Soar! of Archteetual and Planning Research ‘Mod (Winter, 2017) 309 ARCHITECTURAL STRATEGIES USED IN HINDU TEMPLES TO EMPHASIZE SACREDNESS Shilpa Sharma Shireesh Deshpande This study examines the sense of “sacredness” in Hindw wmples with respect to their physical attriinites ond spatial arrangements, which help devotees focus on the sacredness within the temple, in contrasi to the “profimeness” of the surrounding world. This is achieved through two main aspects — segregation from the world outside the temple and increasing concentration of thougat on the object of worship — which are accomplished using several architectural strategies, Devotees encounter these architectural elements curing their pedestrian pilgrimage from the entrance of the temple to their final confrontation with the deity in the innermost sanctum. Thus, the spatial composition of the temple architecture Induces certain behaviors and emotions chat engender ant attinide of contemplation within the worshipper, This article examines the architectural strategies used to influence the devotee’ attitude toward worship and support the perception of the Hinds temple as a sacred space. ight © 2017, Locke Seicece Publishing Campany, Inc Chicago, IL, USA All Rights ReservedJournal of Architectural and Planning Research 34:4 (Winter, 20171 310 INTRODUCTION “Sacredness is a quality crafted through human intervention” (Pandey, 2014:1). The temple is a sacted place in Hinduism. It is a place dedicated to worship, located among the other places required for human living but separate in its connotations, both spiritual and temporal. It is the ‘house of a god, and therefore every step of its construction is sanctified, from site selection and planning to the consecration of the deity’s idol that is honored there. The word “sacred,” which derives from the Latin word sacrare or sacer, denotes something that is dedicated exclusively for the service of the gods (Merriam-Webstes, n.d.-b). A sanctum is “a place where one is free from intrusion” (Merriam-Webster, a.d.-c). Conversely, “profane,” from the Latin profanus, is that which is “not concerned with religion or religious purposes” (Merriam-Webster, n.d.-a). Focusing on the spatial roots of the original Latin terms, saver-was used to describe both objects and places, while profanus “referred to the area outside the sacrum, the sacred place, that is the temple... . ... Whilst sacer is associated with both place and authority, the resonances for profanus are predominately spatial. In other words, the concept of sacred space lies at the heart of [the] distinction between the sacred and the profane” (Hamilton and Spicer, 2005:29). Thus, the religious association formed here constitutes an exclusive space — the Hindu temple — which is perceived as sacred because it shows itself in contrast to the profane surroundings (Eliade, 1987:11). Itis against this background that this study looks at two of the aspects that contribute to the perception of the Hindu temple as sacred. ‘The contrast between the sacred and the profane occurs as a result of two aspecis: segregation from the world outside the religious space and focus on the object of worship. The first aspect is as stated by Mircea Eliade (1987:28), “But since religious man cannot live except in an atmosphere impregnated with the sacred, we must expect to find a large number of techniques for consecrating space.” These techniques may be both tangible and intangible. The tangible techniques used in a Hindu temple make its sacredness physically, mentally, and spiritually apparent. This paper refers to these techniques as the aspects of segregation. The second aspect is in preventing worshippers’ attention from wandering from the sacred within the temple space to the profane that is outside it. When people pray, they orient themselves to a direction or an object. They are able to pay greater attention to the warship if the external stimuli they sre subjected to are controlled or reduced, as this enhances the stimulus and conditioning received from the spatial elements in the temple and helps to focus the worshippers" concentration on the religious activity within the temple (Wardono and Wibisono, 2013). This paper refers to these techniques as the aspects of focus, THE ORIGIN OF TEMPLE BUILDING IN INDIA. ‘The earliest buildings pointing to idol worship in India date from the fourth and fifth centuries CE (Das, 2017). An existing example of the initial structures is Temple 17, built around 400 CE at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh, India. It consists of anly two paris: a sanctum to house the deity and a pillared porch io shelter the devotce (Centre for Cultural Resources and Training. n.