fmrhgm devcùetmrdm siým`meac y n`cquimeac i` adspcsdtdvc
i`ähtrdhc ai hceixdceis. I` rctcr si tdiei qui ritieir hce fiadcs fihíedhcs.
@m lrihuiehdm ai` fmetiedfdietc aipieai isiehdm`fieti ai` fcac ai luehdcemfdietc, ai

`ms hceadhdceis mfndietmìs y ai `m adspcednd`dama riquirdam. I` usumrdc aini aitirfdemr `m
fdsfm hceouetmfieti hce `m hcehiphdøe b`cnm` ai` iqudpc, mtiedäeacsi m `ms
ispihdldhmhdceis amams pcr i` lmnrdhmeti ai` iqudpc. Xi aini hcetmr hce pdizms ai ripuistc
suldhdietis.
Qcacs `cs rcaitis ai `cs vietd`macris vdieie ndie iqud`dnrmacs ai línrdhm. Aindac m` pc`vc,
rczmfdietcs c m`fmhiemois si puiai prisietmr ue aisiqud`dnrmac qui crdbdei uem fmrhgm
ec sumvi c amýcs ie `cs hcodeitis.
Muequi i` fmetiedfdietc qui eihisdtm ue fctcr ie omu`m ai mrad``m is fæedfc, si aini

pristmr uem mtiehdøe pirdøadhm m `c sdbudieti pmrm, ai istm lcrfm, fmetieir ue m`tc
rieadfdietc ai cpirmhdøe.
 Fuhgcs fctcris piquiýcs si ishcbie hce rcamfdietcs si``macs y n`deamacs

hcfc istíeamr. Humeac `cs rcamfdietcs ainme sir iebrmsmacs, aini gmhirsi
ai mhuirac hce `ms destruhhdceis ai` lmnrdhmeti y sustdtudacs sdifpri hce `cs
hcfpceietis maihumacs.
 Ye nuie m`deimfdietc ai` ioi ai` fctcr hce `m hmrbm riauhi `ms päradams ie
luehdcemfdietc, i` aisbmsti ai `cs rcamfdietcs, rudac y vdnrmhdøe.
1> ai =7;
 @m `dfpdizm ai` hceouetc is dfpcrtmeti pmrm msiburmr qui i` hm`cr bieirmac

aietrc ai` fctcr si i`dfdem hce ilihtdvdama. @cs vietd`macris ai mafdsdøe y
`ms supirldhdis ai` mrfmzøe ainiræme fmetieirsi sde suhdiama. Qmfndäe
msiburmrsi ai qui i` mdri qui hdrhu`m scnri i` fctcr ec iehuietrm
dfpiadfietcs, ispihdm`fieti `m pmrti hirhmem m` vietd`macr. Ye dehrifietc
ie `m tifpirmturm ai` ncndemac ai` istmtcr ai = cH puiai prcauhdr ue
dehrifietc ai m` fiecs i` ;.9% scnri `ms päradams D>^ , maifís ai mhcrtmr
`m vdam ai` mds`mfdietc ai` fctcr.
<.> Qrmnmocs ai fmetiedfdietc

<.>
@m lrihuiehdm ai` fmetiedfdietc aipieai isiehdm`fieti ai` fcac ai luehdcemfdietc, ai

`ms hceadhdceis mfndietmìs y ai `m adspcednd`dama riquirdam. I` usumrdc aini aitirfdemr `m
fdsfm hceouetmfieti hce `m hcehiphdøe b`cnm` ai` iqudpc, mtiedäeacsi m `ms
ispihdldhmhdceis amams pcr i` lmnrdhmeti.
Qcacs `cs rctcris ai `cs vietd`macris vdieie isfirmamfieti iqud`dnrmacs ai línrdhm.

Aindac m` pc`vc,
crdbdei uem fmrhgmrczmfdietcs c m`fmhiemois
ec sumvi c amýcs si puiai
ie `cs hcodeitis. Xi prisietmr
aini vi`mr,uepcraisiqud`dnrmac qui
hcesdbudieti, pcr
ue sirvdhdc `dnri ai smhuadams.
I` fmetiedfdietc aini sir ioihutmac pcr pirscem` hum`dldhmac usmeac `ms girrmfdietms y
iqudpmfdietcs mprcpdmacs pmrm tm` lde. Xi gm ai istmnìhir uem `dstm ai despihhdceis ai
fmetiedfdietc y adhgms mhhdceis ainie sir ribdstrmams ie ue mrhgdvc ai gdstørdhcs. Humeac
i` fiadc is ispihdm`fieti desmùnri, is eihismrdm uem riauhhdøe ai `cs detirvm`cs.
@ms supirldhdis detirems y ixtirems ainie sir `dfpdmams hce mbum m nmom prisdøe y madtdvcs
ec mnrmsdvcs. Xi aini ivdtmr hum`qudir mp`dhmhdøe adrihtm ai mbum gmhdm i` fctcr.
Xi gm ai virdldhmr qui tcacs `cs iìfietcs ai ldomhdøe istäe ndie msiburmacs. Mqui``cs
iìfietcs qui istäe pdetmacs c ndie tiebme adspcsdtdvcs ai n`cquic ai siburdama hcfc
mrmeai`ms Brcwir ec eihisdtme sir virdldhmacs sd fiadmeti uem despihhdøe vdsum` istm
pmrihi smtdslmhtcrdm. Hum`qudir iìfietc ai n`cquic qui si gmym amýmac aurmeti i`
fmetiedfdietc gm ai sir rifp`mzmac. M mqui``cs iìfietcs qui ec istäe pdetmacs c tiebme
iìfietcs ai n`cquic si ìs gm ai mp`dhmr i` 49% ai` pmr ai mprditi rihcfieamac ie su aæm
aurmeti i` prchisc ai destm`mhdøe. Xd tdiei m`buem auam scnri i` pmr ai mprditi eihismrdc
pmrm ue iìfietc
iìfietc ai ldomhdøe, si aaini
ini hcetmhtmr hce
hce i` sirvdhdc tähedhc mprcpdmac.
Hcfc ym si gm hcfietmac, `cs rcamfdietcs ai` fctcr gme ai sir iebrmsmacs ie hmsc ai
eihisdama hcelcrfi m `ms ispihdldhmhdceis ai` lmnrdhmeti, tmetc pmrm i` tdpc ai brmsm m
utd`dzmr hcfc pmrm `cs pirdcacs ai iebrmsi eihismrdcs. Xi aini ivdtmr hum`qudir tdpc ai
suhdiama tmetc ie i` ixtirdcr ai `cs iebrmsmacris hcfc ie `m pdstc`m ai mp`dhmhdøe ai brmsm.
@c `øbdhc is qui si eihisdti uem prisdøe ìvi ie i` iebrmsmacr pmrm detrcauhdr `m brmsm, ie
hmsc hcetrmrdc si gm ai nushmr i` fctdvc ai `m cnstruhhdøe. Bieirm`fieti `cs iebrmsmacris
si iehuietrme scnri `m hmrhmsm ie i` `mac aceai si iehuietrme `ms hmoms ai ncrems.
18 ai =7;
<.>.= Hcetrc` ai vdnrmhdceis

<.>.=
\dnrmhdceis iìvmams sce sdifpri ue sæetcfm ai pi`dbrc. I` fiocr fcac ai aildedr

`ms vmrdmhdceis amams ie `m sumvdama ai fmrhgm is `m fiadhdøe ai `ms vdnrmhdceis
fihíedhms ie `cs rcamfdietcs. @m fmeirm fís siburm ai aildedr istms vmrdmhdceis is
hcfpmrmeac `cs vm`cris fiadacs aurmeti `mrbcs piræcacs ai tdifpc. Xd `cs vm`cris
vmræme ectmnìfieti si ainie devistdbmr `ms hmusms pcsdnìs, hcfc pcr ioifp`c
suhdiama ie i` rctcr. Amac i` hmsc si aini rim`dzmr uem `dfpdizm y riiqud`dnrmac.
Xm`vc ispihdldhmhdøe hcetrmrdm aildedam pcr i` h`dieti, i` edvi` ai vdnrmhdceis

fíxdfc ie luehdcemfdietc de-sdtu viearí aildedac pcr `cs vm`cris ispihdldhmacs ie
`m ecrfm MFHM Xtmeamra >;1-;9 Nm`mehi ]um`dty mea \dnrmtdce @ivi`s lcr Lmes.
Ie i``m si h`msdldhme `cs
` cs vietd`macris y si ispihdldhme `cs edviìs ai vdnrmhdøe.
Qmn`m 1.= -Lme mpp`dhmtdce hmtibcrdis lcr nm`mehi mea vdnrmtdce

Nm`mehi ]um`dty mea \dnrmtdce @ivi`s lcr Lmes.
MFHM Xtmeamra >;1-;9 Nm`mehi
A^D\I^ [CRI^ JR LME M[[@DHMQDCE
M[[@DHMQDCE IWMF[@IX
(G[) @DFDQX HMQIBC^T, N\
Nmbgcusi, shrunnir,
DEAYXQ^DM@ FDEI, hceviydeb, >47 (1;;) N\-8
[^CHIXX & [CRI^ ncdìrs, hcfnustdce
BIEI^MQDCE,, IQH.
BIEI^MQDCE mdr, pc`ùtdce hcetrc`, 5 >47 (1;;) N\-1
wdea tueei`s
Xunwmy ifirbiehy 29 (=;;) N\-8

vietd`mtdce, tueei`
lmes, bmrmbi
Q^MEXDQ / QYEI@ vietd`mtdce 5 29 (=;;) N\-1
Queei` Oit lmes M@@

M@ @ N\-1
Hmtibcræm ai` Ldomhdøe ræbdam Ldomhdøe lìxdnì

Xdtumhdøe \ietd`macr (ff/s) (ff/s)
N\-= =9.> =4.=
N\-> =>.2 =4.=
M`mrfm N\-8 =;.> =<.9
N\-1 <.1 =;.>
=;.>
N\-9 9.2 2.<
N\-= ECQM ECQM
N\-> ECQM ECQM
[mrmam N\-8 =>.2 =2.7
N\-1 =;.> =9.>
N\-9 2.< =;.>
ECQM? @cs vm`cris ai pmrmam pmrm vietd`macris ai hmtibcræm N\-= y N\-> ainie
sir istmnìhdacs ai mhuirac m ribdstrcs gdstørdhcs.
11 ai =7;
Hcfc ioifp`c, ai ue vietd`macr ai fdem ai 1;;jR, qui tdiei uem meh`moi lìxdnì,
sdìetn`chjs, cntiearifcs ai `m tmn`ms metirdcris ym qui `m pctiehdm is fmycr qui
>47 jR, (1;;5>74), qui i` vietd`macr istmrí h`msdldhmac hcfc N\-1.
[uistc qui i` mpcyc is lìxdnì, ec ræbdac, `cs vm`cris ai m`mrfm y pmrmam siríe
=;.>ff/s y =9.>ff/s rispihtdvmfieti
r ispihtdvmfieti..
Ec ainifcs c`vdamr qui istcs vm`cris sce `cs fiadacs ie hmam uec ai `cs
rcamfdietcs ai` fctcr. Ie edebÿe fcfietc istms riliriehdms sce ví`dams pmrm
fiadhdceis ie hmrhmsms ai vietd`macr.
<.>.> Hcetrc` ai ^camfdietcs
<.>.>
Xi aini rim`dzmr ue hcetrc` ai hmam uec ai `cs rcamfdietcs hce ribu`mrdama. [mrm
ivdtmr mviræms c pmrmams metis ai tdifpc, ec ainie pieitrmr suhdiama, huirpcs
ixtrmýcs ed gufiama.
Aurmeti i` riùnrdldhmac, hmfndc ai` ùnrdhmeti y hmfndc ai `cs hcodeitis si aini

cnrmr hce uem pu`hrdtua hcehdiezuam.
îsu`tm m`tmfieti nieildhdcsc ue sdstifm ai hcetrc` ai istmac ai `cs hcodeitis

fiadmeti fiadhdøe iìhtrøedhm ai dfpu`scs ai hgcqui c ai vdnrmhdceis (p. io.,
fätcac ai fiadhdøe X[F). @m fiadhdøe gm ai gmhirsi adrihtmfieti scnri `cs
rcamfdietcs. Fís ai` 4; 4;%% ai `cs lm lm``cs
``cs fihíedhc
fihíedhcss si meuehdme
meuehdme fiadmeti
fiadmeti ue
mufietc ai `m vdnrmhdøe c ai `cs edviìs ai ddfpu`scs
fpu`scs ai hgcqui. Hce istcs sdstifms
cntiearifcs ue mvdsc tifprmec ie hmsc ai ùnrdhmhdøe pcnri ai` rcamfdietc, dedhdc
ai` amýc, c ai rcamfdietc amýmac, msæ hcfc rim`dzmrí ue fmetiedfdietc ai mìrtm
ie hmsc ai ue dehrifietc sdbedldhmtdvc ai `m sivirdama ai `m vdnrmhdøe. Ainirí
cnsirvmr `ms deadhmhdceis ispihdmìs ai` lmnrdhmeti ai` mpmrmtc ai fiadhdøe. Ec sø`c
`cs vm`cris ribdstrmacs ie i` fcfietc sce ai riìvmehdm, sdec fmycrfieti i`
hcetrmstmac ai `cs amtcs m `c `mrbc ai ue piræcac ai tdifpc fís `mrbc, puis i``c is
i` fiocr rihursc pmrm rihcechir vmrdmhdceis ie hcodeitis. I` fätcac X[F hceauhdrí
fuy rmrmfieti m irrcr. [mrtdhu`mrfieti ie fíqudems ai ispihdm` dfpcrtmehdm si
aini cnsirvmr tmfndäe `m lcrfmhdøe ai rudacs y `m tifpirmturm. \m`cris ie mufietc
prceuehdmac sce uem siým` ai m`mrfm m tcfmr ie sirdc. Isti sdstifm ai trmnmoc is
rim`fieti ue sdstifm ai fmetiedfdietc priadhtdvc.
@cs p`mzcs pmrm ùnrdldhmac sce ví`dacs pmrm hcodeitis ai fíqudems hce
ifp`mzmfdietc ldoc, pmrm uem hmrbm ecrfm` y pmrm brmsms `ætdhms risdstietis m`
ievioihdfdietc, humeac `m tifpirmturm fiadam ie i` med``c ixtirdcr is fiecr m +
2;»H. [mrm tifpirmturms ai hcodeitis fmycris, i` p`mzc pmrm ùnrdldhmac is delirdcr.
Xi aini ie tcac fcfietc, tieir ie huietm `ms rihcfieamhdceis ai hmam
sufdedstrmacr ie luehdøe ai` mfndieti ai trmnmoc. Msdfdsfc ec si puiai
scnripmsmr i` vm`cr fíxdfc tcìrmnì ai trmnmoc ai `m brmsm.
Ec si puiai scnripmsmr i` vm`cr fíxdfc tcìrmnì ai trmnmoc ai `m brmsm. Xi gm ai

iebrmsmr tm` y hcfc deadhm i` lmnrdhmeti.
19 ai =7;
Ie `c sunsdbudieti aipieairí `m vdam ÿtd` ai `cs hcodeitis ai `ms hceadhdceis ai

luehdcemfdietc y ai `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai` ùbmr ai mp`dhmhdøe. îhcfieamfcs ue
hcetrc` ribu`mr ai `cs hcodeitis. @m lrihuiehdm si hcrrispceairí hce `m dfpcrtmehdm
ai` iqudpc.
<.>.8 Despihhdøe ai` rctcr
<.>.8
Xd is prcnmnì qui i` rctcr ai` vietd`macr sulrm aisbmsti aindac m mnrmsdøe c

hcrrcsdøe c hcetmfdemhdøe, si aini rim`dzmr ribu`mrfieti, pcr rmzceis ai siburdama,
uem despihhdøe, `dfpdizm y riiqud`dnrmac: m` fiecs uem viz pcr mýc. Xi rihcfdieam
tieir ue sibueac rctcr aistdemac m `cs trmnmocs ai rimhceadhdcemfdietc m`tiremacs.
Aispuäs ai hum`qudir aisfcetmoi ai í`mnis, ai` riifp`mzc ai` hunc, c ai hum`qudir

mhhdøe scnri i` rcaiti, is ie pmrti eihismrdc prchiair m ue riiqud`dnrdc ai ästi
sibÿe i` brmac ai iqud`dnrmac ispihdldhmac pcr _DQ^CE? (B <.8 c B >.9).
Yem viz rcaiti ridestm`mac, uem euivm fiadam ai `ms vdnrmhdceis aini sir gihgm. Xd
`ms vdnrmhdceis sdbuie sdieac m`tms, is eihismrdc ietrmr ie hcetmhtc hce i` sirvdhdc
aispuäs ai `m vietm ai` lmnrdhmeti.

<.>.1 Ifp`mzmfdietc. îsdstiehdms ai Hmàic.
<.>.1
Ie aitirfdemams hceadhdceis
mfndietmìs puiai amrsi
hceaiesmhdøe ie `m hmom ai` fctcr.
I``c si puiai ivdtmr hce uem
hmìlmhhdøe pmrm fcfietcs ai pmrmam
c mp`dhmeac uem tiesdøe piquiým ie i`
mrrc``mfdietc ai` fctcr. Is `c qui
aiecfdemfcs risdstiehdms ai hmàic
c ‐spmhi gimtirs‖. Xi trmtm ai uems
risdstiehdms
prcpdc qui qui
fctcr, istíesuiìe
aietrc istmr
ai`
m`dfietmams pcr ailihtc m >>;\, y
qui bieirme uem pctiehdm qui
aipieairí ai` tmfmýc ai` fctcr.
Ie `m lctc ai `m p`mhm qui gmy m `m airihgm, si cnsirvm qui `m pmrm ue detirvm`c ai

vc`tmoi ai >>;->1;\ tiearifcs uem pctiehdm bieirmam pcr `ms risdstiehdms ai
hmàic ai <9-41R. [caifcs vir madhdcem`fieti qui ecs deadhm qui `ìvm acs
sceams [QH ie i` qui `m pri-m`mrfm si prcauhdrí humeac i` ncndemac ai` fctcr
m`hmehi =99¿H y qui `m m`mrfm qui prcauhdrí i` pmrc ai` fctcr churrdrí humeac `m
tifpirmturm sim ai =7;¿H.
Xi ainie mnrdr ribu`mrfieti `cs crdldhdcs pmrm purbm ai hceaiesmacs ai` fctcr, y
maifís hcfprcnmr su mpirturm.
1< ai =7;
<.>.9 Hceixdøe i`ähtrdhm

<.>.9
Is dfpcrtmrti rivdsdøe ai` mprditi ai `cs tirfdemìs ie `m hmom ai ncrems, ym qui hce
i` luehdcemfdietc pcaræme ml`comrsi y gmhir fm` hcetmhtc, `c qui pcaræm prcauhdr ue
mrhc i`ähtrdhc ie hdirtms hceadhdceis. Dfpcrtmetæsdfc is `m virdldhmhdøe ai` istmac
ai `ms tdirrms.
Is fuy dfpcrtmeti msiburmrsi ai qui i` rmadc ai hurvmturm ai `ìbmam ai `cs hmnìs
m `m hmom ai ncrems dfpdai qui pieitri mbum m trmväs ai` priesmistcpms. Mamptmr i`
priesmistcpms y su pcsdnì riauhtcr m` adífitrc ai hmnì utd`dzmac. [mrm hcesirvmr
ie `m hmom ai ncrems ai` fctcr su prctihhdøe D[ 99 crdbdem`, is deadspiesmnì
msiburmr `m istmequidama ai` priesmistcpms mpritíeac`c hcrrihtmfieti (pmrm
aismtcred``mr`c is dfprishdeadnì uem girrmfdietm). Ie i` hmsc ai qui gmym vmrdcs
priesmistcpms y ai qui ec si utd`dhie m`buecs, msiburmrsi ai qui sdbuie istmeac
hirrmacs y rimpritmr`cs pmrm qui msdfdsfc sø`c puiame sc`tmrsi ifpìmeac uem
girrmfdietm.
Gmy qui hcfprcnmr i` istmac ai `cs hmnìs ie aitm`ì ie `m hmom ai ncrems. Ivdtmr
qui gmym hmnìs sui`tcs c pi`macs qui puiame prcauhdr ue hcrtchdrhudtc.
M hcetdeumhdøe si cnsirvm uem p`mhm hmrmhtiræstdhm ai ue fctcr aceai si puiai

cnsirvmr amtcs qui sce ai dfpcrtmehdm ie i` fmetiedfdietc ai` fctcr.
[cr ue `mac pmrm `m lrihuiehdm ai ria ai euistrc sufdedstrc i`ähtrdhc, tiearifcs ue

tdpc ai hceixdøe maihumac, qui gm ai sir ie istri``m c ie trdíebu`c. [mrm hmam
cphdøe gifcs ai tieir `m tiesdøe ai trmnmoc maihumam, hce `c qui acs pmrífitrcs
h`mvis, `m tiesdøe y `m detiesdama ai hcrrdieti ai trmnmoc. Xi gm ai hcfprcnmr qui `m
tiesdøe istí ie uecs vm`cris qui ec adldirme fís ai ue =;% ai `m riquirdam y qui `m`m
detiesdama ai trmnmoc istä pcr ainmoc ai `m detiesdama ecfdem`.
Hce `m aiecfdemhdøe AI y EAI ecs rilirdfcs m` rcamfdietc ai`metirc, (A^D\I

IEA) y m` rcamfdietc trmsirc, (ECE A^D\I IEA), qui ie hmsc ai isti ioifp`c
sce rcamfdietcs daäetdhcs, tdpc <8=< H8. Hcfc pcaifcs cnsirvmr `m delcrfmhdøe
qui mpcrtm, mpmrti ai` tdpc ai rcamfdietc, is `m hmetdama ai brmsm qui gmy qui pceir
12 ai =7;
ie hmam uec, (89b) y hmam humetc tdifpc, (>4;;g), maifís ai` tdpc ai brmsm, (IXXC
YEDÎW E8).
Ie i` hmsc ai usc ai hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm, ästi aini istmr rib`mac ai tm`

fcac qui si ivdtie hmrbms deeihismrdms aindams m m`tms mhiìrmhdceis pcsdtdvms c
eibmtdvms. I``c si hufpì pcr `c bieirm` sd i` tdifpc ai mhiìrmhdøe pmrm rctcris hce
ue adífitrc gmstm =;;; ff aurm m` fiecs 8; sibueacs, pmrm adífitrcs ietri =;;;
y >;;; ff <; sibueacs y pmrm adífitrcs fmycris =>; sibueacs. Ie `m puistm ie
fmrhgm si ainie moustmr istcs vm`cris mhcrai ivcùhdceis `ms hceadhdceis ai
luehdcemfdietc.
@m ribu`mhdøe ainiræm rib`mrsi `c fís pmusmam pcsdnì, pmrm ivdtmr hmrbms

deeihismrdms aurmeti i` luehdcemfdietc, hce mhiìrmhdceis y lriemacs pirsdstietis,
qui pcaræme crdbdemr rcturms pcr lmtdbm. @ms mhiìrmhdceis craiemams pcr i` hcetrc`
ai` prchisc ec ainiræme sir fmycris qui ;,19 rma/s¾, ixhiptc m` pmsmr pcr `ms
lrihuiehdms hmrmhtiræstdhms. Xi tdiei hcestmehdm ai qui si prisietme rcturms pcr
lmtdbm ai` fmtirdm` humeac si fcadldhm ripitdamfieti i` eÿfirc ai rivcùhdceis
hce i` hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm.
Xd aurmeti `m fcadldhmhdøe ai` eÿfirc ai rivcùhdceis si pmsm gmndtum`fieti pcr

`ms lrihuiehdms ai riscemehdm (`ms humìs ainie istmr n`cquimams ie i` hcevirtdacr
ai lrihuiehdm), puiai sir mprcpdmac ue piræcac ai vdam mÿe fiecr.
Qrms hcrtmr i` sufdedstrc ai hcrrdieti m` hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm si aini ispirmr

ue tdifpc fæedfc ai =; fdeutcs metis ai tchmr `cs hmnìs c hcfpceietis ai`
hcevirtdacr, ym qui ixdsti rdisbc ai brmvis ìsdceis aindac m `m ieirbæm mhufu`mam
ie `cs hceaiesmacris. Dehùsc `ms tmroitms ai hcetrc` puiaie istmr ie i` pctiehdm` ai`
hdrhudtc i`ähtrdhc prdehdpm`. Fiadr sdifpri `m tiesdøe y hceihtmr m tdirrm metis ai
tchmr `cs hcfpceietis.
Maifís ainie tieirsi ie huietm `ms deadhmhdceis ai siburdama ispihældhms ai`
lmnrdhmeti ai` hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm metis ai` fcetmoi y `m puistm ie
luehdcemfdietc.
Hcfc rihcfieamhdceis fuy bieirmìs?
 I` fctcr y i` hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm ainie ifp`mzmrsi `c fís prøxdfcs

pcsdnìs i` uec ai`
ai` ctrc pmrm fdedfdzmr `ms detirliriehdms iìhtrcfmbeätdhms.
iìhtrcfmbeätdhms.
 @cs hmnìs ainie istmr rivistdacs y ec puiaie tieir fmycr `cebdtua qui `m
privdstm pcr i` lmnrdhmeti.
lmnrdhmeti.
 Xi ainie hceihtmr m tdirrm hmnìs, ribìtms prctihtcrms ai hmnìs, i`
hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm y i` fctcr.
 [mrm fdedfdzmr `ms detirliriehdms ai rmadc puiai gmhirsi eihismrdc i` usc ai
ld`trcs supìfietmrdcs.
17 ai =7;
<.8 îvdsdceis ai siburdama eihismrdms

<.8
Mpmrti ai tcams `ms deadhmhdceis hdtmams pmrm `cs iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøe, m` trmtmrsi isti
iqudpmfdietc ai fíqudems
amýmacs hce lmhd`dama, qui trmnmome
`ms sdbudietis hirhm gme
deadhmhdceis ai pirscems y vigæhu`cs
ai sir tiedams y puiaie sir
ie huietm.
Xi gme ai rim`dzmr hcfc fæedfc hmam sids fisis, sd ndie si rihcfdieam rim`dzmr
despihhdceis ai siburdama fís lrihuietifieti.
Istms despihhdceis si prcauhie pmrm `chm`dzmr sd m`bÿe vietd`macr tdiei amýcs c aildhdiehdms
ie su ixtirdcr, aindäeacsi hmfndmr defiadmtmfieti tcams `ms pdizms amýmams.
Is eihismrdc vdbd`mr i` ufnrm` ai vdnrmhdøe ribdstrmam ie i` vietd`macr ie `cs puetcs ai

fiadhdøe iìbdacs c ndie m trmväs ai `cs siescris sufdedstrmacs. @m fmeirm fís ldmnì ai
virdldhmr istcs edviìs is m trmväs ai ue ribdstrc gdstørdhc aurmeti pirdcacs `mrbcs ai tdifpc.
Xd `cs vm`cris gme vmrdmac ectmnìfieti, si gme ai devistdbmr `ms hmusms pcsdnìs ai adhgm
dehdaiehdm. Ie isi hmsc si prchiairí m su hcrrihhdøe fiadmeti pcr ioifp`c uem `dfpdizm c
ue riiqud`dnrmac.
\m`cris ai vdnrmhdøe iìvmacs puiaie crdbdemr `m aistruhhdøe ai` vietd`macr, riprisietmeac
ue rdisbc brmvi pmrm `ms pirscems.
Humeac ixdstme ie i` ùbmr ai ifp`mzmfdietc ai `cs vietd`macris, mfiemzms supìfietmrdms

hcfc m`tcs æeadhis ai hcrrcsdøe, hcetmfdemhdøe iìvmam, mfndietis mbrisdvcs
mbrisdvcs,, ith. si ainie
`ìvmr m hmnc despihhdceis ai hcetrc` y `dfpdizm hce detirvm`cs riauhdacs.
<.8.= Hmam > fisis
<.8.=
\irdldhmr `cs mrrmequis ai `cs

` cs vietd`macris. Gmhir`c ai uec ie uec hcfprcnmeac `cs
hcesufcs i`ähtrdhcs, qui si fmetiebme ie `cs `æfdtis ecrfmìs. ([cr ainmoc ai `m
Detiesdama ecfdem`) Gmy qui rihcramr qui sd `cs vietd`macris `ìvme fuhgc tdifpc
pmrmacs, i` hcesufc i`ähtrdhc m` dedhdc is ue pchc fís m`tc, gmstm qui si istmnd`dzm
ie vm`cris `dbirmfieti delirdcris.
<.8.> Hmam < fisis
<.8.>
\irdldhmr `cs mrrmequis ai `cs

` cs vietd`macris. Gmhir`c ai uec ie uec hcfprcnmeac `cs
hcesufcs i`ähtrdhcs, qui si fmetiebme ie `cs `æfdtis ecrfmìs. ([cr ainmoc ai `m
Detiesdama ecfdem`) Gmy qui rihcramr qui sd `cs vietd`macris `ìvme fuhgc tdifpc
pmrmacs, i` hcesufc i`ähtrdhc m` dedhdc is ue pchc fís m`tc, gmstm qui si istmnd`dzm
ie vm`cris `dbirmfieti delirdcris.
Cnsirvmr qui ec gmym edebÿe rudac ixtrmýc ai crdbie fihíedhc. @m lcrfmhdøe ai

rudacs y i` hmìetmfdietc pirfdtie `ìbmr m hcehùsdceis mhirhm ai` luehdcemfdietc
hcrrihtc. @cs rudacs ai fmrhgm y aitiehdøe prcbrisdvm si puiaie hcfpmrmr m`
cnoitc hce ctrcs vietd`macris.
14 ai =7;
Madhdcem`fieti, virdldhmr i` edvi` ai vdnrmhdceis, ym qui istmríe fcedtcrdzmams,

vir qui ec si gme dehrifietmac aisai `m ÿ`tdfm rivdsdøe. @m fmeirm fís siburm ai
aildedr istms vmrdmhdceis is hcfpmrmeac `cs vm`cris fiadacs aurmeti `mrbcs
piræcacs ai tdifpc. Xd `cs vm`cris vmræme ectmnìfieti si ainie devistdbmr `ms
hmusms pcsdnìs,
rim`dzmr hcfc
uem `dfpdizm pcr ioifp`c,csuhdiama
y riiqud`dnrmac ieaitirdcrc
ie su hmsc, i` rctcr, ai
amac i` hmsc si aini
`cs rcamfdietcs.
<.8.8 Hmam => fisis
<.8.8
îvdsdøe fdeuhdcsm? amýcs y hcrrcsdøe ai mds`mfdietcs scecrcs, rctcr, hmrhmsm

tunu`mr, fctcr, hmnìs, hceixdceis, suspiesdøe y mfcrtdbumhdøe ai vdnrmhdceis. Xi
ainie sunsmemr `cs amýcs metis ai qui `m brmviama ai `cs fdsfcs mufieti,
pmrtdhu`mrfieti `cs amýcs
amýcs ie `m prctihh
prctihhdøe
døe ai supirldhdi.
îvdsdøe aitm``mam ai tcams `ms pmrtis pcrtmetis y uedceis mtcred``mams ai `m

sustietmhdøe c ai `cs mpcycs. Qcams `ms tuirhms ainie istmr msiburmams hcetrm i`
ml`comfdietc y mpritmams hce i` pmr ai mprditi hcrrihtc, ispihdm`fieti `m tuirhm
deadhmamieie`msiùedceis
amýmam hrcquds.mtcred``mams.
Xi aini ribieirmr `m prctihhdøe ai supirldhdi qui istuvdirm
Ie risufie?
 \irdldhmr i` istmac ai` rcaiti

 \irdldhmr i` hcesufc i`ähtrdhc
 \irdldhmr mprditi ai `cs tirfdemìs ai `ms hmoms ai ncrems
 \irdldhmr qui i` rcaiti ec rczm hce `m hmrhmsm
 \irdldhmr qui ec gmym rudacs ixtrmýcs
 \irdldhmr qui `cs mtieumacris mhÿstdhcs istäe ie nuiems hceadhdceis, sde mbuoirc,
qui ec mhufuìe gufiama.
 \irdldhmr i` edvi` ai vdnrmhdceis

 \irdldhmr i` istmac ai `cs
`cs meh`mois,
fui`ìs aivirdldhmeac `csqui
`cs mpcycs, mprditis,
gmbmequi gmym emam
su trmnmoc, quil`coc.
ec istäe
trmnmacs.
9; ai =7;
<.1 [uistm ie luehdcemfdietc

<.1
Xi ainie cnsirvmr ishrupu`csmfieti `ms ecrfms ai siburdama pmrm mpmrmtcs i destm`mhdceis

i`ähtrdhms msæ hcfc `ms ai `ms hcfpmýæms i`ähtrdhms.
Xø`c pirscem` hum`dldhmac y hcechiacr ai `cs rdisbcs ri`mhdcemacs hce iqudpmfdietcs ai

vietd`mhdøe, y hce `ms girrmfdietms eihismrdms y maihumams pmrm rim`dzmr `cs trmnmocs,
ainiræm cpirmr hce i` vietd`macr. I` pirscem` sirí supirvdsmac pcr i` rispcesmnì ai
siburdama ai `m destm`mhdøe.
Xi aini rivdsmr qui ec gmym huirpcs ixtrmýcs ie i` vietd`macr y ie `cs mtieumacris ai rudac
privdmfieti m `m puistm ie luehdcemfdietc ai` vietd`macr. [dizms qui istäe l`coms c sui`tms
puiaie sir mrrmstrmams pcr `m hcrrdieti ai mdri y prcvchmr ìsdceis. ¡Euehm aini gmnir
pirscems ie i`
i` lùoc ai mdri!
I` sietdac ai bdrc hcrrihtc ai` vietd`macr sirí i` qui aisai i` `mac ai mspdrmhdøe ai`
vietd`macr si viræm bdrmr i` rcaiti ie sietdac metdgcrmrdc c aisai i` `mac ai dfpu`sdøe ai`
vietd`macr si viræm bdrmr i` rcaiti ie sietdac gcrmrdc. Fiadmeti uem nrivi hceixdøe ai`
fctcr y cnsirvmhdøe ai `ms pmrtis rctmtdvms si puiai supirvdsmr i` sietdac ai bdrc. Xd luisi
i` dehcrrihtc si ainie hmfndmr `cs tirfdemìs ai `ms hceixdceis i`ähtrdhms.
Xi aini fiadr `m tcfm ai hcrrdieti y hcfpmrmr hce `m detiesdama

d etiesdama ecfdem` ai` fctcr.
¡Ec si puiai hcefutmr ai` sietdac ai bdrc ai ue vietd`macr m` cpuistc sde pmsmr pcr i`
istmac ai ripcsc, puis si puiaie prcauhdr amýcs fihíedhcs aindac m` m`tc fcfietc ai
deirhdm!.
Xø`c sce tcìrmnìs < prchiscs ai mrrmequi pcr gcrm, hce cnoitc ai ivdtmr ue hmìetmfdietc
ixhisdvc y uem scnrihmrbm ai` mhcp`mfdietc. Ietri acs mrrmequis aini fiadmr uem lmsi ai
ielrdmfdietc ai m` fiecs 9-=; fdeutcs.
Metis ai mrrmehmr hum`qudir iqudpc c mhhiscrdc ai vietd`mhdøe?

 îtdrmr hum`qudir cnoitc ixtrmýc qui puadirm gmnir ie i` detirdcr ai `m hmrhmsm ai`
vietd`macr.
 \irdldhmr qui tmetc `ms prctihhdceis fihíedhms hcfc i`ähtrdhms istíe destm`mams y
luehdceme hcrrihtmfieti.
 Xd i` vietd`macr istí iqudpmac hce iqudpcs ai prctihhdøe c fiadhdøe ixtirecs
(tirfcrisdstcris, siescris ai vdnrmhdøe, ith) msiburmrsi ai qui istíe hceihtmacs y
luehdceme hcrrihtmfieti.
Metis ai hcfiezmr edebÿe trmnmoc ai fmetiedfdietc msiburmrsi qui i` vietd`macr gm sdac

aishceihtmac ai `m ria i`ähtrdhm y ai qui edebuem pirscem ec mutcrdzmam puiam hceihtmr`c
mhhdaietm`fieti.
@ms prctihhdceis ai siburdama sø`c puiaie aishceihtmrsi sd i` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe istí

luirm ai sirvdhdc. Ie edebÿe hmsc si pirfdtie fcadldhmhdceis y hmfndcs qui mlihtie m `m
siburdama i` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe.
9= ai =7;
[mrm trmnmocs ie i` detirdcr ai` vietd`macr, i` rcaiti tdiei qui sir n`cquimac fihíedhmfieti
pmrm dfpiadr bdrcs mhhdaietmìs
mhhdaietmìs ai` fdsf
fdsfc.
c.
Xø`c istí pirfdtdac mnrdr ishctd``ms c puirtms ai despihhdøe sd i` vietd`macr istí pmrmac.
I` usumrdc gm ai tcfmr `ms fiadams pirtdeietis y prcviir `cs iìfietcs mprcpdmacs pmrm
dfpiadr uem `ìbmam devcùetmrdm ai ieirbæm m` vietd`macr y m `ms pdizms mhhiscrdms,
pmrtdhu`mrfieti aurmeti `cs trmnmocs ai fcetmoi y fmetiedfdietc. [mrm i``c aini tcfmrsi
t cfmrsi
ie hcesdairmhdøe, maifís ai `m i`ähtrdhm, ctrms luietis ai ieirbæm hcfc `m gdaríu`dhm,
eiufítdhm, ieirbæm pctiehdm`, tiesdøe ie fui`ìs/riscrtis y hcrrdietis/tdrcs ai mdri ie i`
sdstifm. I` usumrdc aini prcviir iìfietcs ai sipmrmhdøe, aishceixdø
aishceixdøe,
e, tcfms m tdirrm y ai
n`cquic, msiburíeac`ms
msiburíeac`ms maif
maifís
ís vdsdnìfieti hcetrm uem rihce
rihceixdøe
ixdøe devcùetmrdm.
<.9 Qrmespcrti y fmedpu`mhdøe
<.9
[mrm i` trmespcrti ai `cs vietd`macris si gm ai tieir ie huietm?
Ivdtmr bc`pis ai hum`qudir tdpc aurmeti i` fcvdfdietc tiedieac ie huietm aceai istí i`
hietrc ai brmviama ai` vietd`macr, ec suoitíeac`c pcr ue ixtrifc. Xi gm ai ivdtmr qui ie `m
aishmrbm ai` vietd`macr i` vietd`macr ec sim bc`pimac, gmhdieac `ìbmr m sui`c m` vietd`macr
sumvifieti hce ue iqudpc maihumac, hce istc ivdtmrifcs qui si amýi i` rcaiti, `m hmrhmsm
ai` vietd`macr y `cs rcamfdietcs.
[mrm ivdtmr amýcs aindacs m uem rcturm uem hmrbm y aishmrbm ec hudamacsm tcac isti prchisc
ainirí gmhir`c pirscem` maihumac y hmpmhdtmac pmrm i``c.
I` sdstifm ai hmrbm y aishmrbm ai` vietd`macr gm ai sir adfiesdcemac mtiea

mtieadieac
dieac m `m hmrbm
qui gm ai scpcrtmr, is aihdr gmnrí qui tieir ie huietm i` pisc ai` vietd`macr y sus
adfiesdceis.
9> ai =7;
Xd i` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe istí fcetmac scnri ue pm`ä, si gm ai utd`dzmr uem hmrritd``m

iìvmacrm pmrm fcvir`c. Ec aini utd`dzmrsi i` pm`ä hcfc ue destrufietc ai iìvmhdøe m ec
sir qui si deadqui `c hcetrmrdc.
[mrm i` trmespcrti fiadmeti brÿms, iebmehgmr ÿedhmfieti i` iqudpc ie `cs puetcs

maihumacs deadhmacspmrm
iìvmhdøe privdstcs pcr i`
tm`lmnrdhmeti
lde. Xi gmy ai
fiadmeti
tieir ie`mshuietm
mrbc``ms
quiaii`trmespcrti
hceouetc caihíehmfcs ai
vietd`mhdøe
vietd`macr si aini ìvmetmr usmeac `ms mrbc``ms ai trmespcrti ie i` mrfmzøe ai nmsi y ec
usmeac `cs iebmehgis ai hcfpceietis ispihældhcs hcfc hmoms ai ncrems c fctcr.
Aurmeti i` trmespcrti, y tmfndäe aurmeti i` m`fmhiemoi, si aini hudamr qui ec pieitri mbum
(pcr ioifp`c ai `ùvdm) ie i` fctcr, `cs hcodeitis u ctrcs hcfpceietis ai`dhmacs. Aurmeti
trmespcrtis hcrtcs m` aishundirtc, c aurmeti m`fmhiemois prcvdsdcemìs m` mdri `dnri, `cs
iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøe si ainie adspceir nmoc ue tcàc, prilirdnìfieti ie pcsdhdøe
gcrdzcetm`, pmrm qui ec pieitri mbum m` fctcr m `c `mrbc ai` ioi. îhcfieamfcs sø`c
trmespcrtis hundirtcs y m`fmhiemois ie `chmìs hirrmacs.
@cs fiadcs ai fmeutiehdøe iìbdacs pmrm `m fmedpu`mhdøe ai` vietd`macr ainie sir mhcrais
m` pisc deadhmac pmrm i` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe.
Xi gm ai hcfprcnmr qui `m uedøe ietri i` vietd`macr y i` fiadc ai iìvmhdøe sim siburm,

tiedieac ie huietm `cs hietrcs ai brmviama ai` hceouetc, sde pcsdhdcemr scnri i` hmetc ed
vc`hmr y ec pmsmr ed pirfmeihir ie edebÿe hmsc nmoc `m hmrbm.
Aishmrbmr y fcvir i` vietd`macr hudamacsmfieti hce i` lde ai ivdtmr amýcs c

ailcrfmhdceis ie `ms hmrhmsms, rcaitis, sdìehdmacris c hcodeitis ai` fctcr i`ähtrdhc.
Xd i` vietd`macr vm m sir m`fmhiemac, si gm ai virdldhmr defiadmtmfieti ie i` fcfietc ai

`m rihiphdøe sd ixdsti m`bÿe amýc hmusmac pcr i` trmespcrti c m`buem mecfm`æm rispihtc m`
iqudpmfdietc qui si gmnæm piadac crdbdem`fieti i delcrfmr defiadmtmfieti m` lmnrdhmeti.
I` vietd`macrec
hceadhdceis aini sir m`fmhiemac
hufpìe, ie uem sm`m`m`dfpdm,
ainiræme hceihtmrsi sihm ai
risdstiehdm y `dnri ai ai`
hmàic vdnrmhdceis. Xd istmsm
fctcr i`ähtrdhc
98 ai =7;
`m luieti ai m`dfietmhdøe maihumam, hce i` lde ai ivdtmr prcnìfms ai hceaiesmhdøe, y

maifís mpcymr i` iqudpc scnri uem nmsi metdvdnrmtcrdm pmrm ivdtmr amýcs ie `cs rcamfdietcs.
Xi mhcesiom bdrmr i` rcaiti m` fiecs uem viz m` fis hce i` lde ai ivdtmr qui `m brmsm ai `cs
rcamfdietcs ai` fctcr si ieaurizhm y amýi `cs rcamfdietcs. I` rcaiti ec aini quiamr ie `m
fdsfm pcsdhdøe mebu`mr aispuäs ai` bdrc.
Xd i` vietd`macr is m`fmhiemac pcr ue pirdcac ai achi fisis c supirdcr, si mhcesiom qui
metis ai su puistm ie fmrhgm sim rivdsmac pcr pirscem` tähedhc ai _DQ^CE.
<.< M`fmhiemoi y tdifpcs ai pmrmam / Fmetiedfdietc
<.<
Xi aini mtieair m qui si msiburi uem prctihhdøe hcetrm pc`vc y gufiama. Xi ainie ivdtmr
hmfndcs nrushcs ai tifpirmturm. Xd ec si cnsirvm i``c ie oustm fiadam puiaie risu`tmr
amýmacs, hcfc hcesihuiehdm, fctcris i`ähtrdhcs, hmoms ai hmnìs, rcamfdietcs, hmpms ai
pdeturm y ouetms. Xcnri tcac `c qui ecs gm ai prichupmr
prichupmr is i` istmac ai` fctcr, qui ec gmym
gmym
gufiama ie `cs ncndemacs.
@m brmsm c i` mhidti puiaie pirair hmpmhdama ùnrdhmeti aindac m` tdifpc ai pmrmam. Xi

puiai lcrfmr øxdac ie `cs hcodeitis. @cs rcamfdietcs ai nc`ms puiaie quiamr fi``macs.
[mrm ivdtmr istc ainiræm pceirsi i` vietd`macr ie luehdcemfdietc hmam = m > fisis pcr =;
fdeutcs mprcx., c m` fiecs gmhir bdrmr i` rctcr.
Xd i` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe vm m sir usmac fiecs ai uem viz m` fis, c pcr usc ai
ifirbiehdm sc`mfieti, `cs prchiadfdietcs ai fmetiedfdietc sdbudietis ainie sir
rispitmacs y si gm ai hcelihhdcemr i` sdbudieti ribdstrc ai fmetiedfdietc?
 @m risdstiehdm ai `cs aivmemacs aini sir fiadam hmam fis. Xd `m ìhturm is fiecr
ai =; fibmcgfdcs, i` fctcr aini sir sihmac hce ue lùoc ai mdri (ecrfm`fieti
1;¿H) y hcfprcnmac metis ai` luehdcemfdietc ai` fctcr.
 I` fctcr aini cpirmr aurmeti m` fiecs acs gcrms m` fis pmrm msiburmr i` hcrrihtc
luehdcemfdietc meti `ms hceadhdceis ai ùnrdhmhdøe ai `cs rcamfdietcs.
 I` sdstifmmàifis
ifirbiehdm aini pceirsi ie luehdcemfdietc m` fiecs aurmeti qudehiy
fdeutcs pmrm msiburmr `m hcrrihtm luehdøe ai tcacs `cs detirruptcris
hcetrcìs.
 Xd si gm sufdedstrmac m`buem risdstiehdm ai hmàic, hcfprcnmr hmam fis qui si
iehdieai adhgm risdstiehdm humeac i` fctcr si mpmbm.
@cs acs lmhtcris lueamfietmìs m hcetrc`mr sce `ms vdnrmhdceis qui puiame scpcrtmr i`
vietd`macr pmrmac meti hdirtms hceadhdceis y `m gufiama mfndietm` ai` mdri ie i` ùbmr ai
m`fmhiemfdietc.
Humeac ue vietd`macr istí pmrmac, y sus rcamfdietcs ec si fuivie, si istí scpcrtmeac

vdnrmhdceis, `cs prcpdcs rcamfdietcs si aitirdcrme pcr i` bc`pitic ai `ms nc`ms scnri `ms
pdstms, is aihdr si lcrfme gui``ms ai prisdøe aindac m `m hmrbm istítdhm. Ai istm fmeirm, si
istí fmhgmhmeac ue fdsfc puetc tcac i` tdifpc,
t difpc, ai fmeirm qui humeac si vmym m utd`dzmr,
tiearí uecs vm`cris ai vdnrmhdøe qui pcaræme dfp`dhmr
d fp`dhmr i` hmfndc ai adhgcs rcamfdietcs.
91 ai =7;
Hcfc mhtumhdøe privietdvm, hcfc ym si gm adhgc metirdcrfieti, i` vietd`macr ainiræm

mpcymrsi scnri ue sui`c ribu`mr y edvi`mac, pirc maifís ietri i` sui`c y i` mpcyc ai`
vietd`macr detirhm`mr uem p`mehgm ai bcfm qui mtieÿi `m trmesfdsdøe ai` `ms vdnrmhdceis.
[cr ctrc `mac, sd i` ùbmr ai m`fmhiemfdietc is ixtirdcr, si ainiræm i`dfdemr hum`qudir

cnstruhhdøe
fmhgmquie m``mspmsc aiài
pdstms mdri`cspcrrcamfdietcs
i` vietd`macr,
ym ymqui
qui`csai í`mnis
istm fmeirm, ivdtmfcs istmræme
ai` vietd`macr qui si
fcvdäeacsi ai viz ie humeac.
Xd ec luisi pcsdnì qui pmsi mdri pcr i` vietd`macr, is eihismrdc bdrmr pirdøadhmfieti (fís
c fiecs uem viz m` fis), ue pchc `cs í`mnis pmrm qui i` rcamfdietc bdri, y `ms vdnrmhdceis
risdaumìs qui rihdni ec fmhgmqui sdifpri i` fdsfc puetc.
I` ctrc pmrífitrc dfpcrtmeti m tieir ie huietm is `m gufiama mfndietm`. Xd istm is

dfpcrtmeti, hcfc is i` hmsc, hcevdiei qui pirdøadhmfieti si hceihtie `ms risdstiehdms ai
hmàic, qui fmetiearí m`bc fís hm`dieti i` ncndemac qui i` mdri ai` ùbmr ai
m`fmhiemfdietc y ivdtmfcs prcnìfms ai hceaiesmhdøe ai mbum. Istc is fuy dfpcrtmeti
humeac si prcauhie ie fuy pchc tdifpc vmrdmhdceis ai tifpirmturm mfndieti c
vmrdmhdceis ai` brmac ai gufiama.
Ie `m sdtumhdøe ai qui i` ùbmr ai` m`fmhiemoi ai` vietd`macr, tuvdisi `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai
qui uem hdrhu`mhdøe ai` mdri pcr i``m ec fcvdisi pirdøadhmfieti `cs í`mnis, (pmrm ivdtmr i`
aitirdcrc prifmturc ai `cs rcamfdietcs), puistc qui i` rcaiti si gm ai fcvir m fmec
(fiesum`fieti, fís m fiecs), `m fiocr cphdøe is hirrmr `ms acs nchms ai` vietd`macr hce
p`ístdhc, `c fís girfätdhc
girfätdhc pcsdnì, i detrcauhdr m`buem nc`s
nc`smm aisgdarmtmeti.
Ie hmsc ai qui i` vietd`macr vmym m destm`mrsi, aispuäs ai ue pirdcac `mrbc ie m`fmhiemoi,

is hceviedieti qui si fdam `m risdstiehdm ai` mds`mfdietc ai hmam lmsi hce ri`mhdøe m tdirrm.
Xd tdiei vm`cris nmocs ai risdstiehdm, gmy qui ‐sihmr‖ i` aivmemac.
<.2 Aisfcetmoi y ridestm`mhdøe ai iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøe

<.2
Ie aitirfdemams chmsdceis, `cs iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøe brmeais si ainie advdadr ie

sunføau`cs deaipieadietis, pmrm pcsdnd`dtmr su destm`mhdøe m trmväs ai mpirturm ai fcetmoi
c puirtms, c ndie pmrm lmhd`dtmr su trmespcrti.
Istcs trmnmocs ainie sir `ìvmacs m hmnc sø`c pcr pirscem` ispihdm`dzmac hce lcrfmhdøe
tähedhm y prclisdcem`. @cs fiadcs pmrm i` fcetmoi gme ai gm``mrsi adspcednìs. Xi ainie
fmrhmr tcams `ms pdizms qui si hcrrispceame rihæprchmf
rihæprchmfieti
ieti metis ai su aisfcetmoi.
<.7 Destm`mhdøe y fcetmoi fihíedhc

<.7
Metis ai destm`mr i` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe, si aini hcfprcnmr qui ec gm sdac amýmac ie i`

trmespcrti, qui ec gmy edebÿe tdpc ai ailcrfmhdøe ie `m hmrhmsm ed ie `cs sdìehdmacris,
qui i` rcaiti bdrm sde cpcsdhdøe m`buem, y qui i` vietd`macr y i` fctcr hufpì hce `cs
riquirdfdietcs ai usc.
99 ai =7;
Xi rihuiram qui i` pisc ai `cs vietd`macris puiai vmrdmr ietri >;; jb y =>;;; jb,
aipieadieac ai` vietd`macr y ai `m pctiehdm ai su fctcr istmeac iqudpmac maifís hce
sdìehdmacris, adluscris, ith. Isti iqudpc gm ai sir fmedpu`mac sdifpri utd`dzmeac `cs
puetcs ai iìvmhdøe deadhmacs ie ä`, hce `dbircs fcvdfdietcs y vi`chdama riauhdam pmrm
ivdtmr hum`qudir amýc scnri i` iqudpc.
I` vietd`macr gm ai sir hc`chmac ie `m pcsdhdøe maihumam ai mhuirac hce `m adrihhdøe ai`

mdri riquirdam. Ie `m hmrhmsm ai` vietd`macr si iehuietrme uems lìhgms qui deadhme istm
adrihhdøe.
Qcacs `cs hcfpceietis ai` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe (mfcrtdbumacris, sdìehdmacris, adluscris,

hcfpiesmacris tixtdìs, nrdams, sustietmhdceis, hmaiems ai prctihhdøe, ith.) ainie sir
hcrrihtmfieti m`deimacs metis ai sir ldomacs hce i` lde ai ec mýmadr edebuem adstcrsdøe ed
tiesdøe m` hceouetc.
Humeac si usie mfcrtdbumacris pmrm ivdtmr vdnrmhdceis, si ainie adspceir `cs fdsfcs ai
fmeirm qui si cntiebm uem hmrbm uedlcrfi (i`cebmhdøe ai` mfcrtdbumacr uedlcrfi): sibÿe
i` hmsc, sd is eihismrdc, si hc`chmríe nmoc i` mfcrtdbumacr lcrrcs pmrm m`deimr y moustmr su
m`deimhdøe. I` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe ec aini sir mrrmstrmac hce `cs mfcrtdbumacris ldomacs
m su istruhturm, ym qui istc amýmræm `m bcfm c `cs fui`ìs. Ie edebÿe hmsc si ainie utd`dzmr
`cs mfcrtdbumacris pmrm hcrribdr pcsdnìs aism`deimhdceis.
@cs hcfpiesmacris tixtdìs si gme ai fcetmr pirfdtdieac qui i` vietd`macr tiebm

suldhdieti `dnirtma ai fcvdfdietc, scnri tcac aurmeti i` mrrmequi y aurmeti `m pmrmam . [cr
ctrc `mac ec puiaie aisp`mzmrsi c hcfprdfdrsi tmetc hcfc pmrm qui si lcrfie p`dibuis
qui adldhu`tie i` lùoc ai mdri. Ie edebÿe hmsc si ainie usmr `cs hcfpiesmacris tixtdìs
pmrm hcrribdr pcsdnìs
pcsdnìs aism`deimhdceis
aism`deimhdceis
@cs meh`mois ai` vietd`macr gme ai sir `cs mprcpdmacs pmrm su pisc y pmrm `cs isluirzcs m `cs
qui si vi scfitdac? scnri i``cs si mp`dhmrí i` pmr ai mprditi maihumac. Xd si tdiei m`buem
auam scnri i` pmr m mp`dhmr m m`bÿe meh`moi aitirfdemac, si aini hcesu`tmr hce i` lmnrdhmeti.
@m rim`dzmhdøe
ecrfms ai `cs trmnmocs si pirfdti sø`c m pirscem` mutcrdzmac, nmoc `m hcesu`tm ai `ms
ai siburdama.
9< ai =7;
\IEQD@MHDØE [^DEHD[M@
92 ai =7;
= DEQ^CAYHHDØE
@m vietd`mhdøe ai uem fdem hcesdsti ie ue prchisc ai gmhir pmsmr ue lùoc ai mdri

hcesdairmnì pmrm hrimr `ms hceadhdceis eihismrdms pmrm qui `cs trmnmomacris si iehuietrie
ie
quiuem mtføslirm
ie tcams mbrmamnì.
`ms írims Istisiprchisc
ai trmnmoc `ìvi m si rim`dzm
hmnc fiadmeti
ai dbum` ue hdrhudtc
fmeirm. [mrm istchce
is i` cnoitdvcqui
eihismrdc ai
`m fdem tiebm acs puirtms ai mhhisc deaipieadieti, acs pczcs, ue pczc y ue schmvøe y acs
schmvceis.
@m vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm si `ìvm m hmnc ie mqui``cs ispmhdcs aceai sc`c gmy ue mhhisc
pmrm i``c si hc`chme tuncs ai vietd`mh
vietd`mhdøe
døe huym `cebdtua aini
aini ai mnmrhmr `m puirtm
puirtm ai ietrmam
gmstm `m puirtm ai `m sm`dam. @m vietd`mhdøe ai uem fdem suntirríeim is fuy dfpcrtmeti pmrm
prisirvmr `m vdam ai `cs trmnmomacris, gmy qui msiburmr qui ainmoc ai `m fdem ixdstm uem
pcrhdøe eihismrdm ai cxdbiec pmrm `m rispdrmhdøe ai `cs trmnmomacris. Qmfndäe uem hmusm
pcr `m hum` si eihisdtm ai fms vietd`mhdøe ai cxdbiec aietrc ai `m fdem is qui ie fuhgms
chmsdceis `cs fdeirmìs qui si istíe ixp`ctmeac puiaie sir tøxdhcs m` dbum` qui puiai
risu`tmr m`buem ifmemhdøe pi`dbrcsm pcr pmrti ai `ms fmqudems qui si utd`dzme pmrm ixp`ctmr
i` fdeirm`. Maifís gmy qui hcesdairmr qui fdietrms fms prclueam is uem fdem `m
tifpirmturm tdieai m mufietmr pcr `c qui is eihismrdm `m h`dfmtdzmhdøe maihumam ai`
mfndieti.
Ie tcams `ms fdems si prcauhi pc`vc, y su degm`mhdøe puiai hmusmr advirsms ielirfiamais
ai `cs pu`fceis, hcfc `m sd`dhcsds c eiufchcedcsds ie `ms fdems ai hmrnøe, `m msnistcsds y
ctrms. Maifís, ie `ms fdems puiaie mpmrihir bmsis tøxdhcs, hcfc su`lurc ai gdarøbiec c
fceøxdac ai hmrncec. Ie m`buecs hmscs si puiaie prisietmr prcnìfms ai rmadmhdøe pcr
`ms ifmemhdceis ai rmaøe prchiaietis ai `m rchm.
I` cnoitdvc ai` iqudpc rispcesmnì ai `m vietd`mhdøe is mem`dzmr `cs pmrífitrcs ai`

hcfpcrtmfdietc ai` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm` y i` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs ai mdri ie `ms
adstdetms `mncris ai `m fdem, y hce `m utd`dzmhdøe ai `cs adlirietis prcbrmfms delcrfítdhcs
ai hí`hu`c ai riais, ‐fcai`dzmr‖ i` hdrhudtc ai fmeirm qui i` ‐fcai`c‖ sim `c
suldhdietifieti riprisietmtdvc ai `m ivcùhdøe ai` mdri aietrc ai `ms `mncris m vietd`mr.
Ai istm fmeirm, si pcarí utd`dzmr i` ‐fcai`c‖ qui riprisietm i` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe
prdfmrdm, y si pcarí ‐privir‖ hcfpcrtmfdietcs y tieaiehdms ai `m vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`
meti fcadldhmhdceis luturms ai adhgc hdrhudtc rim`, hcfc puiaie sir i` hdirri c mpirturm ai
puirtms c ishùsms ai vietd`mhdøe, `m destm`mhdøe ai ue euivc vietd`macr c `m suprisdøe ai
ctrc ixdstieti, `m adsfdeuhdøe ai `ms lubms ai hmuam` pcr `ms ixhùsms trms ue
mhceadhdcemfdietc
mhceadhdcemfdie tc ai `ms fdsfms, i` mhceadhdcemfdietc ai ue ritcrec ai vietd`mhdøe, ith.
[mrm gmhir ue admbeøstdhc ai` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe, si gm ai sustietmr ie uem sirdi ai

fiadhdceis ai `cs adstdetcs pmrífitrcs qui hcelcrfme `m vietd`mhdøe ai `m fdem. Istc
pirfdtdrí hcechir `ms hceadhdceis prisietis ai vietd`mhdøe, tmetc prdehdpm` hcfc
sihueamrdm, y ai m``æ aitirfdemr `ms luturms pcsdnìs hcrrihhdceis eihismrdms, nmsíeacsi `cs
hí`hu`cs (tiørdhcs) ai ästms ie `cs risu`tmacs cntiedacs hce `ms mp`dhmhdceis delcrfítdhms
maihumams.
97 ai =7;
=.= @m mtføslirm ai `m fdem

=.=
I` mdri is uem fizh`m ai vmrdcs bmsis, huym hcfpcsdhdøe is mprcxdfmamfieti?
Cxdbiec (C> ) >;,48% Edtrøbiec (E> ) 27,=;%

27,=;% Mrbøe (Mr) ;,48>9%
;,48>9%
Adøxdac ai hmrncec (HC> ) ;,;8%
;,;8% Gdarcbiec (G> ) ;,;=%
;,;=% Eiøe (Ei) ;,;;=7%
;,;;=7%
Gi`dc (Gi) ;,;;;9% Jrdptøe (Jr) ;,;;;=% Wieøe (Wi) ;,;;;;;4%
;,;;;;;4%
Humeac i` mdri si detrcauhi ie `m fdem, sulri ue aitirdcrc y si eihisdtme tähedhms pmrm

gmhir qui i` mdri sim `c fís pmrihdac m` ai` ixtirdcr. [mrm isti aitirdcrc ai` mdri vmrdms sce
`ms rmzceis ietri `ms qui si aistmhme?
Cxdamhdceis y aishcfpcsdhdøe ai Ifmemhdceis ai brdsÿ, megæardac Bmsis prchiaietis ai mbums

gdirrc, fmairm, hmrnøe.... hmrnøedhc, gdarcbiec. suntirríeims.
Gufcs ai ixp`csdvcs y ai îspdrmhdøe gufmem, y Iìvmhdøe ai` edvi` ai gufiama.
fmqudems. metdbumfieti tmfndäe medfm`.
[c`vc ie suspiesdøe,
hcetmfdemhdøe sø`dam.
@cs bmsis fís hcfueis ie i` detirdcr sce?

Adøxdac ai hmrncec (HC>) Fceøxdac ai hmrncec (HC) Xu`lurc ai gdarcbiec (XG>)
Adøxdac ai mzulri (XC>) Gdarcbiec (G>) Edtrcscs (EC+EC>)
Brdsÿ (HG1) Qmfndäe gmy qui hcesdairmr i`
pc`vc ie suspiesdøe hcfc ctrc
ctrc
hcetmfdemeti fís.
Adøxdac ai hmrncec (HC>)
Is i` risu`tmac ldem` ai `m hcfnustdøe hcfpìtm ai` hmrncec. Is ue bms msldxdmeti, dehc`crc,

is scùnì ie i` mbum, tdiei ue smncr y ue c`cr (ie
( ie m`tms hcehietrmhdceis) `dbirmfieti íhdac,
is dehcfnustdnì y pism fís qui i` mdri. [mrm su aitihhdøe si usm `m `ífpmrm ai siburdama,
aitihtcris mutcfítdhcs ai ìhturm adbdtm` y tuncs hc`crdfätrdhcs. Xi lcrfm ie brmeais
hmetdamais ie `cs dehieadcs ai fdem y ie `ms ixp`csdceis ai brdsÿ y pc`vc ai hmrnøe. Xi
tdieai m mhufu`mr ie `cs ùbmris nmocs ai `ms `mncris.
Fceøxdac ai hmrncec (HC).
Is i` risu`tmac ai `m hcfnustdøe dehcfpìtm ai` hmrncec. Is m`tmfieti tcxdhc, dehc`crc,

decacrc, desæpdac y is hcfnustdnì. Xi aitihtm hce aitihtcris mutcfítdhcs ai ìhturm adbdtm`
y tuncs hc`crdfätrdhcs. Xuiì mpmrihir pcr rczmfdietcs, hmìetmfdietcs, ixp`csdceis c
hum`qudir prchisc ie i` qui lm`ti i` cxdbiec. ^mrm viz si prisietm ie sc`dtmrdc ym qui suiì
viedr mhcfpmýmac ai ctrcs bmsis.
Xu`lurc ai gdarcbiec (XG>).
Xi
fuycrdbdem
tcxdhc,ieprcvchm
`m aishcfpcsdhdøe
drrdtmhdceis ai
ie pdrdtms y sustmehdms
`ms fuhcsms ai `csqui
cocshcetiebme mzulri.
y hceauhtcs Is ue bms
rispdrmtcrdcs,
del`mfmhdøe ai` mpmrmtc rispdrmtcrdc, iaifm pu`fcemr y pmrí`dsds rispdrmtcrdm drrivirsdnì.
Is dehc`crc, tdiei ue smncr mzuhmrmac y ue c`cr m guivcs pcardacs, pism fís qui i` mdri y
94 ai =7;
pcr iehdfm ai uem hcehietrmhdøe ai` 1 % is ixp`csdvc. Xi aitihtm hce aitihtcris

mutcfítdhcs ai ìhturm adbdtm` y tuncs hc`crdfätrdhcs.
Adøxdac ai mzulri (XC>).
Xi prcauhi pcr
pu`fcemris fuy`m brmvis
hcfnustdøe ai hcfpuistcs
y quifmaurms ai mzulri.
ie cocs y pdi`. Is
Istcxdhc,
ue bmspuiai prcauhdr
dehc`crc hce iaifms
ue c`cr
pdhmeti y m -=;¿ H (=; nmoc hirc) is `dqudac. Aitihhdøe pcr fiadc ai tuncs hc`crdfätrdhcs.
Is i` hmusmeti ai `m ``mfmam "`ùvdm íhdam".
Gdarøbiec (G>)
Ie `m fdeiræm mpmrihi ie istmac `dnri, tmfndäe `c iehcetrmfcs ie `m aishcfpcsdhdøe ai`

íhdac su`lÿrdhc ie `ms sm`ms ai nmtiræms. Xd si mpmbm hce mbum i` hmrnøe dehmeaishieti
tmfndäe si puiai lcrfmr gdarcbiec. M` rimhhdcemr hce i` cxdbiec is ixp`csdvc ie m`buems
chmsdceis, sdieac `m hcehietrmhdøe fms pi`dbrcsm `m hcfpuistm pcr 2= % ai mdri y >7 % ai
gdarcbiec, sdieac ie isti hmsc fms del`mfmnì qui i` brdsÿ. Is tmfndäe ue bms msldxdmeti,
dehc`crc, decacrc, desæpdac y fís `dbirc qui i` mdri. @cs tcxæfitrcs y `cs tuncs
hc`crdfätrdhcs si usme pmrm aitihtmr`c.
Øxdacs Edtrcscs (EC+EC>).
Xce bmsis qui rmrmfieti si prisietme sipmrmacs EC+EC>. Xce øxdacs ai edtrøbiec qui
sce gmndtumìs ie `ms vc`maurms. Xce tøxdhcs y puiaie `ìbmr m prcauhdr `m fuirti pcr
iaifm pu`fcemr. Xce ai hc`cr pmrac rcodzc (ie iìvmams prcpcrhdceis) y ai c`cr mhri. @cs
tuncs hc`crdfätrdhcs sce `cs usmacs pmrm aitihtmr`cs. Gmy qui pceir ispihdm` hudamac ie
adsc`vir`cs ndie aispuäs ai `m pibm.
Brdsÿ (HG1).
Is uem fizh`m ai fitmec y mdri hce m`bÿe bms fís, pirc i` qui aitirfdem sus
hmrmhtiræstdhms is i` fitmec. Aipieadieac ai `cs pcrhietmois si hcfpcrtm ai adstdetm
fmeirm?
;-9 % i` brdsÿ mrai 9-=9 % is m`tmfieti ixp`csdvc 5=9 % is msldxdmeti
Is ue bms dehc`crc, decacrc, desæpdac, m`tmfieti hcfnustdnì mradieac hce ``mfm mzu`mam y
fís `dbirc qui i` mdri. @m `ífpmrm ai bmsc`dem (ai siburdama) y `cs brdsÿfitrcs c
fitmeøfitrcs sce `cs usmacs pmrm aitihtmr`c. Is tmfndäe hcechdac hcfc bms ai `cs
pmetmecs y tdieai m mhufu`mrsi ie `cs ùbmris m`tcs ai `ms `mncris
` mncris hce pchm vietd`mhdøe. Ie
i` tmoc mpmrihi ai adstdetms fmeirms?
Hce ue aisprieadfdietc ìetc m` Aisprieadfdietc chmsdcem` muadnì Aisprieadfdietcs destmetíeics y

`dnirmrsi ietri i` hmrnøe y `cs sde vdcìehdm ie brditms c lm``ms. vdcìetcs hce prcyihhdøe ai
gmstdmìs. sø`dacs.
@m tifpirmturm mprcxdfmam ai del`mfmhdøe is ai uecs <;;¿ H, y `m ixp`csdøe puiai viedr

prcvchmam pcr
pcr luibc adrihtc, hgcq
hgcqui
ui ietri fitmìs,
fitmìs, hgdspm i`ähtrdhm....
<; ai =7;
[c`vc ie suspiesdøe.
Qdiei advirscs cræbieis ie su bieirmhdøe?
Fmtirdm` trmespcrtmac pcr væm c Hcrrdieti ai vietd`mhdøe aifmsdmac Hmrbm ai fmtirdmìs ie `m

hdetm. luirti. nchmrrmfpm, lrieti ai
lrieti
pripmrmhdøe...
[irlcrmhdøe ai rchm. Mrrmequi ai hmrnøe. Ivmhumhdøe ai` hmrnøe ie `cs
tm`ìris.
î`ìecs.....
Mpmrti ai` pi`dbrc ai ielirfiamais hcfc `m sd`dhcsds tmfndäe ixdsti i` rdisbc ai ixp`csdøe,
ym qui isti pc`vc mrai hce fuhgm lmhd`dama y ie hmsc ai ixp`csdøe i` ilihtc si
fu`tdp`dhmræm ym qui `m ixp`csdøe chmsdcemræm fís pc`vc ie suspiesdøe.
=.> îb`mfietmhdøe y `æfdtis

=.>
=.>.= Hcehietrmhdcei
=.>.= Hcehietrmhdceiss `æfdtis ai bmsis
Ie Ispmým, mhcrai
hcehietrmhdceis m îb`mfietc
vcùfätrdhms Bieirm`pmrm
mafdsdnìs ai `cs
Ecrfms Nísdhms
adstdetcs Xiburdamam Fdeirm
bmsisaipi`dbrcscs, `c `mrbc, `ms
ai
uem ocremam ai chgc gcrms, sce `ms sdbudietis?
 9; p.p.f. ai fceøxdac ai hmrncec (HC).
 9.;;; p.p.f. ai adøxdac ai hmrncec (HC >).
 =; p.p.f. ai øxdacs ai edtrøbiec (EC + EC>).
 =; p.p.f. ai su`lurc ai gdarøbiec (XG>).
 9 p.p.f. ai øxdac ai mzulri (XC>).
 =.;;; p.p.f. ai gdarøbiec (G>).
Ec cnstmeti, aurmeti
aurmeti piræcacs hcrtcs y ai mhuirac hce
hce `m pi`dbrcsdama ai` bms, pcaríe
mafdtdrsi hcetiedacs supirdcris sde qui si scnripmsie euehm `cs sdbudietis?
 =;; p.p.f. ai adøxdac ai hmrncec (HC>).
 =>.9;; p.p.f. ai øxdacs ai edtrøbiec (EC + EC>).
 >9 p.p.f. ai su`lurc ai gdarøbiec (XG>).
 9; p.p.f. ai øxdac ai mzulri (XC>).
 =; p.p.f. ai gdarøbiec (G>).
 =;.;;; p.p.f. ai gdarøbiec (G>).
@ms `mncris ie qui si m`hmehie hcehietrmhdceis supirdcris m istcs vm`cris siríe
aism`comams ai fcac defiadmtc, macptíeacsi pcr `m Adrihhdøe Lmhu`tmtdvm `ms fiadams
<= ai =7;
aistdemams m adsfdeudr adhgms hcehietrmhdceis. Ie edebuem `mncr ie mhtdvdama `m prcpcrhdøe

ai cxdbiec sirí delirdcr m` =4% ie vcùfie.
=.>.> Aildedhdøe ai æeadhis ai pi`dbrcsdama ai `cs bmsis

=.>.>
Æeadhi FMH
I` æeadhi fís hcechdac is i` ``mfmac FMH (Fíxdfuf M``cvmnì Hcehietrmtdce), c ndie

FMJ (Fmxdfm` Mrnidzp`mhi Hcehietrmtdce), qui aildei `ms hcehietrmhdceis ai fmtirdms
tøxdhms ie i` mdri qui ec prcauhie edebuem m`tirmhdøe m ue trmnmomacr qui pirfmeizhm
aurmeti 17g. m `m sifmem y 7 gcrms m` aæm ie i` mfndieti ai trmnmoc.
Æeadhi Q@\ (Qgrisgcà @dfdt \mùi)
Qdiei ie huietm i` pmrífitrc tdifpc ‐t‖ ie `m lcrfm ai fiadhdøe. Deadhm `ms

hcehietrmhdceis ai advirscs bmsis tøxdhcs pcr ainmoc ai `ms humìs i` trmnmomacr puiai
mhtumr tcacs `cs aæms sde sulrdr ilihtc m`buec. Xä usm ie IIYY y Hmemaí, sdieac rivdsmac
hmam mýc pcr `m Mfirdhme Hceliriehi cl Bcvirefietm` èaustrdm` Gybdiedsts.
Ie ä` hmni adstdebudr ctrcs tris?

 Q.R.M, sd si hcesdairm ue trmnmoc ai 1; gcrms sifmemìs hce ocremam ai 7 gcrms.
 Q.@.\.-X.Q.I.@., `æfdti qui ec aini sir rinmsmac aurmeti fís ai =9 fdeutcs.
 Q.@.\.H., qui ldom ue vm`cr tihgc qui ec aini sir scnripmsmac ie edebÿe
fcfietc.
Æeadhi ai Gmnir
Hcesdairm i` prcauhtc ai `m Hcehietrmhdøe h pcr i` tdifpc ai ixpcsdhdøe t, istmnìhdieac

ue æeadhi ai dsctcxdhdama Q, aildedac pcr
Q6hxt
Xi puiai cnsirvmr qui ietri i` æeadhi ai Gmnir y i` QRM si hufpì?
H x t 6 Q.R.M. x 7
Xd `m pirfmeiehdm ai` trmnmomacr ie i` ùbmr ai `cs bmsis tøxdhcs ec is hcetdeumam, si

hufp`drí?
 H
H d x t d 0 Q.R.M. x 7
hce Hd 0 Q.@\. ‘ H

I` hcehiptc ai` æeadhi Q.@.\.- X.Q.I.@. ie `cs vm`cris mafdsdnìs "aurmeti pirdcacs
hcrtcs", y qui hcrrispceai, pcr ioifp`c, m` pmsc ai ue tmpøe ai bmsis ai uem vc`maurm.
<> ai =7;
Æeadhi M]D (Mdr ]um`dty èaix)
Isti æeadhi vm`crm ie hceouetc tcams `ms fmtirdms tøxdhms qui puiaie ixdstdr ie i` mfndieti
y vmì?
HC EC  XC
> ^HA  EC> ^HA
M]D  9;  >9  =,9  8  >   =,> 8  >
^HA 6 pmrtæhu`ms rispdrmnìs prchiaietis ai` hcfnustdnì, ie fb/f8.
HC, EC, XC> y EC> ie ppf.
Xd `cs hcetiedacs ai XC> y EC> sce eu`cs, `cs pmräetisds sce eu`cs tmfndäe. I` æeadhi M]D
ec is bieirm`fieti usmac hcfc hrdtirdc `dfdtmtdvc, sdec hcfc deadhmtdvc ai `m
hcetmfdemhdøe bieirm` ai `m mtføslirm.
Ie i` humarc MF-=, si risufi

r isufi i` sdbedldhmtdvc ai istcs æeadhis y ie MF->, m`buecs vm`cris
sdbedldhmtdvcs.
HYMA^C MF-=
Qdpc ai æeadhis Hmrmhtiræstdhms
Q.R.M. @æfdti fíx

fíxdfc
dfc pmrm ue trmnmoc ai 1;g sifmemìs hce ocremams
ocremams ai 7 g.
Q.@\. XQI@ @æfdti pmrm ec sir rinmsmac aurmeti fís ai =9 fdeutcs.
Q@\-H @æfdti pmrm ec sir scnripmsmac.

scnripmsmac.
FMH @æfdti fíxdfc pmrm ue trmnmoc ai 17 g m `m sifmem y 7 g admrdms.
 =,9 
HC EC XC ^HA  EC> ^HA
M]D    >    =,> 
9; >9  8 >  8 >
Q@\ QgrisgcDa @dfdt \mùi.
FMH
M]D Fmxdfm` M``cwmnì
Mdr Cum`dty Deaix. Hcehietrmtdce.
8
^HA Xø`dacs prchiaietis ai` hcfnustdnì (fb/f ).
HYMA^C MF->
Q@\-QRM
BMX CNXI^\MHDCEIX
ZppfV Z%V
C> - =4
HC 9; 9; [.i. ie Hmemam tdiei vm`cris ietri >; y 89 ppf ie luehdøe ai `m prcvdehdm.
HC> 9;;; ;.9
EC >9 ;.;;>9
EC> 8 ;.;;;8 Xibÿe FXGM, is 9 pmrm fdems ec fití`dhms y > ppf pmrm fdems ai hmrnøe.
ECx 9 ;.;;;9
>
XG
XC> =;
8 ;.;;=;
;.;;;8
<8 ai =7;
=.8 Cnoitdvc ai `m vietd`mhdøe

=.8
I` cnoitdvc ai `m vietd`mhdøe is prcpcrhdcemr uem hmetdama ai mdri suldhdietifieti rdhm ie

cxdbiec pmrm m`dfietmr tcams `ms lcrfms
l crfms ai hcfnustdøe.
Yem fm`m vietd`mhdøe puiai sir aindam m?
 @m prclueadama ai `m fdem (m`tm tifpirmturm), aceai `ìbm mdri hm`dieti y ec si gmhi

hcelcrtmnì i` mfndieti ai trmnmoc pmrm i` trmnmomacr.
 @ms fm`ms hceadhdceis ai` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe? @cebdtua, sihhdøe,

drribu`mrdamais, ith. qui dehrifietme `m risdstiehdm ai `m fdem y pcr tmetc si
adsfdeuyi `m hmetdama ai mdri ie `ms írims ai trmnmoc.
 @m fm`m utd`dzmhdøe ai `ms puirtms ai vietd`mhdøe c ai `cs ribu`macris ai hmuam`, ec

hcesdbudieac uem adstrdnuhdøe mprcpdmam ai` mdri ie i` írim ai trmnmoc.
 @m prisiehdm ai hmetdamais mecrfmìs ai bmsis echdvcs qui dfpdaie i` trmnmoc.
 Gufiama ai` mdri, ym qui ue vm`cr m`tc ai `m fdsfm ecs am uem tifpirmturm
iqudvmìeti qui `m gmhi fiecs scpcrtmnì.
 Ec rispitmr `cs rib`mfietcs y hcesdbems istmnìhdams gmhdieac `ìbmr fiecr

hmetdama ai hmuam` ai mdri qui `c qui ecs deadhm `m ìbds`mhdøe.
[mrm cntieir uem hcrrdieti ai mdri si prihdsme?
 Ietrmam ai mdri
 Xm`dam ai mdri
 Adliriehdm ai prisdøe
@m hcrrdieti ai mdri vm gmhdm aceai `m prisdøe is fiecr.
I` hdrhudtc qui sibudrí istm hcrrdieti aipieairí ai `m adstrdnuhdøe ai `ms risdstiehdms

mircadeífdhms mhcrai m `ms ìyis ai Jdrhggcll. Xd quirifcs hmfndmr istm adstrdnuhdøe, ec
tieifcs fís qui m`tirmr istms risdstiehdms, (hcfpuirtms, ribu`macris, tmndquis,…) y
fcadldhmr `ms prisdceis qui bieirme `cs vietd`macris.
<1 ai =7;
> HCEHI[QC AI ÎXDXQIEHDM MI^CADEÍFDHM
Hcesdairifcs uem `mncr fdeirm, ie `m qui ec ixdstie mpcrtmhdceis ed ishmpis ai mdri.

Mhiptifcs `m mprcxdfmhdøe, ví`dam ecrfm`fieti ie `cs prcnìfms ai vietd`mhdøe ai fdems,
ai qui i` pisc ispihældhc ai` mdri  ec vmræm m `c `mrbc ai `m `mncr?
I` hmuam` ai mdri qui rihcrri `m `mncr istí aildedac y is ] f8/s.
Xi aildei `m hmrbm W ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri ie uem sihhdøe ai `m `mncr, pcr `m ixprisdøe?
\>
W  p       _ (Jb/f> c ffhm)
>b
Xi aifuistrm qui W is uem luehdøe pctiehdm` c luehdøe ai puetc.
@m päradam ai hmrbm ietri `cs puetcs, = y >, sirí
 \=>   \>> 
W  W =  W >   p=       _=    p >       _ > 
 >b   >b 
Xi aildei `m risdstiehdm ^ ai istm `mncr fdeirm (bmìræm, pczc, tm`ìr, ith.) pcr `m
` m ixprisdøe
 W =; 8  W
^  >
(jd`cfurbui s) c ndie ^  >
(furbuis) =
] ]
Xd ie ùbmr ai ] hcesdairmfcs isti fdsfc hmuam` rilirdac m hceadhdceis ai =9»H y 2<;

ffGb, pmrm i` hum` c 6 =,>><, tiearifcs i` ``mfmac hmuam` ecrfm` ]c, m pmrtdr ai` hum` si
W
aildei `m risdstiehdm ecrfm` hcfc ^ c  >

]c
Is dfpcrtmeti rihcramr qui?
@m risdstiehdm ai uem `mncr fdeirm sø`c aipieai ai sus hmrmhtiræstdhms bicfätrdhms y ai`
pisc, ispihældhc
ispihældhc ai` mdri.
Xi aildei `m risdstiehdm ispihældhm (^ s) `m qui tiearæm uem `mncr fdeirm rihcrrdam pcr mdri ai
pisc ispihældhc c 6 =,>><
=,>>< jb/f¸. Xi hufp
hufpìì qui?
>
]  c    ^
^  ^   
 :    :  : c  c : W  ^ s ] > y W  c ^s ]c>
]c  ^ c   c  ^ s  c ^ s   c 
=
= Jd`cfurbui (=J ) = Rids nmhg (Rn):
>
Es 8 Es > [ Z [mV
= 6 4 .7= 
=;  aceai ^ Z V 
f7 f7 ]Z f 8
V
s
<9 ai =7;
>.= Ixprisdøe bieirm` ai `m risdstiehdm ai uem bmìræm

>.=
@m lørfu`m bieirm` ai `m risdstiehdm ai uem bmìræm is?
=; 8     [  @     [  @   [  @
^  =>
,21 : sd  c  =,>>< ^ s  =9 ,< 8

7b X8 X8 X
aceai?
 b is `m mhiìrmhdøe ai `m brmviama (4.7= f/s)
 κ is
is i` hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc
[
 θ is `m aiesdama ai` lùdac (Jb/f8), mprcxdfmamfieti?   ; ,1<> (ffGb/¿J)
Qs
 [ 6 piræfitrc ai `m bmìræm (f).
 @ 6 `cebdtua ai `m bmìræm (f).
 X 6 sihhdøe rihtm (f>). Xd `m bmìræm istí scstiedam pcr humarcs, X is `m sihhdøe

detirdcr ai` humarc.
Xd `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai `m bmìræm vmræme ietri sus ixtrifcs, si `m puiai aishcfpceir ie

trmfcs @d y `m risdstiehdm
r isdstiehdm tctm` vmì?
     [  @ 
^   ^ d   => ,21 d d 8 d d 
 Xd 
Hcildhdieti ai lcrfm
Xi aildei i` hcildhdieti ai lcrfm ai uem bmìræm pcr `m ixprisdøe?
[ [
   ; ,>7>
>  X X
@
Ie luehdøe ai` hum` `m risdstiehdm vdiei amam pcr? ^  19    y
X > ,9
@
^s  99
 
X > ,9
Xd `m bmìræm istí chupmam hce fmtirdm` y/c cnstíhu`cs, (tuniræms, hdetms trmespcrtmacrms,
trieis, ith.) su risdstiehdm mufietm. I` euivc vm`cr si cntdiei fu`tdp`dhmeac `m risdstiehdm
ai `m bmìræm vmhæm pcr ue hcildhdieti ai cnstíhu`cs I, hce `c hum`?
@
^s  99   I
X > ,9
<< ai =7;
M`buecs vm`cris príhtdhcs ai  puiaie cntieirsi ie `ms tmn`ms qui sdbuie fís mnmoc.
>.> îsdstiehdm ai bmìræms (\m`cris ai` hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc)
>.>
I` hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc ai uem bmìræm si cntdiei pcr `m ixprisdøe?
  ; , 2  p  ; ,8  s
aceai?
 p 6 hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc ai `ms pmriais
s 6 hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc ai` sui`c
^CHM AIXEYAM 
[mria ndie rihcrtmam p
;,;97
[mria fiadm ;,;71
[mria drribu`mr ;,=;7
BM@I^ÆMX NY@CEMAMX  p
[mria ndie rihcrtmam ;,;97
[mria fiadm ;,;71
[mria drribu`mr ;,=;7
[mria hce ti`m fití`dhm ;,=8;
BM@I^ÆMX Î\IXQDAMX  p
Gcrfdbøe `dsc ;,;>>
Nuie istmac ;,;>9
M`nmýdìræm Istmac fiadc ;,;8;
Drribu`mr ;,;1;
@cs vm`cris ai  qui si ixpceie, hcrrispceaie m uem bmìræm ai =; f> ai sihhdøe. [mrm
vm`cris adstdetcs, i` vm`cr hcrrispceadieti puiai cntieirsi pcr `m ixprisdøe?
 =;
 
 ; ,>9 `cb X >
; ,29
Ioifp`c?
[mrm X 6 =9 f>  =9 6 ;,4 =;
[mrm X 6 9 f>  9 6 =,=9 =;
<2 ai =7;
ECQM?
>
 
 =,2<  > `cb X=; 
 I  
@m ixprisdøe hcfpìtm is    =;  
 X 
 =,2<  > `cb I  
[mrm I 6 ; (bmìræm `dsm)   6 =;
 =;
[mrm I 6 ;,=9 (bmìræm hce ietdnmhdøe)   
 ; ,>9 `cb X >
; ,29
Xi aildei?
d 6 [rclueadama ai `ms drribu`mrdamais ai `m pmria (hf)

a 6 Aislmsi ietri humarcs hcesihutdvcs (hf), fiadac pirpieadhu`mrfieti m` ioi ai `m
bmìræm.
t uvdirme bumreihdacs adlirietis, i` vm`cr ai  p si cntiearæm pcr `m ixprisdøe?

Xd `ms adstdetms tuvdirme
 p= ` =   p > ` >   p8 ` 8

 p 
`=  ` >  ` 8
>.8 Bmìræms hce cnstíhu`cs

>.8
Hcesdairifcs uem bmìræm vmhæm ai risdstiehdm ^ b.
Xd ie i``m ixdstie advirscs fmtirdmìs, tmìs hcfc tuniræms, trmespcrtmacris, trieis, ith.
ästcs detrcauhie risdstiehdms supìfietmrdms ^ =, ^ >, ^ e.
@m risdstiehdm tctm` ai `m bmìræm sirí?
 ^ ^ 
^  ^ b  ^=  ....  ^ e  ^ b =  =  ....  e   ^ b =   =  ....   e   ^ b  I
 ^ > ^ b 
@`mfmrifcs hcildhdieti I hcildhdieti ai cnstíhu`cs y m` tärfdec = tmsm ai cnstíhu`cs.

M hcetdeumhdøe virifcs høfc si aitirfdem `m risdstiehdm detrcauhdam pcr `cs sdbudietis
cnstíhu`cs?
 Quniræms y hmem`dzmhdcei
hmem`dzmhdceis.
s.
 [uetmìs ai riluirzc.
 Nmrrirms ai pc`vc y ai mbum
 Destm`mhdceis c aipøsdtcs ai fmtirdmìs.
 Hdetms trmespcrtmacrms.
 Hmscs sdebu`mris.
<7 ai =7;
>.1 îsdstiehdm madhdcem` aindam m `ms tuniræms

>.1
^  ^b  I j
 X     j  [j 
8
I j   X   X j   =

   [ 
Aceai X y [ sce `m sihhdøe y i` piræfitrc ai `m bmìræm y X j y [j sce `m sihhdøe y i`

piræfitrc ai hmam tuniræm.
\m`cris ai j
j 6
6 ;,;>9 pmrm `ms tuniræms ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm.
j 6 puiai m`hmezmr ;,;99 pmrm `ms tuniræms hce nrdams fuy scnrism`dietis y hce
suspiesdceis lrihuietis.
Xd ``mfmfcs aj m`
m` adífitrc ai `m tuniræm, `m
` m ixprisdøe metirdcr tcfm `m sdbudieti lcrfm pmrm
i` hmsc ai bmìræms ai tdpc ecrfm` ( 6 ;,=,  6 =,=9)?
>
 aj    aj 
I j  =  > ,1    ; ,>   , sd  j  ; ,;>9
 X   X 
>
 aj   ; ,1  aj , sd   ; ,;99
I j  =  > ,1      j
 
X  
X
I` vm`cr fiadc is?

>
 aj   ; ,8  aj 
I j  =  > ,1     
 X   X 
LC^FY@M XDF[@DLDHMAM
Ai lcrfm sdfp`dldhmam puiai tcfmrsi? Ij  a j   j  ; ,=9  a j 

 =  ; ,=9
>.9 îsdstiehdm ai `ms hdetms trmespcrtmacrms

>.9
Isti is ue hmsc pmrtdhu`mr ai cnstíhu`c ie uem bmìræm, ie i` hum` i` mdri si ld`trm m trmväs ai
`m istruhturm ai `m hdetm ai sihhdøe X.
Xd ``mfmfcs ] m` hmuam` ai mdri tctm` qui hdrhu`m pcr `m bmìræm y ]— m` qui `c gmhi pcr `m
sihhdøe `dnri X' 6 X -s, si tdiei?
td iei?
] 6 f ² ]—
<4 ai =7;
Ldburm dùstrmtdvm ai `ms sihhdceis.
@m risdstiehdm hcfpìfietmrdm ^ h aindam m acs hdetms ixdstietis ie uem bmìræm si cntdiei

pcr `m ixprisdøe?
8
   X  
^ h  =  >    ^b
f= f >  X   s 
Xd sø`c ixdstdisi uem hdetm f> 6 =: y > 6 =.
I` hcildhdieti ai cnstíhu`cs is?

8
   X 
I h  = >   
f= f>  X   s 
\m`cris ai f?
Hdetm hc`chmam scnri i` sui`c f 6 =,;7.
Hdetm suspieadam f 6 =,=<.
\m`cr ai ?
Ie su hí`hu`c detirvdiei i` hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc h ai` mdri hcetrm `m istruhturm ai`
trmespcrtmacr. Xi tcfmrí h 6 ;,>=.
\M@CÎX EC^FM@IX AI Ih (X 6 =; f> hdetm ai =,> =,>))

Hdetms ie pcsdhdøe `mtirm` =,7
Hdetms ie pcsdhdøe `mtirm` >,>
Hdetms ie pcsdhdøe hietrm` >,<
>.< îsdstiehdms `chmìs

>.<
Istms risdstiehdms, fuy `chm`dzmams ie puetcs sdebu`mris tmìs hcfc istrihgmfdietcs c

iesmehgmfdietcs nrushcs, hmfndcs ai adrihhdøe prceuehdmacs, ith. si ainie m `ms päradams
ai hmrbm ie `m hcrrdieti ai mdri pcr tcrni``decs y turnuìehdms detirems.
Ecrfm`fieti, su vm`cr is piquiýc y ec si tdiei ie huietm pmrm i` hí`hu`c sd `ms sihhdceis

ai
ie pmsc sce brmeais.
`cs hceauhtcs Xc`mfieti
ai ietrmam is prihdsc
y scnri tcac aitcfmr`ms
ritcrec ie hcesdairmhdøe
bieirm` humeac
ai `m hcrrdieti aisimdri,
prcauhie
ie `cs
>
humìs i` vm`cr ai ] puiai sir fuy iìvmac y, ie hcesihuiehdm, i` ai W 6 ^ ] .
2; ai =7;
8 YEDAMAIX AI ÎXDXQIEHDM
Hcfc ym si gmnæm hcfietmac, `m lørfu`m bieirm` ai `m risdstiehdm ai uem bmìræm is?

8
^Z  V  =;     [

X 8  , aceai?
@
7 b
is `m risdstiehdm ai `m bmìræm ixprismam ie furbuis ZV

^ is
b is `m mhiìrmhdøe ai `m brmviama (4.7= f/s)
κ is
is i` hcildhdieti ai lrctmfdietc (Madfiesdcem`)
θ is `m aiesdama ai` mdri (Jb/f8), hmfndmfcs m `m ectmhdøe  Z Jb / f 8 V
[ 6 piræfitrc ai `m bmìræm (f).
( f).
@ 6 `cebdtua ai `m bmìræm (f).
X 6 sihhdøe rihtm (f>).
Xd [ Z ffhmV  ^Z J  V  ] > Z f 8 / s V  =; 8  ^Z  V  ] > Z f 8 / s V
>
Maifís,
[ Z [mV  b
Zf / s V  [ ZffhmV
Ietcehis? 8 > 8 =;8   ( )  [  @
8
[ Z [mV  b  =;  ^Z  V  ] Z f / s V  b  =;  8
 ]>
7 b X
8 > 8 =; 8   { }  [  @

8
[ Z [mV  b =;  ^Z  V  ] Zf / s V  b  =;  8
 ]>
7 b X
[cr tmetc?
=     [  @
[ Z [mV   8
 ]>
7 X
[cr ctrc `mac, `m ihumhdøe ai ai Hgizy Amrzy?

>
[ Z [mV  l  @  [    u , aceai
X >
l? lmhtcr ai lrdhhdøe (mhcrai m` admbrmfm ai Fccay)
@? `cebdtua ai hceauhtc
u? vi`chdama ai` lùdac
y ym qui Mtjdesce, mbrupm i` lmhtcr ai lrdhhdøe y `m aiesdama fiadmeti `m ri`mhdøe?
l  
J  ai tm` fmeirm qui am pmsc m ue hcildhdieti j qui si aiecfdem Lmhtcr ai
>
lrdhhdøe ai Mtjdesce.
Istc dfp`dhm ue hmfndc ie `m ixprisdøe ai `m prisdøe qui ameac?

[ [
[ Z [mV  j  @   u >  j  @  8
 ] > Ihumhdøe ai Mtjdesce.
X X
2= ai =7;
[cr `c tmetc, pcaifcs cnsirvmr ie prdfir ùbmr qui gmy uem ri`mhdøe adrihtm ietri i`
l  
hcildhdieti ai Mtjdesce y i` lmhtcr ai lrdhhdøe. J 
>
[cr tmetc, dbum`meac `ms acs ixprisdceis
[ Z [mV  =      [  @  ] >

7 X 8
[ [ l   [
[ Z [m V  j  @   u >  j  @  8
]>   @  8
 ]>
X X > X
Qieifcs qui?
=     [  @
l   [
[ Z [mV   8
 ] >   @  8  ] >
7 X > X
Ai mquæ si hcehùyi qui?

l  
 c `c qui is `c fdsfc, qui l 
> 7 1
l  
y puistc qui? J 
>
ldem`fieti? 7  j
 

[cr ctrc `mac pcaifcs ri`mhdcemr isti hcildhdieti l hce `m rubcsdama ri`mtdvm i/A ai `ms
fiadmeti `m ixprisdøe ai \ce Jírfíe, aceai i is `m m`turm fiadm ai
pmriais ai` hceauhtc fiadmeti
ai `ms drribu`mrdamais y A is i` adífitrc gdaríu`dhc ai` hceauhtc c bmìræm, ixprismacs
tmetc i hcfc A ie `ms fdsfms uedamais.
J  > =
l    1> `cb (a / i)  =.=1>
=;
Ihumhdøe ai \ce Jírfíe
C `c qui is `c fdsfc,
J  > =
l  1    
 > `cb=; (a / i)  =.=1>
aceai si puiai vir `m ri`mhdøe ietri l , j y  y su aipieaiehdm hce `m aiesdama.
2> ai =7;
Mhtum`fieti si tdieai m utd`dzmr `cs hcildhdietis ai Mtjdesce y lmhtcr ai lrdhhdøe l , lrieti m`
hcildhdieti ai lrdhhdøe , ym qui istcs prdfircs hcildhdietis sce `cs qui si dehcrpcrme ie `m
fmycræm ai `cs prcbrmfms ai hí`hu`c ai riais ai vietd`mhdøe.
îm`fieti sce hcfpmrmnìs  y l, ym qui istcs sce madfiesdcemìs. I` lmhtcr j ai Mtjdesce,
tdiei uedamais ai aiesdama?
l  
J 
>
@ms uedamais ai j `ms pcarifcs iehcetrmr ie acs lcrfms deadstdetms, ie jb/f¸ y ie Es>/f1
E  s >  f  s > jb

  jb >   1  8
f1  s  f f
[cr ctrc `mac, tmetc  , l y j sce lmhtcris c hcildhdietis ai lrdhhdøe, ec uedamais ai
risdstiehdm. M isti edvi` siríe hcfpmrmnìs uedamais ai risdstiehdm furbui,  y `m uedama
 s >
E 
f7
Ie `m fmycræm ai Iurcpm y ai `m metdbum Y^XX, si utd`dzmnm hcfc uedama ai risdstiehdm

mircadeífdhm fdeirm i` furbui ZV c jd`cfurbui Zj V. [mrm ue hmuam` ai = f¸/s y = ffhm
ai prisdøe, tiearifcs uem risdstiehdm ai vm`cr =, ietcehis hcfc uedama ai risdstiehdm si
aildei? `m risdstiehdm qui cpcei m` pmsc ai` mdri uem `mncr pcr `m hum` = f¸/s ai mdri hdrhu`m
hce uem aiprisdøe ai = ffhm.
I` hmuam` sdifpri `c hcesdairmfcs ie uedamais ai Zf¸/sV, ietcehis, ie luehdøe ai høfc si

hcesdairi `ms uedamais ai [risdøe tiearifcs?
E  s >
[ Z [mV  ^ Z 7
V  ] > Zf 8 / s V
f
[ Z ffhmV  ^ Z j  V  ] > Z f 8 / s V
Ie hmsc ai hcesdairmr `m prisdøe ie ff ai hcùfem ai mbum (ffhm), `m risdstiehdm tiearí

uedamais ai jd`cfurbui Zj V, pcr tmetc, pmrm tieir `m risdstiehdm
r isdstiehdm ie uedamais ai furbuiZV?
8
[ Z ffhmV  =; ^Z  V  ] > Z f 8 / s V
[uistc qui ri`mhdcemfcs `ms uedamais ai prisdøe [m y ffhm fiadmeti b64.7=Zf/s>V
Zf / s > V  [ ZffhmV
[ Z [mV  b
Hce `c qui hcehùdfcs qui
> 8 > 8 E  s >
[ Z [mV  b Zf / s V  =;  ^Z 
V  ] Zf / sV  ^Z 7
V  ] > Zf 8 / s V
f
c `c qui is `c fdsfc?
^Z 7 V  b Zf / s > V  =; 8  ^Z  V  4.7==;8  ^Z  V
E s >
f
28 ai =7;
8.= Crdldhdc Iqudvmìeti

8.=
[cr crdldhdc iqudvmìeti ai uem fdem si ietdieai `m mpirturm τ ie uem pmria ai`bmam pcr `m
hum`, nmoc `m delùiehdm ai `m adliriehdm a prisdceis ie mfncs `macs ai `m pmria, dbum` m `m
aiprisdøe ai `m fdem, pmsm uem hmetdama ai mdri m `m qui pmsm pcr `m fdem. I` crdldhdc
iqudvmìeti hmrmhtirdzm h`mrmfieti `ms fdems rispihtc m` brmac ai adldhu`tma ai su
vietd`mhdøe.
.
= =;;;
 Zf > V  ;.87   ;.87  .
^Z j  V ^Z  V
Hcfc ioifp`c, ie ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe aceai tieifcs i` puetc ai luehdcemfdietc ai

ue vietd`macr sdbudieti?
[6=;;; [m 6 =;=.41 ffhm

]69; f8/s
^ 6 1;.22
.229 fu
furb
rbii Z V:
hce 6=.77 Zf> V
Isti vm`cr si utd`dzm lrihuietifieti hcfc riliriehdm ai `m ivcùhdøe ai `m risdstiehdm ai `m

fdem. Adhgm risdstiehdm hmfndm m fiadam qui `ms fdems ivcùhdceme ie sus aismrrc``cs y
`mncris, pcr `c qui si dehrifietm `m risdstiehdm y adsfdeuyi pcr tmetc i` crdldhdc
iqudvmìeti. Istc dfp`dhm qui pmrm i` fdsfc riquirdfdietc ai mdri, `m prisdøe qui si vm m
eihisdtmr sirí supirdcr hce ilihtcs eibmtdvcs pmrm i` sdstifm?
 Xi vm m eihisdtmr fís pctiehdm ie `cs vietd`macris pmrm hcesibudr i` hmuam`

riquirdac.
 [caræm gmhir desirvdnì i` vietd`macr m` ec tieir `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms mprcpdmams
 M` trmnmomr m fís prisdøe ie `m fdem, i` edvi` ai lubms ai mdri dehrifietm
dfpcrtmetifieti, `c qui riaueam ie fmycr hmetdama ai fcvd`dzmac pcr i`
vietd`macr, y pcr tmetc, fmycr hcesufc ieirbätdhc.
 @ms puirtms, ixhùsms y tmndquis gme ai istmr ie fuy nuiems hceadhdceis scnri tcac
ie `m prcxdfdama ai `cs vietd`macris.
Ie `m fmycræm ai `ms fdems ai hmrnøe suntirríeims h`ísdhms ai Iurcpm, `cs vm`cris ai

crdldhdc iqudvmìeti si iehuietrme hcfprieadacs ietri =.7 f¾ y >.7 f¾. Fdeiræm fití`dhm,
hce mfp`dms sihhdceis ai bmìræms, tiearíe fmycr crdldhdc iqudvmìeti, y ästi sirí mÿe
fmycr humetc fms ‐rmfms ie pmrmì`c‖ tiebm `m
` m ixp`ctmhdøe.
21 ai =7;
1 [@MEDLDHMHDØ
[@MEDLDHMHDØE
E AI @M \IEQD@MHDØE
Xdifpri qui si gm ai p`medldhmr `m vietd`mhdøe ai `m fdem gmy qui piesmr ie qui hcesdsti `m
fdsfm, is aihdr vir qui ùbmris ixdstie, qui prchiscs si `ìvme m hmnc ie i``cs, qui tdpc ai
sdebu`mrdamais si tiearíe m``æ, ith. [cr tmetc, sirí hceviedieti gmhir ue `dstmac ai vmrdmnìs
qui si vme m istuadmr pmrm pcair tieir uem vdsdøe ai hceouetc?
 Luietis ai hm`cr emturm` y mrtdldhdm` ie `m fdem.