¢.), The latter devel- ‘oped into the pavilion (mandap). Temple architecture rose to prominence between the sixth and 16th centuries, flanked by the fortunes of the various reigning dynasties (Das, 201 7). This was accompanied by the composition of texts that mostly regulated secular architecture, collectively called the Shilpa Shastras. Some of these include Matsya Purana (450CE), Brkt Santhita (550 CE), which also gave the proportions of a temple; Vishnedharmottara (sixth century CE), which also specified the proportions of statues and idols; Manasara and Mayamata (fifth to seventh centuries CE), and Somarangana Sutracdha- ra(1035-1055 CE). However, it was the 4gamas, written in the ninth century CE, that specificallyJournal of Architectural and Planning Research 344 (Winter, 2017) aun detailed the rituals for worship and construction of secular architecture and Hindu temples, which had previously been transmitted only orally. All of these teats were preceded by the Natvashastra, a text by Bharata (probably written between 2 BCE and 3 CE) that was an exhaustive siudy of the emotional responses activated by various aesthetic features. Emotional responses have long been considered important to temple designers, who perceive that different design decisions provoke different reactions from worshippers and therefore emphasize certain design decisions over others to encourage desired reactions (Dehejia, 2000:66). As Hinduism evolved, deities were given the status of kings, and the temples became their palaces, Special additions were made for specific purposes, with given proportions, such as the front porch (ardha mandap), main hall (sabia mondap), hall for offerings and dance (nar mandap), and circumambulatory (pradakshina path) A further classification of temples into three categories based on the superstructure of the spire (shikhara) above the sanctum appeared during the nimh century (Gangoly, 1928; Rao, 1993). the caiegories were based on regional construction styles: Nagara (northern style), Dravida (south- em style), and Fesara (literally meaning “mule,” it denotes a hybrid of the northern and southern styles). The spires of temples in cach classification ate curvilinear, pyramidical, and barrel-shaped respectively. ‘Temple building was considered an act of great picty that brought considerable religious merit (Rao, 1993). It was consequently fervently taken up by the wealthy and pious (ibid). Often, the temples would mention the names of their devout patrons, while failing to record the names of the architects and artisans responsible for their construction, Thus, these names are lost to us today, unless they were inscribed in the temple walls by the artists themselves, ‘The design and construction of the temple itself was strictly enjoined by the sacred texts. The quality of sacredness is imbued in a Hindu temple, which embodies the cosmic order within the house of the deity versus the disorder and chaos of its human environs, because of the spiritual denotations assigned to the various components of its built form. Architectural texts laid out detailed instructions for the plan of temples based on a geometric map representing the cosmos, called a vastu purush mandala, However, though bound by the written instructions, the creativity ‘of individual architect-sculptors can still be seen in the details of each temple. RITUAL PASSAGE THROUGH THE HINDU TEMPLE “The purpose of the Hindu temple is shown by its form” (Kramrisch, 1996a:vii), The purpose of the devotee visiting a Hindu temple is darshan, the experience of"'seeing” the image of the enshrined deity with awareness and with receptivity to the divine blessing (Rao, 1993), It lakes place in the innermost, darkened sanctum, or garbha grha, of the temple. The aim of this paper is to examine the tangible spatial compositions that intangibly manifest the quality of “sacredness” in the Hindu temple and help focus devotees’ attention toward the deity that is the object of worship. This study did not focus on the external classification of temples; instead, it concentrated on the phenomenological aspects of the Hindu temple, This implicitly deals with the design of the tem- ple’s interior more than the exiericr. The interior design was more or less uniform throughout the region where Hindu temples were built, since the Upanishads, philosophical texts that make up some of the most important Hindu sacred scriptures, were ubiquitous across the region, The common Upanishadic mainstay — renunciation of the world and focus on inward enlightenment {Poramananda, 1919) — is demonstrated by the design of Hindu temples across India.Journal of Architectural und Planning Research 34:4 (Winter, 2017) M2 ANALYSIS OF THE ELEMENTS OF SACRED SPACE Thisanticle analyzes five architectural strategies that are implicit in the structured spaces of the Hindu tem- ple and that emphasize the quality of sacredness: (2) the temple as a landmark form; (2) abhigamana, approach and eniry: (3) interior spaces; (4) darshan, to see, comprehend, and be reborn; and (5) pradak- shina, orsiteumambulation, The aticie aims to show how the strategies have been implemented through. the use of architectural elements and proposes that the strategies are arranged sequentially for the real~ ization of the two main aspects of sacredness: segre~ gation from the world outside the temple and in sreased focus on the object of worship, the deity. In this section, the authors describe the strategies Main actions of movement ‘cording to their particular place inthe temple's spatial m the extenor arcitectareo ‘organization and the emotions they seek to evoke at mglt, Emergence originatce nt the. finial tip each point in the passage through the temple's spac- temple. Expansion radiates outward in all four es with respect to these two aspects. Though the tions om the vertical ais, (Source: analysis is based on several case studies, only the Hard»: 2007°36, Figs 3:2: Uses with ‘Virupaksha Temple in Hampi, Kamataka, India, has. been used as a typical example to demonstrate the analysis, This temple was built by accretion to the eriginal shrine between the ninth and 16th centuries CE by the successive ruling dynasties of the region. Architectural Strategy 1: The Temple asa Landmark Form ‘The temple, seen from afar, has distinctive form, which represents the embodiment of the deity’s presence on Earth, It is the symbol of divine manifestation and signals the boundary between the sacred and the profane Form as a symbol of divine memifestation ‘Deities have two aspects that can be worshipped: one having form (saakar), which can be seen, and one that is formless (miraakar), which one can be aware of but cannot see (Rao, 1993). The is geen.as the visible body (deha) of the deity, while the deity's image in the sanetum is his ‘or her sou! (/iva) (ibid). The form of the temple represents the descent of the formless divine from the summit of the spire downward and outward to attain the corpareal form of the ternple (Kram- isch, 1996b) (Figure |). ‘While the divine moves downward along the vertical axis of the temple, the eyes of the devotee ‘view the ascent af the temple from the ground toward its pinnacle, rising through the various tiers of the spire (Kramrisch, 1996b), This ascent is called alurohanam (ibid). The vision is directed ‘upward toward the finial and into the infinite, which is considered the source of the divine (Fig- sure 2). Boundary bebveen the sacred and the profane ‘Most of the town-like temple precincts in South India are entered through massive gatewzys called _gopurams (Figure 2). They stand as landmarks that demarcate the “city of the god” from its ‘mundane surroundings. Devout Hindus, upon beholding the temple, consider this experience part ‘of darshan, The view of the temple spire or its gateway epitomizes the security of divine onder in ‘opposition to the unpredictable turmoil of the material world around them.Joumal of Arctitseural and Panning Resetch 34:4 (Winter, 2017) FIGURE 2, The gopurams (gateways) of the Virupaksha Temple precinct (ninth to 18th centuries CE) in Hampi, Kamatak. (Source: Ghosh, 2010. Used with permission under Creative Commons license-) FIGURE 3, Plan of Virupaksha Temple, Hampi, showing the devotec's movement from the gateway 10 the mr sanbon, (Source Michch; 200198, Figure 34 Luc wah permition} Architectural Strategy 2: Abhigamana (Approach and Entry) Having primed their minds beholding the outer form of the temple, devotees now advance into the ‘outer precincts of the temple, This is abhigamana, the approach to the house of the deity, during which speech, body, and mind are prepared for the sucred encounter (Kramrisch, 1996b). The pedestrian pilgrimage (Correa, 2010) begins atthe gateway, from which the deity is obscured by the depth of the darkness in the sanctum despite being along the visual axis (Figure 3). The pilgrimage of devotees takes them through the spaces preveding the inner sanctum before they can reach the object of worship. Both inside and outside, there are several spaces denoted by the activities that take place there. It is mandatory to remove one's footwear before entering these spaces. There may be plazas and courtyards outside the temple, which are used for large gatherings during festivities. This is also the area for holding religious performances of dance, music, or mythological plays, There may also be various pathways or levels that direct devotees from one zone to another. Among these zones are the minor shrines to which devotees offer preliminary obeisance. These may contain the idols of the deity’s mount, such asa bull ata Shiva temple or a mouse ata Ganapati temple. Often treated as messengers to the deity they serve, these idols endear the deity to devotees before they stepJournal of Architectural and Planning Research 24:4 (Winter, 2017) 34 FIGURE 4. (Top) Section showing the reduction in the size of the pavilions in Virupakshs Temple, Ha (bottom) plan showing the reduction in the volume of the pavilions in the temple. (Adapted from Michell, 2001;92, Figare 26 Used with permission} over the hallowed threshold, Water tanks are a feature found outside many temples for purifying the body and mind before entering the temple. The various elements that lie outside the temple proper have a specific purpose — that is, to involve worshippers in the rituals, gradually drawing them to connect with the deity, soning ea minds from the outside world, and enhancing their focus toward the spiritual experience. This transition is signified to worshippers when they take off their footwear and wash their feet, climb up plinth, ring the bells hung over the threshold to herald their presence, and step over the threshold into the first of the sacred pavilions, or mandaps, Worshippers enter first into a semi enclosed space where they are sheltered from the harsh sunlight in.a cool, dim atmosphere. This is a drastic physical passage that emphasizes the contrast between the outside and the inside, between