 Iqudpcs ie usc y pmrm usmr.
 Ifdsdceis ai `cs bmsis prcauhtcs ai hcfnustdøe (Adisi`).
 Ixpcsdhdøe ai sustmehdms amýdems.
 Qdifpcs ai pirfmeiehdm ai `cs hcetmfdemetis.
 Hcetrc` ai` luibc.
 Hcfpìodama ai` hdrhudtc y hcstis ai aismrrc``c.
 Lìxdnd`dama ai` hcetrc` ai` hdrhudtc.
 Xdstifms ai vietd`mhdøe muxd`dmr.
 \i`chdama ie pczcs y mhhiscs ai trmespcrti.

 îquirdfdietcs ìbds`mtdvcs.
 Edvi` ai hcfcadama.
hcfcadama.
@ms luietis ai hm`cr dehrifietmríe `m tifpirmturm ai` mdri, pcr `c qui gmnrí qui adstdebudr
`ms qui si iehuietrie ie i` prcpdc lrieti ai trmnmoc y `ms qui si iehuietrme m `c `mrbc ai `m
fdem. @ms fíqudems ai trmnmome, `cs trmeslcrfmacris i`ähtrdhcs, dùfdemhdøe, ith. sce
luietis mrtdldhdmìs ai hm`cr, pirc `m tifpirmturm ai `m rchm is uem luieti emturm`.
Ivdaietifieti, `cs lrietis ai trmnmoc, aceai tiearifcs rchm ‐vdrbie‖ y aceai tiearifcs
brme pmrti ai `m fmqudemrdm, (tmetc hce fctcris ai hcfnustdøe detirem hcfc i`ähtrdhcs),
siríe zcems aceai si bieiri hm`cr, y ie hcehritc, aceai si hcehietrmrí pirscem` ixpuistc m
tifpirmturms dfpcrtmetis sd ec si adfiesdcem maihumamfieti `m vietd`mhdøe.
Ie `cs qui si rildiri m `ms pcsdnd`damais ai riauhhdøe ai hm`cr, `m fmycr delùiehdm ai `ms
hceadhdceis h`dfítdhms ai `ms fdems gcrdzcetmìs is `m ai `m tifpirmturm ai `m rchm y `ms
luietis ai hm`cr `chmìs, hcfc puiaie sir?
 [czc ai ixtrmhhdøe y iqudpcs ai trmespcrti, ispihdm`fieti `cs mutcprcpu`smacs pcr

fíqudems ai hcfnustdøe detirem, msæ hcfc tmfndäe turndems, vietd`macris, ncfnms
y `ms destm`mhdceis ai mùfnrmac ietri ctrms.
 Fdeirm` ym ixtrmæac y trmespcrtmac m `c `mrbc ai `ms bmìræms.
 Hm`cr `mtieti ai `m gufiama qui si ivmpcrm aurmeti i` trmnmoc.
Aindac m` detirhmfndc ai hm`cr ietri `m rchm y i` mdri qui hdrhu`m pcr `m fdem, sirí
lmvcrmnì fmetieir `m sihhdøe a i fiecr írim pcsdnì ai hcetmhtc ietri mdri y `m rchm.
Yem fíqudem Adisi` utd`dzm mprcxdfmamfieti ;.>91 Jb ai hcfnustdnì pcr gcrm ai trmnmoc
yIstc
pcrsdbedldhm
JR ai pctiehdm
qui pcr =y JR
i` vm`cr hm`crældhcAdisi`
ai pctiehdm ai` hcfnustdnì Adisi`
si utd`dzm 8.>= JR.is 19.< FO/Jb ø 81 FO/`.
29 ai =7;
Istm ieirbæm ie lcrfm ai hm`cr y ai prcauhtcs ai rimhhdøe, dehùdac vmpcr ai mbum, si

trmesldiri m` mfndieti, pirc maifís `m ieirbæm ildhmz pmsm m hm`cr aurmeti `cs prchiscs ai
lrdhhdøe. [cr tmetc, `m fíqudem ai hcfnustdøe ifdti m` mfndieti m`riaiacr ai 8 vihis fís
hm`cr qui uem fíqudem ai fctcr i`ähtrdhc hce `m fdsfm pctiehdm ilihtdvm.
Yec ai `cs prcnìfms is `m ri`mhdøe ietri `m hcrrdieti ai mdri y `m hmpmhdama ai

rilrdbirmhdøe eihismrdm.
@c ecrfm` is msufdr qui `m tifpirmturm ai` mdri ie `ms zcems fís fmrbdemìs ai trmnmoc, ec
ixhiam ai` vm`cr istdfmac hcfc mhiptmnì. Xd istc ec si hcesdbudisi,
hcesdbudisi, si pcaræm mufietmr i`
‐pcair rilrdbirmeti‖, mufietmeac `m hmetdama ai mdri lrishc ie hdrhu`mhdøe. Maifís,
hcevdiei riauhdr `m supirldhdi ai hcetmhtc ietri `m delrmistruhturm ai ixp`ctmhdøe y i` mdri,
pmrm qui `m hisdøe ai hm`cr sim fiecr, pcr `c qui, maifís ai pcr ctrms hmusms, detirism
`ìvmr m hmnc uem nuiem hmfpmým ai riauhhdøe ai lubms, ivdaietifieti aietrc ai `cs
`æfdtis rmhdcemìs.
Maifís ai `m tifpirmturm, tieifcs bmsis y pc`vc qui si bieirme aurmeti `ms `mncris ai
trmnmoc, qui ie luehdøe ai` tdifpc ai ixpcsdhdøe gifcs ai bmrmetdzmr uecs hmuamìs ai mdri
mhcrai
tdpc ai mfdem
rihcfieamhdceis
y pmæs. c ie su hmsc m `cs riquirdfdietcs ìbds`mtdvc qui mlihtme m hmam
@cs hmuamìs ai mdri eihismrdcs gme ai sir mhcrais m `cs mhhiscs bmìræms, `mncris ai trmnmoc
y ritcrecs ai vietd`mhdøe, ai fmeirm qui ie hmam hmsc `ms vi`chdamais ai pmsc ai mdri istäe
aietrc ai `cs `æfdtis tmfndäe istmnìhdacs hcfc maihumacs, pcr ue `mac pcr hrdtirdcs ai
siburdama pmrm ivdtmr amýcs m` pirscem` y pcr ctrc `mac ihceøfdhcs, ym qui vi`chdamais
m`tms dfp`dhme prisdceis dfpcrtmetis, `c qui riaueam ie ue hcesufc i`ähtrdhc m`tc.
[cr ctrc `mac, `m crbmedzmhdøe ai bmìræms, pczcs, ietrmams y sm`dams ai mdri, ith., si gm ai
gmhir ai tm` fmeirm, qui meti `m eihisdama ai hmfndc ai eihisdamais ai vietd`mhdøe ie hmam
pmrti ai `m fdem aindac pcr ioifp`c m uem sdtumhdøe ai ifirbiehdm (luibc, hcehietrmhdøe
ai bmsis tøxdhcs,…) c pcr eihisdamais puetumìs ai hcehietrmhdøe ai prcauhhdøe (y pcr
tmetc pcr eihisdamais fmycris ai mdri), si puiam gmhir `m bistdøe fiadmeti ue hmfndc ai
risdstiehdms (puirtms, ribu`macris, tmndquis, ith..), ivdaietifieti, tcac istc scpcrtmac hce
ue scltwmri maihumac pmrm tieir uems istdfmhdøe fís rimìs.
Yem hcsm is i` hmuam` tctm` eihismrdc pmrm vietd`mr uem fdem y ctrm hcsm is gmhir su ripmrtc,
`ìvmeac i` mdri eihismrdc m hmam puetc ai trmnmoc. I` prøxdfc pmsc is trmnmomr hce `cs
‐adsiýmacris‖ p`medldhmacris y msdbemr ue hmuam` ai mdri hcesdairmeac i` hm`cr, ifdsdøe ai
bms, ìbds`mhdøe... ai hmam zcem ai trmnmoc, ivmùmeac `c qui si vm m iehcetrmr ie i``m. Is
aihdr eihisdama ai mdri sc`c pcr prisiehdm ai pirscem`, hcfc puiai sir i` hmsc ai
hcfiacris, cldhdems suntirríeims, írims ai ispirm, ith., c pcr i` hcetrmrdc `ms eihisdamais
pcr prcauhhdøe ai pc`vc, bmsis y tifpirmturm.
Ie i` hmsc ai `cs lceacs ai smhc gmy qui tieir ie humetm qui si eihisdtm ue hmuam` ai mdri
ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc, aindac m `ms lubms ai `ms tuniræms, si vm m tieir uem hmuam` supirdcr
ie i` vietd`macr
rihdrhu`mac, muxd`dmr. Maifís,
si adfiesdcem pmrm ivdtmr
bieirm`fieti qui debrisi
i` hmuam` fæedfcaipcr
euivc ie i` lceac
`m bmìræm ai smhc
prdehdpm` mdri
ue 8;%
fís ai hmuam`.
2< ai =7;
1.= Írims ai istuadc

1.=
 Ldomr írims ai prcauhhdøe?

 Iqudpmfdietc
Adfiesdceis yie usc ie hmam
isquifm írim y rutms ai
ai mhhisc trmespcrti
 Írims ai aismrrc``c (pripmrmhdøe) ldomams
 Iqudpcs ie usc ie hmam írim

 Adfiesdøe y isquifm ai mhhisc y rutms ai trmespcrti
 \ietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm
 ûtms ai trmespcrti (hmfdceis/ hdetms)
 Iqudpc ie usc ie hmam írim

 Adfiesdøe y isquifm ai mhhisc y rutms
 Qrdturmacrms y Fc`decs ([rdfmrdcs)

 ]uinrmetmacrms, trdturmacrms
 Istmhdceis ai hmrbm
 Dzmfdietc c ixtrmhhdøe ai` fdeirm` m` ixtirdcr
 _cems ai m`fmhiemfdietc?
 Ixp`csdvcs
 Bmscd`
 Hcesufdnìs ie bieirm`
 Hcfiacris y Írims ai ispirm
Ldem`fieti, uem rivdsdøe rmzcemnì ai `cs hdrhudtcs ai vietd`mhdøe y ai `cs vietd`macris

ixdstietis, hce i` lde ai mem`dzmr `cs puetcs siesdnìs ai hmam pmrti
1.> \ietd`macris
1.>
 Hmuam`
 [risdøe tctm`
 [ctiehdm riquirdam
 Hmpmhdama ai ripuistcs ‐de sdtu‖
 Hceadhdøe fihíedhm
 Hcsti ai fmetiedfdietc (privietdvc y mviræm)
 îpuistcs adspcednìs
Istc ecs pirfdtdrí uem fiocr bistdøe qui ecs pirfdtdrí p`medldhmr tiedieac ie huietm `cs
rihurscs ai `cs qui adspceifcs, privdieac hce meti`mhdøe `ms eihisdamais. @m prisdøe,
22 ai =7;
hmuam` y pctiehdm ai hmam iqudpc, ouetc hce `cs mhhiscrdcs ecs aildei hmam fíqudem, i`
ristc ai pmrífitrcs ecs deadhmrí `m ‐adspcednd`dama‖ ie i` tdifpc ai hmam iqudpc ie hmam
`mncr, ym qui ue fm` fmetiedfdietc y lm`tm ai ripuistcs, dfp`dhmrm qui meti uem mviræm
ism `mncr aiomrí ai istmr vietd`mam, hce tcacs `cs prcnìfms qui trmirí hcesdbc.
1.8 Hdrhudtc ai mdri

1.8
 Mdri utd`dzmac ilihtdvmfieti

 Mdri ec utd`dzmac ilihtdvmfieti
 Hcetrc` scnri `ms delrmistruhturm ai vietd`mhdøe
 \ietd`macris prcpu`scris (Nccstir lme) (hceadhdceis y sdtumhdøe)
 Írims ai prcnìfms
I` meí`dsds ai `m vietd`mhdøe is ue trmnmoc qui si aini rim`dzmr hcetdeumfieti, i` hcetrc` ai

lubms, tmetc ie `m vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm hcfc ie `m vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`, dfp`dhmríe ue
mgcrrc ieirbätdhc y ai iqudpcs dfpcrtmetis, maifís hce `ms fiadhdceis ai adstrdnuhdøe ai
mdri y hcetrc` aiprisdcfärdhc ai` sdstifm, pirfdtdríe adfiesdcemr y tcfmr aihdsdceis hce
brme mhdirtc.
 Ietrmam y Xm`dam ai Mdri
 Adfiesdceis læsdhms
 Iqudpmfdietc ie i` pczc
 Hmuam` ai mdri ie hmam sihhdøe
 [äradams ai hmrbm ietri sihhdceis
1.1 Hmetdama ai mdri eihismrdc

1.1
Hcevdiei huistdcemrsi `m hmetdama ai mdri eihismrdc pmrm `m vietd`mhdøe ai `m fdem ie hmam

fcfietc, ym qui bieirm`fieti, si tcfm hcfc riliriehdm `m hmetdama ai JR Adisi` ai `m
fíqudems prisietis
sdfu`tmeidama, ie `cs trmnmocs
ai fmeirm ie `m ixp`ctmhdøe,
qui fu`tdp`dhmac hce `cs hcesdbudieti
pcr `m hmetdama hcildhdietis
ai mdri ispihældhc sibÿe ai
`m
ìbds`mhdøe, ecs am i` hmuam` eihismrdc qui gm ai fcvd`dzmr i` vietd`macr. Istc tdiei ue
prcnìfm, ym qui m pismr ai qui `cs hcildhdietis ai utd`dzmhdøe ai `ms fíqudems adisi`
hmfndme ie luehdøe ai `m crbmedzmhdøe, p`medldhmhdøe, y scnri tcac ai `m ivcùhdøe ai `m
fdem, sdifpri si hcesdairme istcs hcildhdietis hcestmetis ie `cs `dnrcs ai vietd`mhdøe, pcr
`c qui ainiræm dehdadr ie isti tifm, ym qui m pismr ai qui si supirie `cs ;.;9 f 8/s/H\
Adisi`, puiai sir qui `m vietd`mhdøe puiam sir aifmsdmac oustm.
Xibÿe `m ixpirdiehdm ai ctrms fdems si rihcfdieam ifpizmr m humetdldhmr `ms eihisdamais

ai hmuam` ie `cs prcpdcs puetcs ai trmnmoc, ie `cs lceacs ai smhc.
27 ai =7;
Ie nmsi ie `m rihcfieamhdceis ai `m Ecrfm Xudzm, XDM =4< (=447), pmrm `m adùhdøe ai `cs
bmsis ai `ms fíqudems adisi` ie uem `mncr suntirríeim, ie `m qui si gmhi adstdehdøe ai sd `ms
fíqudems istíe c ec hmtm`dzmams, si h`msdldhm?
 [mrm fíqudems Ec Hmtm`dzmams?
c < f¸/fde pcr JR ai pctiehdm Adisi` pmrm fíqudems brmeais ai ixhmvmhdøe

y hmrbm. Istc hcrrispceai m ue rmtdc ;.;29 f¸/s/H\.
c 8 f¸/fde pcr JR ai pctiehdm Adisi` pmrm fíqudems ai trmespcrti ai
fdeirm` y ai gcrfdbøe. Istc hcrrispceai m ue rmtdc ;.;82 f¸/s/H\.
 [mrm fíqudems Hmtm`dzmams?
c 1 f¸/fde pcr JR ai pctiehdm Adisi` pmrm fíqudems brmeais ai ixhmvmhdøe

y hmrbm. Istc hcrrispceai m ue rmtdc ;.;142 f¸/s/H\.
c > f¸/fde pcr JR ai pctiehdm Adisi` pmrm fíqudems ai trmespcrti ai
fdeirm` y ai gcrfdbøe. Istc hcrrispceai m ue rmtdc ;.;>9 f¸/s/H\.
Ai uem fmeirm
hcildhdieti sdfp`dstm,
;.;8 f¸/s/H\ si `ms
y pmrm suiì mbrupmr tcams
ec hmtm`dzmams ;.;9`ms fíqudems
f¸/s/H\, pirc hmtm`dzmams, hce ue
istc aini gmhirsi ie
lmsis dedhdmìs ai prcyihtcs. Xde ietrmr ie aitm`ì ie lmsi ai p`medldhmhdøe y prcyihtcs ai
uem `mncr, si puiai utd`dzmr ;.;9 f¸/s/H\ hcfc rmtdc ai riliriehdm.
Ivdaietifieti, hmam pmæs tdiei sus rib`ms, sus ecrfms, qui sce `ms qui si ainie
hufp`dr, ym qui i` cnoitdvc prdehdpm` ai aitirfdemr i` hmuam` eihismrdc is qui ie hmam
pmrti ai `m fdem ie `m trmnmoi pirscem`, isti tiebm uems hceadhdceis ai trmnmoc
maihumams y qui istäe aietrc ai `cs `æfdtis
` æfdtis ai ixpcsdhdøe.
Xibÿe `m ixpirdiehdm, si istdfm ietri ue =;% y ue >9% i` hmuam` ai lubms ai mdri `dfpdc
qui pmsm adrihtmfieti m` ritcrec, sde ietrmr ie hcetmhtc hce i` iqudpmfdietc Adisi`. Ai
mquæ hcehùdfcs qui sd sufmfcs i` hmuam` eihismrdc ai tcacs `cs lceacs ai smhc, fís i`
qui is eihismrdc pmrm `mncris ie hcrrdieti ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`, y ì sufmfcs i` >9% ai
`ms lubms, ietcehis cntiearifcs mprcxdfmamfieti i` hmuam` eihismrdc qui ecs tdiei qui
fcvd`dzmr i` vietd`macr prdehdpm`.
1.9 \i`chdamais ai mdri

1.9
1.=.= \i`chdamais fæedfms
1.=.=
@ms vi`chdamais ai mdri is ue pmrífitrc dfpcrtmeti m tieir ie humetm pmrmì`mfieti

m `m eihisdama ai hmuam` aindac m `m adùhdøe ai bmsis. [cr `c bieirm`, ie `m fdeiræm
si rihcfdieame uems vi`chdamais fæedfms m hufp`dr, pirc vmrdmrí ie luehdøe ai`
tdpc ai fdem. Ie fdeiræm ai hmrnøe si istmnìhi uem vi`chdama ai ;.> f/s ie
bmìræms ie lceac ai smhc y ;,8 f/s sd is ie edviìs ie hmrnøe hce mvmehi hce
fdemacr. Xd uemvi`chdama
istmnìhi hcfc `mncr istí rihcrrdam
fæedfm pcr `m hcrrdieti ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm` si
;.9 f/s.
24 ai =7;
Ie fdems ie qui si utd`dzme fíqudems adisi`, si istmnìhie vi`chdamais fæedfms

hcfprieadams ietri ;.9 y = f/s ie luehdøe ai hmam pmæs c rihcfieamhdceis
pmrtdhu`mris ai hmam
hmam fdem.
1.=.> \i`chdamais fíxdfms

1.=.>
Xi `dfdtme, pcr fctdvcs advirscs, `ms vi`chdamais ai mdri aietrc ai uem fdem, `cs
prdehdpmìs fctdvcs puiaie sir pcr siburdama gmhdm i` pirscem` qui hdrhu`m aietrc
ai `m fdem y pcr `m bieirmhdøe ai pc`vc, hcfc pcr ioifp`c, utd`dzmr vi`chdamais ec
supirdcris m 9f/s ie hmsc ai rmfpms ai ietrmam pmrm ec detrcauhdr pc`vc m `m fdem.
[cr ctrc `mac, si puiaie istmnìhir hrdtirdcs ihceøfdhcs qui gmhie m edvi` ai
prcyihtc, piesmr i` `ms adfiesdceis ai `ms bmìræms y ai `cs pczcs ai vietd`mhdøe, ai
fmeirm qui `ms päradams ai hmrbm ec si adspmrie y qui prcvcqui ue dehrifietc ai
hcesufc ai ieirbæm ivdtmnì hce ue nuie adsiýc. Maifís, pmrm ue nuie
fmetiedfdietc ai `cs pczc ai vietd`mhdøe, si rihcfdieam ec ixhiair ai vi`chdama
supirdcr m >> f/s, ym qui `m supirldhdi ai` hceauhtc, sulrdrí uem ircsdøe fuy
dfpcrtmeti, hce `cs hcesdbudietis ilihtcs eibmtdvcs hcfc puiaie sir i` mufietcs
ai` hcildhdieti ai lrdhhdøe, i` mrrmstri ai fmtirdm` qui prcvchm amýcs ie `cs
vietd`macris ixtrmhtcris y iìfietcs qui puiam iehcetrmrsi m su pmsc, ith.
Írim Ietrmam/ritcrec \i`chdama \i`chdama

ai vietd`mhdøe øptdfm Fíxdfm
[czc ai vi
[czc viet
etd`
d`mh
mhdø
døee Ie
Ietr
trma
mam/
m/ri
ritc
tcre
recc =7 f/s
f/s >> f/s
f/s
[czcs ai trmespcrti pirscem` y fmtirdm` Ietrmam =; f/s =9 f/s
Írims ai Qrmnmoc - - 1 f/s
Mhhisc pcr p`mec deh`demac (aih`dei) Ietrmam 9 f/s 7f/s
Bmìræms pirscem` y trmespcrti fmtirdm` 1 f/s <f/s
Bmìræms hce hdetm trmespcrtmacrm =-8 f/s 9 f/s
Bmìræms ai ritcrec ai vietd`mhdøe îtcrec 7 f/s => f/s
Hce prisiehdm ai mbum ie pczcs ai vietd`mhdøe, si aini ivdtmr vi`chdamais ietri 2 y => f/s,
ym qui i` mbum tmpcem i` pczc (si prcauhi uem ispihdi ai einu`dzmhdøe) qui n`cquim i`
pmsc ai` mdri, isti
isti ilihtc is hce
hcechdac
chdac hcfc ‐‐N`mejit
N`mejit illiht‖.
7; ai =7;
9 HMF[MÝM AI FIADHDCEIX. MEM@DXDX

9.= I` hcetrc` ai `m vietd`mhdøe ie `ms fdems
9.=
Yem ai `ms prdehdpmìs rispcesmnd`damais ai` Adrihtcr ai uem fdem is i` hcetrc` ai `m

vietd`mhdøe. Ec sø`c tdiei qui hudamr ai qui i` mdri hdrhuì ie tcac fcfietc pcr `ms
bmìræms y pcr `ms ixp`ctmhdceis ie hmetdamais suldhdietis pmrm prchurmr `m siburdama, smùa
y ndieistmr ai` pirscem`: sdec qui ainirí prchurmr tmfndäe qui `cs hcstis ai vietd`mhdøe
sime tme nmocs hcfc sim pcsdnì. [mrm qui istc si `ìvi m hmnc ildhdietifieti y ai fmeirm
líhd`, ainiríe hufp`drsi tris riqudsdtcs isiehdmìs?
 @m hcrrdieti ai vietd`mhdøe tdiei qui sir fiadam hce ixmhtdtua.
 I` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe y sus adspcsdtdvcs ainiríe sir ildhdietis y siburcs.
 Xirí prihdsc istmnìhir ue sdstifm pmrm ribdstrmr `ms fiadams ai `m vietd`mhdøe,

adsiýmac ai fmeirm tm` qui prcpcrhdcei tcam `m delcrfmhdøe qui si eihisdtm pmrm
ioirhdtmr ue hcetrc` istrihgc ai` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe ie `m fdem.
Ie fuhgms fdems, i` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe si gm aismrrc``mac ie hdirtm fmeirm m` mzmr: pcr
hcesdbudieti, is pcsdnì qui puiame gmhirsi lrihuietifieti fiocrms dfpcrtmetis ie `m
vietd`mhdøe sde brmeais aisifnc`scs, fiadmeti uem ricrbmedzmhdøe ai `ms bmìræms ai
vietd`mhdøe: pirc edebuem ricrbmedzmhdøe ai` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe, ixhiptc sd is ai
piquiým dfpcrtmehdm ainirí sir `ìvmam m hmnc m fiecs qui gmym sdac aitirfdemac
privdmfieti su ilihtc ixmhtc scnri `m adstrdnuhdøe ai` mdri. Istc ixdbi lrihuietifieti uem
despihhdøe scnri `m prisdøe ai `m zcem c ai `m fdem y hdirtcs hcechdfdietcs ispihdmìs.
Qcac Adrihtcr qui pdiesi qui i` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe ai su fdem puiam sir
vietmocsmfieti ricrbmedzmac, ainirí piadr myuam m` Debiedirc ai \ietd`mhdøe ie su zcem,
i` hum` ainirí istmr adspcednì pmrm `ìvmr m ilihtc `ms devistdbmhdceis eihismrdms y gmhir
`cs hí`hu`cs prihdscs qui hceauzhme m `m fiocrm ai `m vietd`mhdøe.
9.> @ms fiadhdceis ai `m vietd`mhdøe

9.>
Ie tcams `ms fdems ainiræme gmhirsi ribu`mrfieti fiadhdceis ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri, ai `m

prisdøe ai` mdri, ai` hcetiedac ai pc`vc, y ai `m tifpirmturm y gufiama ai` mdri ai
vietd`mhdøe. Istms fiadhdceis tiearíe pchc vm`cr m fiecs qui sime gihgms hce hdirtm
ixmhtdtua. @m fiadhdøe ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri is uem ai `ms ai fmycr dfpcrtmehdm ietri `ms
qui tdieie qui sir gihgms, pirc lrihuietifieti is `m qui si gmhi hce fiecr ixmhtdtua. @ms
fiadhdceis ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri sce gihgms hmsd sdifpri pcr fiadc ai ue meiføfitrc ai
pmìtms. Xi puiai aihdr qui ue meiføfitrc ai pmìtms ie nuiems hceadhdceis y mprcpdmac
pcarí fiadr vi`chdamais ai mdri gmstm hce fiecs ai ue 8% ai irrcr. Fuhgms ai `ms
fiadhdceis ai mdri hcrrdietis gihgms ie `m fdem ec si mprcxdfme m isti brmac ai ixmhtdtua,
sdieac `ms prdehdpmìs rmzceis?
 I` ifpìc ai meiføfitrcs fm` hm`dnrmacs c qui gme piradac su hm`dnrmhdøe.
 Fmedpu`mhdøe demaihumam ai` destrufietc.
7= ai =7;
 Deixmhtdtua ie i` høfputc ai` tdifpc ai `ms fiadhdceis.
 Fiadhdøe deixmhtm ai `m supirldhdi trmesvirsm` ai `m

` m bmìræm ai vietd`mhdøe.
9.8 @cs Debiedircs ai vietd`mhdøe ai `ms zcems

9.8
Mÿe humeac i` Adrihtcr is i` rispcesmnì ai `m siburdama y ai `m ildhdiehdm ai `m

vietd`mhdøe ie su fdem, puiai sirì ai fuhgm myuam ue nuie Debiedirc ai \ietd`mhdøe ai `m
zcem. I` Debiedirc ai \ietd`mhdøe ai `m zcem aindirm myuamr m` Adrihtcr ie `m sdbudieti
lcrfm?
 Hudameac qui `ms fiadhdceis eihismrdms ai `m vietd`mhdøe sime tcfmams hce

ixmhtdtua ie i` fcfietc cpcrtuec y ie ùbmris hceviedietis.
 Hudameac qui `cs destrufietcs ifpìmacs si iehuietrie sdifpri ie pirlihtc istmac

ai hcesirvmhdøe
hcesirvmhdøe..
 Mvdsmeac m` Adrihtcr scnri hum`qudir puetc ai trmnmoc c zcem aceai `m vietd`mhdøe

is hcetdeumfieti desmtdslmhtcrdm, y gmhdieac `ms hcrrispceadietis rihcfieamhdceis
scnri `m fiocr fmeirm ai fiocrmr`m.
 Mavdrtdieac m` Adrihtcr scnri hum`qudir tieaiehdm qui sim deadhdc ai pcsdnìs

adldhu`tmais luturms ie `m vietd`mhdøe y mhcesioíeacì scnri `c qui hceviebm gmhir
pmrm ivdtmr`ms.
 Fiadmeti `m hc`mncrmhdøe hce i` aipmrtmfietc ai p`medldhmhdøe, pmrm msiburmr qui

`cs lrietis luturcs y `ms sihhdceis sime aismrrc``macs ai tm` fmeirm qui puiame sir
maihumam y ildhdietifieti vietd`macs. Hce lrihuiehdm, `m lm`tm ai ue p`metimfdietc
hceviedieti ai `m vietd`mhdøe
vietd`mhdøe gm amac hcfc
hcfc risu`tmac i` aismrrc``c ai lrietis hce
desuldhdieti mdri adspcednì,

risu`tmrme aifmsdmac c i` pmrm
piquiýms qui euivms bmìræmsm ai
`cs sirvdhdcs quimdrisiluisie gihgms cy qui
`ms aistdeme
istuvdisie sdtumams sde tieir ie huietm `cs luturcs aismrrc``cs m `mrbc p`mzc.
 Istuadmeac i` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe ai `m fdem pmrm vir sd puiai sir fiocrmac

fiadmeti uem ricrbmedzmhdøe c ripmrmhdøe bieirm`: tcfmeac tmfndäe `ms fiadams
eihismrdms, gmhdieac despihhdceis y hí`hu`cs ai fmeirm qui puiam mhcesiomr m`
Adrihtcr scnri i` ilihtc prihdsc ai hum`qudir m`tirmhdøe prcpuistm.
 Amr su hcesioc ai ixpirtc scnri prcnìfms ispihdmìs ai `m vietd`mhdøe, tmìs hcfc

i` hcetrc` ai `m vietd`mhdøe ie hmsc ai dehieadc c `m rimpirturm ai sihhdceis
mnmeacemams.
 [mrm qui i` Debiedirc ai \ietd`mhdøe ai `m zcem puiam myuamr m` Adrihtcr ai `m fdem
ai `ms adlirietis fmeirms qui mhmnme ai sir ieufirmams, ainirí hcbir uem mfp`dm y
bieirm` ixpirdiehdm fdeirm y tmfndäe gmnir rihdndac uem hmpmhdtmhdøe ispihdm`dzmam
qui ì pirfdtm pcsiir nuiecs hcechdfdietcs tähedhcs ai `m fmtirdm ai vietd`mhdøe.
[cr tmetc aindirm, pmrm su hcrrihtc aisifpiýc, sir uem pirscem hce aiadhmhdøe
7> ai =7;
ixhùsdvm, qui puiam lcrfmrsi ie istm fmtirdm ai lcrfm hcetdeumam y hmpmz ai

bistdcemr `cs rihurscs m su m`hmehi pmrm pcair `ìvmr m hmnc i` fmetiedfdietc y `m
p`medldhmhdøe ai` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe. Maifís, siræm hceviedieti, hdirtm
lcrfmhdøe ie prcbrmfms ispihældhcs ai hí`hu`c ai riais, pmrm msæ pcair humetdldhmr
y priaihdr tieaiehdms ai `m vietd`mhdøe meti hmfndcs luturcs ie `m fdem.
9.1 Xirvdhdc ai vietd`mhdøe ie `ms fdems

9.1
@m cn`dbmhdøe nísdhm ai` pirscem` ai vietd`mhdøe hcesdsti ie sufdedstrmr m `ms fdems ue

hmuam` ai mdri hcelcrfi hce `ms ixdbiehdms ai `m prcauhhdøe y `cs rib`mfietcs ai
siburdama.
@ms tmrims ai` sirvdhdc ai vietd`mhdøe sce?
 Hcetrc` sdstifítdhc ai` istmac ai `m vietd`mhdøe y mnmstihdfdietc ai tcacs `cs

lrietis ai trmnmoc hce hmetdama eihismrdm ai mdri.
 [ripmrmhdøe y hcesirvmhdøe m` aæm ai p`mecs, isquifms y prcyihtcs ai vietd`mhdøe.
 Fmetiedfdietc ai ue ribdstrc ai vietd`mhdøe.
 Hufp`dfdietc ai ribæfieis rispihtc m` pc`vc ie i` mdri ai fdem.
 Hcestruhhdøe ai `ms destm`mhdceis
destm`mhdceis ai vie
vietd`mhdøe
td`mhdøe (puirtms, tmndquis...),
tmndquis...), y su hcetrc`
y ripmrmhdøe.
 \dbd`mehdm ai `cs vietd`macris y turndems.
t urndems.
 @uhgm sdstifítdhm hcetrm `ms päradams ai mdri.
 Mnmstihdfdietc ai `m fdem hce fmtirdmìs y fmqudems ai vietd`mhdøe.
I` sirvdhdc ai vietd`mhdøe suiì istmr iehmnizmac pcr i` iehmrbmac ai `m vietd`mhdøe

‐Debiedirc c debiedirc tähedhc ai fdems‖, ai fmeirm qui ouetc hce uem nrdbmam m su hmrbc,
puiam `ìvmr m hmnc `ms `mncris ai fmetiedfdietc ai `m vietd`mhdøe, hcfc puiai sir `m
adsfdeuhdøe ai `ms lubms ai hmuam`, rivdsdceis ai `ms destm`mhdceis ai vietd`mhdøe
sihueamrdm, ith.
9.9 Fiadhdøe ai hmuam` ai mdri
9.9
I` hí`hu`c ai `cs hmuamìs ai vietd`mhdøe ie `ms bmìræms si rim`dzm m pmrtdr ai `ms

` ms fiadhdceis
ai vi`chdama ai` mdri y ai `m sihhdøe ai `m bmìræm ] 6 v * X
Fiadhdøe ai `m vi`chdama ai` mdri
[uiaie rim`dzmrsi?
 Fiadmeti meiføfitrcs
 Fiadmeti sceams ai fiadam ai `m prisdøe adeífdhm [a, cntiedäeacsi \
deadrihtmfieti m trmväs ai `m ixprisdøe?
[ a  > b [ a  >
\  hce Z[aV ie ffhm c \  hce [a ie Z[mV
 
78 ai =7;
@cs meiføfitrcs si utd`dzme pmrm rmebcs ai vm`cris nmocs, ecrfm`fieti ietri ; y 7 f/s, i
dehùsc ie m`buecs mpmrmtcs gmstm >; f/s, hce `c qui sce ai usc hmsd ixhùsdvc ie bmìræms,
pczcs y tm`ìris. @cs ai rmebc fís m`tc (=; m >; f/s), si utd`dzme tmfndäe ie tuniræms ai
vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm. @ms sceams ai fiadam (tuncs ai [dtct y metiems ai [rmeat`), sø`c
puiaie
=,> jb/fifpìmrsi
8). hce vi`chdamais aiauhi ai` sdbudieti humarc (pmrm ύ 6
vi`chdamais iìvmams hcfc si aiauhi
\ (f/s) = 9 7 =; =9 >; 8;
[a (ff.h.m.) ;.;< =.98 8.4= <.=> =8.2< >1.1< 99.;9
[a ([m) ;.< =9 87.1 <; =89 >1; 91;
Ie isti humarc, si vi qui pmrm qui `m prihdsdøe sim suldhdieti, gm ai sir \ 5 =; f/s.
Xi ifpìme, scnri tcac ie `m prcxdfdama i detirdcr ai `cs vietd`macris prdehdpmìs y ie

m`buems chmsdceis ie `cs hceauhtcs ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm.
Meiføfitrcs
hce fc`deiti
@cs Meiføfitrcs adldirie

sibÿe i` tdpc ai hmptmacr
utd`dzmac y pcr `m
trmeslcrfmhdøe rim`dzmam ai `m
siým` ai fiadam. @cs tdpcs
fís hcechdacs sce?
 Fc`deiti
 Qirfdstmehdm, c gd`c
hm`dieti.
 \ørtdhi c \crtix Meiføfitrc ai Meiføfitrc ai
Qirfdstmehdm \ørtdhi
71 ai =7;

9.< Xceams ai fiadam. Qunc ai [dtct
9.<
Hce
mquæ `ms acshm`hu`mr
puiac tcfms ai`m prisdøe hceihtmams
vi`chdama m ue
ai pmsc ai` mdrifmeøfitrc fiadrä `m prisdøe adeífdhm. Ai
pcr `m tuniræm.
 \ >  \ >
pa   pi     pi  
 >  >
Fiadam ai `m vi`chdama ai` mdri hce tunc ai [dtct
[uistc qui hcechirifcs i` írim ai` hceauhtc, XZf¾V , y `m prisdøe adeífdhm `m fiadfcs
adrihtmfieti ie i` fmeøfitrc, hcechdieac `m aiesdama ai` mdri qui pmsm pcr i` hceauhtc,
`m vi`chdama ai pmsc is?
>   Zjb 8 V
\ Z f / s V  f
[ a Z [mV
[cr `c qui i` hmuam` qui hdrhu`m pcr i` hceauhtc is?
8 >
>   Zjb f8 V
]Z f / s V  X Z f V 
[ a Z [mV
@ms acs sceams (prisdøe istítdhm y prisdøe tctm`), si mbrupme hce lrihuiehdm hce uem sc`m,
tm` hcfc si cnsirvm ie `ms ldburms. @m fiadam rim`dzmam hce uem sceam, is ue vm`cr puetum`.
Qunc ai [dtct y fmeøfitrc
79 ai =7;
Fätcac ai nmrrdac
Hcesdsti ie hdrhu`mr i` mpmrmtc m `c `mrbc ai

`m sihhdøe, ilihtumeac ue nmrrdac `c fís
mfp`dc y hcfpìtc
meiføfitrc pcsdnì.
mhufuì îqudiri
`cs vm`cris quiuem
y aä i`
fiadam detibrmam.
Yem vmrdmeti ai isti fätcac is `c qui

mhtum`fieti si istí ifpìmeac ie `m fdem,
pirc rim`fieti ec si istíe gmhdieac `ms
hcsms hcrrihtmfieti aindac m qui `cs puetcs
ishcbdacs pmrm `m tcfm ai fuistrms istíe
fmycrdtmrdmfieti ie zcems ai nmom vi`chdama, hcsm qui ec si pceairm ie `m lørfu`m ai
hí`hu`c ai vi`chdama fiadm. [cr ctrm pmrti, i` hdtmac meiføfitrc mhtum`fieti ie usc ec is
detibrmacr.
[mrm tieir ie huietm `m adlirieti vi`chdama qui prisietm `m hcrrdieti ai mdri ietri i` hietrc
ai `m bmìræm y `m pirdlirdm ai `m fdsfm, si puiai tcfmr hcfc uem nuiem mprcxdfmhdøe m `m
vi`chdama fiadm rim` i` sdbudieti fätcac.
Fätcac [c`mr
\f
\=
\>
\8
\ 1 \ 8 \ > \=
\1 @
@/=; \8
@/1
\>
@/>
\=
Xi nmsm ie i` hcechdfdietc ai` pirld` ai vi`chdamais ie uem bmìræm. îqudiri utd`dzmr

meiføfitrcs ai ìhturm ‐destmetíeim‖.
@m vi`chdama fiadm si cntdiei pcr `m ixprisdøe?

\f 6 ;.;78Ò\1 + ;.8=8Ò\8 + ;.>7<Ò\> + ;.>7>Ò\=,
ie lcrfm sdfp`dldhmam?
\f 6 ;.;2Ò\1 + ;.8Ò (\8 + \> + \=)
7< ai =7;
aceai?
\1 6 \i`chdama fiadm ie i` hietrc ai `m bmìræm.

\ 8 6 \i`chdama fiadm m uem adstmehdm ai` hietrc ai `m bmìræm ai mprcxdfmamfieti =/=; ai`
mehgc ai `m fdsfm.
\> 6 \i`chdama fiadm m uem adstmehdm ai` hietrc ai `m bmìræm ai =/1 ai` mehgc ai `m bmìræm.
\= 6 \i`chdama fiadm m uem adstmehdm ai` hietrc ai `m bmìræm ai =/> ai` mehgc ai `m fdsfm.
I` prcnìfm qui si tdiei hce isti fätcac is qui si rriqudiri

iqudiri ue eÿfirc iìvmac ai puetcs,
pcr `c qui bieirm`fieti
bieirm`fieti si puiai
puiai utd`dzmr, sde mpiem
mpiemss irrcr `m lørfu`m?
\ d
 \ p , qui sirí fiocr mhiptmam pcr `cs tcfmacris ai vi`chdama ai mdri.
\ f  1
>
Aceai `cs \d hcrrispceaie m vm`cris ai vi`chdama ai `ms pirdlirdm y \ p m` vm`cr hietrm` ai
vi`chdama.
\f
@/<
\d
\d
\d \p \d
\p @
\d
@/< \d
9.2 Fiadam ai `m supirldhdi ai `cs hcrtis trmesvirsmìs m `ms bmìræms

9.2
Ie `mncris, hcfc is i` hmsc ai bmìræms c p`mecs deh`demacs, scstiedams hce mrhcs c humarcs,
`m sihhdøe sirí `m detirdcr ai `cs fdsfcs.
Hcevdiei adspceir ai istmhdceis ai fiadams ldoms pmrm ilihtumr `cs mlcrcs, ie `ms qui si
gmym fiadac hce hudamac `m sihhdøe. @m fiadam ai `m sihhdøe, is ue prcnìfm bicfätrdhc.
Xd tdiei uem lcrfm siehd``m `m fiadam is rípdam y prihdsm.
72 ai =7;
N>
G G
N
N=
Xihhdøe ai bicfitræm trmpizcdam`. Xihhdøe hce humarc fití`dhc

N=  N>
X  G X  ;,78
 N  G
>
@m lørfu`m pmrm i` hí`hu`c ai `m sihhdøe hce humarc fití`dhc mprcxdfmamfieti is
X6JÒNÒG. Xi puiaie tieir adlirietis pirldìs, pcr `c qui i` vm`cr J6;.78 hmfndmrí. M
hcetdeumhdøe si fuistrme ctrcs vm`cris ai J ie luehdøe ai `m bicfitræm mprcxdfmam ai `cs
pirldìs ai `cs humarcs
humarcs fití`dhcs.
\m`cris ai J pmrm adlirietis tdpcs ai sihhdøe

Fiadhdøe ai vi`chdama ai mdri y sihhdceis ai hceauhtc
77 ai =7;
Qmetc ie isti hmsc, hcfc ie i` ai `m bmìræm ai sihhdøe drribu`mr, puiai utd`dzmrsi i`

lctcpirld`, hce p`medfitrmac ai `m sihhdøe lctcbrmldmam.
Fiadam ai `m sihhdøe hce i` fätcac Lctcpirld`.
Isti fätcac si mhcesiom sø`c pmrm sihhdceis hcfpìoms y pmrm i` istmnìhdfdietc ai

sihhdceis ldoms. Ie ctrcs hmscs `m fiadam aini sir iehcfieamam m tcpøbrmlcs.
Ctrc fätcac qui si puiai utd`dzmr is i` pirld`øfitrc, pmrm hm`hu`mr mqui``ms sihhdceis qui
ec si hcrrispceaie hce edebuem ctrm y qui pcr tmetc ec hcechifcs i` lmhtcr J ai
hcrrihhdøe.
Isquifm ai luehdcemfdietc ai ue pirld`øfitrc.
I` prdehdpdc ai luehdcemfdietc hcesdsti ie hc`chmr i` pirld`øfitrc scnri ue træpcai ai

fmeirm qui quiai gcrdzcetm` ie i` humarc qui quirifcs fiadr, i` mpmrmtc ilihtumrí ue bdrc
pmrmeac hmam x¿ (humetcs fís puetcs ai fiadam fmycr prihdsdøe) pmrm ievdmr m `m pmria c
humarc ue rmyc `ísir, fdadieac msæ `m adstmehdm m` humarc. M pmrtdr ai istcs puetcs si
cntdiei i` pirld` ai `m zcem ai fiadam.
Ie i` hmsc ai qui ixdstme destm`mhdceis qui adldhu`tme i` pmsc ai mdri, hcfc pcr ioifp`c
hdetms trmespcrtmacrms, aini aishcetmrsi uem aitirfdemam sihhdøe ai `m bmìræm, m
ispihdldhmr ie hmam hmsc hcehritc.
74 ai =7;
Xÿtd`  Xbmìræm
 n  g 
n
n
g g
Bmìræms hce hdetm trmespcrtmacrm qui adldhu`tm i` pmsc ai mdri
9.7 Iìhhdøe ai `cs puetcs ai mlcrc

9.7
Isti is ue tifm fuy ai`dhmac, puis si trmtm ai iìbdr uem sirdi ai puetcs qui aioie
hcfpìtmfieti aildedac i` isquifm ai vietd`mhdøe. Is eihismrdc qui `cs puetcs sime `cs
suldhdietis ie eÿfirc, pirc tmfndäe qui istäe ndie sdtumacs m edvi` `chm`, ym qui ie `m
fiadam ai `c pcsdnì, si iìbdríe trmfcs rihtcs, mìomacs ai puirtms ai vietd`mhdøe y ai `ms
ndlurhmhdceis. Xi iìbdríe tmfndäe ai fmeirm qui si puiame humetdldhmr i` hmuam` ai lubms
pmrm pcair mhtumr
mhtumr scnri i``ms ai lc
lcrfm
rfm ildhmz.
Is hceviedieti macptmr, ie hmam fdem, ue fätcac aildedac y utd`dzmr sdifpri i` fdsfc, y