the tediousness of the former and the comforting shelter of the latter, Architectural Strategy 3: Interior Spaces Once inside, a series of spaces lie before the devotee. There is no distinct demarcation between these spaces, which take the form of pavilions or mandaps, but each is less public in nature than the previous, Thus, the outermost hall or mandap is the largest and most brightly lit and can hold the most people. Often, religious discourses (kirtans) and devotional singing (bhajans) take place here. This space may not have walls, only columns, and is visible from the outside. Since Hinduism isnot a religion in which devotees gather together at specific times to worship, expansive interiors are not required. Therefore, the halls gradually reduce in size and volume -as one moves farther into the interior (Figure 4). The inner, smaller halls serve aioe souk fs functions, such as offering sacrifices or family prayers and other ritual ceremonies conducted by the clergy. All of the available surfaces, walls, columns, and ceilings are omately carved with imagery of dwarfs, demigods, and divine guardians, which deepens the effect of entering the “kingdom ofYoamal of Arshtecural and Penning Rest “4:4 (Winter, 2017) FIGURE 5, Section showing the reduction in the illumination of the pavilions in Virupaksha Temple, ‘Mampi, (Source; Michell, 2001:92, Figure 26, Used with permission.) god.” The function of the imagery is to fascinate worshippers and further disengage devotees* ‘minds from the outside world, While the exierior of the temple is designed to take the gaze upward, the volume of the interiors decreases as the sanctum approaches, so that the gaze becomes focused on the deity in the inmermost sanctum. This is the darkest room and has space only for the devotee and the deity. During the passage from the large, lt spaces to the smaller, darker spaces, devotees ere made ready for the sanctity of the deity's chamber through various sensory stimuli, These may be auditory (the ringing of the temple bells or the chanting of prayers), olfactory (the scent of flowers and incense}, ‘or tactile (the surfaces of the walls and pillars, which are richly carved with floral patterns and images of animals, birds, and celestial beings). The other senses are heightened as the visual sense is progressively reduced with the increasing darkness (Figure 5). Faint illumination is provided by small openings or oi) Eas, and devotees are forced to concentrate on the path, to the exclusion of sing external When devotees enter the temple, their surroundings make it clear that they are now in a separate world, hallowed by the divine. This realization is strengthened by sensory distinctions that define the space as sacred (Hamilton and Spicer, 2005), The sounds and smells set the sacred space apart from the smells of the world (¢bid.). Devotees are made to amplify their focus in the direction of the sanctum by resplendent stone imagery, obscured by shadows, which one must strain to see in the dimes of the inner pavilions, This aids in keeping thoughts of the outside world at bay. Architectural Strategy 4: Darshan (to See, Comprehend, and Be Reborn} The singular purpose of visiting a Hindu temple is darshan, or beholding the deity. The concept of darshan is elaborated in chapter 29, verse 55-7 of the Fishnu Samhita, a religious text from the eighth century: Without a form, haw can God be meditated upon? Where will the mind fix itself? When there ix nothing for the mind to atiach itself to, it will slip away From meditation or will glide into a state of slumber. Therefore the wise will meditate on some farm. (Debejia, 1998:137) Thus, the single most important aspect of the temple visit is the anticipation of the encounter with the deity (Vosko, 2004), which takes place within the sanctum, called the garbha grha, ot “womb.” Itis so named because this is where a person is “rebom” and realizes “ultimate bliss” (anand) in the presence of the deity (Kramrisch, 1996a).Joumal of Arcitctra! and Panning Rescarch 34:4 (Winter, 2017) 16. ‘The varied richness of the visual imagery stops at the ornate door of the sanctum, the ghand~dvur, The door symbolizes the crossing over into the holiest zone of worship. The sancturn within is sharply distinguished from the dreary and commonplace. As devotees step over the threshold into the sanctum, they leave behind the lit spaces and enter into the personal space of the sanctum and darshan, This small, darkened, cubical cell has entirely plain walls and isin complete contrast to the experience the devotees have undergone in the previous sections of the temple. There are no visual distractions in the way of sculptures, and devotees have no choice but to focus, Their contemplation is only upon the presence of the icon, which is lit only by flickering oil lamps, and the intimacy of the confrontation with the deity, Architectural Strategy 5: Pradakshina (Circumambulation) After beholding the deity, the mind of the devotee has 10 be returned gently 10 the mundaneness ‘of the everyday world. Thus, the devotee is led from the sanctum into the circumambulatory (pradakshinc path), which runs immediately around the outside of the sanctum (see Figures 4 and 6), The walls of