`c qui is fiocr mÿe, rim`dzmac pcr `m fdsfm pirscem. Qme dfpcrtmetis hcfc `cs vm`cris
mnscùtcs ai `cs hmuamìs ai mdri, sce ie chmsdceis `ms vmrdmhdceis ri`mtdvms.
@cs cpirmacris ainie istmr destrudacs. [uiaie utd`dzmrsi acs lcrfms ai fiadhdøe? ‐lrieti m`
fiadacr‖ y fiadhdøe ‐ie `m sihhdøe‖.
Lcrfms ai fiadhdøe hce meiføfitrc.
Ie `m fiadhdøe ‐lrieti m` fiadacr‖, i` cpirmacr si hc`chm ie `m `mncr hce `m hmrm gmhdm `m

hcrrdieti y tiedieac i` meiføfitrc lrieti m sæ hce `m fmec tieadam, fcvdäeac`c
ribu`mrfieti pcr `m sihhdøe. Isti fätcac si rihcfdieam pmrm `mncris hce m`turm ai gmstm >
fitrcs y si detrcauhi ue hcildhdieti h 6 =,=1 qui tdiei ie huietm `m cnstruhhdøe ai`
cpirmacr ie bmìræm.
4; ai =7;
Xd `m `mncr tdiei fís ai > fitrcs ai m`turm, si utd`dzm `m fiadhdøe ‐ie `m sihhdøe‖. Ie i``m i`
tähedhc si hc`chm hce `m ispmàm gmhdm `m pmria ai `m `mncr y aisp`mzm ribu`mrfieti i`
meiføfitrc hce `m fmec tieadam pcr tcam `m sihhdøe, hcfc ie i` hmsc metirdcr. Ie isti
hmsc, `m hcrrihhdøe is?
X  ; ,1
h 
X
Xdieac X `m sihhdøe trmesvirsm` ai `m `mncr ie f>.
I` rihcrrdac ai` meiføfitrc, aini dedhdmrsi y pmrmrsi humeac istä hirhm ai `m pmria. Xd `m
sihhdøe is dfpcrtmeti, hcevdiei fcetmr i` meiføfitrc scnri uem pärtdbm.
I` hmuam` ai mdri qui pmsm pcr `m sihhdøe is?
]  X \fia  H
4= ai =7;
< HM@HY@C AI ÎAIX
I` cnoitc ai` hí`hu`c ai `m ria ai vietd`mhdøe is aitirfdemr i` ripmrtc ai` hmuam` tctm` ai
mdri qui ietrm ie `m fdem, ietri sus adstdetms `mncris? pczcs, bmìræms, tm`ìris, pmrm
hcfprcnmr aispuäs qui adhgcs hmuamìs dbum`me c supirme m `cs eihismrdcs pmrm qui i`
trmnmoc ie isms `mncris sim pcsdnì ie `ms hceadhdceis rib`mfietmrdms.
Xi supcei, ie `c qui sdbui, qui sce hcechdacs `cs hmuamìs ai mdri eihismrdcs pmrm tcam `m
fdem y pmrm sus adlirietis `mncris I` hí`hu`c ai` ripmrtc ai` mdri puiai rim`dzmrsi sibÿe
advirscs fätcacs, ie luehdøe ai `m fmycr c fiecr hcfpìodama ai `m fdem ie istuadc.
<.= Aishrdphdøe ai `cs fätcacs ai hí`hu`c
<.=
Xi ixpceie advirscs fätcacs ai hí`hu`c mp`dhmnìs, hcfc ym si adoc, sibÿe `m hcfpìodama

ai `m fdem, y, qui vme aisai `cs ai riscùhdøe fmeum` m ctrcs ie `cs qui si riqudiri i`
ifpìc ai` craiemacr.
Hmsc ai fdems siehd``ms, hce uem sc`m ietrmam y uem ssc`m

c`m sm`dam. Hí`hu`c fmeum`
Xce amtcs ai` prcnìfm?
I` hmuam` ai mdri tctm` eihismrdc ie `m fdem.
@cs hmuamìs eihismrdcs ie `ms `mncris fís dfpcrtmetis, tmìs hcfc tm`ìris ai mrrmequi,
hdrhudtcs rihcrrdacs pcr fíqudems ai hcfnustdøe detirem y ctrcs. Istcs hmuamìs pmrhdmìs
sce eihismrdcs pmrm hcfprcnmr qui uem viz ilihtumac i` ripmrtc `cs vm`cris hm`hu`macs
supirme m `cs fæedfcs rib`mfietmrdcs (Qist ai Hcgiriehdm).
[`mec ai `m ria ai vietd`mhdøe, hce deadhmhdøe, (humeac ym istäe aildedams) ai `ms puirtms y
`cs vietd`macris.
îsdstiehdms mircadeífdhms ai `ms adlirietis `mncris, tmìs hcfc?
 Bmìræms
 [czcs
 Qm`ìris
 [uirtms ai vietd`mhdøe
[mrm ilihtumr i` hí`hu`c ai istms risdstiehdms is prihdsc amr amtcs ixhùsdvmfieti

bicfätrdhcs, tmìs hcfc sihhdøe, piræfitrc, `cebdtua y tdpc ai rivistdfdietc.
Ie m`buecs hmscs, si riqudiri hcfc amtc i` hmuam` qui si aisim hdrhuì pcr uem
aitirfdemam `mncr. Ie isti hmsc `m dehøbedtm sirí su risdstiehdm, c ai ctrm lcrfm, `m sihhdøe
mndirtm ai` ‐ribdstrc‖ qui gmy qui aiomr ie uem puirtm ai ribu`mhdøe.
4> ai =7;
Ioifp`c ai hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe ai uem fdem hce uem ietrmam y uem sm`dam
<.> [ripmrmhdøe ai `cs amtcs

<.>
Isquifm ai `m ria
Hcevdiei pripmrmr ue isquifm sdfp`dldhmac, tm` hcfc i` ai `m sdbudieti ldburm?
Hdrhudtc hcrrispceadieti m `m fdem ai `m ldburm metirdcr
<.8 Hí`hu`c ai `ms risdstiehdms

<.8
I` vm`cr ai `m risdstiehdm ai uem `mncr, ie furbuis, vdiei amac pcr `m ixprisdøe?
 [  @ [  @
^     8  =;8  =9,<    (=)
>  b 1  X X 8
Aceai?
^ is `m risdstiehdm ie i` sdstifm detiremhdcem` (Jb f-8 s>) c ie furbuis.
 is i` hcildhdieti qui aipieai ai` tdpc ai rivistdfdietc. [uiai cntieirsi hce brme
ixmhtdtua ai `ms tmn`ms ai` Meixc =.
X is `m sihhdøe rihtm ai `m bmìræm, ie f >
[ is i` piræfitrc ai `m sihhdøe rihtm (hcfpìtc, is aihdr, dehùyieac `m nmsi sd si
trmtm ai uem bmìræm).
@ is `m `cebdtua ai `m `mncr c ai `m bmìræm, ie f
 is `m aiesdama, ie Jb/f8.
48 ai =7;
Ioifp`c
Ie i` hmsc, ai `m fdem ai `m ldburm, y supuistc qui `cs vm`cris ai `ms risdstiehdms si gme
aitirfdemac y vmìe, ie furbuis?
^ = 6 9; ^ > 6 4,;<  ^ 8 6 =,>1 ^ 1 6 8< ^ 9 6 =; ^ < 6 <  ^ 2 6 >  ^ 7 6 =< ^ 4 6
>1 ^ ==;; 6 >9 ^ ==== 6 14 ^ ==>> 6 8,=29 ^ ==88 6 7,=49 ^ ==11 6 >8,82<.
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Hí`hu`c ai `ms risdstiehdms ispihældhms
^  ^ =  ^ >  ^ 8
41 ai =7;
HCF[CXDHDØE AI ÎXDXQIEHDMX
ÎXDXQIEHDM X IX]YIFM ÎXY@QMEQI
\m`cr
\m`cr risdstiehdm
îsdstiehdms ai Lcrfm ai
hce `m qui si îsu`tmac
pmrtdam c hcfpcsdhdøe
hm`hu`m
risu`tmeti
^ 9 6 =; ^ < 6 < Xirdi ^ m 6 =<

^ m 6 =< ^ 1 6 8< [mrmì`c ^ n 6 9,2<
^ n 6 9,2< ^ 8 6 =,>1, ^ 2 6 > Xirdi ^ h 6 4
^ h 6 4 ^ 7 6 =< [mrmì`c ^ a 6 >,41
^ a 6 >,41 ^ > 6 4,;<, ^ 4 6 >1 Xirdi ^ M 6 8<
^ ==99 6 1,<79
^ =;
=; 6 >9 Qrd 6íebu`c-
^ M 6 8< ^ ==<< 6 9,7>9
^ ==
== 6 14 istri``m
^ ==22 6 2,7;9
^ =>
=> 6 8,=29 ^ =<
=< 6 9,7>9 Xirdi ^ N 6 4
^ =8
=8 6 7,=49 ^ =2
=2 6 2,7;9 Xirdi ^ h 6 =<
^ N 6 4 ^ H 6 =< [mrmì`c ^ A 6 >,41
^ = 6 9;
^ A 6 >,41 ^ =2
=2 6 2,7;9 Xirdi ^ i 6 7=
^ =1
=1 6 >8,829
Hcfpcsdhdøe ai risdstiehdms y isquifms risu`tmetis
Aispuäs ai rim`dzmr `ms hcfpcsdhdceis si cntdiei ue vm`cr ai `m risdstiehdm iqudvmìeti ai

tcam `m fdem ai?
î
 7= furbuis  7=  =; 8 [m >
 f 8 
 
s
y i` crdldhdc iqudvmìeti?  
R  ; ,87 ^ i =;;;  =,889 f >
<.1 Iìhhdøe ai` vietd`macr

<.1
Hcechdacs î , c ndie w. si puiai hm`hu`mr `m prisdøe tctm` qui gm ai sufdedstrmr i`

vietd`macr prdehdpm` pmrm qui hdrhuì pcr `m fdem i` hmuam` aisimac ]. Isti vm`cr vdiei
amac pcr `ms ixprisdceis?
î
W  ]>
=;;;
W  G
49 ai =7;
aceai?
 W riprisietm `m päradam ai hmrbm qui ixpirdfietm i` lùoc ai mdri m` hdrhu`mr pcr `m
fdem>. (ff. h. m.: Jb/f>).
 G is `m scnriprisdøe qui tdiei qui sufdedstrmr i` vietd`macr m` lùoc qui `c mtrmvdism.
>
(ff. h. m.: Jb/f ).
Ixprisdceis qui ecs ame `m [risdøe Qctm`.
Ie euistrc ioifp`c, sd
] 6 => f8/s  G 6 ==, <<1 ff.h.m.
î
@m ihumhdøe W  ] > (ie uedamais ai` Xdstifm Detiremhdcem`), hcechdam hcfc
=;;;
hurvm hmrmhtiræstdhm ai `m fdem, puiai riprisietmrsi bríldhmfieti pcr uem pmrínc`m c pcr
uem rihtm sd si utd`dzme hccraiemams `cbmrætfdhms, hcfc si vi ie `ms ldburms sdbudietis.
I` vietd`macr destm`mac ie i` hdrhudtc, ainirí sufdedstrmr ue hmuam` dbum` c supirdcr m ].

[mrm i``c su hurvm ainirí supirmr i` puetc (], G), tm` hcfc si vi ie `ms ldburms.
>
îhcramr qui, hcesdairmeac m` mdri ie `m fdem hcfc ue lùdac dehcfpriesdnì, is aihdr, hce T 6 hti, si
puiai aildedr `m hmrbm W hcfc W 6 p +  \>/>b + _, aceai p 6 prisdøe istítdhm, is aihdr, prisdøe m `m qui
istí scfitdam ue cnoitc qui si fuivi hce `m hcrrdieti ai mdri:  \>/>b 6 prisdøe adeífdhm, y _ prisdøe pcr
m`tdtua. Ie tm`>hmsc?
W 6 (p= +  \ =/>b + _) - (p> +  \>>/>b + _>)
Maifís, m` sir i` mdri ue lùdac vdshcsc, si hufpì qui sdieac Q l i` trmnmoc ai `ms luirzms ai lrctmfdietc. Xi
 c [@ >
aifuistrm qui?  aQl  =9 ,< 
] .
  X 8
4< ai =7;
<.9 Hí`hu`c ai` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs

<.9
I` hí`hu`c metirdcr, aini sir hcfpìtmac hce i` ai` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs ietri `cs adstdetcs
rmfmìs. [mrm i``c si utd`dzmríe
utd`d zmríe `ms sdbudietis ihumhdceis?
 Qrmfcs ie sirdi
] 6 ]= 6 ]> 6²²²²²²²²²²]e:
Maifís  W 6 î ]> 6 (^= + ^> + ²²²²²²+ê )]>
 Qrmfcs ie pmrmì`c
W  ^=]=>  ^ > ] >>        ^ e ]e>  ^ i] >

î
Ai aceai ]d  ]
^
d
 Qrmfcs ie admbcem`
Ie isti hmsc, `m lcrfm ai prchiair is m`bc fís hcfpìom. [mrtdieac ai `m istri``m

iqudvmìeti, gmy qui hm`hu`mr `m hmrbm ie sus euacs, is aihdr, `m hmrbm ie?
W =->
=-> , W >-8
>-8 , W 8
8-=-= y W ;
Hí`hu`c ai` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs pmrm trmfcs ie admbcem`
@c hum` puiai gmhirsi pmrtdieac ai` isquifm trmeslcrfmac. M hcetdeumhdøe si cntdieie ]=,
]> y ]8 pcr `ms ixprisdceis?
W = 8  W = > W > =  W > 8 W 8 >  W 8 =

]=      
 ^=  =;;; ]>  ^>  =;;; ]8  ^8  =;;;
42 ai =7;
Ie i` ioifp`c ai euistrc hmsc, si tdiei?
[äradam ai hmrbm [risdøe ie `cs euacs

Qrmfc îsdstiehdm (furbuis) Hmuam` (f8/s) (ffhm)
(^]>)
= ^ = => 2,> Metirdcr

[cstirdcr Mtføslirm6;;2,>
Metirdcr -7,>47
=1 ^ =1
=1 6 >8,82< => >,77
[cstirdcr -==,<<1
Metirdcr -2,>
=9 ^ =9
=9 6 1,<79 => ;,<21
[cstirdcr -2,729
Metirdcr -2,729
=<+=> 64 <,79< ;,1>8
[cstirdcr -7,>47
Metirdcr -2,729
=2+=8 6 =< 9,=1> ;,1>8
[cstirdcr -7,>47
Metirdcr -7,=14
=> ^ =>
=> 6 8,=29 <,79< ;,=14
[cstirdcr -7,>47
Metirdcr -7,;7=
=8 ^ =8
=8 6 7,=49 9,=1> ;,>=2
[cstirdcr -7,>47
Metirdcr -2,729
=< ^ =<
=< 6 9,7>9 <,79< ;,>21
[cstirdcr -7,=14
Metirdcr -2,729
=2 ^ =2
=2 6 2,7;9 9,=1> ;,>;<
[cstirdcr -7,;7=
=; ^ =;
=; 6 >9 <,=<= ;,414 Metirdcr -2,>
[cstirdcr -7,=14
Metirdcr -7,=14
== ^ ==
== 6 14 - =,=27 ;,;<7
[cstirdcr -7,;7=
>, 8, 1, 9, <, 2, ^ 6 8< Metirdcr -2,>
i 1,412 ;,77= [cstirdcr
7, 4 -7,;7=
Metirdcr -2,>
> ^ > 6 4,;< 1,412 ;,>>>
[cstirdcr -2,1>>
Metirdcr -2,1>>
4 ^ 4 6 >1 1,412 ;,972
[cstirdcr -7,;7=
Metirdcr -2,1>>
7 ^ 7 6 >1 >,=>= ;,;2>
[cstirdcr -2,141
Metirdcr -2,1>>
8 ^ 8 6 =,>1 >,7>< ;,;;44
[cstirdcr -2,18>
Metirdcr -2,127
2 ^ 2 6 > >,7>< ;,;=<;
[cstirdcr -2,141
Metirdcr -2,18>
1 ^ 1 6 8< =,=8; ;,;1<
[cstirdcr
Metirdcr -2,127
-2,18>
9 ^ 9 6 =; =,<4< ;,;>4
[cstirdcr -2,1<=
Metirdcr -2,1<=
< ^ < 6 < =,<4< ;,;=2
[cstirdcr -2,127

<.< Ivmùmhdøe ai `cs risu`tmacs
<.<
@m itmpm ldem` ie i` hí`hu`c ai `m ria is `m virdldhmhdøe ai qui i` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs is i`

aisimac. Xd tcams `ms `mncris quiame ndie vietd`mams i` prcnìfm puiai amrsi pcr risui`tc.
Xd m`buem `mncr risu`tm delrmvietd`mam, is prihdsc fcadldhmr m`buems risdstiehdms y rigmhir i`
hí`hu`c. îgmhir uem risdstiehdm sdbedldhmrí, ie `m rim`dama, iesmehgmr uem bmìræm, hc`chmr
uem puirtm, c, ie bieirm`, rim`dzmr uem `mncr fdeirm qui sim `c fís siehd``m pcsdnì.
Hmsc pmrtdhu`mr ai uem fdem siehd``m, pirc hce vmrdms ietrmams y uem sc`m sm`dam ie `m qui
si sdtÿm i` vietd`macr
47 ai =7;
Xi dehùyi tmfndäe ie isti hmsc i` ai uem fdem hce uem sc`m ietrmam, ie `m qui si sdtÿm ue
vietd`macr scp`meti y vmrdms sm`dams. Ie isti hmsc, puiai supceirsi qui tcams `ms ietrmams
(c sm`dams), istíe uedams m ue ÿedhc euac, `m mtføslirm, ai` qui si airdvme ie pmrmì`c, `ms
adstdetms ietrmams I=, I>, I8, qui si sdtÿme m` fdsfc pctiehdm`.
Hmsc ai uem fdem hce uem sc`m ietrmam.
Ie hcesihuiehdm, i` prcnìfm si riauhi m` metirdcr.
Ectm?
emturm`,I`c prcnìfm
vietd`mhdøesiræm adlirieti
emturm`. Ie tmìe i` hmsc
hmsc, ai qui
`ms hmrbms ie si
I=,hcesdairmrí `m luirzm
I> y I8 siræme mircfctrdz
adstdetms.
<.2 M`buems hcesdairmhdceis príhtdhms

<.2
 [rdfirm?
Ie i` isquifm sdbudieti, si riprisietm `m ivcùhdøe ai `m päradam ai hmrbm m `c `mrbc ai `m
ria hcrrispceadieti m uem fdem tdpc?
I` ripmrtc is i` sdbudieti?
 [äradam ai hmrbm ie i` ritcrec bieirm`? <;%.
 [äradam ai hmrbm ie `m ietrmam prdehdpm`? >9%.
 [äradam ai hmrbm ie `ms ixp`ctmhdceis? =9%.
44 ai =7;
Ai mquæ si aiauhi qui ec aini ietrmrsi ie ixhisdvc aitm`ì ie i` hí`hu`c ai `ms risdstiehdms
ai `ms ixp`ctmhdceis? bmìræm scnri hmpm, tm`ìris, ith., puis i` pisc ai su risdstiehdm
iqudvmìeti is riauhdac.
[uistc ai  W 6 ^²] >, si hm`hu`mrí ^ hce tmetc fís aitm`ì humeac fmycr si privim qui vm
m sir ]. Isti is i` hmsc, pcr ioifp`c, ai` ritcrec bieirm`.
 Xibueam?
Ie `ms fdems qui adspcebme ai acs c fís p`metms ai ietrmam ai mdri, sce lrihuietis `cs
isquifms ie admbcem`, c sd si qudiri ie trdíebu`c, tm` hcfc si vi ie `m sdbudieti ldburm.
I` hí`hu`c fmeum` ie isti hmsc si hcfp`dhm ie ixhisc, pcr `c qui is prilirdnì c rim`dzmr
sdfp`dldhmhdceis c, fiocr mÿe, rihurrdr m` hí`hu`c ie i` craiemacr.
Hmsc ai fdems fís hcfpìoms, hce vmrdms ietrmams y sm`dams, y scnri tcac hce vmrdcs
vietd`macris
Ie isti hmsc si dehùyi hum`qudir prcnìfm ai ripmrtc ai` mdri, ie fdems?

 Hce uem c vmrdms ietrmams.
 Hce uem c vmrdms sm`dams.
 Hce uec c vmrdcs vietd`macris, ie i` detirdcr, ie i` ixtirdcr c ie mfncs

ifp`mzmfdietcs.
Ie tm` hmsc i` prcnìfm gm ai risc`virsi rihurrdieac m `m ticræm ai `ms riais ai fm``ms.
=;; ai =7;
<.7 Amtcs ai` prcnìfm

<.7
Hcechdac i` isquifm ai ria, istm tdiei p rmfmìs e euacs (¡coc! Hcesdairmr sdifpri `m
mtføslirm hcfc ue euac, puis `m ria tdiei qui hirrmrsi scnri sæ fdsfm).
Xi aifuistrm qui ie i``m ixdstdríe?

f 6 p - e + = fm``ms deaipieadietis
si hcechie hcfc amtcs?
 @m risdstiehdm ai `cs p rmfmìs (Ivietum`fieti, `m risdstiehdm ai p' rmfmìs y

`cs hmuamìs dfpuistcs ie `cs p-p' ristmetis).
 [mrm hmam vietd`macr?
- Ndie i` hmuam` ]v' qui `c gm ai mtrmvismr.

- Ndie `m prisdøe G vv— — qui gm ai sufdedstrmr.
-- Dehùsc ie m`buecs
Ndie `m hurvm hmscs, ]vG
ai` vietd`macr yv 6
Gvl. (]v).
[mrm ixprismr fmtifítdhmfieti istm hurvm si suiìe amr vmrdcs puetcs (fæedfc 8), qui si
detirpc`me fiadmeti uem pc`dbcem`.
@m ria ai `m ldburm tdiei?
e 6 == euacs.
p 6 >; rmfmìs.
f 6 >; -(== + =) 6 7 fm``ms deaipieadietis.
<.4 Dehøbedtms ai` prcnìfm
<.4
@ms dehøbedtms prdehdpmìs sce `cs hmuamìs ai `cs rmfmìs c ivietum`fieti `m risdstiehdm
ie mqui``cs ie `cs qui si dfpusc i` hmuam`.
Qmfndäe ainie aitirfdemrsi m`buec ai `cs sdbudietis vm`cris?
 [risdceis ai `cs vietd`macris.
 Hmuamìs ai `cs vietd`macris.
 [uetcs ai luehdcemfdietc hmuam` / prisdøe ai `cs

` cs vietd`macris.
[mrm cntieir istms dehøbedtms, si adspcei ai `ms sdbudietis ihumhdceis, cntiedams m pmrtdr ai
`ms ìyis ai Jdrhggcll ai `m vietd`mhdøe?
 Ihumhdceis ai `cs rmfmìs ?

- [mrm `cs rmfmìs mhtdvcs?  W d 6 ^d ² ]d
- [mrm `cs rmfmìs pmsdvcs? ] d 6 ]c (c hce hmuam` dfpuistc)
=;= ai =7;
Hdrhudtc hcrrispceadieti m` isquifm metirdcr
- [mrm `cs rmfmìs hce vietd`macr eihisdtmfcs m`buecs amtcs, hcfc

puiaie sir?
Gv 6 Gc
]v 6 ]c
Gv 6 l(]v)
Ie tctm`, si puiaie p`metimr p ihumhdceis ai isti tdpc
 Ihumhdceis ai `cs euacs?
]d,o 6 ;
Ixdstie e-= ihumhdceis deaipieadietis ai isti tdpc.
t dpc.
 Ihumhdceis ai `ms fm``ms?
 Wd,o 6 ;
Ixdstie f 6 p-e+= ihumhdceis deaipieadietis ai isti tdpc.
Xi p`metim, ue sdstifm hce tmetms dehøbedtms hcfc ihumhdceis, qui sdifpri tdieie scùhdøe
=;> ai =7;
<.=; Xcùhdceis delcrfítdhms

<.=;
@m riscùhdøe ie i` craiemacr is fuy siehd``m. Xø`c si eihisdtme adspceir c pcair mhhiair

m m`buec ai `cs prcbrmfms ixdstietis, hcfc pcr ioifp`c?
 [rcbrmfm \ie[rd ‐\ietd`mhdøe [rdehdpm` ie Fdems y Qÿeiìs‖ ai MDQIFDE
 [rcbrmfm \ietXdf ‐Fdei \ietd`mtdce Xdfu`mtdce Xcltwmri‖, ai \ietsdf

Xcltwmri,
 [rcbrmfm \iet[H, ai Fdei \ietd`mtdce Xirvdhi, Deh.
 [rcbrmfm \ietd`m, ai XMADF / GYECXM.
 [rcbrmfm \YFM, ai NNI / Fdedebtij.
Xce prcbrmfms aismrrc``macs ispihældhmfieti pmrm trmnmomr ie ietcrec Rdeacws.

<.== [ripmrmhdøe y ietrmam ai amtcs
<.==
I` usc ai ue prcbrmfm delcrfítdhc risu`tm høfcac y ildhmz, puis `cs hí`hu`cs sce fís
rípdacs y ldmnìs. M`buems ai `ms vietmoms m aistmhmr ai` usc ai prcbrmfms delcrfítdhcs
sce?
 [irfdti detrcauhdr ai fcac siehd``c `cs amtcs sdbedldhmtdvcs ai riais ai

vietd`mhdøe y riprisietmr`ms ai fcac bríldhc.
 îm`dzme hcfpìocs hí`hu`cs pmrm cntieir `m adstrdnuhdøe ai `cs hmuamìs ai `m

ria ai vietd`mhdøe, ie luehdøe ai su istruhturm, `ms risdstiehdms ai `ms rmfms, `ms
hurvms ai rispuistm ai `cs vietd`macris y ctrcs lmhtcris, hcfc puiai sir i`
ilihtc ai` tdrc emturm`.
 M`buecs ai i``cs pirfdtie gmhir i` sibudfdietc ai `cs bmsis qui si aisp`mzme

pcr `m ria ai vietd`mhdøe y istdfmr su hcehietrmhdøe ie hum`qudir puetc ai `m
ria, tmetc ie räbdfie trmesdtcrdc
tr mesdtcrdc hcfc istmhdcemrdc.
 [uiaie utd`dzmrsi hcfc girrmfdietm ai sdfu`mhdøe pmrm gmhir istuadcs ai

vietd`mhdøe, prcnmeac adstdetms vmrdmetis i dehùsc puiaie sirvdr pmrm gmhir
p`meis ai ifirbiehdm
ifirbiehdm ie hmscs ai mviræms c ai dehieadcs.
dehieadcs. Ie i` hmsc ai deh
dehieadc
ieadc
si puiai deadhmr ie `ms rmfms mlihtmams `m tifpirmturm hcrrispceadieti, hce `c
hum` vmræm `m vietd`mhdøe emturm`, y gmhir, maifís, ue sibudfdietc ai `cs bmsis
aisprieadacs.
 Qmfndäe puiai utd`dzmrsi pmrm gmhir ue hcetrc` ie tdifpc rim` ai `m vietd`mhdøe.
=;8 ai =7;
<.=> Detrcauhhdøe ai `m ria ai vietd`mhdøe ie i` prcbrmfm

<.=>
@m cpirmhdøe prdehdpm` pmrm `m iadhdøe ai riais ai vietd`mhdøe is `m hrimhdøe ai rmfms.

[rivdmfieti ainie istuadmrsi `cs p`mecs ai `m fdem y m pmrtdr ai i``cs gmhir ue isquifm
siehd``c?
 @ms bmìræms hcesihutdvms y ai hmrmhtiræstdhms sifiometis ie humetc m

scstiedfdietc, sihhdøe,... lcrfmríe uem ÿedhm rmfm. @m `cebdtua ai adhgm rmfm
sirí `m sufm ai `m `cebdtua rim` fís `m iqudvmìeti, vm`crmam sibÿe `ms
drribu`mrdamais y hurvmturms qui ixdstme ie i``m.
 Ec si tiearíe ie huietm `cs lceacs ai smhc, puis ec pirtieihie m `m vietd`mhdøe

prdehdpm`. Istms `mncris lcrfmríe pmrti ai ue istuadc ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm,
muequi sd ecs aildedríe i` hmuam` fæedfc ie `m bmìræm ai` hdrhudtc prdehdpm` ai
`m qui si dedhdm isti lceac ai smhc.
 Xi ainie tieir ie huietm `ms `mncris mnmeacemams y fiadr ie i``ms `ms pcsdnìs
lubms ai hmuam`.
<.=8 Adsiýc ai `m ria ie i` craiemacr
<.=8
@m `mncr ai` usumrdc is `m pripmrmhdøe ai `cs amtcs ai` prcbrmfm. @m hcrrihtm scùhdøe ai`
prcnìfm aipieairí
aipieairí ixhùsdvmfieti ai `m ldmnd`dama
ldmnd`dama ai istcs amtcs, ym qui ii`` hí`hu`c istmrí
sdifpri ndie gihgc.
[mrm pripmrmr `cs amtcs puiai prchiairsi sibÿe i` sdbudieti admbrmfm ai lùoc?
[Î[M^M^[M^M^ [@MECX AI @M FDEM
[`mec ai \ietd`mhdøe
[`mec ai `ms @mncris
[`mec ai aitm`ì
[mrtdieac ai i``cs gmrifcs ue isquifm sdfp`dldhmac, i`dfdemeac mqui``ms
rmfms pcr `ms qui ec hdrhuì vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm` (lceacs ai smhc...)
EYFI^MHDØE AI @CX EYACX

Xibudr hrdtirdc ai eufirmhdøe, pmrm pcstirdcrfieti amrì ue ecfnri m `m
rmfm huycs ixtrifcs sime iscs euacs. Is mhcesiomnì eufirmr `cs euacs
sdbudieac i` sietdac ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri
Hunrdr gcom ai euacs chupmacs
=;1 ai =7;
GCOMX AI HÍ@HY@C AI ÎXDXQIEHDMX

H`msdldhmams pcr?
Hmýms ai pczc
[czcs ai ritcrec
Qrmesvirsmìs prdehdpmìs
Humrtiìs
FIAD^ ÎXDXQIEHDMX
HM@HY@M^ ÎXDXQIEHDMX
Ai m`buems `mncris dfpcrtmetis, ai
Xi hm`hu`me adrihtmfieti m pmrtdr ai
mqui``ms qui puadärmfcs hcesdairmr
`cs amtcs ai fdem, c si hcehùyie m
‐risdstiehdms tdpc‖, y ai iìfietcs
pmrtdr ai `ms ym hcechdams
hcfc puirtms, ishùsms, ith.
AIQI^FDEMHDØE AI @MX HM^MHQI^ÆXQDHMX AI @CX

\IEQD@MACÎX
Hmsc =? Istdfmr, c fiocr fiadr `ms hurvms
Hmsc >? Ldomr `m aiprisdøe mafdsdnì
Hmsc 8? Ldomr i` hmuam` m sufdedstrmr
HYN^D^ GCOMX AI IEQ^MAM M@ CÂIEMAC^

Xde vietd`mhdøe emturm`
Hce vietd`mhdøe emturm`
HÍ@HY@C IE I@ CÂIEMAC^
IXQYADC AI @CX ÎXY@QMACX
@m cntiehdøe ai `cs amtcs, pmrm pcstirdcrfieti dehùdr`cs ie `cs hí`hu`cs ai` prcbrmfm, si
rim`dzmrí fiadmeti `m fiadam y/c i` hí`hu`c ai `cs pmrífitrcs eihismrdcs.
<.=1 [rchisc ai hí`hu`c
<.=1
I` prchisc ai hí`hu`c hcesdsti ie hcestrudr fm``ms qui hunrme tcam `m ria ai vietd`mhdøe.
Bieirm`fieti ec si tdieie ie huietm `cs hmfndcs aindacs m hcfprisdceis y
aishcfprisdceiss ai` vcùfie ai mdri qui hdrhu`m. @m rmzøe is qui i` mdri qui nmom m 1;; f
aishcfprisdcei
si hcfprdfi mprcxdfmamfieti ue 9,>%, hce `c hum` `cs hmuamìs qui mtrmvdisme `ms rmfms
=;9 ai =7;
vmræme `dbirmfieti, pirc istms vmrdmhdceis ec delùyie ai fcac dfpcrtmeti ie i` hí`hu`c ai

`m ria ai vietd`mhdøe.
[uistc qui `m sufm ai `ms aiprisdceis ai tcams `ms rmfms ai uem fm``m aini sir dbum` m hirc,
si moustme `cs hmuamìs ai fcac dtirmtdvc gmstm hcesibudr qui istc si hufp`m pmrm tcams `ms
fm``ms. Isti hí`hu`c ec puiai risc`virsi hce ue sdstifm ai ihumhdceis pcr ec sir ue
sdstifm `deim`. Is, pcr tmetc, eihismrdc ue scltwmri qui risui`vm i` sdstifm ai lcrfm
dtirmtdvm.
<.=9 Amtcs ai sm`dam

<.=9
@m tmrim lueamfietm` ai` Debiedirc ai vietd`mhdøe is i` meí`dsds y ishrutdedc ai `cs

risu`tmacs ai` hí`hu`c.
[mrm hmam rmfm `cs amtcs prdehdpmìs cntiedacs sce?

8
 I` hmuam`, ixprismac ie f /s.
 @m päradam ai hmrbm ie hmam rmfm`, ie ff.h.m. c [m
 @m prisdøe, rispihtc m `m mtføslirm, ai uec ai `cs acs euacs ixtrifcs

(ecrfm`fieti, i` ldem`).
 I` sibudfdietc ai bmsis, y lùocs

l` uocs hcetmfdemacs.
 [uetcs ai trmnmoc øptdfcs ai` vietd`macr.
 Istuadc ai `m vietd`mhdøe emturm`.
Xd i` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs ec is i` aisimnì, si puiai rigmhir i` hí`hu`c p`metimeac ctrms

gdpøtisds hce m`buecs vm`cris ai risdstiehdm adstdetcs, c vmrdmeac `m hceldburmhdøe ai `m ria,
c `cs vietd`macris. @m scùhdøe øptdfm suiì cntieirsi pcr siìhhdøe ietri vmrdms pcsdnìs.
<.=< Mfp`dmhdøe ai` hcehiptc ai crdldhdc iqudvmìeti

<.=<
Ie hmsc ai uem fdem qui utd`dzm vmrdcs vietd`macris, i` hcehiptc ai risdstiehdm u crdldhdc
iqudvmìeti ec is mp`dhmnì, puistc qui ie `m
` m ixprisdøe?
W= ‘ W> 6 ^ ² ]>

`m hmrbm ie `cs adstdetcs puetcs ai ietrmam, c ie `cs adstdetcs puetcs ai sm`dam, puiai sir
adlirieti. Is aihdr, tmetc W= hcfc W> puiaie ec istmr aildedacs.
Ie isti hmsc, pmrm ivmùmr `m mnirturm ai `m fdem fiadmeti ue pmrífitrc detudtdvc, si

ixtdieai i` hcehiptc ai risdstiehdm y crdldhdc iqudvmìeti ai `m sdbudieti lcrfm?
=;< ai =7;
Xd tieæmfcs?
W
^  ,
]>
si puiai hcevirtdr ie?

]  W R
^   (R  pctiehdm ie Jb  f / s )
]8 ]8
Dbum`fieti
] 8 >
  ; ,87 (f> )
R
Xd `m ria is hcfpìom, hce vmrdms ietrmams y sm`dams, y si tdiei
]   o ] io  d ] rd 6 hmuam` ietrmeti c sm`dieti.
R   ]j  W j    ^ j  ]j8 6 pctiehdm miríu`dhm hcesufdam ie tcams `ms rmfms ai`
hdrhudtc.
 ^ j  ]j8 
ietcehis ^
]8
Mgcrm ndie R   ^ j  ]j8    G\  ]\ 
Gv, ]v? hmrbm y hmuam` ai `cs vietd`macris
Hce istc si cntdiei uem ixprisdøe fís siehd``m ai mp`dhmr
 ] v  G v 
^  8

 ]v 
]v? is `m lrmhhdøe ai` hmuam` ] qui pmsm pcr `cs vietd`macris (ecrfm`fieti ]v 6 ]),
rihuäraisi qui   ; ,87 ^ (^ ie Jd`c furbuis).
Hm`hu`c ai `m aiprisdøe ai` vietd`macr fiadmeti riscùhdøe ai uem fm``m

Isti fätcac puiai sir ÿtd` ie m`buecs hmscs, scnri tcac pmrm ilihtumr prdfircs tmetics c
`ìbmr m, uem prdfirm
prd firm mprcxdfmhdøe ai` prcnìfm.
îqudiri hcechir hcfc amtcs, `cs hmuamìs qui privdsdnìfieti hdrhu`mríe m `c `mrbc ai
uem hdirtm fm``m qui pmsm pcr i` vietd`macr huym aiprisdøe quirifcs hm`hu`mr. Istcs
hmuamìs sd qui sce hcechdacs y maifís, aurmeti `m ixp`ctmhdøe, pcaifcs mprcxdfmrecs
fís c fiecs m i``cs ribu`meac `ms puirtms qui ixdstie ie i` hdrhudtc.
=;2 ai =7;
Xupcebmfcs uem ria hcfc `m ai `m ldburm?
Ie istm ria, hcechifcs ]=,]>, ]8..., i dbum`fieti ^ =, ^ >, ^ 8...
Xi hufpì qui d ^ d ] d  G v  ;
[mrm ilihtumr ue hí`hu`c ai isti tdpc, puiai utd`dzmrsi uem tmn`m fcai`c sdfd`mr m `m qui si
maouetm?
HÍ@HY@C AI @M [ÄÂDAM AI HM^BM IE YEM FM@@M

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.............................................
............................................
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................
...........
AIECFDEMHDØE
Q^MFC E¿
Metirdcr
EYAC
[cstirdcr
îsdstiehdm ^
Hmuam` privdstc ]
G6^]>
G
=;7 ai =7;
\IEQD@MHDCE XIHYEAM^DM
=;4 ai =7;
= DEQ^CAYHHDØE
Ie `ms cnrms ai ioihuhdøe ai tÿeiìs, msæ hcfc ie `ms `mncris fdeirms qui ec sce vietd`mams
pcr `m hcrrdieti prdehdpm` (lceacs ai smhc), is eihismrdc uem vietd`mhdøe ispihældhm pmrm
msiburmr qui tieifcs ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc i` mdri eihismrdc pmrm rifcvir `cs bmsis
ifdtdacs pcr `cs vigæhu`cs, `m vc`maurm u ctrcs hcfc i` fitmec. Is tmfndäe eihismrdc
hcetrc`mr i` pc`vc y `m tifpirmturm. Istm vietd`mhdøe is hcfÿefieti hcechdam hcfc
vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm.
I` vcùfie ai mdri detrcauhdac ie `ms `mncris istmrí puis ie ri`mhdøe hce su ixtiesdøe, i`
eÿfirc ai pirscems, i` tcei`moi ixtrmæac y `ms hceadhdceis emturmìs ai `m fdem, tiedieac
ie huietm `m tifpirmturm, gufiama, ifdsdøe ai bmsis filætdhcs, prcauhhdøe ai pc`vc y
ctrms sustmehdms pi`dbrcsms.
I` nuie hcechdfdietc ai` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe y `cs pmrífitrcs ai` ietcrec qui ì
mlihtme, myuamrí m cptdfdzmr`c prdehdpm`fieti, pirc hc`mtirm`fieti ecs ripcrtmrí fuhgc
nieildhdcs, hcfc
fmetiedfdietc, ith.sce
Istii`nuie
mgcrrc ai ieirbæm,hcfprieai?
hcechdfdietc mgcrrc ai `cs hcstcs ai luehdcemfdietc y
 I` meí`dsds ai `m ildhdiehdm ai `cs sdstifms ixdstietis, msæ hcfc `m aitirfdemhdøe y

`chm`dzmhdøe ai `cs prcnìfms ixdstietis hce `ms hcesdbudietis scùhdceis m istcs
prcnìfms.
 Cptdfdzmhdøe ai `cs sdstifms pmrm riauhdr i` hcstc ieirbätdhc.
 Cptdfdzmhdøe ai `cs sdstifms pmrm fiocrmr `ms hceadhdceie mfndietmìs ai `cs
lrietis ai trmnmoc.
 Fcadldhmhdøe ai `cs sdstifms ai hmrm m mamptmr`cs m euivcs riquirdfdietcs.
 Ivmùmhdøe tähedhm y hrætdhm m `cs
` cs adsiýcs ai vietd`mhdøe prcpuistcs pcr ctrcs.
I` prisieti hmpætu`c prclueadzmrí ie i` hcechdfdietc ai istcs lmhtcris hce vdstms m pcair

cptdfdzmr i``ms
ixpcedieac adsiýc ai istms ai
fitcac`cbæms destm`mhdceis,
hí`hu`c fís pcedieac
rmhdcemìsgdehmpdä
y sdifpriiesde`csc`vdamr
puetcs`cssiesdnìs,
lmhtcris
príhtdhcs nmsmacs
nmsmacs ie `m ixpirdiehdm.
ixpirdiehdm.
==; ai =7;
> I@IFIEQCX AI YEM DEXQM@MHDØE AI \IEQD@MHDØE XIHYEAM^DM
Yem destm`mhdøe ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm c muxd`dmr istmrí lcrfmam

l crfmam prdehdpm`fieti pcr
vietd`macr y uem tuniræm, pirc maifís pmrm qui luehdcei i` sdstifm tieifcs si eihisdtm ai
ctrcs iìfietcs dfprishdeadnìs ie hdirtms sdtumhdceis hcfc puiaie sir `cs hmptmacris ai
pc`vc?
>.= \ietd`macris
>.=
I` vietd`macr pmrm `m vietd`mhdøe muxd`dmr c sihueamrdm tdiei pcr cnoitc pceir ie i` lrieti ai
trmnmoc mdri `dfpdc, prchiaieti c ndie ai` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm` ie hmsc ai fdems,
c ndie ai` ixtirdcr ie i` hmsc ai vietd`mhdceis ai cnrm ie tÿeiìs.
@cs vietd`macris usmacs ie isti tdpc ai vietd`mhdøe sce bieirm`fieti ai tdpc mxdm`. Ie
luehdøe ai` tdpc ai bmìræm c tÿei` y ai` mfndieti ai trmnmoc `cs vietd`macris tdieie
hceldburmhdceis hcestruhtdvms advirsms hce `c qui pcaifcs h`msdldhmr`cs ie?
\ietd`macris eiufítdhcs
Xce iqudpcs qui gme sdac usmacs prdehdpm`fieti ie fdeiræm scnri tcac ie ùbmris ie qui
is dfpcsdnì gmhir `ìbmr uem ria i`ähtrdhm c ie `cs qui pcr fctdvcs ai siburdama ec si
rihcfdieam `m utd`dzmhdøe ai iqudpcs i`ähtrdhcs.
@cs vietd`macris eiufítdhcs sce vietd`macris mxdmìs ai ue ishm`øe, mhhdcemacs pcr mdri
hcfprdfdac qui tcfme ai uem ria m`dfietmam aisai uem sm`m ai hcfpriscris ie i` hmsc i
uem fdem c aisai ue hcfpriscr pcrtítd` ie i` hmsc ai qui `m mp`dhmhdøe ai` vietd`macr sim
pmrm `m `dfpdizm ie i` ífndtc ai `m deaustrdm emvm`. Is ie isti ÿ`tdfc hmsc, aceai fuhgms
vihis si riqudiri qui ue ÿedhc vietd`macr m`dfieti fís ai uem tuniræm, pcr `c qui si ì actm
m` vietd`macr
hcfpìtmr ai pdizms
i` sdstifm ai mamptmhdøe c ai hceixdøe m `ms tuniræms qui si mhcp`me pmrm
ai vietd`mhdøe.
=== ai =7;
I` vietd`macr istí hcfpuistc pcr uem hmrhmsm ixtirdcr hd`æeardhm ai mhirc. Ie su detirdcr si
m`com i` rcaiti y i` fihmedsfc ai bdrc qui mhhdcem m ästi. Xi trmtm ai turncvietd`macris, is
aihdr, uem turndem y ue rcaiti qui vme fcetmams scnri ue fdsfc ioi.
@ms hmrmhtiræstdhms mircadeífdhms aipieaie ai `m prisdøe ai `m ria ie hmam fcfietc. [cr

ctrc `mac, i` rieadfdietc ai istcs iqudpcs is delirdcr m` rieadfdietc ai `cs iqudpcs
i`ähtrdhcs,
hcfprdfdacy sd maifís
lrieti tieifcs ie
m` i`ähtrdhc, huietm `m fiecr
`m utd`dzmhdøe ildhdiehdm
ai istcs iqudpcsqui tdiei
sø`c ue sdstifm ai mdri
is rihcfieamnì pcr
fctdvcs ai siburdama.
\ietd`macris i`ähtrdhcs
Xi trmtm ai iqudpcs mhhdcemacs fiadmeti ue fctcr i`ähtrdhc, i` hum` vm mhcp`mac

adrihtmfieti m` rcaiti ai` vietd`macr.
Ie luehdøe ai `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai euistrc lrieti ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm, si adstdebuie

`cs sdbudietis tdpcs ai vietd`macris?
\ietd`macris mxdmìs pmrm brmeais tÿeiìs y fdems ec brdsucsms ?

Xce fíqudems i`ähtrdhms
qui trmnmome bieirm`fieti ie vietd`mhdøe scp`meti. @m hceldburmhdøe tæpdhm pmrm uem
istmhdøe ai vietd`mhdøe ai isti tdpc is?
 \ietd`macr. Ye vietd`macr c fís aipieadieac ai `ms ixdbiehdms mircadeífdhms.

[uiai, pcr tmetc, gmnir destm`macs vmrdcs iqudpcs ie sirdi.
 îod``m ai prctihhdøe. [mrm ivdtmr qui iìfietcs sushiptdnìs ai sir mspdrmacs pmsie
hce i` lùoc m trmväs ai` vietd`macr. Xdrvi maifís pmrm ivdtmr amýcs mhhdaietmìs ie
i` pirscem` qui trmnmoi ie i` ietcrec ai `m fíqudem.
 Qcnirm ai mafdsdøe. Lmhd`dtm `m ietrmam ai` mdri, riauhdieac `m päradam ai hmrbm ie
i` sdstifm, fiocrmeac i` rieadfdietc ai` sdstifm y riauhdieac i` edvi` ai rudac
mircadeífdhc ai` iqudpc.
 Xdìehdcscs tunu`mris.
adfiesdceme pmrm riauhdrXce `csaimtieumacris
i` edvi` mhÿstdhcs,
rudac mircadeífdhc m `cs ai fmeirm
edviìs qui si
aisimacs.
==> ai =7;
 Xdstifm ai meh`moi c ai ldomhdøe, qui puiai sir m` tihgc ai` tÿei` c bmìræm fiadmeti
pirecs, c ndie fiadmeti ue nmstdacr meh`mac adrihtmfieti m` sui`c, c fiadmeti ue
pørtdhc, tæpdhc pmrm tÿeiìs
tÿeiìs ai brme si
sihhdøe.
hhdøe.
\ietd`macris
pmrm trmnmomr mxdmìs hce fctcr
hce mtføslirms metdail`mbrmeti?
ixp`csdvms. [cr tmetc,Xce
i` vietd`macris
fctcr gm ai i`ähtrdhcs
tieir uem pripmrmacs
prctihhdøe
metdail`mbrmeti, huyc brmac ai siburdama sirí i` ixdbdac pmrm hmam mfndieti ie pmrtdhu`mr.
Isti tdpc ai vietd`macris is `m scùhdøe pmrm fdems y ùbmris aceai `m mtføslirm is
pctiehdm`fieti ixp`csdvm. @m hceldburmhdøe tæpdhm ai istcs vietd`macris is meí`cbm m `m
vdstm ie i` hmsc metirdcr.
Bieirm`fieti, ie isti hmsc pihu`dmr, pcaríe usmrsi istcs vietd`macris ie sdstifms ai

vietd`mhdøe dfpiìeti, ym qui i` mdri qui gmhie `ìbmr m` lrieti sirí mdri `dfpdc prchiaieti
ai` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`, y pcr tmetc ec tdiei pcr quä gmnir rdisbc ai ixp`csdøe.
Ie `æeims dfpiìetis si puiai utd`dzmr ue vietd`macr hce `m lcrfm hcestruhtdvm
hceviehdcem`, msæ hcfc tmfndäe, luirm ai` ífndtc fdeirc y hce hcehietrmhdøe ai fitmec
tcac tdpc ai destm`mhdceis sdifpri y humeac i` fctcr sim mptc pmrm trmnmomr hce mtføslirms
ixp`csdvms.
\ietd`macris metdail`mbrmetis ai nc`sd``c? @m ìbds`mhdøe fdeirm ecs adhi qui ie `æeims

mspdrmetis ec si pirfdti qui i` lùoc ai mdri pmsi pcr i` fctcr, pcr `c qui `m hcestruhhdøe
ai` vietd`macr istm hceadhdcemam pcr istm hdrhuestmehdm. [mrm tm` mp`dhmhdøe si utd`dzme
vietd`macris i`ähtrdhcs
i`ähtrdhcs pripmrmacs pmrm trmnmomr ie mtføslirm ixp`csdvm
ixp`csdvm hcfpuistcs pcr pcr
uem hmrhmsm ixtirdcr hd`æeardhm pmrm `m hmrhmsm fctcr, aietrc ai `m hum` vm m`comac i` fctcr,
istmeac isti hcetiedac ie uem ievc`vieti qui `c sdtÿm luirm ai` hdrhudtc ai mdri, hcfc si
mprihdm ie `m sdbudieti ldburm.
\ietd`macr ai nc`sd``c
==8 ai =7;
Istm hceldburmhdøe mýmai m` vietd`macr ue ixtrm ai prctihhdøe lrieti m `cs mxdmìs

metdail`mbrmetis ecrfmìs, ym qui i` fctcr tmfndäe suiì tieir tmfndäe prctihhdøe
metdail`mbrmeti.
\ietd`macris hcetrmrrctmtdvcs? Humeac si eihisdtm viehir brmeais päradams ai hmrbm y `cs

hmuamìs ec sce ixhisdvmfieti m`tcs, puiaie usmrsi vietd`macris hcetrmrrctmtdvcs. Istcs
vietd`macris sce hmpmhis ai prcpcrhdcemr > c 8 vihis fís prisdøe qui ue vietd`macr ecrfm`.
Xi trmtm ai vietd`macris qui `ìvme > rcaitis bdrmeac ie sietdacs cpuistcs, y pcr tmetc acs
fctcris. Xu usc si ristrdebi m chmsdceis ie `ms qui pcr ixdbiehdms ai `m sihhdøe ai` tÿei`,
aindac m` bí`dnc, si destm`me tuniræms ai adífitrc delirdcr m` maihumac, hce `cs qui `ms
prisdceis ai trmnmoc pmrm pcair fmetieir i` hmuam` eihismrdc ie i` lrieti ecs `ìvm m `m
utd`dzmhdøe ai vietd`macris ai fuy m`tm prisdøe.
@m iìhhdøe ai` vietd`macr maihumac is dfpcrtmeti ai hmrm m fmxdfdzmr i` rieadfdietc ai`

hceouetc. Xd `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai` sdstifm msæ `c riqudirie, puiaie destm`mrsi nmtiræms ai 8
y 1 vietd`macris ie sirdi pmrm `cbrmr viehir prisdceis ai fís ai =;.;;; [m. Humeac si
trmnmom hce adhgms prisdceis si gm ai tieir ie huietm tmfndäe `m risdstiehdm ai `m prcpdm
tuniræm, ym qui sd ec si adfiesdcem hcrrihtmfieti pcaræm ec scpcrtmr i` trmnmoc ai
vietd`macr, scnri tcac `cs trmfcs dedhdmìs aceai si m`hmezme `ms fís m`tms prisdceis.
>.> Quniræm
>.>
@m tuniræm ai vietd`mhdøe istí lcrfmam pcr ue tiodac tixtd` ai pc`dästir rivistdac hce [\H.
I` pc`dästir prcpcrhdcem m` hceauhtc su risdstiehdm fihíedhm. Xi utd`dzme vmrdcs ispiscris

ai tixtd` ie luehdøe ai `ms adlirietis hm`damais ai `m tuniræm.
I` rihunrdfdietc ai` tixtd` gmhi i` hceauhtc ai vietd`mhdøe dfpirfimnì m` mdri y m` mbum, y

prctibi i` pc`dästir ai
ai `cs rmycs u`trmvdcìtm,
u`trmvdcìtm, msæ hcfc ai `ms delùiehdms quæfdhms.
quæfdhms.
@cs rivistdfdietcs bruiscs prcpcrhdceme uem fmycr risdstiehdm. Qcams `ms tuniræms ainie
ai sir mutcixtdbudnìs, is aihdr, qui ie hmsc ai dehieadc, i` tunc
t unc hcetdeumrí quifíeacsi i`
tdifpc qui si ixpcebm m `ms ``mfms, pirc si mpmbmrí humeac si i`dfdei `m luieti ai
dehieadc.
Ie i` hmsc ai vietd`mhdøe mspdrmeti `ms tuniræms puiaie sir tmfndäe ai pc`dästir `ìvmeac
med``cs ai riluirzc qui ì prcpcrhdceme rdbdaiz. @ms tuniræms tctm`fieti ræbdams ai [\H c
fití`dhms ec si rihcfdieame pcr su iìvmac hcsti, su m`tc pisc y `m adldhu`tma pmrm sm`vmr
cnstíhu`cs tmìs hcfc hurvms, istrihgmfdietcs, ith.
==1 ai =7;
>.8 Ld`trcs
>.8
Ouetc m `cs bmsis, i` ppc`vc

c`vc is uec ai `cs prdehdpm
prdehdpmìs
ìs hcetmfdem
hcetmfdemetis
etis qui pirouadhm
pirouadhm i`
mfndieti ai ue tÿei` c uem fdem. Humeac i` pc`vc si iehuietrm ie i` mdri, lcrfm ue
sdstifm adspirsc ``mfmac "mircsc`". I` pc`vc puiai pirfmeihir ie i` mdri aurmeti `mrbc
tdifpc, aipieadieac ai vmrdcs lmhtcris, ietri `cs humìs istíe? tmfmýc, ldeurm, lcrfm, pisc
ispihældhc, vi`chdama ai` fcvdfdietc ai` mdri, gufiama y tifpirmturm
t ifpirmturm mfndietm`.
I` hcetrc` ai` pc`vc si rim`dzm prdehdpm`fieti fiadmeti `m suprisdøe c mtieumhdøe ai`

fdsfc, fiadmeti su hmptmhdøe c fiadmeti su adùhdøe. Qrmtmrifcs ie isti mpmrtmac `cs
sdstifms ai hmptmhdøe c ld`trmac?
@ms luietis ai bieirmhdøe ai pc`vc sce fÿ`tdpìs, msæ hcfc i` tdpc ai pc`vc ie humetc m su
echdvdama c pi`dbrcsdama. Ie fdems aceai si prcauhi pc`vc ai hmrnøe, `m bieirmhdøe ai
isti hrim uem mtføslirm pi`dbrcsm pctiehdm`fieti ixp`csdvm, ie hmfndc `m prisiehdm ai
sæ`dhi gmhi qui i` mfndieti sim amýdec pmrm i` pirscem` ai trmnmoc.
I` pc`vc si puiai bieirmr ie cpirmhdceis ai hmrbm, ie `m pirlcrmhdøe, ie i` mvmehi
fihmedzmac ai tÿeiìs c bmìræms, ith. [mrm istcs hmscs is prihdsc adspceir ai sdstifms ai
hmptmhdøe hce ld`trcs ai m`tm ildhmhdm pmrm bmrmetdzmr uem mtføslirm ai siburdama y hcelcrt.
I` ifpìc ai fmqudems ai mtmqui puetum` hcfÿefieti hcechdams pcr rczmacrms c

fdemacris bieirm brme hmetdama ai pc`vc ie `m zcem ie `m qui si rim`dzm `m
` m ixhmvmhdøe. Isti
pc`vc prisietm brmvis dehceviedietis pmrm `ms pirscems qui trmnmome ie i` ietcrec, lm`tm
mnscùtm ai vdsdnd`dama, dfpcsdnd`dama ai rispdrmr, mspdrmhdøe ai pc`vc ai sæ`dhi c sdfd`mris
msæ hcfc uem adsfdeuhdøe ai `m siburdama ie i` trmnmoc i dehrifietcs ai sdtumhdøe ai
mhhdaietis.
@m hmptmhdøe ai pc`vc is nísdhmfieti ue sdstifm mspdrmeti sdfd`mr m `cs aishrdtcs

metirdcrfieti m `cs qui si ìs dehcrpcrm ue ld`trc. Isti puiai
puiai sir pcr væm gÿfiam y pcr væm
sihm.
@cs ld`trcs ie væm gÿfiam sce fms ihceøfdhcs pirc fuhgc fiecs ildhmhis qui `cs ai væm
sihm. @cs ld`trcs pcr væm sihm sce ai m`tm ildhmhdm qui `ìbm m` 44.4% ai` pc`vc mspdrmac, is
aihdr, ai =;;; br. ai pc`vc mspdrmac si ritcrem m` tÿei` = br.
\æm Gÿfiam
I` sdstifm ai hmptmhdøe ai pc`vc, si suiìe destm`mr ie `cs lrietis ai mvmehi hce fdemacr
ie i` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm ie isquifm mspdrmeti.
Isti tdpc ai hmptmacr ai pc`vc si ifpìm ispihdm`fieti ie fdems ai hmrnøe, y qui ie

Ispmým
mpmrtmacsi1.=.>.-[rishrdphdceis
destm`me ai mhuiracmadhdcemìs
hce `ms ixdbiehdms ai `mfihmedzmacs,
pmrm mvmehis MXF-9>, qui qui?istmnìhi ie ai
`ms `mncris su
mvmehi fihmedzmac adspcearíe ai ue hmptmacr ai pc`vc. I` ixtrifc ai `m tuniræm ai
mspdrmhdøe ai` hmptmacr istmrí sdtumac m uem adstmehdm fíxdfm ai` lrieti ai > fitrcs.
==9 ai =7;
Bieirm`fieti ie `cs lrietis ai mvmehi hce fdemacr si istíe usmeac iqudpcs ai hmptmhdøe
qui hcesdstie nísdhmfieti ie ue vietd`macr mxdm` ai ‐nc`sd``c‖ qui dehcrpcrm ue sdstifm ai
pu`virdzmhdøe ai mbum y ue pm
pmei`
ei` ld`trmeti.
Is eihismrdc `m hcrrihtm utd`dzmhdøe y undhmhdøe ai` sdstifm, ym qui hce hdirtm lrihuiehdm si
hcfndeme `cs hmptmacris hce ctrcs vietd`macris ie sirdi, hrimeac hceadhdceis ai sirvdhdc
demaihumams, lueamfietm`fieti
lueamfietm`fieti aindac m `m hdrhu`mhdøe ai ue ixhisc ai hmuam` m trmväs ai`
hmptmacr, hce päradams ai hmrbm ie i` ld`trc fuy iìvmams.
Ie ctrms chmsdceis, y tmfndäe hce hdirtm lrihuiehdm, meti `m eihisdama ai fmycr hmuam` ai
vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm ie i` lrieti, si ritdrm i` pmei` ld`trmeti, chmsdcemeac pcr tmetc uem
päradam ai ildhmhdm
ildhmhdm ectmnì ie `m hm
hmptmhdøe
ptmhdøe y aih
aihmetmhdøe
metmhdøe ai` pc`vc rispdrmnì.
Ie luehdcemfdietc mds`mac scnri uem `æeim ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm, i` hceouetc si

hcfpcrtm hcfc ue vietd`macr, huym hurvm ai luehdcemfdietc si msifiom m `m ai ue
vietd`macr hce uem risdstiehdm (ld`trc) ie sirdi hce i``m. Xde ifnmrbc, humeac i` hmptmacr
luehdcem ie sirdi hce ctrc vietd`macr, (si destm`m m hcetdeumhdøe ai adhgc vietd`macr), y
aindac m qui `cs vietd`macris puiaie sufdedstrmr ue hmuam` ecfdem` fmycr qui i` ai`
hmptmacr ai pc`vc, i` hceouetc ‐vietd`macr ai` hmptmacr+ld`trc‐ si hcfpcrtm hcfc uem
risdstiehdm (päradam ai hmrbm eitm) desirtmam ie i` hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe ai` vietd`macr
muxd`dmr.
[cr istm rmzøe, risu`tm mhcesiomnì `m undhmhdøe ai isti iqudpc ie puetc ai `m destm`mhdøe ai
vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm ie `cs qui i` hmuam` qui hdrhuì ec sim supirdcr m `cs ai` hmuam`
ecfdem` ai` ld`trc (Xi detietm qui i` ld`trc sim ue iìfietc eiutrc m ilihtcs ai päradam ai
hmrbm), ym qui pmrm hmuamìs supirdcris m ästi mufietm ectmnìfieti `m päradam ai hmrbm y
si piem`dzm i` rieadfdietc ai `m
` m destm`mhdøe.
Humeac si rihurri m` mhcp`mfdietc ai

ue sdstifm ai hmptmhdøe ie i` sdstifm
ai vietd`mhdøe muxd`dmr, undhmr isti
iqudpc `c fís hirhm ai` lrieti ai
trmnmoc risu`tm lmvcrmnì pmrm i`
luehdcemfdietc (ai gihgc ym ec siræm
ue iìfietc eiutrc, sdec pcsdtdvm, ai
fmeirm qui myuai m` vietd`macr
muxd`dmr).
Xi aini desdstdr ie `m eihisdama ai

prchiair m uem `dfpdizm pirdøadhm ai`
==< ai =7;
pmei` ld`trmeti pmrm ivdtmr cnstruhhdceis qui chmsdceme adsfdeuhdceis sdbedldhmtdvms ai`
hmuam` ilihtdvc ie i` lrieti. Xi aini siým`mr tmfndäe `m dfpcrtmehdm ai riauhdr `ms lubms
m `c `mrbc ai `m tuniræm, tiedieac ie huietm qui isti mspihtc tdiei fmycr riìvmehdm mÿe
qui ie ctrms destm`mhdceis, ym qui m` ixdstdr uem dfpcrtmeti risdstiehdm detirhm`mam ie i`
hdrhudtc (hmptmacr ai pc`vc), si trmnmom hce ue hmuam` riauhdac ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc
hce `c qui `m hmptmhdøe si virí firfmam.
[mrm aildedr i` hmuam` eihismrdc pmrm `cs ld`trcs mhcrai m uem pcsdhdøe x ai adhgc hmptmacr m
`c `mrbc ai uem `æeim ai vietd`mhdøe, gmy qui tieir ie huietm hcfc si hcfpcrtm adhgm `æeim
sde hmptmacr. Istm h`mrc qui i` hmuam` ie i` lrieti sirí fiecr qui i` hmuam` qui fcvd`dzm i`
vietd`macr, pcr `c qui m `c `mrbc ai `m `æeim vmfcs m tieir ue hmuam` adstdetc y qui
tiearifcs qui istdfmr ie luehdøe ai `m `cebdtua
` cebdtua aceai `c ivmùifcs. Ai istm fmeirm, si i`
hmuam` ai adsiýc ai` ld`trc is dbum` c supirdcr m` qui hcrrispceai hce `m pcsdhdøe x, i` ld`trc
trmnmomrí ie hceadhdceis øptdfms.
Ie i` bríldhc si puiai vir `m ivcùhdøe ai`

hmuam` sibÿe uem pmrínc`m, pirc pcr
sdfp`dldhmhdøe supceifcs uem rihtm, qui
is fís ristrdhtdvc.
\æm Xihm
@cs ld`trcs ie væm sihm hce mp`dhmhdøe m`

mvmehi ai tÿeiìs c bmìræms, si advdaie
prdehdpm`fieti ie hcfpmhtcs c
sifdhcfpmhtcs.
M. Ld`trcs Hcfpmhtcs
@cs ld`trcs aiecfdemacs hcfpmhtcs sce `cs qui si utd`dzme ie ue sdstifm ai mspdrmhdøe ai
tdpc sihueamrdc hce uem vietd`mhdøe scp`meti hcfc prdehdpm`. Nísdhmfieti i` sdstifm ai
vietd`mhdøe istí lcrfmac pcr uem `æeim scp`meti prdehdpm` y uem `æeim mspdrmeti sihueamrdm
qui dehcrpcrm ue ld`trc
==2 ai =7;
@m `æeim mspdrmeti istí hcfpuistm aisai i` lrieti

lr ieti pcr?
- Quniræm lìxdnì rilcrzmam mspdrmeti

- Ld`trc
- Istmhdøe ai vietd`mhdøe qui gm ai viehir `m päradam ai hmrbm tmetc ai `m tuniræm
hcfc ai` prcpdc ld`trc.
@ms vietmoms ai istm scùhdøe sce vmrdms?
- Chupm pchc ispmhdc ie i` tÿei`

- Qrmfc ai tuniræm ai `cebdtua riauhdam. (fíx. 7; fitrcs)
- \ietd`macris istíeamr
- Líhd` fcvd`dama.
- I` mdri lrishc `ìbm m` lrieti m trmväs ai `m `æeim scp`meti
@ms aisvietmoms prdehdpmìs ai` sdstifm sce?
- I` ld`trc riqudiri sir mai`metmac hce uem pirdcadhdama mprcxdfmam ai uem sifmem.
- Acs `æeims, scp`meti y mspdrmeti.
Ie `ms tuei`macrms
sdstifms ai hmptmhdøepcr
ai i` fdsfc
pc`vc pmrmfctdvc
mspdrmr qui iesi`ms
i` qui rczmacrms
bieirm c fdemacris
ie `m lmsi ai hcrti. I`sivcùfie
utd`dzme
ai pc`vc bieirmac ie uem tuei`macrm is fuy supirdcr m` bieirmac ie uem rczmacrm, `c qui
gmhi ai` sdstifm ai hmptmhdøe ai pc`vc ue iìfietc deadspiesmnì.
Ie `ms tuei`macrms si utd`dzm i` ld`trc hcfpmhtc pmrm `m hmptmhdøe ai pc`vc. I` sdstifm ai

vietd`mhdøe si hcfpìfietm hce ue sdstifm scp`meti aisai i` ixtirdcr.
==7 ai =7;
N. Ld`trcs Xifdhcfpmhtcs
@cs ld`trcs si utd`dzme

sifdhcfpmhtcs aiecfdemacs
hcfc
`æeim bieirm` ai vietd`mhdøe
lcrfmeac ue sdstifm mspdrmeti hce
m`buem sm`viama. I` ld`trc si hc`chm
ie i` ixtirdcr ai` tÿei`. @cs
vietd`macris si hc`chme prøxdfcs m`
lrieti hce ue trmfc ai tuniræm
lìxdnì mspdrmeti pcr ai`meti y i`
ristc gmstm uedrsi hce i` ld`trc hce
tuniræm lìxdnì scp`meti.
@ms vietmoms ai` sdstifm sce?
- Xc`mfieti uem `æeim ai

vietd`mhdøe.
- I` ld`trc ec aini sir fcvdac
Istm scùhdøe prisietm `ms sdbudietis aisvietmoms?
- Ld`trc ai brme tmfmýc.

t mfmýc.
- \ietd`macris ispihdmìs hce prctihhdceis hcetrm i` pc`vc y metdaisbmsti
- @dfdtmhdøe ai `cebdtua ai trmfc m 7;; fitrcs (rihcfieamac 9;;-<;;f.)
- [rcnìfms ai aihmetmhdøe
aihmetmhdøe ai` pc`vc ie `m tuniræm scp`meti
scp`meti hce i` hcesdbudieti
dehrifietc ai `m päradam ai hmrbm y adsfdeuhdøe ai hmuam` mspdrmac.
- I` mdri qui `ìbm m` lrieti istí hcetmfdemac y hm`dieti.
>.1 Hmssitis
>.1
@ms ispihdmìs hdrhuestmehdms ai `cs mvmehis hcesibudacs

hcesibudacs hce `ms tuei`macrms qui ie ue
sc`c aæm puiaie ixhmvmr >; c fís fitrcs ai tÿei`, bieirm ue prcnìfm madhdcem` qui is i`
ai hc`chmr `m tuniræm scp`meti qui `ìvm i` mdri gmstm i` lrieti.
Aindac m iscs rmtdcs ai mvmehi is príhtdhmfieti dfpcsdnì dr mýmadieac tuniræm ym qui i``c
supcearæm pmrmr `m fíqudem y pcr tmetc ritrmsmr i` mvmehi ai `m
` m ixhmvmhdøe.
[mrm scùhdcemr isti dehceviedieti si gm adsiýmac ue m`fmhäe ai tuniræm qui si dehcrpcrm
ie i` prcpdc nmhj up ai `m tuei`macrm. Ie isti m`fmhäe si mhcpdme gmstm >;; fitrcs ai
tuniræm lìxdnì ie ue riauhdac ispmhdc ai uecs 8-1 fitrcs ai `cebdtua. Istm tuniræm istí
uedam hce `m qui `ìbm ai` vietd`macr. M fiadam qui `m tuei`macrm mvmezm vm aispìbíeacsi
aispìbíeacsi
tuniræm sde pmusm m`buem qui cn`dbui m suspieair i` trmnmoc ai hcrti.
Ecrfm`fieti si adspcei ai acs uedamais
uedamais ai hmssitti pmrm fdedfdzmr `cs tdifpcs ai pm
pmrmam.
rmam.
==4 ai =7;
Istm scùhdøe tdiei vietmoms madhdcemìs hcfc sce?
- Yem pirlihtm m`deimhdøe ai `m tuniræm

- Ye fuy nuie tiesmac
@m destm`mhdøe ec sulriaiai`mrcturms
fdsfmpcr detrusdøe ie `cs bí`dncs ai `cs vigæhu`cs qui
hdrhu`me pcr i` tÿei`.
= >
A a a
÷ ÷ ÷
XI^ DI
B odce∞
ce∞ Mst ur m d s ( Ispmem)
Ispmem) ∞ Mpac. 1;1
1;1
Ql̀l s. 81( 4) 7∞ 9=<7=8>/ 9=<7==7
Q`
Lmx∞ 81( 4) 7∞ 9=<7;12
G
M
=>; ai =7;
8 XDXQIFMX AI \IEQD@MHDØE
8.= Qdpcs ai sdstifms ai vietd`mhdøe

8.=
Xcp`meti
I` mdri ietrm m` lrieti ai` lceac ai smhc m trmväs ai `m tuniræm, dfpu`smac pcr ue vietd`macr,
y aisp`mzm `m fmsm ai mdri vdhdmac gmhdm `m hcrrdieti prdehdpm` ai mdri, m trmväs ai `m bmìræm.
Isti is i` sdstifm priacfdemeti usmac ie `m fmycræm ai `ms fdems.
@m hcrrdieti ai mdri `dfpdc qui si bieirm ie isti sdstifm, m uem vi`chdama ri`mtdvmfieti
m`tm, prcvchm m` ietrmr ie hcetmhtc hce `cs bmsis qui gmy ie i` lrieti uem fizh`m turnuìetm
hce `c qui si i`dfdem `m pctiehdm` ai mhufu`mhdøe c istrmtdldhmhdøe ai` bms ie zcems
prøxdfms m` lrieti. @m sm`dam ai` hceauhtc aini istmr sdtumam m uem adstmehdm maihumam ai`
lrieti, ai fcac qui `m zcem ai nmrrdac si ixtdieam gmstm ästi. Xd `m adstmehdm is ixhisdvm, si
hrim uem zcem fuirtm, ie `m qui i` mdri ec si rieuivm.
r ieuivm.
9.9.=.= Hmrmhtiræstdhms ai `m vietd`mhdøe scp`meti
 Nmrrdac ai` lrieti?

Ie ue sdstifm scp`meti `m adstrdnuhdøe ai `ms `æeims ai lùoc gmhi qui `m hcrrdieti ai
mdri lrishc sim ilihtdvm m fmycr adstmehdm aisai `m sm`dam ai` hceauhtc qui ie i`
sdstifm mspdrmeti. Ie lrietis brdsucscs, istm hcrrdieti hmusm uem fizh`m turnuìetm
hce i` brdsÿ y ivdtm `m istrmtdldhmhdøe ai ästi.
=>= ai =7;
 Mfndieti ai trmnmoc y pc`vc?

@m vi`chdama ai `m hcrrdieti ai mdri dehdaieti prcauhi ue ilihtc rilrdbirmacr ie i`
lrieti. pcr
pc`vc, [cr `cctrm
quipmrti,
ie iìstm
hmscvi`chdama, am ùbmr
ai mfndietis m uem suspiesdøe
fuy pc`vcrdietcs y adspirsdøe
sirí eihismrdc ai`
mhcp`mr
ue vietd`macr ai riluirzc mspdrmeti. @m fdsdøe ai isti vietd`macr sirí ritdrmr i`
pc`vc ai` lrieti y `ìvmr`c
`ìvmr`c m ue aihmetmacr.
aihmetmacr.
 Hdrhu`mhdøe ai` bms?

Ie hmsc ai trmnmomr ie mfndietis brdsucsc, i` fitmec bieirmac ie i` lrieti si
mrrmstrm m trmväs ai tcam `m bmìræm, aceai `m prcnmnd`dama ai iehcetrmr luietis ai
dbedhdøe pcaræm sir ie prdehdpdc fmycr, pcr `c qui `m iìhhdøe ai` sdstifm ie isti
hmsc gm ai istuadmrsi hudamacsmfie
hudamacsmfieti.ti.
 Hceauhtcs ai vietd`mhdøe?
I` sdstifm pirfdti i` usc ai hceauhtcs lìxdnìs ec rilcrzmacs, qui tdieie uem
supirldhdi
uem fiecrdetirdcr `dsm.mÌstcs
risdstiehdm pmsc hceauhtcs
ai` mdri. sce fís nmrmtcs y fmeiomnìs y prisietme
Mspdrmeti
Ie isti fätcac, i` mdri hcetmfdemac ai` lrieti is suhhdcemac m trmväs ai` hceauhtc aindac
m `m aiprisdøe hrimam ie istm pcr ue vietd`macr sdtumac ie i` ctrc ixtrifc. Isti mdri is
ivmhumac ie `m hcrrdieti ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`, prchiaieti ai `m hum` ietrm mdri `dfpdc m
trmväs ai `m bmìræm.
@m nchm ai mspdrmhdøe ai `m tuniræm aini sdtumrsi fuy prøxdfm m` lrieti, pirc mÿe msæ,
aindac m `m adstrdnuhdøe ai `ms hurvms ai vi`chdamais ai mdri ie `ms zcems prøxdfms m `m
mspdrmhdøe, isti sdstifm ec ilihtÿm ie bieirm` ue nuie nmrrdac ai` lrieti, pcr `c qui suiì
sir eihismrdc i` usc ai `m hceldburmhdøe aiecfdemam fdxtm.
=>> ai =7;
Hmrmhtiræstdhms ai `m vietd`mhdøe mspdrmeti.
 Nmrrdac ai` lrieti?

I` mdrisulrishc
ùibc ietrm ym turnuìehdm
vi`chdama trmväs ai `m sirí
bmìræm, ai sihhdøe
fuhgc fiecr, fuhgc fmycrhce
y su fizh`m quiiì`bms
hceauhtc,
ifdtdac
pcr `m bmìræm y i` lrieti fuhgc fís pcnri.
pcnri.
Maifís, sibÿe i` mdri lrishc ietrmeti ie i` sdstifm mspdrmeti si mprcxdfm m `m tcfm

ai mdri ai` hceauhtc, i` lùoc tdieai m fcvirsi gmhdm i``m, hrimeac i` pctiehdm` pmrm
`m lcrfmhdøe ai zcems ai mdri istítdhc ie i` lrieti. [cr isti fctdvc, ue sdstifm
mspdrmeti pcr sd sc`c ec is hmpmz, ie bieirm`, ai bmrmetdzmr ue nuie nmrrdac ai`
lrieti, sd isti is ai brme sihhdøe c sd `m tuniræm ai mspdrmhdøe ec istí sdtumam ie i`
fdsfc lrieti. [cr i``c, is hceviedieti macptmr uem scùhdøe fdxtm, hce ue
vietd`macr ai riluirzc scp`meti qui hrii uem turnuìehdm maihumam pmrm bmrmetdzmr `m
adùhdøe ai` brdsÿ.
 Mfndieti ai trmnmoc
@m vi`chdama ai y`mpc`vc?
hcrrdieti ai mdri dehdaieti is fiecr hce `c qui adsfdeuyi i`
ilihtc rilrdbirmacr ie i` lrieti. @m suspiesdøe y adspirsdøe ai` pc`vc is tmfndäe
fiecr. Maifís aini hcesdairmrsi qui isti vietd`macr ritdrm i` pc`vc ai` lrieti.
 Hdrhu`mhdøe ai` bms?

I` bms bieirmac ie i` lrieti hdrhu`m pcr `m tuniræm, fdietrms qui pcr `m bmìræm
hdrhu`m mdri `dfpdc. Isti mrbufietc, pmrihi qui deh`demræm `m nm`mezm gmhdm `m
vietd`mhdøe mspdrmeti ie i` hmsc ai lrietis fuy brdsucscs. [irc gm ai hcesdairmrsi
qui i` bms aini hdrhu`mr pcr `m tuniræm ai vietd`mhdøe y m trmväs ai `cs vietd`macris
sihueamrdcs, qui tmfndäe sce pcsdnìs luietis ai dbedhdøe. (MXF 9=, MQIW, prIE).
 Hceauhtcs ai vietd`mhdøe?
I` sdstifm riqudiri ue hceauhtc ræbdac (lmnrdhmac ie mhirc, p`ístdhc c ldnrm ai
vdardc) c ue hceauhtc lìxdnì rilcrzmac fiadmeti ispdrm`. Xd `cs sdstifms riqudirie
ue brme hmuam`, su ioihuhdøe príhtdhm puiai sir prcnìfítdhm tähedhmfieti
gmn`meac, ym qui si eihisdtme prisdceis fuy iìvmams qui hceauhie m `m utd`dzmhdøe
ai vmrdcs vietd`macris ie sirdi.
Xcp`meti hce mpcyc mspdrmeti
Lcrfm pmrti ai `cs sdstifms fdxtcs. I` sdstifm fdxtc, tmfndäe ``mfmac sdstifm sc`mpmac,
utd`dzm ue vietd`macr muxd`dmr ai riluirzc, sdtumac lrieti m `m `mncr, y hce ue trmfc ai
hceauhtc ai pchm `cebdtua. Istcs sdstifms hcfndeme `ms vietmoms ai hmam sdstifm,
hcesdbudieac i` fiocr ilihtc ai vietd`mhdøe ie sdtumhdceis hcehritms ai fdeiræm.
Xce pcsdnìs acs hceldburmhdceis ie luehdøe ai qui `m `æeim prdehdpm` sim `m mspdrmeti c `m
scp`meti.
Yem `æeim scp`meti hce sc`mpi mspdrmeti hcestm ai ue sdstifm scp`meti prdehdpm` hce uem
destm`mhdøe muxd`dmr mspdrmeti, huym luehdøe pcr `c bieirm` is `m ai rihcbir y ivmhumr i`
pc`vc bieirmac ie i` lrieti.
=>8 ai =7;
Mspdrmeti hce mpcyc scp`meti
Ye mspdrmeti hce sc`mpi scp`meti tiearí i` isquifm cpuistc, y `m luehdøe ai` vietd`macr
muxd`dmr ai riluirzc (scp`meti) is prihdsmfieti `m ai msiburmr ue nuie nmrrdac ai` lrieti,
ivdtmeac `m lcrfmhdøe ai zcems fuirtms sde vietd`mhdøe maihumam.
@m vietd`mhdøe mspdrmeti, istmrí adsiýmam ai lcrfm qui tcfi

t cfi ie adhgc lceac ai smhc, ie i`
lrieti, uecs >/8 ai` hmuam` qui si gm hm`hu`mac, ai lcrfm qui i` =/8 ristmeti ribrisi pcr i`
lceac ai smhc gmhdm `m hcrrdieti ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`, `dfpdmeac c mrrmstrmeac m su pmsc
`cs gufcs qui si bieirme pcr i` pmsc y i` istmhdcemfdietc ai `cs hmfdceis.
Ai istm lcrfm?
 Hcesibudfcs mdri `dfpdc ie i` lrieti ym qui i` gufc ai `cs hmfdceis ec vm

gmhdm `cs trmnmomacris.
 Xi adùyie ai tcams lcrfms `cs gufcs y hce fmycr ilihtdvdama
 Xi ivdtm, hcfc churri ie fuhgms chmsdceis qui `m vi`chdama ai` mdri ie i` lceac
ai smhc sim príhtdhmfieti eu`m ie zcems mìomams ai` lrieti.
l rieti.
 Xi adsfdeuyi `m tifpirmturm, mufietme `ms hceadhdceis ai hcelcrt ai `cs
trmnmomacris, mufietmeac su rieadfdietc ai trmnmoc.
=>1 ai =7;
8.> Hceldburmhdceis
8.>
\ietd`mhdøe ishm`cemam (Nccstirs)
Humeac `m `cebdtua ai` lceac ai smhc is nmstmeti brmeai ie ri`mhdøe m` adífitrc ai `m

tuniræm, ie fuhgms chmsdceis, hce uec c vmrdcs vietd`macris ie hc`m ec si hcesibudræm i`
cnoitdvc prcpuistc ai hmuam` ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc. Dehùsc puiai qui hce `m
hceldburmhdøe ie hc`m si m`hmehie prisdceis qui `m tuniræm ec puiai scpcrtmr. Ie istcs
hmscs si hc`chme
hc`chme vietd`macris detirhm`macs m `c `mrbc
`mrbc ai `m tuniræm hce i` lde ai myuamr m`
sdstifm.
Istms destm`mhdceis si puiaie gmhir hce `cs acs tdpcs ai tuniræms usmams ie fdeiræm, `m
tuniræm lìxdnì `dsm c hce `m tuniræm
t uniræm lìxdnì rilcrzmam.
+ + +
t -
= > 8
Hcfc si puiai vir ie i` admbrmfm ai prisdceis metirdcr, pmrm uem destm`mhdøe scp`meti, `ms
prisdceis ie `cs vietd`macris sce pcsdtdvms prdehdpm`fieti. [irc sd cnsirvmfcs `cs
vietd`macris > y 8, vifcs qui `m tuniræm qui uei `cs acs vietd`macris tdiei ue trmfc ai `m
fdsfm ie scnriprisdøe y ctrc trmfc ie aiprisdøe. Istc trmi prcnìfms ie mfncs tdpcs ai
tuniræm?
=. Xd `m tuniræm ie lìxdnì rilcrzmam, puistc qui tcams `ms tuniræms tdieie lubms, ie isti
hmsc tiearifcs
tmetc lubms
m`riaiacr ai` ietrmetis8yhcfc
vietd`macr lubmsie
sm`dietis,
i` puetc`ct qui
ai `mprcauhdrí uem rihdrhu`mhdøe
tuniræm aceai ai mdri
hmfndm i` räbdfie
ai prisdøe.
+ + +
t -
= > 8
>. Xd `m tuniræm luisi lìxdnì `dsm, ie i` fcfietc ai qui si bieiri aiprisdøe ie i` `mac ai
mspdrmhdøe ai` vietd`macr 8, `m tuniræm si hc`mpsmrí m` tieair m hirrmrsi, puis ec istí
rilcrzmam. Istc trmirí hcfc hcesihuiehdm qui i` vietd`macr hcfiezmrí m trmnmomr fís
lcrzmac y pcaræm dehùsc m `ìbmr m trmnmr ie räbdfie ai ncfnic. I` cpirmrdc ai `m
vietd`mhdøe, detudtdvmfieti ritrmsmræm `m pcsdhdøe ai` vietd`macr pmrm detietmr hcrribdr istm
sdtumhdøe, pirc i` sdstifm is fís hcfpìoc pcr qui `cs trdíebu`cs ai prisdceis vm m
aipieair ie tcac fcfietc ai `m adstmehdm ai` vietd`macr 8 gmstm i` lrieti, y istm adstmehdm
vm hmfndmeac m fiadam qui si vm mvmezmeac, `c qui cn`dbmrí ai euivc m sibudr mýmadieac
vietd`macris y m` ldem`, sde ue hrdtirdc rmhdcem`.
=>9 ai =7;

Ie hc`m
Yem
ai `mm`tiremtdvm m` sdstifm
destm`mhdøe. metirdcr is eihismrdcs
@cs vietd`macris `m ai hc`chmrsitcacs `c vietd`macris
destm`me eihismrdcs
ie i` ixtrifc ai `m ie hc`m
tuniræm
cpuistc m` lrieti ai trmnmoc.
[mrm uem destm`mhdøe scp`meti si puiai utd`dzmr tuniræm lìxdnì `dsm.

`d sm. Ie isti sdstifm si tdiei
`m vietmom ai ec prcauhdrsi `m rihdrhu`mhdøe ai mdri vdhdmac. Qdiei `m `dfdtmhdøe ie `m prcpdm
tuniræm, ym qui i` utd`dzmr vmrdcs vietd`macris ie sirdi gmhi qui `ms prisdceis qui si bieirme
ie `m tuniræm sime fuy iìvmams. @m tuniræm gm ai scpcrtmr istms prisdceis, msæ hcfc istmr
ie nuiems hceadhdceis ym qui sd ec `ms lubms qui si prcauhie ie `m tuniræm pcaræme gmhir
qui mpiems `ìbmsi mdri m` lrieti ai trmnmoc.
[XQ +
Xipmrmacris
Humeac
adífitrcie
is ue
fuytÿei` hce `cs
brmeai brme
acseihisdama
sdstifms ai hmuam`, si
metirdcris `m gmhie
ri`mhdøe `cebdtua ai tuniræm lrieti m
devdmnìs.
@m prcpuistm fiadmeti sipmrmacris hcesdsti ie destm`mhdceis ai vietd`macris y tuniræm ie

sirdi, hcfc sd luisi uem vietd`mhdøe ishm`cemam, pirc hmam vietd`macr detirhm`mac ec istmræm
hceihtmac m `m tuniræm ai `m destm`mhdøe metirdcr.
tuniræm tuniræm
Yem viz ym si hcechi i` hmuam` qui si eihisdtm ie lrieti, si hm`hu`m `m destm`mhdøe eihismrdm,
qui istmrí aildedac pcr `m tuniræm ai vietd`mhdøe y uec c vmrdcs vietd`macris ie sirdi.
Aindac m `ms lubms qui si bieirme ie `m tuniræm, i` vietd`macr tiearí qui ietribmr ue hmuam`
supirdcr m` qui eihisdtm ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc. [uistc qui isti vietd`macr tcfmrí mdri
=>< ai =7;
`dfpdc ai uem destm`mhdøe metirdcr, adhgm destm`mhdøe ainirí ietribmr ue hmuam` `dbirmfieti
supirdcr ai fmeirm qui `m adliriehdm si dehcrpcri hcfc hmuam` sm`dieti m `m bmìræm c tÿei`
ivdtmeac qui i` ÿ`tdfc vietd`macr tcfi mdri ai ritcrec rihdrhu`íeac`c.
Isti sdstifm tdiei `m prdehdpm` vietmom ai pcair utd`dzmr tuniræm lìxdnì `dsm, qui pmrm
`cebdtuais ai tÿeiìs dfpcrtmetis gmhi qui `m destm`mhdøe sim fuhgc fís ihceøfdhm, pcr
ctrc `mac m` ec istmr hceihtmacs `cs vietd`macris, ec si prcauhie aiprisdceis ie `ms
tuniræms qui hc`mpsie `ms fdsfms.
\mrd``m
tuirhm tuirhm
sipmrmacr
Hceixdøe m tuniræm Hceixdøe m

vietd`macr
Adstmehdm
[mrm ue hcrrihtc mousti ai` sdstifm is hceviedieti i` usc ai vmrdmris ai lrihuiehdm pmrm i`
hcetrc` ai `cs vietd`macris, scnri tcac pmrm riauhdr i` hmuam` ie i` vietd`macr fís prøxdfc
m` lrieti,
puistc quiym`m qui sd tdieiai`fiecs
risdstiehdm tuniræm
sdstifm destm`mam
is fiecr, ie hdirtcfcvd`dzmrí
i` vietd`macr fcfietcfuhgc
qui `mfís
ai adsiýc,
hmuam`,
y sd isti hmuam` is supirdcr m` qui ietribm i` sdstifm metirdcr, si puiai prcauhdr ue
rihdrhu`mhdøe ai mdri vdhdmac, m`bc qui ec is fuy aisimnì, pcr tmetc si nmomrí i` hmuam` ai`
vietd`macr fís prøxdfc fiadmeti i` usc ai ue vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm.
îhdrhu`mhdøe hcetrc`mam
Yem príhtdhm gmndtum` ie ctrcs pmæsis is `m rihdrhu`mhdøe hcetrc`mam ai mdri. Isti isquifm
is pcsdnì tmetc ie `ms vietd`mhdceis mspdrmetis hcfc dfpiìetis, y hcesdsti nísdhmfieti ie
prcvchmr ai lcrfm hceshdieti y hcetrc`mam `m rihdrhu`mhdøe ai pmrti ai` hmuam` ai mdri qui
ritcrem ai` lrieti, msiburmeac i` hmuam` ilihtdvc qui fmrhm `m MXF9=.
Ietieaifcs pcr hmuam` ilihtdvc (qi) i` vcùfie ai mdri ie f 8/s qui `ìbm m` lrieti, fiecs
i` qui rihdrhu`m.
Istm scùhdøe tdiei `m vietmom ai` mprcvihgmfdietc detibrm` ai` mdri detrcauhdac ie `m fdem,
qui smì `dfpdc, pirc ivdaietifieti riqudiri ue istrdhtc hcetrc` ai `m hm`dama ai` mdri
rihdrhu`mac, ai lcrfm qui i` hcetiedac ai bms ie i` lrieti euehm m`hmehi hcehietrmhdceis
=>2 ai =7;
pi`dbrcsms. M prdcrd, istm daim tdiei detirismetis pcsdnd`damais, pirc aini mem`dzmrsi su
vdmnd`dama pmrm hmam hmsc ie hcehritc, tiedieac ie huietm i` räbdfie ai aisprieadfdietc
ai bms ai `m `mncr, `m undhmhdøe ai `ms fíqudems y ai` pirscem`, y `cs mspihtcs ri`mtdvcs m`
pc`vc.
Istm tmrim ixdbi, maifís, `m utd`dzmhdøe ai` hcetrc` mfndietm`.
=>7 ai =7;
1 H^DQI^DCX AI AILDEDHDCE AI HMYAM@IX
@m istdfmhdøe ai `m hmetdama eihismrdm ai mdri ie uem zcem ai trmnmoc tcamvæm is ue mspihtc

ifpærdhc ie `m p`medldhmhdøe y adsiýc ai ue sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe. @m fmycræm ai `ms
riliriehdms istíe nmsmams ie ixpirdiehdms `chmìs ai ifdsdceis ai bmsis c ai adsdpmhdøe ai
hm`cr y mÿe istíe rilirdams ai uem fmeirm príhtdhm m rmtdcs ai f¸/s pcr aitirfdemams
uedamais? H\ Adisi`, tcei`mams ixtrmæams, f¾ ai sihhdøe ai tÿei`, ith.
Istcs fätcacs ai aitirfdemhdøe ai `cs hmuamìs siríe ví`dacs sdifpri y humeac `cs
fätcacs ai trmnmoc prcpuistcs, tdpc ai fmqudemrdm y hceadhdceis sime sdfd`mris m `cs qui
adirce ùbmr m `cs rmtdcs ai hmuam`.
Xibÿe `m ixpirdiehdm ai ctrms fdems si rihcfdieam ifpizmr m humetdldhmr `ms eihisdamais

ai hmuam` ie `cs prcpdcs puetcs ai trmnmoc, ie `cs lceacs ai smhc.
[mrm i``c, si puiaie utd`dzmr eufircsms lcrfu`mhdceis pmrm humetdldhmr i` hmuam` ai mdri
eihismrdc qui fi aie?
 f8/s pcr jd`ctcei`mams ai fdeirm`/mýc.

 f8/s pcr JR ai Adisi` destm`mac
 f8/s pcr ue JR ai adisi` luehdcemeac
 f8/s pcr `dtrc ai ‐Adisi`‖ hmfdemeac aietrc ai `m fdem
 f8/s pcr pirscem ie `m fdem
1.= \i`chdama fæedfm

1.=
@m vi`chdama fæedfm ai ritcrec ai vietd`mhdøe is ue vm`cr ai riliriehdm nmstmeti usmac pcr

sdfp`dhdama. Hcfc riliriehdm
riliriehdm ie tcac tdpc ai tÿe
tÿeiìs
iìs y bmìræms, uem vi`chdama fæedfm ai
ritcrec ai ;.9 f/s is suldhdieti. Istm vi`ch
vi`chdama
dama aildei i` hmuam` ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc ai
;.9xX f¸/s aceai X is `m sihhdøe ai` tÿei` ie f¾. Xd `m `cebdtua ai` tÿei` is dfpcrtmeti, `ms
lubms qui si prcauhdríe ie `m tuniræm ai vietd`mhdøe dehrifietmrí prcbrisdvmfieti i`
hmuam` ai ritcrec, gmstm gmhirsi fíxdfc m `m sm`dam ai` tÿei` hce `c qui `m vi`chdama fiadm
ai ritcrec sirí supirdcr m `cs ;.9f/s ai adsiýc.
Ie fdeiræm ai hmrnøe si usm hcfc riliriehdm uem vi`chdama fæedfm ai ritcrec ai ;.> f/s
pmrm sus `mncris ie rchm, dehrifietíeacsi
dehrifietíeacsi m ;.8f/s
;.8f/s pmrm `mncri
`mncriss ie hmrnøe
1.> Adùhdøe ai fitmec

1.>
@m rib`mfietmhdøe ai siburdama fdeirm si rifcetm m =7>9, mýc ie i` qui pcr îm` Aihritc
si msdbem m `m Adrihhdøe Bieirm` ai Fdems `ms cpirmhdceis ai vdbd`mehdm i despihhdøe ai `ms
=>4 ai =7;
`mncris fdeirms. Ie =742 mpmrihi i` prdfir îb`mfietc ai [c`dhæm Fdeirm, fcadldhmac ie

=4=; y ie =481, y pcstirdcrfieti fcadldhmac pmrm mamptmrsi m `cs prcbriscs tihec`øbdhcs.
@ms DQHistíe
fdeirm, (Destruhhdceis
rihcbdams Qähedhms Hcfpìfietmrdms)
ie i` ^BENXF aistdemams
(îb`mfietc Bieirm`m ai
lmvcrihir
Ecrfms`mNísdhms
siburdama
ai
Xiburdama Fdeirm), pun`dhmac ie i` mýc =479 y hce hcfpitiehdm ai `ms Hcfuedamais
Mutøecfms. Ie Msturdms si prcfu`bmrce 9> DQHs, hce `cs mhrøedfcs MXF, qui sce
príhtdhmfieti daäetdhms
daäetdhms m `ms DQHs em
emhdcemìs
hdcemìs ixhi
ixhiptc
ptc acs qui sc
scee ixhùsdvms ai Msturdms?
 MXF-9= ‐Ixp`ctmhdøe ai hmpms ai hmrnøe pcr i` fätcac ai Xutdrmbi hce sunedviìs‖.

 MXF-9> ‐Xdstifms ai ixp`ctmhdøe ai `mncris suntirríeims h`msdldhmams, rispihtc m`
rdisbc ai prisiehdm ai brdsÿ y ctrcs bmsis del`mfmnìs‖.
Ai tcacs fcacs i` hmuam` riquirdac ie i` lrieti pcr fctdvcs ai adùhdøe ai brdsÿ is

bieirm`fieti fiecr m` riquirdac pcr ctrcs hrdtirdcs. Hcfc ecrfm bieirm`, pcarí aihdrsi
qui gmnrí qui tieir uem vi`chdama fæedfm ai ;.8f/s ie lrietis brdsucscs y ;.>f/s ie
lrietis ec brdsucscs.
1.8 Adùhdøe ifdsdceis adisi`

1.8
Xi tcfm hcfc riliriehdm `m hmetdama ai JR Adisi` ai `ms fíqudems prisietis ie `cs

trmnmocs ie `m ixp`ctmhdøe, hce `cs hcesdbudietis hcildhdietis ai sdfu`tmeidama, ai fmeirm
qui fu`tdp`dhmac pcr `m hmetdama ai mdri ispihældhc sibÿe `m ìbds`mhdøe, ecs am i` hmuam`
eihismrdc qui gm ai fcvd`dzmr i` vietd`macr.
Istc tdiei ue prcnìfm, ym qui m pismr ai qui `cs hcildhdietis ai utd`dzmhdøe ai `ms
fíqudems adisi` hmfndme ie luehdøe ai `m crbmedzmhdøe, p`medldhmhdøe, y scnri tcac ai `m
ivcùhdøe ai `m fdem, sdifpri si hcesdairme istcs hcildhdietis hcestmetis ie `cs `dnrcs ai
vietd`mhdøe, pcr `c qui ainiræm dehdadr ie isti tifm, ym qui m pismr ai qui si supirie `cs
;.;9 f8/s/H\ Adisi` Ec hmtm`dzmac c ;.;8 f8/s/H\ Adisi` Hmtm`dzmac, puiai sir qui `m
vietd`mhdøe puiam sir aifmsdmac oustm. Gmnrí qui tieir ie huietm ctrcs lmhtcris hcfc
vi`chdama ai ritcrec, tifpirmturm, ith.
Hcfc riliriehdm crdietmtdvm ie lmsi prcyihtc ai` hmuam` ai mdri eihismrdc ie ùbmris hce
utd`dzmhdøe ai fmqudems Adisi`?
 [mrm trmnmocs hce Iqudpcs Adisi` Hmtm`dzmacs?
] (f8/s) 6 ;.;1 (f8/s) x E» ai cpirmrdcs + ;.;8 (f8/s) H\ Adisi`
 [mrm trmnmocs hce Iqudpcs Adisi` Ec Hmtm`dzmacs?

] (f8/s) 6 ;.;1 (f8/s) x E» ai cpirmrdcs + ;.;9 (f8/s) H\ Adisi`
Hce istm lcrfu`mhdøe cntiebc i` hmuam` qui eihisdtc pmrm hmam lceac ai smhc.
M ilihtcs príhtdhcs, istm lcrfu`mhdøe siræm suldhdieti pmrm i` adfiesdcemfdietc ai `m

vietd`mhdøe ym qui prclueadzmr ie i` crdbie ai `cs hcildhdietis ;.;8 y ;.;9 ec tdiei sietdac
=8; ai =7;
sd ec si tdiei h`mrc i` hcildhdieti ai sdfu`tmeidama ai `ms fíqudems qui istíe trmnmomeac ie

hmam lrieti ai trmnmoc.
I` vdbieti ^BENXF
hcfnustdøe detirem ie i`mncram
detirdcr`maiprcnìfítdhm mschdmamaisai
`m fdem ÿedhmfieti m `m `mutd`dzmhdøe
pirspihtdvmaiaifctcris ai
ixdbdr uem
suldhdieti adùhdøe ai `cs bmsis ai pmrtæhu`ms ifdtdams, pmrm qui `ms hcehietrmhdceis
mfndietmìs si fmetiebme pcr ainmoc ai `cs vm`cris mafdsdnìs pmrm `cs adstdetcs bmsis
pi`dbrcscs sibÿe
sibÿe DQH ;1.2.;> ‐Hcehietrmhdceis `æfdtis ai bmsis‖.
@m ÿedhm ispihdldhmhdøe ai hmuamìs fæedfcs ie `m qui si utd`dhie fíqudems ai hcfnustdøe

adisi` ie `m ecrfmtdvm fdeirm ispmýc`m si iehuietrm ie i` îb`mfietc ai [c`dhæm Fdeirm ai
=481, qui istmnìhæm ue riquirdfdietc ai vietd`mhdøe ai =8 f¸/s pcr hmam =;;JR ai
pctiehdm ecfdem`, qui hcrrispceai hce ue rmtdc ai ;.;42 f8/s/H\ Adisi`, qui supcei
príhtdhmfieti i` acnì qui `c qui si hcesdairm ie ``cs
cs rib`mfietcs fdeircs detiremhdcemìs
vdbietis.
Aurmeti `cs ÿ`tdfcs =9 mýcs, si gme hcesibudac brmeai fiocrms ie i` aismrrc``c ai `cs
fctcris adisi`, scnritcac ie `c qui si rildiri m `m riauhhdøe ai `ms ifdsdceis ai pmrtæhu`ms.
Istms fiocrms ispihældhms si gme hietrmac ie i` turnc hcfpriscr, ie `m deyihhdøe m m`tm
prisdøe y ie `m deyihhdøe
deyihhdøe iìhtrøedhm ai hcfnustdnì.
@m hcfnustdøe dehcfpìtm ai hcfnustdnì ie `cs fctcris adisi` prcauhi ifdsdceis qui
istíe lcrfmams pcr fizh`ms hcfpìoms ai bmsis y pmrtæhu`ms ai hmrnøe ouetc hce
hcfpceietis crbíedhcs qui gme mascrndac.
[cr `c bieirm`, ie `m fmycræm ai `ms fdems ie YXM y ie Hmemaí, `cs pmrífitrcs ai adsiýc
ai` hmuam` istíe nmsmacs ie rmtdcs tdpc ‐f8/s/H\‖, y si istí ifpizmeac m tieir fuy ie
huietm `m adùhdøe ai `ms pmrtæhu`ms A[F. Is ie istcs pmæsis aceai si istíe hietrmeac ie i`
hcetrc` m `m ixpcsdhdøe ai istms pmrtæhu`ms, y qui sde auam fmrhmríe uem riliriehdm qum
mhmnmríe sdbudieac i` ristc.
Hcesdairmeac `m hmetdama ai hmrnøe tctm` pcr fitrc hÿndhc ai mdri, si cnsirvm qui ie `m
brme fmycræm ai `ms fdems ie qui i` mfndieti ec irm hcelcrtmnì pmrm i` trmnmoc y qui ie
m`bÿe fcfietc si gm tiedac qui pmrmr `cs trmnmocs, dfp`dhmnm tieir vm`cris pcr iehdfm ai
`cs 1;;QH  b/f8.
@m fmycr hmetdama ai ifdsdceis sce `ms ai `cs iqudpcs ai prcauhhdøe (pm`ms hmrbmacrms,
hmfdceis y `chcfctcrms). Is eihismrdc hcechir scnri qui vm`cris ecs fcvifcs ie `ms
ifdsdceis ai pmrtæhu`ms ai `ms fíqudems mtieadieac m tdpc ai fíqudem?
Qdpc ai fíqudem ie luehdøe ai `m \m`cr delirdcr \m`cr supirdcr

deyihhdøe ai` hcfnustdnì Zb/G[-gV Zb/G[-gV
Iqudpcs fcairecs ai Deyihhdøe Adrihtm ;.= ;.1
Iqudpcs Deyihhdøe Deadrihtm ;.8 ;.9
Iqudpcs \diocs ai Deyihhdøe adrihtm ;.9 ;.4
@cs vm`cris ai `ms ifdsdceis aietrc ai` rmebc aildedac pcr i` vm`cr delirdcr y i` vm`cr
supirdcr, siríe tmìs qui pmrm fíqudems hce nuie prcbrmfm ai fmetiedfdietc qui istmríe
=8= ai =7;
fís prøxdfcs m` vm`cr delirdcr fdietrms qui ie hmsc hcetrmrdc si mprcxdfmrí m` ctrc
ixtrifc ai` rmebc.
@m hcetrdnuhdøe ai pmrtæhu`ms ai ifdsdceis Adisi` (b/fde)

( b/fde) viearí amam pcr `m ixprisdøe?
gr  =;;  IL Z%V  = riìvc
 IH Z%V   =;;
HIA Z b / fde V  [A Z G[ V  IA Z b / G[  gV  7Z V   Z V
riìvc  =;;   =;;  17; fde
aceai?
HIA? Hcetrdnuhdøe ai [mrtæhu`ms (A[F) ie `ms ifdsdceis ai vigæhu`cs Adisi` Z b / fdeV
[A? [ctiehdm ai` vigæhu`c adisi` Z G[ V
IA? Ifdsdøe ai pmrtæhu`ms adisi` (A[F) Z b / G[
 gV
IH? Ildhdiehdm ai` hmtm`dzmacr Z%V
Z%V .
IL? Ildhdiehdm ai` ld`trc Z%V
I` hmuam` eihismrdc pmrm `m adùhdøe ai `ms pmrtæhu`ms gmstm i` `æfdti ai hmrnøe pcr f¸ ai
mdri ie fdhrcbrmfcs viearí aitirfdemac pcr `m ixprisdøe?

] IH / QH Zf 8 / s V  @æfdti IH / QH Z   =;< Z b /  b V  =.>ZrmtdcA[F / QH V=  HIAZ b / fdeV  <;= Z fde
b / f 8 V
s
V
Hcfc riliriehdm, i` `æfdti prcvdsdcem` ai ixpcsdhdøe m pmrtæhu`ms Adisi` usmac is

1;;QH  b/f8 (îhcfieamhdceis ai EDCXG y qui FXGM istí sdbudieac), vdbieti pirc qui
m pmrtdr ai Fmyc ai` >;;7 pmsmrí m sir ai =<; QH b/f8. [mrm fuhgms fdems, i` `æfdti ai
1;;QH  b/f8 gm dfp`dhmac i` usc ai fmqudems fís ‐`dfpdms‖, usmeac hmndems hce mdri
mhceadhdcemac ie `ms fmqudems y iqudpcs ai rispdrmhdøe mutøecfm pmrm `cs cnrircs qui
trmnmome luirm ai `ms fíqudems. I` pmsmr m ue `æfdti ai =<; QH  b/f8 supcearí maifís ai
istms fiadams ue dehrifietc ai` hmuam` 8 c 1 vihis supirdcr m` mhtum`.
Ld`trc ai pmrtæhu`ms
=8> ai =7;
[ritieaifcs, ai uem fmeirm príhtdhm aitirfdemr i` hmuam` eihismrdc ai fmeirm qui sim i`
sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe i` iehmrbmac ai msiburmr i` edvi` ai hcelcrt y siburdama m `ms
pirscems.
@m hcehietrmhdøe ai pmrtæhu`ms ai hmrnøe tctmìs prisieti ie `ms ifdsdceis ai uem fíqudem

Adisi`, QH si msufie hcfc i` 7;% ai `m hcehietrmhdøe ai `ms pmrtæhu`ms A[F, (Adisi`
[mrtdhu`mti Fmttir). @ms pmrtæhu`ms tctmìs ai hmrnøe `ms pcaifcs advdadr ie crbíedhms y ie
iìfietmìs, ai fmeirm qui `m hcehietrmhdøe ai `ms iìfietmìs riprisietm hmsd i` 2;% ai
`ms tctmìs. [cr tmetc, QH 6 IH x =.8 6 CH + IH, aceai IH si rildiri m `ms pmrtæhu`ms ai
hmrnøe iìfietmìs y CH m `ms crbíedhms.
Xd `m fíqudem Adisi` tdiei ue hcevirtdacr hmtm`ætdhc, `m` m ildhdiehdm is bieirm`fieti ai` >;%.
[cr ctrc `mac, i` ld`trc,
ld`tr c, tiearí uem ildhdiehdm ai` 79%.
Hcfc meí`dsds m `m lcrfu`mhdøe metirdcr, sd pmrtdfcs ai qui tcac tdpc ai fíqudem `ìvmrí
ld`trc y hmtm`dzmacr, fcstrmrifcs m hcetdeumhdøe `m vmrdmhdøe ai `cs rmtdcs tdpc ‐f8/s/H\‖,
ie luehdøe ai `ms ifdsdceis ai `ms pmrtæhu`ms adisi` pmrm `cs acs `æfdtis m `cs qui gifcs
istmac rildrdäeacecs, y qui riprisietmrifcs hcfpmrmeac i` risu`tmac hce `cs rmtdc
príhtdhcs qui sisi utd`dzme ie Ispmým bieirm`fieti ;.;8 f8/s/H\ y ;.;9 f8/s/H\?
Ispmým
[mrm i` hí`hu`c ai` hmuam` eihismrdc

;.= ;.> ;.8 ;.1 ;.9 ;.< ;.2 ;.7 ;.4
Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb
Zb/g
/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV Zb/g
Zb/gp-
p-gr
grVV
M]1;; QH (f ¸/s/H\) ;.;;<2 ;.;=88 ;.;>;; ;.;><< ;.;888 ;.;1;; ;.;1<< ;.;988 ;.;944
M]=<; QH (f ¸/s/H\) ;.;=<2 ;.;888 ;.;9;; ;.;<<< ;.;788 ;.;444 ;.==<< ;.=88> ;.=144

[mrm i` `æfdti ai 1;;QH  b/f8, hcfpmrmeac `cs rmtdcs pmrm fctcris Adisi` hmtm`dzmacs y
hce ld`trcs, si cnsirvm qui ;.;8 f8/s/H\ ecs hunri i` rmebc ai ifdsdceis ai pmrtæhu`ms ai
gmstm ;.9 b/G[-g, pcr `c qui `ms fíqudems qui pcaræmfcs usmr siríe tcams `ms qui tiebme
ld`trc y hmtm`dzmacr m ixhiphdøe ai `ms vdioms ai deyihhdøe
d eyihhdøe adrihtm.
I` rmtdc ;.;9 f8/s/H\, príhtdhmfieti ecs mnmrhm tcams `m fmqudems, dehùdams `ms vdioms ai
deyihhdøe adrihtm sdifpri qui istäe hmtm`dzmams y hce ue fmetiedfdietc mhiptmnì. Isti
rmtdc si istí utd`dzmeac pmrm fmqudems Ec hmtm`dzmams y XDE ld`trcs, pcr `c qui sd ndie, isti
rmtdc siræm suldhdieti pmrm `m adùhdøe ai `cs bmsis, ec `c sirí pmrm `m adùhdøe ai `ms
pmrtæhu`ms hmrncecsms, sm`vc ie i` hmsc ai fíqudems euivms ie fuy nuie istmac y sde
hmtm`dzmr. Istm sdtumhdøe ec si amræm, pcr ctrc `mac, ym qui tcams `ms fíqudems euivms ym
vdieie hce ld`trc y hmtm`dzmacr.
=88 ai =7;
[mrm i` `æfdti ai pmrtæhu`ms =<;QH  b/f8 `m ristrdhhdøe sirí tme brmeai qui `dfdtmrí i`
pmrqui ai fmqudemræm sø`c m iqudpcs euivcs ai deyihhdøe adrihtm y hmtm`dzmacs. [mrm isi
hmsc, ;.;8 f8/s/H\ istmrí ym fuy oustc y sc`c sirí vm`dac pmrm `ms fíqudems qui istäe ie
fuy nuie istmac, pcr `c qui ec tiearí sietdac trmnmomr hce fíqudems EC hmtm`dzmams, y
hum`qudir ctrc tdpc ai fmqudem hmtm`dzmam y hce ld`trc ai deyihhdøe deadrihtm eihisdtmrí ue
hmuam` ai mdri supirdcr. Hcfc si puiai vir ie i` bríldhc metirdcr, ;.;9 f 8/s/H\ ecs
mnmrhmrí sø`c fíqudems euivms hmtm`dzmams. Xd si utd`dzmsie fctcris ai deyihhdøe deadrihtm
hmtm`dzmacs y hce ld`trc si eihisdtmræm rmtdcs ai hmuam` ai` craie ai ;.;79 f8/s/H\.
1.1 Adùhdøe bmsis ai `m vc`maurms

1.1
Is prihdsc, ie prdfir ùbmr, hcechir `m hcfpcsdhdøe ai` tmpøe ai gufcs lcrfmac

defiadmtmfieti aispuäs ai `m vc`maurm, pmrm pcair istuadmr su ivmhumhdøe fiadmeti i`
sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe.
@cs
tmpøe,bmsis
huymy `cebdtua
vmpcris si ixpmeaie
dedhdm` ie `m bmìræm
is dfpcrtmeti gmstm
istdfmr pmrmaitieirsi nrushmfieti,
aitirfdemr lcrfmeac
`m hcehietrmhdøe ue
qui ie
ä` tdieie `cs bmsis. @m hcehietrmhdøe fíxdfm ai` tmpøe si prisietm ie i` lrieti ai` fdsfc.
M` aisp`mzmrsi i` tmpøe pcr i` tÿei` c `m bmìræm su `cebdtua mufietm y su hcehietrmhdøe is

bmsis echdvcs adsfdeuyi.
[mrm aitirfdemr i` tdifpc ai adùhdøe ai `cs bmsis ai vc`maurm, si gm ai tieir ie huietm

uem sirdi ai hcehiptcs?
=. Yem viz lcrfmac i` tmpøe ai gufcs, puistc qui `m destm`mhdøe ai

vietd`mhdøe istí mpcrtmeac mdri `dfpdc, si ifpdizm m aisp`mzmr i` tmpøe ai
gufcs m fiadam qui si vm fizh`meac hce i` mdri `dfpdc. Qiearifcs, pcr
tmetc, uem hcehietrmhdøe ai bmsis tøxdhcs dedhdm` ie i` tmpøe ai gufcs y ctrm
ctr m
ldem` ie i` fcfietc qui i` tmpøe `ìbui m `m sm`dam ai` tÿei`. [caifcs
supceir qui ie i` vcùfie ai` tÿei` tiearifcs uem fizh`m ai `cs bmsis ai
`m vc`maurm y ai` mdri `dfpdc mpcrtmac qui is hcestmeti m `c `mrbc ai tcam `m
`cebdtua, is aihdr, sd `m adstmehdm m `m qui si iehuietri i` tmpøe ai gufcs ie
i` tÿei` is ai `m fdtma ai `m `cebdtua ai` tÿei`, aisai ism pcsdhdøe gmstm i`
lrieti ai trmnmoc, `m hcfpcsdhdøe ai `cs bmsis ai `m fizh`m `m supceifcs
hcestmeti.
>. Humeac i` tmpøe `ìbui ldem`fieti m `m sm`dam ai` tÿei`, `m
` m fizh`m tiearí uem
hcehietrmhdøe ai bmsis tøxdhcs Bh(ppf), y qui puiai qui sim supirdcr m `m
hcehietrmhdøe mafdsdnì ai bmsis tøxdhcs Bm(ppf). [cr hcesdbudieti, m`
sibudr mpcrtmeac mdri, `m hcehietrmhdøe ai `m fizh`m sibudrí adsfdeuyieac
pcr `c qui tiearifcs ue tdifpc
tdifpc ai adùhdøe madhdcem`
madhdcem` qui gifcs ai tieir ie
huietm.
=81 ai =7;
@m `cebdtua ai` tmpøe ai gufcs vdiei amam pcr `m ixprisdøe?

J  F
@  , aceai?
L M  A
 M
@ 6 @cebdtua ai` tmpøe ai gufcs ZfV
J 6 >9. Hcestmeti ai adspirsdøe pmrm `cs mvmehis ie tÿeiìs Z-V
F 6 Fmsm ai ixp`csdvcs ZjbV
LM 6 Mvmehi pcr hdh`c ZfV
A 6 Aiesdama ai `m rchm Zt/f8V
M 6 Írim ai` lrieti ai mvmehi ZfV
Isti tmpøe ai gufcs tiearí uem hcfpcsdhdøe ai bmsis echdvcs y qui aipieairíe ai` tdpc
ai ixp`csdvc utd`dzmac pirc hcfc ‐riliriehdm‖ tieifcs?
\cùfie ai bms
Bms prcauhdac/jb Aiesdama ai` bms
BMX prcauhdac /jb ai
ai
ixp`csdvc Zjb/jbV (b/f8) 8
ixp`csdvc (f )
HC ;.;=<8 =.>9 ;.;=8;1
HC> ;.=<84 =.422 ;.;7>4;8
EC> ;.;;89 =.8< ;.;;>921
Ai `cs bmsis echdvcs qui si vme m iehcetrmr ie `cs prcauhtcs ai `m vc`maurm, `cs fís
ristrdhtdvcs sirí `cs ECx. I` vm`cr mafdsdnì pmrm i` EC> cshd`m ie ue vm`cr m =.9 ppf.
Msæ, tiedieac ie huietm qui `m ri`mhdøe EC>/ECx mhiptmam ie tÿeiìs is ai ue =;% `cs
edviìs mafdsdnìs ai ECx qui si puiai hcesdairmr is ai =9 ppf.
[mrm hm`hu`mr `m hcehietrmhdøe ai bms ai `m vc`maurm ie i` tÿei`, si msufi qui adhgc bms
mgcrm si fizh`m hce i` mdri `dfpdc
` dfpdc mpcrtmac chupmeac ldem`fieti tcac i` vcùfie ai` tÿei`.
\ BMX  Ixp`csdvcs
BQYEI@   =;< , aceai?
\cùfie ai tÿei`
BQYEI@6 Hcehietrmhdøe ai bms ie i` tÿei` ZppfV

\BMX6 \cùfie ai bms / jb ixp`csdvc Zf8V
Ixp`csdvcs6Hmetdama
Ixp`csdvcs6Hmetdama ai ixp`csdvcs utd`dzmacs ie hmam vc`maurm ZjbV
8
\cùfie ai` tÿei` Zf V
Ie istm itmpm vmfcs m msufdr qui `m hmetdama ai mdri qui si istí sufdedstrmeac si fizh`m
pirlihtmfieti hce `cs bmsis ai` tmpøe. [cr tmetc, pcaifcs aildedr mgcrm i` tdifpc qui
`ìvm prcauhdrsi `m fizh`m, tfizh`m?
>
Mrim ai tÿei` Zf V  ( @cebdtua tuei`  @cebdtua tmpøe) ZfV
t fizh`m  8

Hmuam` ai mdri mpcrtmac Zf V
s
Yem viz pmsmac i` tdifpc ai `m fizh`m, puadirm sir qui `m hcehietrmhdøe ai bmsis echdvcs
tiebm vm`cris supirdcris m `cs mafdsdnìs. Xd msæ luisi, mÿe si eihisdtm ue tdifpc madhdcem`
=89 ai =7;
ai adùhdøe aurmeti i` hum` i` hcetdeuc mpcrti ai mdri nmomrí `cs vm`cris ai hcehietrmhdøe ai
`cs bmsis ai `ms vc`maurms m `cs vm`cris hcrrihtcs.
Xi aildei pcr tmetc tdifpc ai adùhdøe, tadùhdøe, hcfc?

 
 \cùfie ai tÿei` Zf 8 V   BQYEI@ ZppfV 
t adùhdøe Z s V   8   è B 
 f   MAFDXDN@I ZppfV 
 Hmuam` ai mdri mpcrtmac Z s V 
[cr tmetc, pcaifcs aihdr qui pmrm ue hmuam` amac, pmrm `ìbmr m uem hcehietrmhdøe ai bmsis
mafdsdnì, si eihisdtmrí ue tdifpc ai `dfpdizm?
` dfpdizm?
Qdifpc ai `dfpdizm 6 Qdifpc ai fizh`m + Qdifpc ai adùhdøe.
Isti sirí i` tdifpc fíxdfc ai ispirm pmrm ietrmr m` tÿei` aispuäs ai `m vc`maurm y pcair
iehcetrmr vm`cris mafdsdnìs ai `ms hcehietrmhdceis ai `cs bmsis.
Xi gm supuistc qui ie i` prdfirc ai `cs tdifpcs si prcauhi uem fizh`m pirlihtm ai `cs
bmsis, hcsm qui ec tdiei pcr qui sir ai` tcac hdirtm.
Xd ec si prcauoisi edebÿe tdpc ai fizh`m, i` mdri `dfpdc aisp`mzmræm m` tmpøe ai gufcs

gmstm i` ldem` pcr `c qui i` tdifpc ai `dfpdizm siræm sc`mfieti i` tdifpc qui gifcs
hm`hu`mac hcfc tdifpc ai fizh`m.
@m rim`dama sirí uem sdtumhdøe detirfiadm, pcr `c qui pcaifcs aihdr qui i` tdifpc ai
`dfpdizm sirí ldem`fieti?
Qdifpc ai fizh`m 0 Qdifpc ai `dfpdizm 0 (Qdifpc ai fizh`m + Qdifpc ai adùhdøe)

=8< ai =7;
9 [ÄÂDAMX AI HM^BM AI @M DEXQM@MHDØE
9.= Emturmìzm ai `ms päradams ai ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm

9.=
@ms päradams ai hmrbm ai ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe muxd`dmr puiaie advdadrsi ie päradams

pcr lrdhhdøe, päradams sdebu`mris y pärada
päradams
ms pcr prisdøe adeífdhm?
adeífdhm?
[äradams pcr lrdhhdøe
@ms päradams pcr lrdhhdøe sce mqui``ms qui si prcauhie ie `cs hceauhtcs ai pmsc ai mdri
aindac m` rczmfdietc hce `ms pmriais ai `cs fdsfcs, msæ hcfc m` prcpdc rczmfdietc ietri
`ms pmrtæhu`ms ai` lùdac. Istms päradams si hm`hu`me m pmrtdr ai `m lørfu`m bieirm` ai Amrhy-
Ridsnmhg, qui ixprismam ie tärfdecs ai prisdøe, tdiei `m lcrfm sdbudieti?
@²ύ ² u>
[l  κ ² (=)
A G ²>
aceai?
∌[l is
is `m päradam ai hmrbm ai` mdri aindam m lrdhhdøe
lrd hhdøe Z[mV.
8
ύ is `m aiesdama ai` mdri Zjb/f V.
κ is
is i` hcildhdieti madfiesdcem` ai lrdhhdøe ai` hceauhtc.
@ is `m `cebdtua ai` hceauhtc ie ZfV.
u is `m vi`chdama ai` mdri ie i` hceauhtc Zf/sV.
AG is i` adífitrc gdaríu`dhc ai` hceauhtc ZfV.
Ie ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe muxd`dmr, `ms päradams pcr lrdhhdøe ai dfpcrtmehdm ai hmrm m`

adsiýc ai `m destm`mhdøe
aisprihdmnìs sce(supceie
lrieti m istms `ms ai `m ie
tuniræm, sdieac
bieirm` `msaiaiue`ms=%
fiecs bmìræms ai` tÿei`
ie ri`mhdøe m `msc ai
fdem
`ms
tuniræms).
@ms päradams sdebu`mris
@ms päradams sdebu`mris sce mqui``ms qui si prcauhie humeac i` lùoc ai mdri hmfndm ai
adrihhdøe c i` hceauhtc hmfndm ai sihhdøe. Istms päradams si hm`hu`me hcfc ue pcrhietmoi
scnri `m prisdøe adeífdhm ai` lùdac hm`hu`mam ie i` puetc sdebu`mr?
ύ² u >
[sde   ² (>)
>
aceai?
∌[sde is `m päradam ai hmrbm ai` mdri Z[mV.
Z [mV. cntiedac ixpirdfietm`fieti.
μ is i` hcildhdieti ai päradam ai` iìfietc,
i` ristc ai pmrífitrcs ym gme sdac aildedacs.
=82 ai =7;
Ie ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe muxd`dmr, istc churri ie iìfietcs hcfc hcacs, hmfndcs ai

adífitrc ai `m tuniræm, puetcs ai ndlurhmhdøe ai `m tuniræm, riod``ms ai prctihhdøe ai tuniræm
c vietd`macr, ith.
@m ÿedhm adldhu`tma ai` hí`hu`c ai istms päradams istí ie usmr uem hcrrihtm istdfmhdøe ai`
lmhtcr μ. Is fuhgm `m `dtirmturm, nmsmam pprdehdpm`fieti
rdehdpm`fieti ie iesm
iesmycs
ycs ixpirdfietmìs, qui si
si
chupme ai istm `mncr. Xde ifnmrbc, hce i` lde ai prcpceir vm`cris ai riliriehdm pmrm `ms
bicfitræms fís usumìs qui pcaifcs iehcetrmrecs ie ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm,
puiaie mhiptmrsi `cs vm`cris prcpuistcs ie `m ecrfm XDM =4< (=447), ecrfm ai riliriehdm
m edvi` fueadm` ie humetc m vietd`mhdøe ie lceac ai smhc si rildiri.
@ms bicfitræms ai iìfietcs sdebu`mris y vm`cris rihcfieamacs pmrm i` lmhtcr μ sce `ms
sdbudietis?
 Iesmehgmf
Iesmehgmfdietc
dietc ai `m sihhdøe
M=
; ;.> ;.1 ;.< ;.7 =
M>
μ = ;.2 ;.1 ;.> ;= ;
[uiai cnsirvmrsi ie isti hmsc hcfc `m päradam adsfdeudrí luirtifieti sd `m adliriehdm ai

sihhdøe adsfdeuyi.
 Istrihgmfdietc ai `m sihhdøe
M=
; ;.> ;.1 ;.< ;.7 =
M>
μ ;.
;.<< ;.1
.199 ;.
;.88 ;.> ;.= ;
M` dbum` qui ie i` hmsc metirdcr, sd `m adliriehdm ai sihhdceis is piquiým, i` lmhtcr y pcr

tmetc `m päradam ai hmrbm adsfdeudrí.
 Hcacs ai lcrfmacs pcr hærhu`cs hcehäetrdhcs

r f
;.9 = > 1 7
ν 6 4; A
Ie μ4;=.>> ;.1
=. ;.1 ;.>9
;.>9 ;.=9
;.=9 ;.=9
;.=9
isti ν ≫ 4; μ 6 μ4; ² ν / 4;¿
hmsc,
uem adsfdeuhdøe ai` rmadc ai hurvmturm prcvchmrí ue
nrushc mufietc ai` lmhtcr ai päradam, fdietrms qui adhgc lmhtcr vmræm prcpcrhdcem`fieti
hce i` íebu`c ai` hcac, sdifpri y humeac `ms hceadhdceis ai rmadc fiadc y adífitrc ai
hceauhtc si fmetiebme.
=87 ai =7;
 Hcacs lcrfmacs pcr sibfietcs rihtcs
r f
;.9 = >
ν 6 4; A
μ8sib =.8 ;.9 ;.>9 (8;¿ / sib.)
μ9sib =.= ;.1 ;.> (=7¿ / sib.)
ν ≫ 4; μ 6 μ4; ² ν / 4;¿
@m tmn`m metirdcr is ví`dam pmrm sibfietcs ai `cebdtua m` fiecs dbum` m` adífitrc ai `m

tuniræm. @ms päradams ai hmrbm adsfdeudríe humetc fís `mrbcs sime adhgcs sibfietcs.
 Airdvmhdceis ai hmuam`
]=
; ;.> ;.1 ;.< ;.7 =
]>
μ=> = ;.4 ;.4 = =.= =.8
ν 6 4;
μ=8 ;.= ;.= ;.= ;.= ;.> ;.1
μ=> ;.4 ;.2 ;.9 ;.8 ;.8 ;.8
ν 6 19
μ=8 ;.= ;.= ;.= ;.= ;.> ;.1
@m päradam ai hmrbm ie `m pmrti rihtm ai` hceauhtc is ri`mtdvmfieti piquiým, fdietrms qui
ie `m rmfdldhmhdøe istm aipieai fuhgc ai` ripmrtc ai hmuamìs y i` íebu`c ai airdvmhdøe
 Ndlurhmhdceis
ν =; 8; 19 <; 4;
M=6 >² M>
μ ;.= ;.8 ;.2 = =.1
M= 6 M> 6 M8 : ν 6 19 : μ 6 ;.9
=84 ai =7;
 Ouetms ai hmuam` (tuniræms mspdrmetis)
]=
; ;.> ;.1 ;.< ;.7 =
]>
μ=> -=.> -;.1 ;.= ;.9 ;.2 ;.4
ν 6 4;
μ=8 ;.= ;.> ;.8 ;.1 ;.9 ;.<
μ=> -;.4 -;.1 ; ;.> ;.1 ;.1
ν 6 19
μ=8 ;.= ;.> ;.> ;.= -;.> -;.<
Ie isti hmsc, `cs sdbecs eibmtdvcs ie i` lmhtcr ai päradam μ sdbedldhme qui pmrm ue ripmrtc
ai hmuam` hcfc i` qui si deadhm, `m rmfm m qui hcrrispceai i` lmhtcr eibmtdvc si nieildhdm
ai` ilihtc ai suhhdøe prcvchmac pcr `m ctrm rmfm, qui mpcrtm ue hmuam` fuhgc fmycr.
 îod``ms ai prctihhdøe.
@ms päradams ai hmrbm aindams m uem riod``m
r iod``m aipieaie lueamfietm`fieti ai `m sihhdøe eitm
ai `m fdsfm.
Aildedfcs i` lmhtcr m— hcfc?
sihhdce eitm
m'  ²=;;
sihhdce tctm`
Ie luehdøe ai isti lmhtcr si prcpceie `cs vm`cris ai μ amacs ie `m sdbudieti tmn`m?
m— (%) 8; 1; <; 7; 4; 49
μ 7 1 > = ;.9 ;.>
@ms riod``ms usum`fieti usmams pmrm prctihhdøe ai `ms destm`mhdceis ie vietd`mhdøe
sihueamrdm suiìe tieir ue 4;% c fís ai lmhtcr m—, pcr `c qui sce lrihuietis lmhtcris ai
;.9 c delirdcris.
Gifcs ai tieir ie huietm ie isti hmsc, qui m` hm`hu`mr `m päradam ai hmrbm sibÿe (>), `m
vi`chdama ai` mdri sirí hcesdairmam scnri `m sihhdøe tctm`.
 Crdldhdcs ai ietrmam
@cs crdldhdcs ai ietrmam m hceauhtcs tmfndäe tdieie uem päradam ai hmrbm.
Xd `m ietrmam ai mdri m` hceauhtc is m trmväs ai` vietd`macr, hcfc is i` hmsc ai sdstifms hce
tuniræm scp`meti,
hum`qudir suiìe
hmsc, istm destm`mrsi
päradam puiaitcnirms ai mafdsdøe
hcesdairmrsi hcfcpmrm fdedfdzmr
pmrti istm päradam.
ai `m prcvchmam pcr Ie
i`
vietd`macr, y ecrfm`fieti sirí prcpcrhdcemam pcr i` lmnrdhmeti uem viz hcechdams `ms
hceadhdceis ai trmnmoc (prisdøe, hmuam`, ith).
=1; ai =7;
Xd `m ietrmam ai mdri m` hceauhtc si prcauhi adrihtmfieti pcr `m tuniræm, hcfc is i` hmsc ai

sdstifms hce tuniræm mspdrmeti, gifcs ai tieir ie huietm adhgm päradam ai hmrbm, aindam m
qui `m luirzm ai suhhdøe prcviedieti ai `m tuniræm prcvchm uem adstrdnuhdøe ai vi`chdamais
ec gcfcbäeim ie i` ixtirdcr, hcfc si mprihdm ie `m ldburm sdbudieti.
Ie istcs hmscs suiì hcesdairmrsi ue lmhtcr μ ≇ ;.4, qui puiai sir adsfdeudac ai lcrfm
dfpcrtmeti sd si pripmrm ue adspcsdtdvc ai mafdsdøe maihumac (tdpc tcnirm, ith)
@ms päradams pcr prisdøe adeífdhm
M` ldem` ai` hdrhudtc, usum`fieti m `m sm`dam ai `m tuniræm (sdstifms scp`metis) c `m sm`dam ai`
vietd`macr (sdstifms mspdrmetis) si gm ai tieir ie huietm `m prisdøe adeífdhm hce `m qui i`
mdri smì, ym qui ästm is uem päradam fís. Istms päradams ec tdieie fmycr hcfp`dhmhdøe y si
hm`hu`me pcr `m lørfu`m bieirm` ai `m prisdøe adeífdhm?
ύ² u >
[ade  (8)
>
aceai tcacs `cs pmrífitrcs ym gme sdac aildedacs.
9.> Fitcac`cbæm bieirm` pmrm i` hí`hu`c ai päradams ai hmrbm.

9.>
[rcnìfítdhm ai `ms hceadhdceis rimìs. Lmhtcr ai lubms ai uem tuniræm.
@m ihumhdøe ai Amrhy-Ridsnmhg tdiei ue prcnìfm lueamfietm` humeac i` lùdac is mdri y

si mp`dhm ie uem tuniræm rim`? `ms lubms.
Istms lubms, dedhdm`fieti,
dedhdm`fieti, aipieaie ai `m`mss prcpdms hmrmhtiræstdhms
hmrmhtiræstdhms ai `m tuniræm, pirc gm ai
tieirsi ie huietm qui istms tuniræms istíe destm`mams ie ue sdstifm adeífdhc, is aihdr, m`
fdsfc tdifpc qui si mpcrtm mdri istíe trmnmomeac ie i` lrieti, pcr `c qui is fuy lrihuieti
qui `ms tuniræms si vime aitirdcrmams hce i` pmsc ai` tdifpc. Ai høfc aitihtmr prcnìfms
ai lubms fmsdvms aindams m` aitirdcrc ai `m tuniræm pcr `m fmqudemrdm c fätcac ai trmnmoc
gmn`mrifcs fís mai`meti. Ec cnstmeti, y ai hmrm m` hí`hu`c ai `ms päradams ai hmrbm ie `m
tuniræm, hmni fcai`dzmr `ms lubms ie isti mpmrtmac.
M` prcauhdrsi `ms lubms ie uem tuniræm si riauhi i` hmuam` qui pmsm pcr i` fdsfc, y pcr
tmetc `m vi`chdama ‐u‖ ai pmsc ai` mdri. [cr tmetc, sibÿe `m lørfu`m ai Amrhy-Ridsnmhg si
prcauhie vmrdmhdceis adliriehdmìs ai prisdøe. Istc ecs `ìvm m qui adhgm lørfu`m ec is
=1= ai =7;
mp`dhmnì pmrm uem tuniræm ie su hceouetc, sdec qui aini sir trmtmam ie iìfietcs
adliriehdmìs hcesdairmeac uem ìy ai lubms qui tiebm ie huietm adhgms hceadhdceis.
Xi aildei hcfc írim ri`mtdvm ai lubms Mr m `m ri`mhdøe ietri `m supirldhdi bicfätrdhm ai
lubms y `m supirldhdi ai piræfitrc ai hceauhtc Zf>/f>V.
[irc ai hmrm m uem hmrmhtirdzmhdøe ai `m tuniræm, ec sø`c si gm ai tieir ie huietm istm

ri`mhdøe ai írims. M` pmsc ai` mdri pcr istcs mbuoircs si prcauhi uem päradam sdebu`mr, hce
su lmhtcr ε hcrrispceadieti. [cr tmetc, i` pmrífitrc qui ecs detirism is `m aiecfdemam
supirldhdi ai lubm ispihældhm ai lubm l* Zff>/f>V, aildedam hcfc?
lubm mhtdvm c írim ispihældhm
M r
l *  ²=;<
=  
ixprism ie ff> ai lubms pcr f> ai tuniræm Zff>/f>V.

Ecrfm`fieti si ixprism
Lmhtcr ai lrdhhdøe  κ 6

6 ;.;=9 Z-V κ 6
6 ;.;>; Z-V κ 6
6 ;.;>9 Z-V κ 6;.;8;
6;.;8; Z-V κ 6
6 ;.;89 Z-V
Ixhiìeti Fuy nuiem Nuiem Ecrfm` Fm`m
Xupirldhdi ai lubm mhtdvm H`msi X H`msi M H`msi N H`msi H H`msi A

l* 6 9 ff>/f> H`msi X-; H`msi M-;
M-; H`msi N-;
N-; H`msi H-;
H-; H`msi A-;
H`msi ; Ixhiìeti
> >
l* 6 =; ff /f X-=
H`msi X-= H`msi M-= N-=
H`msi N-= H-=
H`msi H-= H`msi A-=
=
H`msi = uiem
Fuy n uiem
l* 6 >; ff>/f> H`msi X->
X-> H`msi M->
M-> H`msi N-> H`msi H->
H-> H`msi A->
H`msi >
> Nuiem
Nuiem
l* 6 1; ff>/f> H`msi X-8
X-8 H`msi M-8
M-8 H`msi N-8
N-8 H`msi H-8 H`msi A-8
H`msi 8
8 Ecrfm`
l* 6 <; ff>/f> H`msi X-1 H`msi M-1 H`msi N-1 H`msi H-1 H`msi A-1
1
H`msi 1 Fm`m
Isti pmrífitrc ouetc hce i` hcildhdieti ai rczmfdietc κ ecs sdrvi pmrm hmrmhtirdzmr `ms
tuniræms.
Yem h`msdldhmhdøe lrihuieti is `m qui si fuistrm ie `m tmn`m metirdcr, qui rihcpd`m `cs
vm`cris ai κ (F\X
(F\X =44>) y l* (@i
( @i ^cux =47<) fís mfp`dmfieti usmacs m edvi` fueadm`.
Xi hcesdairme tuniræms c hceauhtcs ai `m h`msi X-; (ixhiìetis) m `cs qui sce euivcs, y
tdieie uem `cebdtua ietri ouetms supirdcr m =;; fitrcs. Muequi ie prdehdpdc fuhgcs tdpcs
ai tuniræm pcaræme hufp`dr istcs riqudsdtcs, ai hmrm m` adsiýc ai uem destm`mhdøe ai
vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm, sø`c si hcesdairmríe ai `m h`msi X-; `cs ai tÿeiìs ixhmvmacs
fiadmeti QNF, ym qui si ietdieai qui ec ixdstie rmzceis pmrm ue aitirdcrc puetum` ai `ms
fdsfms.
@cs hceauhtcs ai `m h`msi M-= (fuy nuiecs) sce hceauhtcs qui sd ndie riÿeie `ms
hceadhdceis pmrm sir X-;, ixdsti i` rdisbc ivdaieti ai qui puiame aitirdcrmrsi ie i`
trmeshursc ai `m cnrm, pcr fctdvcs hcfc pmsc ai fmqudemrdm.
@ms tuniræms ai `m h`msi N-> (nuiecs) sce mqui``ms qui sd ndie riÿeie hceadhdceis pmrm sir
X-;, ixdsti `m hirtizm ai qui vme m sir aitirdcrmams ie `m lmsi ai ixhmvmhdøe, pcr ioifp`c,
humeac si p`meim i` usc ai ixp`csdvcs ie i` mvmehi.
=1> ai =7;
Xi hcesdairme hceauhtcs h`msi H-8 (ecrfmìs) m `cs hceauhtcs qui `ìvme ie sirvdhdc ue
hdirtc tdifpc, riutd`dzmacs, y hce m`buem lubm vdsdnì m `c `mrbc ai` fdsfc.
[cr ÿ`tdfc, sce hceauhtcs ai `m h`msi A-= (fm`cs) `cs qui tdieie fuhgms lubms vdsdnìs m
`cs `mrbc ai `cs fdsfcs.
M pismr ai `ms hcesdairmhdceis metirdcris, hmam hmsc pmrtdhu`mr aini sir mem`dzmac
hudamacsmfieti. Ie chmsdceis,
chmsdceis, pisi m qui `m ixhmvmhdøe ai` tÿei` sim hce QNF, puiai qui
si rim`dhie `mncris muxd`dmris hce ixp`csdvcs. Istc suiì sir lrihuieti humeac tieifcs acs
tÿeiìs pmrmì`cs y ietri mfncs si prcyihtme bmìræms ai hcfuedhmhdøe pmrm ifirbiehdm.
Ie istcs hmscs `m ixpirdiehdm adhi qui puiaie prcauhdrsi mbuoircs ie `m tuniræm ie `ms
hirhmeæms ai istms bmìræms ai ifirbiehdm, aindac m `cs fmtirdmìs prcyihtmacs pcr `m
vc`maurm.
Isti tdpc ai hcsms gm ai tieirsi fuy ie huietm tmetc ie i` adsiýc hcfc ie `ms `mncris ai
fmetiedfdietc, y pcr tmetc,Ec
istuadmac ie prclueadama. gmhifcs gdehmpdä
cnstmeti, ie qui hmam
`m ixpirdiehdm adhiprcyihtc is adlirietimetirdcr,
qui `m h`msdldhmhdøe y aini sir
sd
is usmam hcesdairmeac `ms pmrtdhu`mrdamais ai` prcyihtc, is uem nuiem mprcxdfmhdøe m `m
rim`dama.
Ihumhdceis ai nmsi y m`bcrdtfc ai hí`hu`c
Qiedieac ie huietm `ms hcesdairmhdceis gihgms ie i` mpmrtmac metirdcr, vmfcs m p`metimr ue

fätcac ai hí`hu`c m pmrtdr ai` hum` si puiame hm`hu`mr ai `m lcrfm fís ixmhtm pcsdnì `ms
päradams ai hmrbm
hmrbm ai ue hdrhudtc ai vietd`mhdøe ie lce
lceac
ac ai smhc.
[mrm i``c, vmfcs m fcai`dzmr ue iìfietc adliriehdm` ai tuniræm ie i` qui ecs nmsmrifcs
pmrm i` aismrrc``c ai`
ai` m`bcrdtfc ai hí`hu`c prcpuistc.
Iìfietc adliriehdm` ai tuniræm
aceai
M is `m sihhdøe ai` iìfietc adliriehdm` Zf>V
A is i` adífitrc ai` iìfietc adliriehdm` ZfV
[ is `m prisdøe ixdstieti dedhdm`fieti ie i` iìfietc Z[mV
∌[ is `m vmrdmhdøe ai prisdøe ixdstieti ie i` iìfietc Z[mV
x is `m `cebdtua m` dedhdc ai` iìfietc ZfV
∌x is `m `cebdtua ai` iìfietc ZfV
u is `m vi`chdama ai lùoc m trmväs ai `m sihhdøe M Zf/sV
v is `m hcfpceieti ai `m vi`chdama pirpieadhu`mr m` ioi ai` hceauhtc (hmusmeti ai
`ms lubms) Zf/sV
=18 ai =7;
M pmrtdr ai istm ldburm pcaifcs cntieir uem ìy ai lubms rmzcemeac ai lcrfm `øbdhm? @m
hmetdama ai mdri lubmac aipieairí luirtifieti ai `m adliriehdm ai prisdøe [ ‘ [;, aceai
[; is `m prisdøe adeífdhm ai sm`dam ai` mdri lubmac. @m vi`chdama ‐v‖ ai mdri lubmac m
trmväs ai `cs crdldhdcs ai `m tuniræm puiai hm`hu`mrsi pcr fiadc ai `m vmrdmhdøe ai prisdøe m
trmväs ai `cs fdsfcs, sd tieifcs ie huietm hcfc gifcs vdstc, i` crdldhdc si hcfpcrtm
hcfc uem päradam sdebu`mr ai lmhtcr ai päradam ε ..
[aietrc-luirm  ([ - [ ; )  [crdldhdc  ;
[ - [crdldhdc
 [;
ύ ² v > ύ² v >

[ -  
> >
v  >²[ (1)
ύ =   
M fiadam qui mvmezmfcs gmhdm i` ldem` ai `m tuniræm, `m prisdøe [ is fiecr, y pcr tmetc ‐v‖
y hcesihuietifieti i` hmuam` ai lubmac tmfndäe sirí hmam viz fiecr. [cr tmetc, is
detirismeti pceir äelmsds ie riauhdr `ms lubms ie `ms hirhmeæms ai` vietd`macr
Hcechdam `m vi`chdama v ai` mdri lubmac, y istmnìhdieac ue nm`mehi ai fmsms ie i`

iìfietc adliriehdm` ai tuniræm ai `m ldburm, tieifcs qui?
f  hmuam` lubmac
>²p
f  ύ ² ( ²A²x)²M r ² ύ²(=   )
  ²A >  >²p

ύ   ² u  ύ ² ( ²A²x)²M r ²
 1  ύ²(=   )
  ²A >  l * >²p
  ² u  ( ²A²x) ² < ²
 1  =; ύ
u  1 ² l *  >²p
  ² (9)
x  A ² =; <  ύ
=11 ai =7;
Xd ishrdndfcs `m ihumhdøe ai Amrhy-Ridsnmhg (=) ai mhuirac m euistrc iìfietc

adliriehdm` ai tuniræm, tieifcs qui?
[  κ ύ ² u >
² (<)
x A G ²>
@ms ihumhdceis (9) y (<) riprisietme `ms ihumhdceis ai nmsi pmrm i` hí`hu`c ai `ms päradams
ai hmrbm ie uem tuniræm. Xi trmtm ai ue sdstifm ai ihumhdceis adliriehdmìs pmrm i` qui
ixdstie scùhdceis mem`ætdhms. Xde ifnmrbc, ie `cs tdifpcs fcairecs, pmrihi `øbdhc
risc`vir i` prcnìfm ai lcrfm eufärdhm, is aihdr, p`metimeac ue m`bcrdtfc dtirmtdvc ai
fcac qui puiam sir prcbrmfmac y risui`tc pcr ue craiemacr.
[mrm ifpizmr, hcevdiei ixprismr `ms ihumhdceis (9) y (<) ie tärfdecs ai hmuam`, tiedieac
ie huietm qui `m vi`chdama u is dbum` m` hmuam` ] advdadac ietri `m sihhdøe ai `m tuniræm,
supuistm riaceam. [cr tmetc?
l * ²  ² A  >²p

]  
 < ² x (2)
 =;  ύ
ύ ² ] >
[  7 ² κ > 9 ²x (7)
 ²A
@m ihumhdøe (2) humetdldhm `ms lubms prcauhdams ie i` iìfietc adliriehdm` ai tuniræm,

fdietrms qui `m ihumhdøe (7) pmrtdhu`mrdzm `m ihumhdøe
ihumhdøe ai Amrhy-Ridsnm
Amrhy-Ridsnmhg
hg pmrm uem tuniræm
riaceam.
Hce istc, i` m`bcrdtfc ai hí`hu`c

hí`hu`c siræm hcfc sdbui?
=. Advdsdøe ai `m tuniræm ie ue eÿfirc ‐e‖ ai iìfietcs adliriehdmìs (trmfcs ai ue fitrc

sce fís qui suldhdietis pmrm euistrcs prcpøsdtcs)
>. [risdceis y hmuamìs dedhdmìs m hcesdairmr.
[;? Xirí `m prisdøe ai pmrtdam ai `m tuniræm. Ie tuniræms scp`metis, is dbum` m `m prisdøe

adeífdhm (8) ai sm`dam ai `m tuniræm fís `m päradam ai `cs iìfietcs sdebu`mris qui puiame
istmr m `m sm`dam ai `m tuniræm, hcfc puiaie sir ue hmssitti ie hmsc ai tuei`macrms, ith. Ie
tuniræms mspdrmetis, sirí `m päradam aindam m `m sdebu`mrdama ai ietrmam ie `m tuniræm.
];? Xirí i` hmuam` m mpcrtmr c ixtrmir ie i` lrieti, hm`hu`mac hcfc si deadhm ie i` mpmrtmac
aiadhmac m tm` lde.
8. Dtirmhdøe
p (x)  [;
l * ²  ² A  >²p (x)
]  
 ² x
 =; <  ύ
=19 ai =7;
] (x =)  ] (x)  ]
ύ ² ] (x =) >
[  7 ² κ  > ²A 9 ²x
p (x =)  [ (x)
 [  [sdebu`mr(x)
Msæ hcetdeumræmfcs gmstm hcfpìtmr `m `cebdtua tctm` ai `m tuniræm, is aihdr, humeac x sim
dbum` m ‐e ² ∌x‖.
Ysmr ue fätcac dtirmtdvc pmrm risc`vir i` sdstifm ecs pirfdti hcechir qui istí pmsmeac ie
hmam pmrti ai `m tuniræm, msæ hcfc hcesdairmr `ms päradams pcr iìfietcs sdebu`mris ie i`
ùbmr qui hcrrispceai, m`bc qui is dfpcsdnì ai hcesibudr sd utd`dzmfcs `ms scùhdceis m
`ms ihumhdceis adliriehdmìs ai nmsi, ym qui aishcechiræmfcs `m vi`chdama ai mdri qui gmy
ie i` puetc ai `m sdebu`mrdama.
Maifís, isti fätcac ecs pirfdti amr adlirietis prcpdiamais m `cs adstdetcs iìfietcs ai `m
tuniræm, puadieac msæ rim`dzmr uem fiocr sdfu`mhdøe ai `ms lubms puetumìs pcr brmeais
mbuoircs, `ms vmrdmhdceis ai adífitrc, c humìsqudirm ctrms prcpdiamais ai `m tuniræm,
aíeacecs ie aildedtdvm `ms girrmfdietms pmrm ue fiocr ietieadfdietc ai` sdstifm.
Meí`dsds ai `cs pmrífitrcs qui detirvdieie ie i` hí`hu`c. [uetcs siesdnìs.
[mrm `cbrmr i` fiocr adsiýc y `m cptdfdzmhdøe ai `cs iqudpcs ie uem destm`mhdøe ai

vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm, is eihismrdc hcechir `cs pmrífitrcs qui detirvdieie ie i` hí`hu`c
msæ hcfc su delùiehdm ie `m siìhhdøe ai `cs iqudpcs maihumacs.
M fcac ai ioifp`c, pcaifcs dfmbdemrecs ue lrieti ai =;;; fitrcs ai `cebdtua, hce

sdstifm scp`meti, y vmfcs m p`metimrecs i` prcnìfm ai iìbdr `m tuniræm maihumam,
mtieadieac m hrdtirdcs istrdhtmfieti ai hí`hu`c, is aihdr, tiedieac ie huietm `ms vmrdmnìs
qui delùyie ie i` hí`hu`c ai päradams ai hmrbm.
Hcfc gifcs vdstc pcaifcs istdfmr `cs vm`cris ai κ y
y l* ie luehdøe ai` tdpc
t dpc ai ixhmvmhdøe,
pcr `c qui m prdcrd istcs sce lmhtcris scnri `cs qui adlæhd`fieti pcaifcs dehdadr (sc`c
pcaræmfcs pceir ifpiýc ie i` fiocr fmetiedfdietc pcsdnì ai `m tuniræm).
Hcesdairmrifcs ie isti ioifp`c uem tuniræm ai h`msi M-=, is aihdr ue κ 6;.;>
6;.;> y ue l* ai =;
> >
ff /f .
[cr ctrc `mac, i` hmuam` m pceir ie i` lrieti viearí aitirfdemac pcr ctrcs hrdtirdcs, y pisi m
qui gmy uem hdirtm lìxdnd`dama, hcesdairmrifcs m ilihtcs ai isti ioifp`c qui is
demfcvdnì y ai ue vm`cr pcr ioifp`c ai >; f8/s.
Xd rim`dzmfcs i` hí`hu`c ai `ms päradams ai hmrbm ai` hdrhudtc pmrm adlirietis adífitrcs ai
tuniræm, pcaifcs `ìbmr m risu`tmacs ish`mrihiacris. [caifcs hm`hu`mr `m pctiehdm
eihismrdm ie i` vietd`macr hcfc?
[²]
[ctiehdm 
β ²=;;;
=1< ai =7;
aceai
[ is `m prisdøe tctm` ai` sdstifm Z[mV
] is i` hmuam` cntiedac ie i` vietd`macr Zf8/sV
β is i` rieadfdietc miríu`dhc ai` vietd`macr, qui istdfmrifcs ie ue 29%
pmrm isti ioifp`c.
ioifp`c.
Xd riprisietmfcs ie uem bríldhm `m pctiehdm ai vietd`macr eihismrdm lrieti m` adífitrc ai

tuniræm utd`dzmam, puiai mprihdmrsi huíe dfpcrtmeti is `m iìhhdøe ai` adífitrc maihumac.
Cnsirvmeac `m bríldhm, vifcs qui gmy ue detirvm`c ai adífitrcs qui ec pmrihie `øbdhcs
pmrm istms hceadhdceis ai lrieti, y sde ifnmrbc, m pmrtdr ai adífitrcs ai =>;;ff y
fmycris, `ms vmrdmhdceis ai pctiehdm sce fuhgc fiecris. M pmrtdr ai isti fcfietc, `m
iìhhdøe ai` adífitrc ai tuniræm m utd`dzmr viearí amam pcr m`buec ai `cs sdbudietis
hrdtirdcs?
 @m ri`mhdøe hcsti ai` jw ai vietd`macr destm`mac lrieti m` hcsti ai `m tuniræm.
 I` bí`dnc `dnri eihismrdc pmrm i` pmsc ai `m fmqudemrdm qui vm m trmnmomr ie

i` tÿei`.
=.;;;,;;
4;;,;;
7;;,;;
) 2;;,;;
R
j
( <;;,;;
m
d
h 9;;,;;
e
i
t 1;;,;;
c
[ 8;;,;;
>;;,;;
=;;,;;
;,;;
7;; 4;; = ;;; = =;; = >;; = 8;; = 1;; = 9;; = <;;
Adífitrc ai tuniræm (ff)

Ivcùhdøe pctiehdm destm`mam-adífitrc ai tuniræm pmrm destm`mhdøe hce uem sc`m `æeim ai
vietd`mhdøe
Ie i` hmsc ai qui i` bí`dnc eihismrdc pmrm pmsc ai fmqudemrdm ecs cn`dbui m dr m adífitrcs
piquiýcs, y m prdcrd demaihumacs pmrm `m destm`mhdøe ixdstieti, puiai macptmrsi `m scùhdøe
ai usmr acs `æeims deaipieadietis ai vietd`mhdøe, ai lcrfm qui hmam uem ai i``ms pcebm tme
sø`c `m fdtma ai` hmuam` eihismrdc ie i` lrieti.
Istc tdiei `m aisvietmom ai qui aup`dhmfcs iqudpcs, pirc `m päradam `m päradam ai hmrbm is
fiecr y pcr tmetc ie bieirm` `m pctiehdm destm`mam is fís nmom.
=12 ai =7;
>9;
>;;
)
R
j
( =9;
m
d
h
e
i =;;
t
c
[
9;
;
7;
7;; 4;; = ;;; = =;; = >;; = 8;; = 1;;
Adífitrc ai tuniræm (ff)
Ivcùhdøe pctiehdm destm`mam-adífitrc ai tuniræm pmrm destm`mhdøe hce acs `æeims ai

vietd`mhdøe deaipieadietis
Hcfc si aisprieai ai` meí`dsds ai `m bríldhm metirdcr, ec tiearæm sietdac usmr acs `æeims
pmrm adífitrcs ri`mtdvmfieti brmeais, ym qui i` mgcrrc ai pctiehdm is ri`mtdvmfieti pchc
ie hcfpmrmhdøe hce i` hcsti ai aup`dhmr `m destm`mhdøe. Maifís, gmy qui tieir prisieti qui
`m rmzøe lueamfietm` ai istm vmrdmeti is i` hcesibudr bí`dnc suldhdieti, ùibc `c `øbdhc
siræm usmr isti sdstifm, humeac sim eihismrdc, hce `cs adífitrcs fís piquiýcs pcsdnìs.
Humeac `ms sihhdceis ai` tÿei` sce ai tdpc humarmac, i` sdstifm ai acs `æeims is
ixtrifmamfieti ÿtd`, ym qui chupmræm ri`mtdvmfieti i` fdsfc ispmhdc destm`mr uem `æeim c
acs. Ie hmsc ai sihhdceis h`ísdhms ie A c ie girrmaurm, is fís hcfp`dhmac, y muequi is
dbum`fieti pcsdnì, `m destm`mhdøe ai acs `æeims ecs riauhi m` fdsfc tdifpc i` bí`dnc
ilihtdvc.
=17 ai =7;
< ÎB@MX AI C^C AI @M \IEQD@MHDØE
<.= Dfpcrtmehdm ai` adífitrc ie `m iìhhdøe ai` vietd`macr

<.=
I` adífitrc suiì istmr `dfdtmac pcr i` bí`dnc ai `m bmìræm c ai` tÿei`, scnri tcac humeac su
sihhdøe gm quiamac riauhdam pcr su hcevirbiehdm, (hmsc ai fdems ai hmrnøe) c pcr i` pmsc
ai fmqudemrdm ai brmeais adfiesdceis m trmväs ai `cs tÿeiìs.
Gmy qui aildedr sdifpri i` adífitrc fíxdfc pcsdnì, y prchurmr utd`dzmr`c ym qui `ms
vietmoms ai utd`dzmr adífitrcs fmycris, dfp`dhm adrihtmfieti ue mgcrrc ie hcesufc
i`ähtrdhc defiadmtc, maifís ai eihisdtmr vietd`macris ai fiecr hmpmhdama y ai riauhdr i`
hmuam` ai lubms, puistc qui istcs pmrífitrcs aipieaie adrihtmfieti ai `m prisdøe ai`
sdstifm.
Ie hmsc ai qui ec gmym ispmhdc adspcednì pmrm uem tuniræm ai ue adífitrc hcehritc,
pcaræm istuadmrsi `m pcsdnd`dama ai iìbdr ac
acss tuncs hce uuee fiecr adífitrc. Gmy
Gmy lmnrdhmetis
qui clrihie hceldburmhdceis ai tuniræm ie isti sietdac, hce tuniræms cvm`mams, acs tuniræms
tmebietis hce sustietmhdøe hcfÿe, tuniræms ‐cvm` `my l`mt‖, ith.
@m iìhhdøe ai` tdpc ai tuniræm is isiehdm`. Ixdstie prcyihtcs ai vietd`mhdøe ie `cs qui si
gm mgcrrmac ietri ue >% y ue 8% ai` hcstc ai` sdstifm ai vietd`mhdøe, y qui ldem`fieti,
pcr `m lm`tm ai hm`dama ai `m tuniræm si gm tiedac qui suspieair `ms `mncris ai mvmehi. Istc
ldem`fieti gm tiedac ue hcstc fuy supirdcr m` mgcrrc dedhdm`.
<.> Dfpcrtmehdm ai` usc ai` vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm

<.>
Ie `cs vietd`macris qui vietd`me lceacs ai smhc ai brme `cebdtua, is fuy rihcfieamnì i`
usc ai vmrdmacris ai lrihuiehdm. Ie tÿeiìs fuy `mrbcs i` hmuam` qui pmsm pcr i` vietd`macr
is siesdnìfieti fmycr qui i` riquirdac ie i` lrieti, aindac m `ms fiehdcemams lubms. M
dbumàma ai hceadhdceis ai tuniræm, istms lubms sirí fmycris humetc fiecr sim i` adífitrc
ai `m tuniræm, aindac m qui `ms prisdceis ai trmnmoc sce fuy supirdcris. Humeac si istí ie
uem lmsi dedhdm` ai trmnmoc, `m `cebdtua ai tuniræm ec sirí fuy brmeai pcr `c qui `m
risdstiehdm miríu`dhm ai `m destm`mhdøe sirí fís nmom. Hcfc hcesihuiehdm, i` vietd`macr
ietribmrí fuhgc fís mdri qui i` eihismrdc, qui i` adsiýc, puadieac dehùsc, ie hdirtcs
hmscs sir ue dehceviedieti.
[uistc qui i` hmuam` qui fcvd`dzm ue vietd`macr is prcpcrhdcem` m `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe

ai` fctcr, pcaifcs moustmeac adhgm vi`chdama ietribmr ie i` lrieti ai trmnmoc i` hmuam`
qui quirmfcs pmrm tcams `ms `cebdtuais pmrhdmìs ai mvmehi qui tiebmfcs ie euistrc tÿei`.
Hcfc is `øbdhc m` prdehdpdc ai cnrm ec sirí eihismrdc qui i` vietd`macr luehdcei m pìec
rieadfdietc y hce i` vmrdmacr `cbrmrifcs cptdfdzmr `m vi`chdama ai adhgc vietd`macr, hce
i` hcesdbudieti mgcrrc ieirbätdhc. Isti mgcrrc ai ieirbæm hcfpiesm hce hrihis `m
devirsdøe ai destm`mr ue vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm .
=14 ai =7;
];  [ ;
[ctiehdm Mnscrndam 6 (JR)
=;;;   vietd`macr
 fctcr
Xupceifcs qui `m vi`chdama ecfdem` ai` fctcr is e;. Mem`dzmrifcs `m ripirhusdøe ai

utd`dzmr i` vietd`macr m ctrm vi`chdama e=, tm` qui? e=  e;
@m ri`mhdøe ai `ms prisdceis y ai `cs hmuamìs rispihtc m `m vmrdmhdøe ai vi`chdama is?

>
 e 
[ =   =   [ ;
 e; 
 e 
]=   =   ];
 e; 
8
 e=  ];  [ ;
[ctiehdm miríu`dhm 6 ]=  [ = (R) 6  e;  =;;;
8 8
 e  ];  [ ;  e= 
[ctiehdm ie i` ioi (=) 6  =  6   [ctiehdm ie i` ioi (;)
 e ;  =;;;  vietd`macr  e ; 
8 8
 e  ] ;  [ ;  e= 
[ctiehdm Mnscrndam (=) 6  =  6   [ctiehdm Mnscrndam (;)
 e ;  =;;;   vietd`macr
  fctcr  e ; 
vi
vi``chd
hda
ama [cti
tie
ehdm
hdm [ctiehdm Z%V vs \i`chdama Z%V
Z%V Z%V
=;;
=;; ;;.=
4;
7;
>; ;.7 2;
V
8; >.2 %
Z <;
m
d
1; <.1 h 9;
e
i
t
9; =>.9 c 1;
[
8;
<; >=.<
>;
2; 81.8 =;
7; 9=.> ;
4; 2>.4 ; =; >; 8; 1; 9; <; 2; 7; 4; =;;

vi`chd ama Z%V
=;; =;;
Ai istm lcrfm pcaifcs aiauhdr qui?
- Xd pmrm i` =;;% ai `m vi`chdama ai` fctcr tieifcs i` hcesufc ai` =;;% ai `m pctiehdm
ie i` ioi, hce sø`c nmomr ue =;% `m vi`chdama, `c qui dfp`dhm nmomr ue =;% i` hmuam` ai mdri,
istmfcs hcesufdieac fiecs ai` 28% ai `m ieirbæm, mgcrrmeac fís ai` >2%.
-Xd `m riauhhdøe ai hmuam` is ai` 9;%, istmfcs hcesufdieac i` =>.9% ai `m ieirbæm,

mgcrrmeac i` 72.9% ai `m pctiehdm ie i` ioi.
=9; ai =7;
[cr tcac istc, is rihcfieamnì i` usc ai` vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm ie isti tdpc ai
destm`mhdceis, ym qui m` prdehdpdc ai `ms cnrms m` ec tieir fuhgm `cebdtua ai tuniræm
destm`mam, `m risdstiehdm ai` hdrhudtc is fuy delirdcr m `m risdstiehdm pmrm `m qui si adsiýø i`
vietd`macr, pcr `c qui si istmrí ietribmeac fuhgc fís mdri qui i` qui si eihisdtm, dehùsc
`ìbmeac m sir fcìstc. Fiadmeti i` usc ai` vmrdmacr, moustmfcs i` hmuam` ai` vietd`macr m`
hmuam` ai adsiýc deaipieadietifieti
deaipieadietifieti ai `m `cebdtua qui si tiebm ai tuniræm, pcr `c qui hce
istm ribu`mhdøe si istí mgcrrmeac ieirbæm.
<.8 Dfpcrtmehdm ai` eÿfirc ai ouetms ai `m tuniræm

<.8
M fmycr `cebdtua ai hmam trmfc ai tuniræm, fiecr eÿfirc ai ouetms, fiecr hmuam` ai
lubms, pcr tmetc fiecr prisdøe eihismrdm ie i` vietd`macr, fiecr hmpmhdama ai` vietd`macr.
[cr ctrc `mac, `m uedøe ietri trmfcs ai tuniræm gm ai sir adsiýmams pmrm fdedfdzmr `ms lubms,
hcfpmtdnìs hce `m aurmhdøe ai `m destm`mhdøe.
Isti puetc is fuhgc fís dfpcrtmeti ie tuniræms lìxdnìs rilcrzmams ym qui aindac m su
fmeioc `cs trmfcs ai tuniræm sce fís hcrtcs, pcr `c qui tiearí fuhgms fís ouetms qui uem
tuniræm lìxdnì `dsm.
=9= ai =7;
2 ADX[CXDHDCE AI @M \IEQD@MHDØE XIHYEAM^DM IE I@ IEQCÊC
2.= [csdhdøe ri`mtdvm rispihtc m `m vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`

2.=
[mrm i` hmsc ai `m fdeiræm, ie `m pcsdhdøe aisai `m

qui si rim`dzm `m tcfm ai mdri pmrm `m vietd`mhdøe
sihueamrdm, i` hmuam` ai mdri ai vietd`mhdøe prdehdpm`
qui hdrhu`m aini sir m` fiecs =,8 vihis fmycr qui
i` hmuam` qui fcvd`dzm i` vietd`macr sihueamrdc.
Hce istc si trmtm ai ivdtmr qui ec si rihdrhuì ai
euivc pmrti ai` mdri vdhdmac.
M`bc pmrihdac churri ie tÿeiìs ie `cs qui i`

vietd`macr istí fuy prøxdfc m `m nchm ai ietrmam y
ie aceai sd `m vi`chdama ai sm`dam ai` mdri vdhdmac
ie dfpcrtmeti, pmrti is mspdrmac pcr i` vietd`macr.
2.> Bí`dncs fíxdfcs

2.>
Ie `c qui si rildiri m isti puetc gmhir gdehmpdä ie qui i` gihgc ai dr m` adífitrc ai tuniræm
fmycr pcsdnì dfp`dhmrí sdifpri fiecr prisdøe ie i` vietd`macr, y pcr tmetc, fiecr
hmetdama ai mdri lubmac ie `m destm`mhdøe, riauhdäeacsi arístdhmfieti `m pctiehdm ai`
vietd`macr. @m `dfdtmhdøe vdiei amam bieirm`fieti pcr ispmhdc qui quiam `dnri ie i` tÿei`
ietri `cs gmstdmìs y tihgc y `cs vigæhu`cs qui hdrhu`me pcr ä`.
Is dfpcrtmeti
istmrí tieir ie
aitirdcríeacsi huietm isti lmhtcr
hcetdeumfieti m` pmscymaiqui
`cs sd ec rispitmfcs isti bí`dnc, `m tuniræm
vigæhu`cs.
2.8 Quniræms ispihdmìs Cvm` @my l`mt / QRDE

2.8
Humeac si tdiei prcnìfms ai bí`dnc hce `m tuniræm y pmrm i` hmuam` qui si eihisdtm si
eihisdtm ue adífitrc fís brmeai, uem scùhdøe qui si macptm is `m ai utd`dzmr uem tuniræm
cvm` c acs tuniræms fís piquiýms ie pmrmì`c.
=9> ai =7;
@m scùhdøe ai utd`dzmr tuniræm cvm`mam, gm ai

istuadmrsi fuy ndie ym qui pmrm `m fdsfm sihhdøe ai
írim `dnri ai `m tuniræm qui ctrm hdrhu`mr, ästm tdiei
fís risdstiehdm, sd is qui `ìvm fifnrmem sipmrmacrm.
[cr ctrc `mac, sd si utd`dzm pmrm hmuamìs dfpcrtmetis
bieirmeac prisdceis m`tms, `m tuniræm sulri ie `cs
eirvdcs ai uedøe, pcr `c qui puiai mhmnmr rcfpdieac,
scnri tcac ie `cs mrrmequis.
2.1 Destm`mhdøe ai tuniræm usmam

2.1
Xi prchurmrí qui `m tuniræm istä ie `ms fiocris

fiocris hceadhdceis pcsdnìs,
pcsdnìs, scnri tcac si ainie
hc`chmr `cs trmfcs ai tuniræm ie fiocr istmac y ai fmycr `cebdtua `c fís hirhm ai`
vietd`macr, puistc qui ai istm fmeirm m` tieir ue crdldhdc iqudvmìeti ai lubms fís nmoc, i`
hmuam` lubmac sirí fiecr qui sd istí ie picr istmac, ym qui prihdsmfieti humetc fís hirhm
ai` vietd`macr si istä, fís aiprisdøe scpcrtme `cs trmfcs.
Ie hmsc ai qui `m tuniræm si aitirdcri fuhgc aurmeti `ms vc`maurms, ai fmeirm qui adldhu`ti
i` mpcrti ai mdri m` lrieti ai trmnmoc, aindac m `ms prcyihhdceis qui si prcauhie, si
rihcfdieam usmr tuniræm ai smhrdldhdc, ai fmeirm qui humeac hce istm si mvmehi `m `cebdtua
ai ue trmfc ai tuniræm prdehdpm`, si sustdtuyi `m ai smhrdldhdc pcr uem ie nuiems hceadhdceis,
mvmezmeac tmfndäe m su viz `m tuniræm ai smhrdldhdc ue trmfc fís pmrm msæ pcair hcetdeumr
ixhmvmeac sde aitirdcrmr `m `æeim prdehdpm`.
=98 ai =7;
7 HCEQ^C@ T XIBYDFDIEQC AI @M \IEQD@MHDØE XIHYEAM^DM
7.= Xdstifítdhm ai hcetrc`

7.=
M fiadam qui si vm aismrrc``meac `cs trmnmocs ai mvmehi ai ue tÿei` c ai uem bmìræm, i`

hceauhtc ai vietd`mhdøe vm pmu`mtdemfieti aitirdcríeacsi. M` prdehdpdc, si tdiei fiecs
`cebdtua ai tuniræm, pcr `c qui `m prisdøe qui si ioirhi scnri i` hceauhtc is fiecr, y
maifís `m tuniræm, sd ec is riutd`dzmam
istmrí ie fuy nuiems hceadhdceis. Hce
i` dehrifietc ai tuniræm pmrc pcair
`ìvmr i` mdri m` lrieti ai trmnmoc, qui
hmam viz istmrí fís ìocs ai` vietd`macr,
tmfndäe mpmrihie amýcs ie i` hceauhtcs
aindac m prcyihhdceis ai vc`maurms,
rcturms pcr i` pmsc ai fmqudemrdm, ith.
Istcs amýcs, ldem`fieti, si trmauhie m
lubms ai mdri qui ec `ìbmrí m` lrieti ai
trmnmoc, y puistc qui `m prisdøe ie `m
tuniræm drí mufietmeac, ym qui tmfndäe
mufietmrí hcetdeumfieti `m `cebdtua, `ms
lubms si dehrifietmríe.
Xirí eihismrdc pmrm ue hcrrihtc hcetrc` ai `m destm`mhdøe, istmnìhir uem fitcac`cbæm ai

hcetrc` y sibudfdietc ai `m ivcùhdøe ai `m destm`mhdøe. I` tdpc y `m vi`chdama ai mvmehi ai
`m cnrm aitirfdemríe `m lrihuiehdm
l rihuiehdm eihismrdm ai tmìs despihhdceis.
Xi aini, pcr
destm`mhdøe, hcetmetc, istmnìhir
i` lde ai ue hcetrc`
qui si mhtuä vdsum` pcr scnri
`c fís rípdamfieti pmrti mecfm`æms
ai `cs iehmrbmacs
hcfc? ai `m
 ^cturms ie `m tuniræm.
 Fm` istmac ai uedceis y mhcpìs ai tuniræm.
 Hurvms y ieriacs ie `m tuniræm
 Xuspiesdceis ailihtucsms
 Fm` istmac ai` hmnì ldmacr c huiram ai suspiesdøe
 Fm` luehdcemfdietc ai `cs vietd`macris.
 Adstmehdms mprcpdmams ai `m tuniræm ai vietd`mhdøe rispihtc m` lrieti ai mvmehi y
sc`mpis ie hmsc ai vietd`mhdceis fdxtms.
Qcacs `cs mbuoircs y ailihtcs ai` hceauhtc ainie ripmrmrsi humetc metis. Ye mbuoirc si
ripmrmrí fís líhd`fieti scàmeac ue pmrhgi fiadmeti `m scàmacrm ai mdri hm`dieti,
fdietrms i` hceauhtc istí suspieadac y hce `m destm`mhdøe ai vietd`mhdøe ie luehdcemfdietc.
Xd i` mbuoirc tdieai m mufietmr, gmy qui hcsir`c prdfirc hce piquiýcs piamzcs ai ti`m c
gd`c. Hcevdiei tieir ue jdt ripmrmacr ai tuniræm ai vietd`mhdøe sdifpri m fmec hce i` lde
ai cptdfdzmr y ec aifcrmr istm tmrim.
=91 ai =7;
Dbum`fieti, hce i` cnoitdvc ai istmnìhir ue hcetrc` scnri i` hmuam` ie i` sietdac ai

fmetieir `ms hceadhdceis ai hcelcrt maihumams?
 Hcetrc` ai hmuam` ie i` lrieti ai mvmehi.

 Hcetrc` ai hmuam` m `m sm`dam ai` vietd`macr.
 Meí`dsds ai` hmuam` ie i` vietd`macr lrieti m` hmuam` mpcrtmac pcr `m vietd`mhdøe
prdehdpm`.
7.> Fiadams ai vi`chdama ai mdri

7.>
@m vi`chdama ai` mdri puiai fiadrsi ie `ms bmìræms c adrihtmfieti ie `ms tuniræms ai
vietd`mhdøe sihueamrdm. @cs adspcsdtdvcs m utd`dzmr pmrm `m fiadhdøe ai vi`chdama. M
hcetdeumhdøe vmfcs m ixp`dhmr `m lcrfm fís maihumam ai rim`dzmr `ms fiadams.
Qunc ai [dtct
Ixdstie vmrdcs fcai`cs ai tuncs ai [dtct, hce ncqud``ms

ai adlirietis adífitrcs ie luehdøe ai` adífitrc ai`
hceauhtc aceai si vm m rim`dzmr `m fiadhdøe?
[mrm `m fiadhdøe hce i` tunc ai [dtct si utd`dzmrí i`

fätcac pc`mr sdfp`dldhmac. Isti fätcac hcesdsti, ai
lcrfm risufdam, ie siìhhdcemr uem sihhdøe trmesvirsm`
ai` hceauhtc y fiadr ie tris puetcs (M, N y H) sdtumacs
ie ue rmadc ai adhgm sihhdøe.
Istcs puetcs si iehuietrme `chm`dzmacs ie `m detirsihhdøe ai` rmadc ai fiadhdøe hce `ms
hdrhueliriehdms fiadms ai 8 med``cs, ai dbum` írim, ai mhuirac hce `m ldburm
l dburm sdbudieti
[mrm hm`hu`mr `m adstmehdm m `m qui si iehuietrme istcs puetcs, si utd`dzmríe `ms sdbudietis
lørfu`ms?
Xh
X h    ^ 8> Xf 
8
X f ^ d  ^ d =
^d  ^ >
d =  r d 
 >
Aceai?
M
^ H? rmadc ai` hceauhtc, ie f.
XH? sihhdøe trmesvirsm` ai` hceauhtc, ie f>. N
H
Xf? sihhdøe ai hmam med``c, ie f>.
^ d? rmadc ai `m hdrhueliriehdm ixtirdcr qui ai`dfdtm ue med``c, ie f.

r d? rmadc ai `m hdrhueliriehdm hietrm` ai hmam med``c, ie f.
Yem viz hm`hu`mams `ms adstmehdms m `ms qui aini detrcauhdrsi i` tunc ai [dtct, si prchiai m
fiadr ie hmam puetc ai fiadhdøe (M, N y H). [mrm hmam puetc si cntdiei y si mectme `cs
=99 ai =7;
amtcs ai `m prisdøe istítdhm, adeífdhm y tctm`, ouetc hce `cs amtcs ai `ms hceadhdceis
mfndietmìs (tifpirmturm y prisdøe fmecfätrdhm), adífitrc y tdpc ai tuniræm, ith.
[mrm adífitrc brmeais ai tuniræm y ie hmsc ai riquirdr uem brme prihdsdøe, si utd`dzm fmycr
eufirc ai fiadams ie puetc ai fiadhdøe, ie isi hmsc pcaifcs tieir <, 7 c =; pcsdhdceis
pmrm hmam adífitrc
adífitrc ai fiadam. @ms pcsdhdceis ie hmam adífitrc sirí
siríe?
e?
Eÿfirc ai puetcs pmrm ue adífitrc ai

hceauhtc A >
[csdhdøe
< puetcs 7 puetcs =; puetcs
admfitrm`
[= ;.;8>ÒA ;.;>=ÒA ;.;=4ÒA
[> ;.=89ÒA ;.==2ÒA ;.;22ÒA
[8 ;.8>=ÒA ;.=71ÒA ;.=98ÒA >
>
[1 ;.<24ÒA ;.819ÒA ;.>=2ÒA
[9 ;.7<9ÒA ;.<99ÒA ;.8<=ÒA 8
[< ;.4<7ÒA ;.7=<ÒA ;.<84ÒA 8 1
[2 ;.778ÒA ;.278ÒA
[7 ;.424ÒA ;.712ÒA
[4 ;.4>8ÒA
Adlirieti eÿfirc ai adífitrcs pmrm fiadhdøe
[=; ;.47=ÒA
Qmfndäe gifcs ai iìbdr i` eÿfirc ai adífitrcs ai fiadhdøe. Xd si eihisdtm fiadr hce

brme prihdsdøe si gm ai iìbdr fís ai ue adífitrc, Hcfc fuhgc 8 c 1, scnri tcac pmrm
fiadhdeis aceai gmy uem brme tcrsdøe ie i` lùoc.
=9< ai =7;
MHHDCEMFDIEQC T HCEQ^C@ AI@ \IEQD@MAC^

=92 ai =7;
= DEQ^CAYHHDCE
@cs vietd`macris pmrm su luehdcemfdietc eihisdtme sir mhhdcemacs fiadmeti fctcris,
bieirm`fieti i`ähtrdhcs ai hcrrdieti m`tirem. [mrm bistdcemr i` mrrmequi y hcetrc` ai `cs
fdsfcs, utd`dzmfcs `cs mrfmrdcs i`ähtrdhcs qui, nísdhmfieti, hcestmríe ai ue mrfmrdc ai
luirzm, aceai tiearifcs i` sdstifm ai mrrmequi ai fctcr y ai ue mrfmrdc ai hcetrc` y
fmeac, aisai aceai bistdcemfcs `ms siýmìs ai `ms prctihhdceis ai` fctcr (sceams ai
tifpirmturms, mhiìrøfitrcs, ith.) msæ hcfc `m prctihhdøe ai ncfnic. Madhdcem`fieti, ie
i` mrfmrdc ai hcetrc`, pcaifcs fcedtcrdzmr vm`cris ai dfpcrtmehdm pmrm `m bistdøe ai `cs
vietd`macris hcfc sce `cs vm`cris ai prisdøe y hmuam`, tifpirmturms ai `cs rcamfdietcs,
vm`cris ai vdnrmhdøe, ith., ie hmam fcfietc.
@m hceixdøe i`ähtrdhm aini sir rim`dzmam pcr pirscem` i`ähtrdhc hum`dldhmac ai mhuirac m `m
ecrfmtdvm ribu`mam ie hmam pmæs. M` rispihtc si ainie tieir ie huietm `ms prishrdphdceis
tähedhms i destruhhdceis ai siburdama ai` lmnrdhmeti ai `cs iqudpmfdietcs i`ähtrdhcs.
@cs iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøe sce sufdedstrmacs hce hmoms ai ncrems ai hceixdøe scnri i`
fctcr c scnri su hmrhmsm ixtirdcr. @m m`dfietmhdøe i`ähtrdhm aini sir sufdedstrmam pcr
fiadc ai adhgms hmoms ai ncrems. Is prilirdnì tieir ue detirruptcr hirhm ai` vietd`macr y
tieir ue detirruptcr ai fmrhgm ìocs ai` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe. @cs acs detirruptcris
pirfdtie tieir ue hcetrc`
hcetrc` siburc scnri i` vie
vietd`macr
td`macr y sufdedstrme ue f
fiadc
iadc siburc aurmeti
su fmetiedfdietc.
@m `cebdtua ai` hmnì aini sir suldhdieti pmrm pirfdtdr hdirtm lìxdnd`dama m` iqudpc ai
vietd`mhdøe aurmeti su luehdcemfdietc aindac m `ms adlirietis vdnrmhdceis prcauhdams. Xd i`
iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe gm sdac m`fmhiemac, `m risdstiehdm ai `cs aivmemacs ai tdirrm aini
sir fiadam. Xd hum`qudir fiadam is delirdcr m adiz fibcgfdcs, i` fctcr ainirí sir sihmac
y hcfprcnmac metis ai su hceixdøe.
Xd si utd`dzm ue vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm pmrm hcetrc`mr `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe u ctrc
iqudpmfdietc sdfd`mr, ästi aini fmetieir m` iqudpc ai vietd`mhdøe aietrc ai `cs `æfdtis ai
siburdama. Gmy qui pristmr ispihdm` mtiehdøe m qui i` vietd`macr istä hcehindac pmrm pcair
sir mhhdcemac fiadmeti ue vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm. I` lmnrdhmeti ai `cs iqudpcs aini sir
hcesu`tmac pmrm virdldhmhdøe sd i` iqudpc sufdedstrmac puiai trmnmomr nmoc `m mhhdøe ai ue
vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm u ctrc iqudpc ai ribu`mhdøe ai vi`chdama.
@cs iqudpcs ai vietd`mhdøe fcetmacs hce uem hmom ai ncrems, ainie tieir `m ietrmam ai `m
m`dfietmhdøe pcr m`buem ai `ms hmrms ai `m fdsfm. Mqui``cs mbuoircs qui ec si usie pmrm
tm` lde, ainie sir si``macs hce tmpceis pmrm ivdtmr `m ietrmam ai mbum.
Ie i` hmsc ai utd`dzmr priesmistcpms pmrm i` pmsc ai` hmnì gmhdm `m hmom ai ncrems, istcs
ainie sir adfiesdcemacs hcelcrfi i` adífitrc ai` hmnì utd`dzmac y ainie msiburmr ue
hcrrihtc mds`mfdietc meti mbum y mbietis ixtirecs.
=97 ai =7;
> FCQC^
@cs prdehdpmìs iìfietcs ai ue fctcr ai deauhhdøe
ie omu`m sce i` istmtcr y i` eÿhìc ai` rctcr (ue
hceouetc ai `ífdems ai gdirrc), ue ncndemac mds`mac
ai` istmtcr y `cs hceauhtcris ai` rctcr lcrfmacs pcr
uem omu`m ai mùfdedc aietrc ai` eÿhìc ai` rctcr. Ie
tcacs `cs fctcris ai deauhhdøe hirrmacs hcfc i`
fcstrmac ie `m ldburm, `m vietd`mhdøe si rim`dzm
fiadmeti ue vietd`macr fcetmac ie i` ioi qui gmhi
hdrhu`mr i` mdri pcr i` mrfmzøe, ielrdmeac msæ sus
supirldhdis ixtirems.
@m pctiehdm istdfmam ai ue fctcr is `m pctiehdm ie i` ioi, is aihdr, `m pctiehdm fihíedhm

ÿtd` qui puiai prcpcrhdcemr pmrm gmhir bdrmr m `m hmrbm. [irc hcfc i` fctcr tdiei päradams,
`m pctiehdm cntiedam pcr i` fctcr m pìem hmrbm sirí fmycr qui `m istdfmam ie i` ioi.
Mrrmehmr y aishceihtmr `cs fctcris hce

fuhgm lrihuiehdm puiai sir uem lcrfm
siehd``m ai mgcrrc ai ieirbæm, pirc mrrmequis
lrihuietis dehrifietme i` aisbmsti ie
hcrrims ai trmesfdsdøe y ie rcamfdietcs,
fdietrms qui `cs scnrihmìetmfdietcs
aindac m `ms iìvmams hcrrdietis ai mrrmequi
puiaie mhcrtmr `m vdam ai` sdstifm ai
mds`mfdietc ai` fctcr.
=94 ai =7;
Xd `m lrihuiehdm ai mrrmequi ec si hcechdisi humeac i` hcetrc`macr istí destm`mac, si

rihcfdieam qui i` sdstifm istä hcetrc`mac hce ixtrifc hudamac aurmeti i` piræcac dedhdm`
ai cpirmhdøe pmrm
ispihdldhmhdceis msiburmr qui
ai` lmnrdhmeti. @cs `mfctcris
lrihuiehdm ai mrrmequi
fís brmeais tdieie istí aietrc
`æfdtis ai `ms
fiecris ai
lrihuiehdms ai mrrmequi.
Is dfpcrtmeti rihcramr qui is `m hmrbm `m qui aitirfdem huíetm pctiehdm ietribm i` fctcr.
I` tmfmýc ai` fctcr ec deadhm eihismrdmfieti `m pctiehdm qui vm m ietribmr. [cr ioifp`c,
ue vietd`macr qui riqudiri =9 jR pcaræm fmeiomrsi hce ue fctcr ai =9 jR (ie hmsc ai
qui puadisie mhcp`mrsi). Qmfndäe pcaræm fcvirsi hce ue fctcr ai 99 jR, y muequi
pcaræm luehdcemr, ec siræm fuy ildhmz.
8 [^CQIHHDCEIX T FCEDQCÎC
Xdieac i` fctcr uem fíqudem rcnustm y ai hcestruhhdøe sdfpì, su vdam ÿtd` aipieai hmsd
ixhùsdvmfieti ai `m vdam ÿtd` ai` mds`mfdietc ai `cs ncndemacs. Istm is mlihtmam pcr
fuhgcs lmhtcris hcfc gufiama, vdnrmhdceis, mfndietis hcrrcsdvcs y ctrcs. Ietri tcacs `cs
lmhtcris, i` fís dfpcrtmeti is, sde auam, `m tifpirmturm ai trmnmoc ai `cs fmtirdmìs
mds`metis ifpìmacs. Ye mufietc ai 7 m =; brmacs ie `m tifpirmturm ai` mds`meti riauhi su
vdam ÿtd` m `m fdtma.
Qcacs `cs iqudpcs puiaie sulrdr mhhdaietis?
Ai crdbie i`ähtrdhc?
‘ scnritiesdøe, hmæam ai tiesdøe, aisiqud`dnrdc c musiehdm ai lmsis qui
prcvchme ue mufietc
mufietc ai `m hc
hcrrdieti
rrdieti mnscrndam,
‘ hcrtchdrhudtcs huym detiesdama puiai supirmr i` pcair ai hcrti ai`
hcetmhtcr.
Ai crdbie fihíedhc?
‘ hm`mac ai` rctcr, scnrihmrbm fcfietíeim c prc`cebmam qui prcvchme ue
mufietc ai `m hcrrdieti qui mnscrni i` fctcr, gmhdieac qui `cs ncndemacs
si hm`dietie pi`dbrcsmfieti.
Hce i` lde ai qui adhgcs mhhdaietis ec amýie `cs hcfpceietis ed pirturnie `m ria ai
m`dfietmhdøe, tcacs `cs mrrmehmacris ainie dehùdr cn`dbmtcrdmfieti?
 [rctihhdøe hcetrm `cs hcrtchdrhudtcs, pmrm aitihtmr y hcrtmr `c metis pcsdnì `ms
hcrrdietis meøfm`ms supirdcris m =; De,
 [rctihhdøe hcetrm `ms scnrihmrbms, pmrm aitihtmr `cs mufietcs ai hcrrdieti gmstm =;
De y hcrtmr i` mrrmequi metis ai qui i` rihmìetmfdietc ai` fctcr y ai `cs
hceauhtcris amýi `cs mds`metis.
 Xd is eihismrdc, si puiaie mýmadr prctihhdceis hcfpìfietmrdms hcfc i` hcetrc` ai
lm``cs ai mds`mfdietc, ai devirsdøe ai lmsis, ai tifpirmturm ai `cs ncndemacs, ith.
@m prctihhdøe hcrrispceai m?
=<; ai =7;
 Mpmrmtcs ispihældhcs? sihhdcemacris pcrtmlusdnìs, adsyuetcris, ri`äs ai prctihhdøe

y ri`äs ai fiadam.
 M luehdceis ispihældhms detibrmams ie `cs mpmrmtcs ai luehdceis fÿ`tdpìs.
I` hcetrc` ai `m prctihhdøe tärfdhm ai `cs fctcris si ilihtÿm pcr fiadc ai

tirfcrrisdstiehdms (risdstiehdm hm`dnrmam), tirfdstcris y tirfcstmtcs. @cs tdpcs ai aitihtcris
m sir utd`dzmacs sce aitirfdemacs ie luehdøe ai `m h`msi ai tifpirmturm ai` mds`meti
ifpìmac, ai hmam tdpc ai fíqudem y ai `m ixdbiehdm ai` usumrdc.
@ms prctihhdceis i`ähtrdhms ai `cs iqudpcs mschdmacs m ue vietd`macr, maifís ai `ms

prctihhdceis i`ähtrdhms ai`
ai` fctcr (scnritiesdøe, scnridetiesdama,
scnridetiesdama, …) y ai `ms pprcpdms
rcpdms ai `cs
hcfpceietis ai` mrfmrdc i`ähtrdhc sce?
 Xceams ai Qifpirmturms ai `cs aivmemacs, bieirm`fi

bieirm`fieti
eti tdpc [QH
 Xceams ai Qifpirmturms ai `cs rcamfdietcs, bieirm`fieti tdpc [Q=;;
 Xiescris ai vdnrmhdceis
 Xceam [itirfmee, priscstmtc ai ncfnic
Ie `c qui si rildiri m` fcedtcric, puistc qui si suiì hcetmr hce ue sdstifm ai fiadhdøe ai
prisdceis, hce acs hcevirtdacris, pcaifcs hcechir `m prisdøe tctm` y `m prisdøe adliriehdm`
ai `m qui si aiauhdrí i` hmuam` fcvd`dzmac pcr i` vietd`macr.
Mhtum`fieti, si dfpìfietme ie `cs mrfmrdcs ai hcetrc` [@Hs ai fmeirm qui tcacs `cs
pmrífitrcs qui puiame tieir ue vm`cr, pcr ioifp`c, tifpirmturms,
t ifpirmturms, vi`chdama ai vdnrmhdøe
(ff/s), prisdceis, ith., si fuistrie ie uem pmetm``m. Maifís, i` [@H bistdcemrí `cs lm``cs,
hcfc puiaie sir i` ai ncfnic, i` ai `ms sceams [QH, ith. deadhmeac mvdscs hce m`mrfms y
ie su hmsc prchiadieac m` pmrc ai` vietd`macr.
8.= Xceams ai Qifpirmturms

8.= Qifpirmturms..
8.=.= Xceams ai Qifpirmturms [QH
8.=.=
Xce aitihtcris tärfdhcs hcfpuistcs ai siescris sifdhceauhtcri
sifdhceauhtcriss qui vmræme su risdstiehdm
nrushmfieti m` m`hmezmr uem ai
aitirfdemam
tirfdemam tifpirmturm.
[QH- Hcildhdieti ai tifpirmturm pcsdtdvc

EQH- Hcildhdieti ai tifpirmturm
tifpirmturm eibmtdvc
I` tdpc [QH is ue tirfdstcr huym risdstiehdm

mufietm nrushmfieti pmrm ue vm`cr ndie
aildedac ai tifpirmturm, ispihdldhmac pmrm
hmam tdpc. Ism vmrdmhdøe nrushm ie `m
risdstiehdm detirrufpi `m hcrrdieti ai` [QH,
mhhdcemeac ue ri`ä ai sm`dam, i` hum`
aishceihtm i` hdrhudtc prdehdpm`. Qmfndäe si
=<= ai =7;
puiai utd`dzmr pmrm sdstifms

sdstifms ai m`mrf
m`mrfms
ms c ai m`mrfm y aishceixdøe (> ppcr
cr lmsi ai fctcr).
I` tirfdstcri`ähtrdhcs.
ie fctcris EQH ec is ecrfm` ie `m mp`dhmhdøe
@cs tirfdstcris tdieie tmfmýc riauhdac, ec

sulrie aisbmstis fihíedhcs y tdiei uem rispuistm
fís rípdam ie ri`mhdøe m `cs ctrcs aitihtcris,
muequi ec pirfdtme ue sibudfdietc hcetdeuc ai`
prchisc ai hmìetmfdietc ai ` fctcr. @cs
tirfdstcris hce sus rispihtdvcs hdrhudtcs
iìhtrøedhcs ai hcetrc` clrihie prctihhdøe hcfpìtm hcetrm scnrihmìetmfdietc prcauhdac
pcr lm`tm ai lmsi, scnrihmrbm, sun c scnritiesdceis c lrihuietis cpirmhdceis ai devirsdøe c
hceixdøe-aishceixdøe.
hceixdøe-aish ceixdøe. Qdieie nmoc hcstc, ie ri`mhdøe m `m sceam [Q-=;;, pirc eihisdtme ue
ri`ä pmrm hcfmeac ai `m mhtumhdøe ai `m m`mrfm u cpirmhdøe.
8.> Xceams ai Qifpirmturms [Q=;;. Qirfcrrisdstcri

8.> Qirfcrrisdstcriss
Xce iìfietcs huym cpirmhdøe si nmsm ie `m

hmrmhtiræstdhm ai vmrdmhdøe ai `m risdstiehdm hce `m
tifpirmturm detræesihm m m`buecs fmtirdmìs
(bieirm`fieti p`mtdec, eæqui` c hcnri). [csiie
risdstiehdm hm`dnrmam qui vmræm `deim`fieti hce `m
tifpirmturm pcsdnd`dtmeac ue sibudfdietc hcetdeuc ai`
prchisc ai hmìetmfdietc ai` fctcr pcr i` adsp`my ai`
hcetrc`macr, hce m`tc brmac ai prihdsdøe y siesdnd`dama
ai rispuistm. Xu mp`dhmhdøe is mfp`dm ie `cs advirscs
sihtcris ai tähedhms ai fiadhdøe y mutcfmtdzmhdøe ai
tifpirmturm. Bieirm`fieti,
fctcris bieirm`fieti si mp`dhm
hcetrc`me ie destm`mhdceis
`m tifpirmturm ai `cs ai brme rispcesmnd`dama.
rcamfdietcs. Yem fdsfmIe `cs
sceam
puiai sirvdr pmrm m`mrfm y pmrm ai
aishceixdøe.
shceixdøe.
8.>.= Meí`dsds ai `m prcnìfítdhm ai `ms [Q=;; ai > y 8 gd`cs
8.>.=
Hceixdøe m acs gd`cs?
@m risdstiehdm detirem ai `cs hmnìs riprisietmams

hcfc ^= y ^> si sufme bieirmeac ue irrcr ie i` ^=
adspcsdtdvc ai fiadhdøe, i` hum` ie ùbmr ai fiadr
ÿedhmfieti `m risdstiehdm ai` [t=;;, fiadrí `m sufm Xdstifm ai
ai `m risdstiehdm ai` [t=;; fís `m ^= y ^>. Isti fiadhdøe [t=;;
fätcac ai fiadhdøe is pchc rihcfieamnì pcr su ^>
ishmsm prihdsdøe, y `m istrmtibdm rihcfieamam pmrm
fiocrmr `m fiadhdøe is utd`dzmr ue hmnì `c fís bruisc
y hcrtc pcsdnì pmrm adsfdeudr `ms risdstiehdms ^= y ^>.
=<> ai =7;
Hceixdøe hce tris gd`cs?

Isti tdpc ai hceixdcemac risui`vi i` dehceviedieti ai` irrcr bieirmac pcr `m risdstiehdm
detirem ai `cs hmnìs y is i` fís hcfÿe qui si puiai iehcetrmr ie `ms destm`mhdceis. @m
ÿedhm hceadhdøe is qui `m risdstiehdm detirem ai `cs tris hmnìs aini sir `m fdsfm aindac m
qui i` sdstifm ai fiadhdøe pcr `c` c bieirm` utd`dzm ue puieti ai Rgimtstcei fiadmeti i` hum`
si cntdiei uem tiesdøe adliriehdm` qui puiai sir mhceadhdcemam pmrm `ìvmr m hmnc `m
fiadhdøe. I` tdpc ai hceixdøe m 8 gd`cs meu`m `m delùiehdm
^=
ai `m `cebdtua ai` hmnì (risdstiehdm øgfdhm) ie i`
risu`tmac ai fiadhdøe, puis fdai `m risdstiehdm ietri i`
ncrei > y 8 pmrm ùibc ristmr isti vm`cr m `m fiadhdøe ai
[t=;;
detiräs amam ietri `cs ncreis = y >. Xdstifm ai
fiadhdøe ^>
@ms [Q=;; ai > gd`cs si utd`dzme pmrm destm`mhdceis ie `cs
qui `m adstmehdm ai` hmnì is delirdcr m =;f. Istí h`mrc qui ^8
ec is i` hmsc, ym qui dehùsc `m pmriom fís hirhmem istí m
fís adstmehdm ai ism `cebdtua. [cr tmetc gmnrí ue irrcr ie
`m ìhturm aindac m `m risdstiehdm ai` hceauhtcr.
Hce uem hceixdøe ai 8 gd`cs, qui is `m destm`mam ldem`fieti, m` `ìvmr acs pmrm i` ritcrec ai
`m siým`, i` fcau`c gmhi ue hí`hu`c qui hcfpiesm isti irrcr, pcr `c qui `m fiadhdøe si
hcesdairm hcrrihtm.
@m scùhdøe fiocr y fís mprcpdmam is `m ai usmr ue

hceauhtcr ai 8 gd`cs, ym qui isi hmsc ec gmræm lm`tm
gmhir edebÿe tdpc ai hcrrihhdøe, y si hcesdairm
nuiem `m fiadam. Msæ si gm destm`mac ie isti
prcyihtc.
@m sm`dam mem`øbdhm ai `m sceam [Q=;;, si puiai
bistdcem aisai ue [@H, ym qui `m brme fmycræm
adspceie ai tmroitms ai ietrmams mem`øbdhms m `ms qui
si puiai hmnìmr adrihtmfieti, gmhdieac adhgc [@H gmstm `m hcfpiesmhdøe, i`dfdemeac i`
irrcr ai `m risdstiehdm ai `æeim.
Xd ec si adspcei ai ue [@H hce tmroitms ai

ietrmams mem`øbdhms hmpmhis ai bistdcemr
adrihtmfieti isti tdpc ai siýmìs, si puiai
utd`dzmr uem tmroitm ai [Q=;; qui ecs am uem
sm`dam mem`øbdhm y qui pcaifcs ‐trmtmr‖ sde
fís qui hceldburmr `ms ishm`ms y `cs rmebcs.
.
[mrm i``c, `ms tmroitms [Q=;; adspceie ai uecs
AD[ Xwdthg qui moustmfcs m euistrms
eihisdamais.
Qmroitms ai ietrmams mem`øbdhms y adbd tmìs
=<8 ai =7;
[cr ioifp`c, I` AD[ Xwdthg = tdiei `m hceldburmhdøe sdbudieti?
Is aihdr, hcfc `m [Q=;; is ai 8 gd`cs, `m sm`dam is ai 1 m >;fM y i` rmebc delirdcr ai

fiadhdøe is ;¿H, `cs vm`cris aisai = m` 7 sce?
;= ;=; ;;;
I` AD[ Xwdthg > tdiei `m hceldburmhdøe sdbudieti?
T puistc qui vmfcs m pceir hcfc `æfdti fíxdfc

ai` rmebc ai fiadhdøe >;;¿H, `cs vm`cris aisai = m`
< sce?
;;;=;=
Istc `c detirpritmrifcs hcfc qui i` vm`cr ai 1 fM

hcrrispceai m `cs ;¿H y `cs >;;¿H hcrrispceaie m
`cs >;fM, hce uem ri`mhdøe `deim`.
[cr ÿ`tdfc, pmrm qui `m siým` ai sm`dam si puiam
fiadr gmy qui hceldburmr i` AD[ Xwdthg 8,
siìhhdcemeacc `m cphdøe ai fM.
siìhhdcemea
=;
Hce istc ym pcaifcs `ìvmr uem sm`dam mem`øbdhm ai 1->;fM pmrm bistdcemr`m ie i` [@H y
qui ecs prctiom i` fctcr mhcrai m `ms deadhmhdceis ai` lmnrdhmeti ai` fctcr.
=<1 ai =7;
QMÔIQM [Q=;;
Ecfnri ai`
lmnrdhmeti
AD[ XRDQHG 8
AD[ XRDQHG =
AD[ XRDQHG >
8.8 Xiescr ai vdnrmhdceis

8.8
@cs mhiìrøfitrcs sce `cs siescris fís utd`dzmacs ie meí`dsds ai vdnrmhdceis ie fmqudemrdm.
Qcacs `cs hcìhtcris pcrtítdìs istíe prcvdstcs ai ue mhiìrøfitrc, muequi `m fmycræm ai `m
bieti detibrm `m siým` y trmnmom ie uedamais ai vi`chdama. @cs sdstifms ai fcedtcrdzmac
pirfmeieti tmfndäe usme mhiìrøfitrcs ixhiptc humeac si gmhi eihismrdc utd`dzmr uem
sceam ai prcxdfdama.
Gmy adlirietis tdpcs ai mhiìrøfitrcs, i` fís hcfÿe is i` pdizci`ähtrdhc hce ue
mfp`dldhmacr detirec. @cs mhiìrøfitrcs pdizci`ähtrdhcs si fcetme ixtiremfieti,
bieirm`fieti scnri i` m`comfdietc ai `cs mpcycs. I` fätcac ai fcetmoi is fuy dfpcrtmeti
I` fmtirdm` pdizci`ähtrdhc (hrdstm`) istí sdtumac nmoc uem fmsm sæsfdhm. Humeac i` siescr
vdnrm i` hrdstm` si hcfprdfi y aishcfprdfi aindac m `m prisdøe ioirhdam pcr `m vdnrmhdøe y
`m fmsm sæsfdhm.
@m hmrbm ai sm`dam is prcpcrhdcem` m `m luirzm y pcr `c tmetc m `m mhiìrmhdøe. Ism hmrbm ai

sm`dam riqudiri
Fdietrms ai =;
qui gmhi ue mýcs
mfp`dldhmacr
`c hcfÿepmrm
irm hcevirtdr`m ie ue vc`tmoiixtirec,
utd`dzmr ue mfp`dldhmacr ai sm`dam m` hcìhtcr.
mhtum`fieti i`
mfp`dldhmacr istí aietrc ai` siescr y is m`dfietmac pcr i` hcìhtcr. Isti hceouetc is
hcechdac pcr `ms sdb`ms DH[ (Detibrmtia Hdrhudt [dizciìhtrdh).
=<9 ai =7;
@m siým` si pc`mrdzm prcauhdieac uem hcrrdieti hcetdeum

qui m`dfietm m` mfp`dldhmacr, ec is eihismrdm uem
destm`mhdøe i`ähtrdhm
amtcs eihisdtm mpmrti.
adspceir ai [cr
uem `chceixdøe
tmetc, i` aihcìhtcr ai
hcrrdieti
hcetdeum pmrm trmnmomr hce isti tdpc
td pc ai mhiìrøfitrcs.
Ai tcacs fcacs, `m fmycræm ai hcìhtcris adspceie ai uem tiesdøe ai pc`mrdzmhdøe hce i`

lde ai aitirfdemr sd i` siescr tdiei m`bÿe
lm``c detirec, c sd gmy ue irrcr ai hmnì. @m
ixdstiehdm ai` mfp`dldhmacr supcei uem
`dfdtmhdøe ie `ms rispuistms ai nmom
lrihuiehdm. @m hmrmhtiræstdhm ai nmom
lrihuiehdm ai` mfp`dldhmacr is
bieirm`fieti m = Gz pmrm `m fmycræm ai
`ms uedamais DH[ adspcednìs. Gmy m`buecs
mhiìrøfitrcs ispihdm`fieti adsiýmacs pmrm trmnmomr m ;.= Gz ie i` hmsc ie qui sim
eihismrdc rihcbir amtcs m fuy nmom lrihuiehdm.
lr ihuiehdm.
Istcs adspcsdtdvcs eihisdtme 8 ncrems ai hceixdøe?
@m prdfirm ncrem is pmrm i` vc`tmoi +>1\AH, qui hcrrispceai m` hmnì n`mehc.

@m sibueam ncrem is pmrm `m tdirrm (;\), qui hcrrispceai m` hmnì eibrc.
@m tirhirm ncrem is pmrm `m pmetm``m (XHÎIE).
@ms ncrems hce sus tcpis y tmpms dríe ie `cs hmrrdìs ADE qui gmy ie `ms hmoms ai
siýmìs.
Hce isti adspcsdtdvc si eihisdtmrí uem luieti ai >1\AH y uem ietrmam m [@H pmrm
pcair bistdcemr `m siým` mem`øbdhm 11->;fM.
->;fM.
N`mehc
=
Eibrc
Xhriie [@H
Mem`cbui
hcffce deput
N`mehc Mem`cbui deputs

> (1->;fM)
Eibrc Xiescr =
Xiescr >
Xhriie .
.
.
.
I` rmebc ai fiadhdøe ai isti iqudpc is ai ; m >9ff/s ^FX y `m sm`dam ai 1 m >; fM

AH, hce `c qui `cs 1fM hcrrispceaie m `cs ; ff/s y `cs >;fM hcrrispceaie m `cs
>9ff/s. @m ìy is `deim`.
`d eim`.
=<< ai =7;
Ie i` bríldhc metirdcr vifcs `m bistdøe ai > mhiìrøfitrcs sdfu`tíeimfieti, qui sce

m`dfietmacs pcrmhiìrøfitrcs.
hcfÿe pmrm acs uem luieti ai +>1\. [uistc qui si tiearí `m luieti ai m`dfietmhdøe
Ie i` isquifm, si vi qui `m pmetm``m ai` mhiìrøfitrc, ‐shriie‖, istí puistm m tdirrm y

ec si `ìvm gmstm i` mrfmrdc i`ähtrdhc. Istc ec sdifpri is msæ, y ie hdirtms chmsdceis, sd
si `ìvm m` mrfmrdc ai hcetrc` y si hceihtm m `m tdirrm ie ä`.
8.1 îsdstiehdm ai Hmàic

8.1
@ms risdstiehdms ai hmàic sce utd`dzmams humeac ue fctcr i`ähtrdhc is destm`mac ie

mfndietis fuy gÿfiacs hce pcsdnd`dama ai quiamr aishceihtmac pcr piræcacs `mrbcs i
dfpdaie `m mhufu`mhdøe ai mbum ie i` detirdcr ai` fctcr pcr `m hceaiesmhdøe ai` mdri
gÿfiac. Ästms mufietme `m tifpirmturm ai` fctcr m`buecs brmacs pcr iehdfm ai `m
tifpirmturm mfndieti humeac i` fctcr quiam mpmbmac.
@m tiesdøe ai m`dfietmhdøe ai `ms risdstiehdms ai hmàic ainirí sir ispihdldhmam pcr i`

h`dieti, istmeac adspcednìs ie `ms tiesdceis fís lrihuietis ai ==;\, >>; \ y 11; \.
@m pctiehdm ai `ms fdsfms aipieairí ai` tmfmýc ai hmrhmsm ai` fctcr.
Xiríe hceihtmams ie `m hmom ai ncrems y rihdndríe m`dfietmhdøe ai` ixtirdcr ai lcrfm

qui puiame ietrmr ie luehdcemfdietc humeac i` fctcr istä mpmbmac. Humeac i` fctcr
istä ie luehdcemfdietc, istms sceams ainie sir aishceihtmams
aishceihtmams ym qui su usc sdfu`tíeic
puiai amýmr `ms hmnizms ai `ms ncndems ai
ai`` fctcr.
Hmom ai ncrems
Hmom ncr ems îsdst
îsdstiehdm
iehdm ai
muxd`dsiýmìs
muxd`dmr
mr pmrm `ms
`ms hmàic
Hm
Hmom
om ai ncrems
ncr ems
ai luirzm
@m tiesdøe ai m`dfietmhdøe pcr ailihtc is m >>; \. @m pctiehdm ai `ms fdsfms si gm ai

hcesdairmr pmrm i` adfiesdcemfdie
adfiesdcemfdietc
tc ai` hmnìmac.
=<2 ai =7;
[cr ctrc `mac, i` luehdcemfdietc sirí tm` qui fdietrms istä ie luehdcemfdietc i`
vietd`macr, `m m`dfietmhdøe ai `ms risdstiehdms ai hmàic istä aisireibdzmam, y pmsmrí m
mhtdvmrsi fdietrms i` vietd`macr istä pmrmac.
@m fdsdøe ai istms risdstiehdms is `m ai iìvmr `m tifpirmturm ai `cs aivmemac uecs =;¿
pcr iehdfm ai `m Qifpirmturm mfndieti, ai istm fmeirm, si ivdtmrí `m hceaiesmhdøe ai
`m gufiama.
> Xceams
[QH
> Xceams
[Q=;;
Xiescr ai
vdnrmhdceis
Hmom ai ncrems muxd`dmr
8.9 Xceam [itirfmee. [riscstmtc ai ncfnic

8.9
I` aitihtcr ai ncfnic is ue Xceam

sdstifm siehd``c y fuy ldmnì. pitirfme
Is `m prctihhdøe mircadeífdhm
ai` vietd`macr, ai fmeirm qui
pmrm i` vietd`macr humeac
aitihtm qui i` vietd`macr istí
ie ncfnic. Hcestm ai acs
tcfms ai prisdøe sdtumams m
hdirtm adstmehdm ai `cs í`mnis
ai` rcaiti ai` vietd`macr.
Humeac i` vietd`macr istm luehdcemeac ie räbdfie istmnì,

si puiai fiadr ietri `ms acs tcfms ai `m sceam [itirfmee
uem adliriehdm ai prisdøe. Xd i` vietd`macr ietrm ie ncfnic,
si bieirm uem turnuìehdm ie i` ixtrifc ai `cs í`mnis qui
hmfndm i` sdbec ai `ms prisdceis fiadams, pcr `c qui sd isti
hmfndc ec is puetum` y si fmetdiei, puistc qui `ms acs
tcfms istíe hceihtmams m ue priscstmtc, ästi aitihtmrí i`
lieøfiec y pmrmrí i` vietd`macr.
=<7 ai =7;
@m destm`mhdøe i`ähtrdhm hcestm ai ue hcfÿe y acs hcetmhtcs EH (Ecrfm`fieti hirrmac) y

EC (Ecrfm`fieti mndirtc), istcs hmfndmrme ai istmac humeac `m fifnrmem ie i` detirdcr
ai` priscstmtc aitihti uem vmrdmhdøe ai prisdøe.
Istm siým` adbdtm`, si `ìvmrí tmfndäe m` mrfmrdc ai hcetrc` m `ms tmroitms ai ietrmams
adbdtmìs ai` [@H pmrm su bistdøe.
M^FM^DC AI HCEQ^C@ îìs ai [QH

Gmy <, hcrrispceaie ie isti hmsc m
8 sceams [QH ai m`mrfm y ctrms 8
sceams [QH ai prim`mrfm.
@m siým` ai uem sceam [QH is uem

siým` adbdtm`,
tmroitms qui siadbdtmìs
ai ietrmams `ìvm m `ms
ai`
[@H m trmväs ai` ri`ä ai sceam.
[@H y tmroitms ai ietrmams y

sm`dams ai siýmìs mem`øbdhms
y adbdtmìs
=<4 ai =7;
1 QD[CX AI M^^ME]YI
Aurmeti `m puistm ie tiesdøe ai ue fctcr, `m hcrrdieti sc`dhdtmam is hcesdairmnì y puiai
prcvchmr uem hmæam ai tiesdøe qui mlihti m` luehdcemfdietc ai `cs rihiptcris,
ispihdm`fieti ie hmsc ai desuldhdiehdm ai `m sihhdøe ai `m `æeim ai m`dfietmhdøe. Ie
chmsdceis, `m hmæam puiai `ìbmr m sir pirhiptdnì ie `cs mpmrmtcs ai mùfnrmac. [mrm pceir
rifiadc m istcs dehceviedietis, hdirtcs rib`mfietcs sihtcrdmìs prcgænie i` usc ai fctcris
ai mrrmequi adrihtc qui supirie hdirtm pctiehdm. Ctrcs si `dfdtme m dfpceir `m ri`mhdøe
ietri `m hcrrdieti ai mrrmequi y `m ecfdem` ie nmsi m `m pctiehdm ai `cs fctcris. @cs
fctcris ai omu`m sce `cs ÿedhcs qui puiaie mhcp`mrsi adrihtmfieti m `m ria pcr fiadc ai
ue iqudpc sdfpì. Qme sø`c `cs ixtrifcs ai `cs aivmemacs ai` istmtcr scnrismìe ai `m
p`mhm ai ncrems. Amac qui i` lmnrdhmeti aitirfdem ai fmeirm aildedtdvm `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms
ai` rctcr, `cs adstdetcs prchiscs ai mrrmequi hcesdstie prdehdpm`fieti ie gmhir vmrdmr `m
tiesdøe ie ai
riauhhdøe `ms`mncrems
puetm ai` istmtcr. Ie
ai hcrrdieti isti tdpc
hce`ìvm ai ai fctcris,
fmeirm huym lrihuiehdm
mutcfítdhm uem luirtiisriauhhdøe
hcestmeti,ai`
`m
pmr.
Mrrmequi adrihtc
Xi trmtm ai` fcac ai mrrmequi fís siehd``c ie

i` qui i` istmtcr si mhcp`m adrihtmfieti m `m
ria. I` fctcr si nmsm ie sus hmrmhtiræstdhms
emturmìs pmrm mrrmehmr. Ie i` fcfietc ai `m
puistm nmoc tiesdøe, i` fctcr mhtÿm hcfc ue
trmeslcrfmacr huyc sihueamrdc, lcrfmac pcr
`m omu`m fuy pchc risdstieti ai` rctcr, istí ie
hcrtchdrhudtc. @m hcrrdieti deauhdam ie i`
rctcr is dfpcrtmeti. @m hcrrdieti prdfmrdm y `m
sihueamrdm sce príhtdhmfieti prcpcrhdcemìs.
[cr tmetc, si cntdiei uem puetm ai hcrrdieti

dfpcrtmeti ie `m ria? Dmrrmequi6 9 m 7 ècfdem`. I`
pmr ai mrrmequi fiadc is? Hmrrmequi 6 ;,9 m =,9
Hecfdem`. M pismr ai `ms vietmoms qui hce`ìvm
(siehd`ìz ai` iqudpc, iìvmac pmr ai mrrmequi,
mrrmequi rípdac, nmoc hcsti), sø`c is pcsdnì
utd`dzmr i` mrrmequi adrihtc ie `cs sdbudietis
hmscs?
‘ `m pctiehdm ai` fctcr is aänd` hce rispihtc

mqui
`m prcvchm
ai `m ria,
`m pmrm `dfdtmr
hcrrdieti `ms pirturnmhdceis
sc`dhdtmam,
‘ `m fíqudem mhhdcemam ec riqudiri ue

mufietc prcbrisdvc ai vi`chdama y adspcei
ai ue adspcsdtdvc fihíedhc (pcr ioifp`c, ue riauhtcr) qui dfpdai i` mrrmequi nrushc,
=2; ai =7;
‘ i` pmr ai mrrmequi aini sir iìv

iìvmac.
mac.
[cr i` hcetrmrdc, sdifpri qui?

‘ `m hmæam ai tiesdøe prcvchmam pcr `m hcrrdieti sc`dhdtmam puiam pirturnmr i` nuie
luehdcemfdietc ai ctrcs mpmrmtcs hceihtmacs m `m fdsfm `æeim,
‘ `m fíqudem mhhdcemam
mhhdcemam ec puia
puiamm mafdtdr smhuadams fihíedhms
Mrrmequi istri``m -trdíebu`c
Xø`c is pcsdnì utd`dzmr isti fcac ai mrrmequi ie fctcris ie `cs qui `cs acs ixtrifcs ai
hmam uec ai `cs tris aivmemacs istmtørdhcs vui`vme m `m p`mhm ai ncrems. [cr ctrm pmrti, i`
ncndemac aini rim`dzmrsi ai fmeirm qui i` mhcp`mfdietc ie trdíebu`c hcrrispceam hce `m
tiesdøe ai `m ria? pcr ioifp`c, ie i` hmsc ai uem ria trdlísdhm ai 87; \, is prihdsc utd`dzmr
ue fctcri`ncndemac
mrrmehmr m 87; \`csieaivmemacs
fctcr mhcp`meac trdíebu`c ie
y istri``m
<<; \ ie m `mistri``m. I` `mprdehdpdc
tiesdøe ai hcesdsti
ria, `c qui ie
iqudvmì
m advdadr `m tiesdøe ecfdem`
ecfdem` ai` fctcr ie is istri``m
tri``m pcr 8 (ie i` ioifp`c metirdcr, `m tiesdøe
ai `m ria 87; \ 6 <<; \ / 8). @m puetm aaii hcrrdieti aurme
aurmetiti i` mrrmequi ssii advdai pcr 8? Da
6 =,9 m >,< De
Ye fctcr ai 87; \/<<; \ mhcp`mac ie istri``m m su tiesdøe ecfdem` ai <<; \ mnscrni uem
hcrrdieti 8 vihis fiecr qui sd si mhcp`m ie trdíeb
trdíebu`c
u`c m 87; \. Amac qui i` mhcp`mfdietc
ie istri``m si rim`dzm m 87; \,
\, `m hcrrdieti si advdai euivmf
euivmfieti
ieti pcr 8. [cr tmetc, si advdai
pcr ue tctm` ai 8. I` pmr ai mrrmequi si advdai ddbum`fieti
bum`fieti pcr 8, ym qui is prcpcrhdcem` m`
humarmac ai `m tiesdøe ai m`dfietmhdøe?
Ha 6 ;,> m ;,9 He
@m vi`chdama ai` fctcr si istmnd`dzm humeac si iqud`dnrme i` pmr ai` fctcr y i` pmr
risdstieti, ecrfm`fieti ietri i` 29 y 79% ai `m vi`chdama ecfdem`. Ie isi fcfietc, `cs
aivmemacs si mhcp`me ie trdíebu`c y i` fctcr rdeai sibÿe sus hmrmhtiræstdhms emturmìs. Ye
tifpcrdzmacr si iehmrbm ai hcetrc`mr `m trmesdhdøe ai` mhcp`mfdietc ie istri``m m`
=2= ai =7;
mhcp`mfdietc ie trdíebu`c. I` hdirri ai` hcetmhtcr ai trdíebu`c si prcauhi hce ue ritmrac

ai 8; m 9; fd`dsibueacs trms `m mpirturm ai` hcetmhtcr ai istri``m, `c qui ivdtm ue
hcrtchdrhudtc ietri lmsis m` ec pcair iehcetrmrsi mfncs hirrmacs m` fdsfc tdifpc.
@m hcrrdieti qui rihcrri `cs aivmemacs si detirrufpi hce `m mpirturm ai` hcetmhtcr ai
istri``m y si ristmnìhi hce i` hdirri ai` hcetmhtcr ai trdíebu`c. I` pmsc m` mhcp`mfdietc ie
trdíebu`c vm mhcfpmýmac ai uem puetm ai hcrrdieti trmesdtcrdm, tme nrivi hcfc dfpcrtmeti,
aindam m `m lhif ai` fctcr. I` mrrmequi istri``m-trdíebu`c is mprcpdmac pmrm `ms fíqudems
huyc pmr risdstieti is aänd` c qui mrrmehme ie vmhæc. Aipieadieac ai` räbdfie trmesdtcrdc
ie i` fcfietc ai` mhcp`mfdietc ie trdíebu`c, puiai sir eihismrdc utd`dzmr uem vmrdmeti qui
`dfdti `cs lieøfiecs trmesdtcrdcs humeac si supirm hdirtm pctiehdm?
‘ tifpcrdzmhdøe ai = m > sibueac

sibueacss m` pmsc istri``m-trdíebu
istri``m-trdíebu`c.
`c.
Istm fiadam pirfdti adsfdeudr `m lhif y, pcr tmetc, `m puetm ai hcrrdieti trmesdtcrdm. Istm
vmrdmeti sø`c puiai utd`dzmrsi ie fíqudems huym deirhdm sim suldhdieti pmrm ivdtmr uem
aihiìrmhdøe ixhisdvm aurmeti `m tifpcrdzmhdøe.

‘ mrrmequi ie 8 tdifpcs?
tdifpcs? istri``m-trdíebu`c + risdstiehdm-trdíebu`c.
I` hcrti si fmetdiei, pirc `m risdstiehdm si pcei ie sirdi mprcxdfmamfieti aurmeti tris
sibueacs hce `cs aivmemacs mhcp`macs ie trdíebu`c. Istm fiadam riauhi `m puetm ai
hcrrdieti trmesdtcrdm.
‘ mrrmequi ie istri``m-trdíebu`c
istri``m-trdíebu`c + risdstiehdm
risdstiehdm-trdíebu`c
-trdíebu`c sde hcrti.
@m risdstiehdm si pcei ie sirdi hce `cs aivmemacs defiadmtmfieti metis ai `m mpirturm ai`
hcetmhtcr ai istri``m. Istm fiadam ivdtm hum`qudir hcrti ai hcrrdieti y, pcr tmetc, `m
mpmrdhdøe ai lieøfiecs trmesdtcrdcs. I` usc ai istms vmrdmetis hce`ìvm `m destm`mhdøe ai
hcfpceietis madhdcemìs y i` hcesdbudieti mufietc ai` hcsti tctm`.
Mrrmequi pcr mutctrmeslcrfmacr

I` fctcr si m`dfietm m tiesdøe riauhdam fiadmeti ue mutctrmeslcrfmacr qui, uem viz
ldem`dzmac i` mrrmequi, quiam luirm ai` hdrhudtc. I` mrrmequi si `ìvm m hmnc ie tris tdifpcs?
‘ ie i` prdfir tdifpc, i` mutctrmeslcrfmacr hcfdiezm pcr mhcp`mrsi ie istri``m y, m

hcetdeumhdøe, i` fctcr si mhcp`m m `m ria m trmväs ai uem pmrti ai `cs aivmemacs ai`
=2> ai =7;
mutctrmeslcrfmacr. I` mrrmequi si `ìvm m hmnc m uem tiesdøe riauhdam qui si hm`hu`m ie

luehdøe ai `m ri`mhdøe ai trmeslcrfmhdøe. Bieirm`fieti, i` trmeslcrfmacr istí actmac ai
tcfms qui pirfdtie siìhhdcemr `m ri`mhdøe ai trmeslcrfmhdøe
y, pcr tmetc, i` vm`cr fís maihumac ai `m tiesdøe riauhdam.
‘ metis ai pmsmr m` mhcp`mfdietc m pìem tiesdøe, `m istri``m si mnri. Ie isi fcfietc, `m

lrmhhdøe ai ncndemac hceihtmam m `m ria hrim uem deauhtmehdm ie sirdi hce i` fctcr. Istm
cpirmhdøe si rim`dzm humeac si m`hmezm `m vi`chdama ai iqud`dnrc, m` ldem` ai` prdfir tdifpc.
‘ i` mhcp`mfdietc m pìem tiesdøe deti

detirvdiei
rvdiei m pmrtdr ai` sibueac
sibueac tdifpc, ecrfm`fieti
ecrfm`fieti fuy
hcrtc (uem lrmhhdøe ai sibueac). @ms deauhtmehdms ie sirdi hce i` fctcr si hcrtchdrhudtme y,
m hcetdeumhdøe, i` mutctrmeslcrfmacr quiam luirm ai` hdrhudtc.
@m hcrrdieti y i` pmr ai mrrmequi vmræme ie `m fdsfm prcpcrhdøe. Xi advdaie pcr (Y ria / Y

riauhdam)> y si cntdieie `cs vm`cris sdbudietis?
Da 6 =,2 m 1 De
Ha 6 ;,9 m ;,79 He
I` mrrmequi si `ìvm m hmnc sde detirruphdøe ai hcrrdieti ie i` fctcr, `c qui ivdtm qui si
prcauzhme lieøfiecs
lieøfiecs trmesdtcrdcs. Ec cnstmeti,
cnstmeti, sd ec si tcfme hdirtms prihmuhdceis
prihmuhdceis puiaie
mpmrihir lieøfiecs trmesdtcrdcs ai dbum` emturmìzm aurmeti i` mhcp`mfdietc m pìem
tiesdøe. Ai gihgc, i` vm`cr ai `m deauhtmehdm ie sirdi hce i` fctcr trms `m mpirturm ai `m
istri``m is dfpcrtmeti sd si hcfpmrm hce `m ai` fctcr. Hcfc hcesihuiehdm, si prcauhi uem
hmæam ai tiesdøe hcesdairmnì qui mhmrrim uem puetm ai hcrrdieti trmesdtcrdm iìvmam ie i`
fcfietc ai` mhcp`mfdietc m pìem tiesdøe.
I` hdrhudtc fmbeätdhc ai` mutctrmeslcrfmacr dehùyi ue ietrigdirrc qui adsfdeuyi i` vm`cr

ai `m deauhtmehdm pmrm pm`dmr isti prcnìfm. Adhgc vm`cr si hm`hu`m ai fcac qui, m` mnrdrsi
`m istri``m ie i` sibueac tdifpc, ec gmym vmrdmhdøe ai tiesdøe ie `ms ncrems ai` fctcr. I`
ietrigdirrc mufietm `m hcrrdieti fmbeitdzmeti ai` mutctrmeslcrfmacr. Adhgm hcrrdieti
mufietm `m hcrrdieti sc`dhdtmam ie `m ria aurmeti i` prdfir tdifpc ai` mrrmequi.
Isti fcac ai mrrmequi suiì utd`dzmrsi ie `cs fctcris hce pctiehdm supirdcr m =;; jR. Xde
ifnmrbc, i` prihdc ai `cs iqudpcs is ri`mtdvmfieti m`tc aindac m` iìvmac hcsti ai`
mutctrmeslcrfmacr.
Mrrmequi iìhtrøedhc (Xclt stmrtir)
@m m`dfietmhdøe ai` fctcr aurmeti `m puistm ie tiesdøe si rim`dzm fiadmeti uem sundam
prcbrisdvm ai `m tiesdøe, `c qui pcsdnd`dtm ue mrrmequi sde smhuadams y riauhi `m puetm ai
hcrrdieti. [mrm cntieir isti risu`tmac, si utd`dzm ue brmaumacr ai tdrdstcris fcetmacs ie
cpcsdhdøe ai > pcr > ie hmam lmsi ai `m ria.
@m sundam prcbrisdvm ai `m tiesdøe ai sm`dam puiai hcetrc`mrsi pcr fiadc ai `m rmfpm ai
mhiìrmhdøe, qui aipieai ai` vm`cr ai `m hcrrdieti ai `dfdtmhdøe, c vdehu`mrsi m mfncs
pmrífitrcs.
Ye mrrmehmacr rmìetdzmacr prcbrisdvc is ue brmaumacr ai < tdrdstcris qui si utd`dzm pmrm
=28 ai =7;
mrrmehmr y pmrmr ai fmeirm hcetrc`mam `cs fctcris trdlísdhcs ai omu`m.
Bmrmetdzm?
Xclt stmrtir
‘ i` hcetrc` ai `ms hmrmhtiræstdhms ai
luehdcemfdietc, prdehdpm`fieti aurmeti `cs
piræcacs ai mrrmequi
mrrmequi y pmrmam,
‘ `m prctihhdøe tärfdhm ai` fctcr y ai`

mrrmehmacr,
‘ `m prctihhdøe fihíedhm ai `m fíqudem

mhhdcemam, fiadmeti `m suprisdøe ai `ms smhuadams
ai pmr y `m riauhhdøe ai `m hcrrdieti sc`dhdtmam. @m
hcrrdieti (DMQX ie i` ioifp`c ai` `mtirm`) puiai
ribu`mrsi ai
mrrmequi > m 9 De,ietri
ribu`mnì `c qui;,=
prcpcrhdcem
y ;,2 aiùepmr
pmr ai
mrrmequi ie adrihtc. [irfdti mrrmehmr tcac tdpc ai
fctcris msæehrcecs. [uiai hcrtchdrhudtmrsi pmrm
mrrmehmr pcr fiadc ai ue hcetmhtcr y fmetieir m`
fdsfc tdifpc i` acfdedc ai` hdrhudtc ai hcetrc`.
M tcac i``c gmy qui mýmadr `m pcsdnd`dama ai?
‘ aihiìrmhdøe prcbrisdvm,
prcbrisdvm,
‘ pmrmam-lriemam.
=21 ai =7;
9 \M^DMACÎX AI LÎHYIEHDM
@cs vmrdmacris sce hcevirtdacris ai ieirbæm iehmrbmacs ai fcau`mr `m ieirbæm qui rihdni
i` fctcr. Istcs adspcsdtdvcs
adspcsdtdvcs iìhtrøedhcs qu
quii pirfdtie vmrdmr `m vi
vi`chdama
`chdama y i` pmr ai `cs
fctcris msdehrøedhcs trdlísdhcs, hcevdrtdieac `ms fmbedtuais ldoms ai lrihuiehdm y tiesdøe
ai ria ie fmbedtuais vmrdmnìs.
Xi utd`dzme istcs iqudpcs humeac `ms eihisdamais ai `m mp`dhmhdøe sime?
 Acfdedc ai pmr y `m vi`chdama

 îbu`mhdøe sde bc`pis fihíedhcs
 Fcvdfdietcs hcfpìocs
 Fihíedhm ai`dhmam
I` hcetrc` ai `cs fctcris i`ähtrdhcs fiadmeti hceouetcs ai hcefutmhdøe ‐Qcac c Emam‖ is

uem scùhdøe ndie mamptmam pmrm i` mhhdcemfdietc ai uem mfp`dm bmfm ai fíqudems. Ec
cnstmeti, hce`ìvm `dfdtmhdceis qui puiaie risu`tmr
r isu`tmr dehcfcams ie hdirtms mp`dhmhdceis.
@cs vmrdmacris ai lrihuiehdm istíe hcfpuistcs pcr?
• Itmpm îhtdldhmacrm. Hcevdirti `m tiesdøe m`tirem ie hcetdeum fiadmeti rihtdldhmacris ai

adcacs, tdrdstcris, ith.
• Itmpm detirfiadm. Ld`trc pmrm sumvdzmr `m tiesdøe rihtdldhmam y riauhdr `m ifdsdøe ai

mrføedhcs.
• Devirscr c "Devirtir". Hcevdirti `m tiesdøe hcetdeum ie ctrm ai tiesdøe y lrihuiehdm

vmrdmnì fiadmeti `m bieirmhdøe ai pu`scs. Mhtum`fieti si ifpìme DBNQ±s (Dsc`mtia Bmti
Ndpc`mr Qrmesdstcrs) pmrm bieirmr `cs pu`scs hcetrc`macs ai tiesdøe. @cs iqudpcs fís
fcairecs utd`dzme DBNQ±s deti`dbietis qui dehcrpcrme ue fdhrcprchismacr hce tcams `ms
prctihhdceis pcr scnrihcrrdieti, scnritiesdøe, nmom tiesdøe, hcrtchdrhudtcs, puistm m fmsm
ai` fctcr, scnritifpirmturms, ith.
=29 ai =7;
• Itmpm ai hcetrc`. Istm itmpm hcetrc`m `cs DBNQ pmrm bieirmr `cs pu`scs vmrdmnìs ai
tiesdøe y lrihuiehdm. T maifís hcetrc`m `cs pmrífitrcs ixtirecs ie bieirm`, ith. @cs
vmrdmacris fms utd`dzmacs utd`dzme fcau`mhdøe [RF (Fcau`mhdøe ai Mehgc ai [u`scs) y
usme ie `m itmpm rihtdldhmacrm puieti ai adcacs rihtdldhmacris. Ie `m itmpm detirfiadm si
usme hceaiesmacris y ncndems pmrm adsfdeudr `ms mrføedhms y fiocrmr i` lmhtcr ai pctiehdm
I` Devirscr c Devirtir hcevdirti `m tiesdøe hcetdeum ai `m itmpm detirfiadm ie uem tiesdøe

ai lrihuiehdm y tiesdøe vmrdmnìs. @cs DBNQ ievæme pu`scs ai aurmhdøe vmrdmnì y si
cntdiei uem hcrrdieti hmsd siecdam` ie i` fctcr. @m lrihuiehdm pcrtmacrm ai `cs DBNQ si
iehuietrm ietri > m =<jGz. Yem pcrtmacrm hce m`tm lrihuiehdm riauhi i` rudac mhÿstdhc ai`
fctcr pirc adsfdeuyi i` rieadfdietc ai` fctcr y `m `cebdtua pirfdsdnì ai` hmnì gmhdm i`
fctcr. [cr ctrm pmrti, `cs DBNQ±s bieirme fmycr hm`cr.
@ms siýmìs ai hcetrc` pmrm mrrmequi, pmrmam y vmrdmhdøe ai vi`chdama (pctiehdøfitrc c

siýmìs ixtirems ai riliriehdm) istäe mds`mams bm`víedhmfieti pmrm ivdtmr amýcs ie siescris
c hcetrcìs y ivdtmr rudacs ie `m itmpm ai hcetrc`.
I` hcevirtdacr ai lrihuiehdm sufdedstrm, m pmrtdr ai uem ria ai hcrrdieti m`tirem ai
lrihuiehdm ldom, uem tiesdøe m`tirem trdlísdhm, ai vm`cr ildhmz y lrihuiehdm vmrdmnìs. @m
m`dfietmhdøe ai` vmrdmacr puiai sir fceclísdhm pmrm piquiýms pctiehdms (craie ai
fmbedtua ai m`buecs jR) y trdlísdhm pmrm `cs fmycris. Hdirtcs vmrdmacris ai piquiým
pctiehdm mhiptme deadstdetmfieti tiesdceis
tiesdceis ai m`dfietmhdceis fcec y trdlísdhms. @m tiesdøe
ai sm`dam ai` vmrdmacr is sdifpri trdlísdhm. Ai gihgc, `cs fctcris msæehrcecs fceclísdhcs
ec sce maihumacs pmrm sir m`dfietmacs fiadmeti hcevirtdacris ai lrihuiehdm.
@cs hcevirtdacris
vietmoms ai istcs ai lrihuiehdm
fctcris? m`dfietme `csnmoc
istmeamrdzmhdøe, fctcris
hcsti,ai rcnustiz,
omu`m istíeamr hce tcamsnmoc
istmequidama, `ms
fmetiedfdietc. [uistc qui istcs fctcris sce mutc-vietd`macs, i` ÿedhc `æfdti pmrm su
ifpìc is i` luehdcemfdietc m nmom vi`chdama pcrqui si riauhi istm vietd`mhdøe. Xd si
riqudiri isti luehdcemfdietc gmy qui privir ue fctcr ispihdm` hce uem vietd`mhdøe lcrzmam
deaipieadieti.
=2< ai =7;
@ms prdehdpmìs vietmoms qui tdiei `m utd`dzmhdøe

utd`d zmhdøe ai ue vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm?
l rihuiehdm?
 I` vmrdmacr ai vi`chdama ec tdiei

td iei iìfietcs føvdìs, ed hcetmhtcs.
 @m hceixdøe ai` hmnìmac is fuy siehd``m.
 [irfdti mrrmequis sumvis, prcbrisdvcs y sde sm`tcs.
 Hcetrc`m `m mhiìrmhdøe y i` lriemac prcbrisdvc.
 @dfdtm `m hcrrdieti ai mrrmequi.
 [irfdti i` hcetrc` ai rmfpms ai mhiìrmhdøe y aihiìrmhdøe ribu`mnìs ie i`
tdifpc.
 Hcesdbui ue mgcrrc ai ieirbæm humeac i` fctcr luehdcei pmrhdm`fieti
hmrbmac, hce mhhdøe adrihtm scnri i` lmhtcr ai pctiehdm
 [uiai aitihtmr y hcetrc`mr `m lm`tm ai lmsi m `m ietrmam y sm`dam ai ue iqudpc.
[rctibi m` fctcr.
 [uiai hcetrc`mrsi adrihtmfieti m trmväs ai ue mutøfmtm c fdhrcprchismacr.

Xi cntdiei
 Ecs pirfdtiuevir
fmycr rieadfdietc
`ms vmrdmnìs ai` fctcr.
(tiesdøe,
(tiesdøe, lrihuiehdm, r.p.f, ith…).
< MGC^^C AI IEI^BDM
Muequi i` hcsti ai` fctcr is m vihis nmstmeti nmoc, `cs hcstis aindacs m su `mrbm vdam ai
luehdcemfdietc deadhme qui is dfpcrtmeti hcesdairmr hudamacsmfieti `ms cphdceis qui
ixdstie humeac si sustdtuym i` vietd`macr c humeac si destmìe euivcs iqudpcs.
@m iìhhdøe ai `m destm`mhdøe ai ue Hcevirtdacr ai Lrihuiehdm hcfc fätcac ai mgcrrc

ieirbätdhc supcei?
- îauhhdøe ai` hcesufc.
- Fiocr hcetrc` cpirmtdvc, fiocrmeac `m rietmnd`dama y `m prcauhtdvdama ai `cs

prchiscs prcauhtdvcs.
prcauhtdvcs.
- Fdedfdzme `ms päradams ie `ms destm`mhdceis.
d estm`mhdceis.
- Mgcrrc ie fmetiedfdietc (i` vietd`macr trmnmom sdifpri ie `ms hceadhdceis øptdfms

ai luehdcemfdietc).
Qcams istms vietmoms ripirhutie ldem`fieti ie `ms destm`mhdceis deaustrdmìs, hcesdbudieac

qui `m mfcrtdzmhdøe ai `ms fiocrms rim`dzmams si prcauzhm ie ue hcrtc pirdcac ai tdifpc
(ietcrec m acs mýcs c dehùsc fiecs), y prc`cebmeac tmfndäe `m vdam ÿtd` ai `cs fctcris
utd`dzmacs.
Ye ietcrec deaustrdm` tdiei ue bmstc ie iìhtrdhdama fuy iìvmac y hmsd `cs >/8
hcrrispceaie m` luehdcemfdietc ai `cs fctcris. Hce isti tifm, si pritieai amr uem daim
bieirm` ai humìs sce `cs pcsdnìs fätcacs m mp`dhmr ie i` mgcrrc ieirbätdhc, msæ hcfc `cs
pmrífitrcs m tieir ie
ie huietm pmrm hcesibudr ue mmgcrrc
gcrrc øptdfc.
=22 ai =7;
@m riauhhdøe ai `m vi`chdama ai `m hmrbm ie ue vietd`macr, mp`dhmhdøe h`msdldhmam aietrc ai`

brupc ``mfmac ai ri`mhdøe humarítdhm, hcfc uem piquiým riauhhdøe ie `m vi`chdama puiai
prcauhdr mgcrrcs ai ieirbæm sustmehdmìs, `c qui gmhi qui i` vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm sim `m
iìhhdøe fís mhirtmam pmrm mp`dhmhdceis ie `ms qui si ilihtÿm hcetrc` ai vi`chdama.
I` mgcrrc pctiehdm` ai ieirbæm m` adsfdeudr `m vi`chdama ie `m hmrbm aipieai ai `ms

hmrmhtiræstdhms ai `m hmrbm. Nísdhmfieti `ms hmrbms si h`msdldhme ie tris tdpcs? pmr vmrdmnì,
pmr hcestmeti y pctiehdm hcestmeti. Xirí i` pmr vmrdmnì i` qui ecs detirismrí hce `cs
vietd`macris.
@ms ìyis lueamfietmìs qui bcndireme i` luehdcemf

l uehdcemfdietc
dietc ai `cs vietd`macris ecs fuistrme
qui istms mp`dhmhdceis tdieie ue brme pctiehdm` ai mgcrrc ai ieirbæm. @ms ìyis mschdmams
mldrfme qui i` pmr y `m pctiehdm vmræme hce i` humarmac ai `m vi`chdama y `m pctiehdm hce i`
hunc ai `m vi`chdama?
vi`chdama
vi`chdama [ctie
[ctiehdm
hdm Mgc rr c [ctiehdm Z%V vs \i`chdama Z%V
Z%V Z%V Z%V
; ; ; =;;
4;
=; ;.= 44.4
7;
>; ;.7 44.> 2;
V
8; >.2 42.8 %
Z <;
m
d
1; <.1 48.< h 9;
e
i
t
9; =>.9 72.9 c 1;
[
8;
<; >=.< 27.1
>;
2; 81.8 <9.2 =;
7; 9=.> 17.7 ;
; =; >; 8; 1; 9; <; 2; 7; 4; =;;
4; 2>.4 >2.=
vi`chdama Z%V
=;; =;; ;
Xupceifcs qui `m vi`chdama ecfdem` ai` fctcr is e ;. Mem`dzmrifcs `m ripirhusdøe ai

utd`dzmr i` vietd`macr m ctrm vi`chdama e=, tm` qui? e=  e;
>
 e 
[   =   [
=   ;
 e; 
 e 
]=   =   ];
 e; 
8
 e  ]  [
[ctiehdm miríu`dhm 6 ]=  [ = (R) 6  =  ; ;
 e;  =;;;
8 8
[ctiehdm ie i` ioi (=) 6   ee=  =;;;];  [ ; 6   ee=  ² [ctiehdm ie i` ioi (;)
 ;  vietd`macr  ; 
8 8
 e  ] ;  [ ;  e= 
[ctiehdm Mnscrndam (=) 6  =  6   ²[ctiehdm Mnscrndam (;)
e
 ;  =;;;  
vietd`macr  
fctcr  e ; 
=27 ai =7;
<.= Hcstis ai luehdcemfdietc y vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm. Ioifp`c príhtdhc y

<.=
hcfpmrmtdvm.
Ye fätcac siehd``c ai istdfmhdøe ai` hí`hu`c ai `cs hcstis ai ue fctcr c hum`qudir ctrm
hmrbm is fu`tdp`dhmr `cs sdbudietis pmrífitrcs?
* [ctiehdm ecfdem` ie i` fctcr.

* Eÿfirc meum` ai gcrms ie luehdcemfdietc.
* I` hcsti fiadc ai iìhtrdhdama ie Iurcs/jRg.
[cr ioifp`c, i` hcsti mprcxdfmac ai ue fctcr ai 1;; jR luehdcemeac aurmeti tcac i` mýc
(72<; gcrms/mýc) pmrm ue hcsti ai ;.;<8 Iurcs/jRg is (1;; jR x 72<; gcrms x ;.;<8
Iurcs/jRg) 6 >>;.29> Iurcs / mýc.
Isti hí`hu`c dbecrm i` rieadfdietc ai` fctcr y `ms hceadhdceis ai hmrbm mhtum`, pirc
prcpcrhdcem uem istdfmhdøe
istdfmhdøe ai `cs hcstis sde gmhi
gmhirr fiadhdceis.
Gcrms a
ai
i tr
trmnmoc Hmuam` rri
iquirdac [ctiehdm ie
ie io
ioi Hcsti JRg
JRg
(g) (%) (j R ) (Iurcs)
1 9; >;; 9 ; .1
9 <; >1; 2 9 .<
< =;; 1;; = 9 = .>
9 7; 8>; = ; ; .7
1 1; =<; 1 ; .8 >
[ctiehdm ie i` ioi (Jw) 1;; 1=7.8> IY^CX/aæm

[rihdc ai jR g (IY^CX) ; .; < 8
=9><7<.7 IY^CX/mýc
Gcrms a
ai
i tr
trmnmoc Hmuam` rri
ie io
ioi Hcsti JRg
JRg
(g) (%) (j R ) (Iurcs)
1 =;; 1;; = ; ; .7
9 =;; 1;; =><
< =;; 1;; = 9 = .>
9 =;; 1;; =><
1 =;; 1;; = ; ; .7
[ctiehdm ie i` ioi (Jw) 1; ; <;1.7 IY^CX/aæm

[rihdc ai jR g (IY^CX) ;.;<8
>>;29>.; IY^CX/mýc
I` mgcrrc qui supcei i` usc ai` vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm aindac m` `m ribu`mhdøe

qui si rim`dzm scnri i` hmuam` sirí?
<7
<7,;
,;<9
<9.>
.> ₠ qui riprisietm i 8;
8;.7
.78%
8% ai mgcrrc
mgcrrc
=24 ai =7;
Xd `m vmrdmhdøe ai hmuam` is fís mhietumam, istcs vm`cris dehrifietme dfpcrtmetifieti?

Gcrms a
ai
i tr
trmnmoc Hmuam` rri
ie io
ioi Hcsti JRg
JRg
(g) (%) (j R ) (Iurcs)
1 8; =>; 8 ; .> 1
9 1; =<; 9 ; .1
< =;; 1;; = 9 = .>
9 9; >;; <8
1 1; =<; 1 ; .8 >
[ctiehdm ie i` ioi (Jw) 1;; 889.=< IY^CX/aæm

[rihdc ai jR g (IY^CX) ; .; < 8
=>>888.1 IY^CX/mýc
Gcrms a
ai
i tr
trmnmoc Hmuam` rri
ie io
ioi Hcsti JRg
JRg
(g) (%) (j R ) (Iurcs)
1 =;; 1;; = ; ; .7
9 =;; 1;; =><
< =;; 1;; = 9 = .>
9 =;; 1;; =><
1 =;; 1;; = ; ; .7
[ctiehdm ie i` ioi (Jw) 1; ; <;1.7 IY^CX/aæm

[rihdc ai jR g (IY^CX) ;.;<8
>>;29>.; IY^CX/mýc
I` mgcrrc qui supcei i` usc ai` vmrdmacr ai lrihuiehdm aindac m` `m ribu`mhdøe

qui si rim`dzm scnri i` hmuam` sirí?

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QIHEC@CBÆM AI @CX \IEQD@MA \IEQD@MAC^IX C^IX SSSSSSSSSS

QIHEC@CBÆM AI @CX \IEQD@MAC^IX

> \IEQD@MAC^. H@MXDLDHMHDØE. LYEAMFIEQCX

Hmuam` Z f 8 / s V  [r isdøe Qctm` Z [mV

>.> H`msdldhmhdøe ai `cs vietd`macris

Hce i` aismrrc``c ai `m hdiehdm mircadeífdhm, ie `cs mýcs pcstirdcris m `m sibueam buirrm

Ie ue vietd`macr ai ietrmam acn`i, i` mdri ietrm pcr mfncs `macs ai `m ievc`vieti

Ec cnstmeti, ie `m mhtum`dama y ie hdirtcs pmæsis, si istí utd`dzmeac vietd`macris ai tdpc

Istcs vietd`macris tdieie tris tdpcs

@cs vietd`macris ai í`mnis hurvmacs gmhdm

Istcs vietd`macris tdieie ue rieadfdietc nmoc luirm

@cs vietd`macris hietrælubcs rmadm`is tdieie i` rcaiti hce

@cs vietd`macris hietrælubcs ai í`mnis hurvmacs

\IEQD@MAC^ AI GI@DHI.-Isti vietd`macr istí

[uiai fmeiomr brmeais vc`ÿfieis ai mdri m uem prisdøe

\IEQD@MAC^ MWDM@.-I` vietd`macr mxdm` is

[uiai luehdcemr ie ue mfp`dc rmebc ai

>.8 Hcfpmrmtdvm ai vietd`macris mxdm`is lrieti m vietd`macr hietrælubcs.

@cs vietd`macris mxdm`is clrihie fiocr ildhdiehdm ie ue mfp`dc rmebc ai puetcs ai

Xd ue vietd`macr hietrælubc adsiýmac pmrm ue puetc ai

Fmycr rieadfdietc fihíedhc ai `cs vietd`macris

Ie hdirtcs vietd`macris hietrælubcs si p`metime prcn`ifms ie `m trmesfdsdøe hcfc puiai

Ye vietd`macr mxdm`, pmrm `ms fdsfms pristmhdceis ai

@m prisiehdm ai mbum is pirouadhdm` pmrm `cs vietd`macris

Ye vietd`macr mxdm` tdiei fís virsmtd`dama ie `m ribu`mhdøe qui ue vietd`macr hietrælubc,

Ie isti hmpætu`c ecs hietrmrifcs ispihdm`fieti

>.1 Qdpcs ai hceldburmhdceis ai ue vietd`macr

Ye vietd`macr puiai sir, sibÿe su lcrfm hcestruhtdvm,

Ie `ms ldburms pcaifcs cnsirvmr `ms tris hceldburmhdceis

Qiørdhmfieti ue acn`i ishm`øe hcesibudræm i` acn`i ai prisdøe qui ue rcaiti ai ue sc`c

Ctrm h`msdldhmhdøe pcaræm

8 \IEQD@MAC^IX MWDM@IX. HCF[CEIEQIX

I` vietd`macr, hcestruhtdvmfieti, hcestmrm prdehdpm`fieti ai `cs sdbudietis i`ifietcs?

Hmrhmsm ^caiti Hmrhmsm Hmom ai

^iod``m [mtms scpcrti ^caiti

Hcfpuirtm fctcrdzmam, tdpc ‐tcac c emam‖, bieirm`fieti ue amfpir ai `mfms

Adluscr, huym prdehdpm` fdsdøe is `m ai riauhdr `m vi`chdama ai mdri m `m sm`dam ai `m

Hceixdøe ai` vietd`macr m` hdrhudtc. Xd i` vietd`macr istí ie ixtirdcr, ie ue ixtrifc

8.= [irld` mircadeífdhc ai` í`mni

Humeac ue m`mni si deh`dem hdirtc íebu`c pmrm msæ

@m luirzm ai sustietmhdøe is hrimam pcr `m lcrfm

Humeac i` íebu`c ai mtmqui si dehrifietm ie

Xd ue vietd`macr cpirm ie ncfnic, is

[mrm `m si`ihhdøe ai ue rcaiti si gm ai tieir ie huietm `c sdbudieti?

=. [irld` mircadeífdhc ai` í`mni

8.> Høfc si prcauhi prisdøe ie vietd`macris

Ye vietd`macr, gmhdieac `m supcsdhdøe ai l`uoc dehcfprisdn`i, prcauhi ue dehrifietc ai

Ie l`uoc dehcfprisdn`i G si trmeslcrfm ie [tctm`/ aceai  is `m aiesdama.

M `m ietrmam ai` vietd`macr, i` mdri ietrm mxdm`fieti, su hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` is eu`m. I`

I` í`mni buæm i` l`uoc ai fmeirm qui `m hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ri`mtdvm is adlirieti m `m

Xd ec tieifcs adrihtrdz mircadeífdhm, tcac isti mufietc ai prisdøe tctm` ec si trmeslcrfm

I` adsiýc øptdfc ai `m adrihtrdz si am humeac tcam `m hcfpceieti tmebiehdm` ai `m

Ye dehrifietc ie i` eÿfirc tctm` ai í`mnis, dfp`dhmrí qui i` vietd`macr bieiri ue

8.1 Adífitrc ai` rcaiti

8.9 \i`chdama ai bdrc ai` fctcr

I` hmuam` si dehrifietm prcpcrhdcem`fieti m `m vi`chdama ai rctmhdøe y `m prisdøe m`

8.< Adífitrc ai` hunc

I` adífitrc ai` hunc istm

Ye dehrifietc ai` adífitrc ai`

1 I@ \IEQD@MAC^ MWDM@ T XYX MHHIXC^DCX FMX L^IHYIEQIX.

Is `m ievc`vieti qui prctibi i` rcaiti y i` fctcr ai` vietd`macr.

Ecrfm`fieti istí hcestrudam pcr mhirc m` hmrncec. Xd `ms

[mrm lmhd`dtmr i` trmespcrti, fcetmoi y fmetiedfdietc,