this pathway are sculpted with the images of celestial beings, which devotees see and identify as they pass. Thus, even after leaving the sanctum, devotees continue to feel the proximity of the deity by the movement of circumambulation, with their eyes and minds on the images in their path. At the same time, moving through the pradakshina path serves the purpose ‘of emphasizing that the “ultimate bliss” (anand) is not easy io sustain and needs to be sought incessantly. A sense of segregatioa is induced by not allowing devotees to proceed farther into the sanctum. Instead, as they proceed along the pradakshina path, devotees are gradually led back inte the worid. Devotees have the consolation of feeling blessed by the mere physical proximity to the sanctum, in spite of not being within it. Jnferences Devotees who visit Hindu temples do so with the primary intention of attaining darshan — that is, looking upon the divine. This meeting occurs in the sanctum of the temple. However, darshan is not achieved by merely coming face io face with the deity. Devotees have to metaphorically shed their attachment ta the material world from which they have come and gradually narrow their aspirations toward the deity in the sanctum. This is facilitated by controlling the volume, light, and omamentation in the temple, which all diminish as devotees pass from the large, bright entrance of the temple to the small, dark sanctum that houses the deity. As devotees move forth on their journey through the sacred precinct, the increasing darkness causes them to progressively con- ‘centrate their contemplation on the climax of locking upon the divine. This is the direct function of the physical aspect of the Hindu temple. ‘These strategies, which are outlined in Table 1, invelve various physical elements, arranged se- quentially along the devotee’s pathway from the point of entrance into the temple precincts to the climactic encounter with the deity in the innermost sanctum, CONCLUSION Esch of the five architectural strategies used in the layout of Hindu temples contributes to one of the two main aspects that create the feeling of “sacredness”; segregation from the world outside the temple and focus on the deity. The connections between the strategies and the two aspects are shown in Figure 6 and summarized in Table 2, ‘As Table 2 shows, the architectural strategies used when the devotee is approaching the temple are characterized by the aspect of segregation. This sequencing helps to draw devotees to a place in which they start to perceive themselves as separate from their usual surroundings. These are followed by the architectural strategies designed to cultivate focus. These strategies are responsi-Journal of Architectural and Planning Research 34:4 (Winter, 2017) 37 TABLE 1. Architectural strategies used in the spatial composition of the parts ef the temple. Scqucniial saiegics Ritualsymbelicn ~~ Aveluiectusal manifestation Exsotional/ spiritual ‘i Tenple as SEEE Sie eiy's Dra: pada iw landmark form house on Earth jion to the temple's pinnacle 2. Approach and Physical demarcations, such Prepares speech, body. entry (abhigamana) ass walls nd gnteways, between and mind for the temple precincts and the journey from the surrounds mundane to the sacred 4. Interior spaces ‘Varition from the casily visible Radirocts focus from through the deity's exterior spaces through spaces: outer consciousness 10 house with spocch, that continually diminish in ‘ner consciousness ‘body, and mind volume and light as one moves centered on the deity award the destination ¢sancrim), which is the darkest 4. Darshan Intimacy with the Stark cantrast offered between Culmination of the divine the small, dim, plain inner devotce's pilgrimage, sanctum and dv large, Ht, secing the divine and decorated exterioe spaces being reborn S$, Circumambulstion Ritual movement Restricted path with seulpied (pradakshinay round the sanctum i walls ‘gradual return to ‘mundane world FIGURE 6, Aspects of segrogation and focus in the plan of Virupaksha Temple, Hampt, (Adapted from Michell, 2001-92, Figure 26 Used with permission.) ble for enhancing and maintaining the focus of devotees’ thoughts on darshan, ensuring devo- tees’ complete involvement in the process of worship, Finally, devotees are led through the cireu- mambulatory (pradakshina path), which once again utilizes the aspect of segregation. This allows devotees to gently return to the everyday world, having received the spiritual sustenance they sought. The hope is that this entire journey has an impact, both conscious and unconscious, on devotees, enriching their spiritual beliefs and causing them te continually seek to engage with this, religious experience.Joumal of Arehitecural end Planing Reseach a8 Win TABLE 2. The sequencing of segregation and focus during the devotce’s movement through the temple. 1 7 a 4 8 Spee | Outed Ouler hallways | inner hallways | Sanctarn ‘Circumambulatory Sequencing “Approach T Involvement Return Aspect Segregation ————SSst—=<“ité‘iaR OCS | SALON Architeetural | Creation of | Emphasison | Increaso in | Inlimacyand | Withdrawaland strategy seconirast | the contrast concentration | confrontation | retum ta the mundane ‘A phenomenological study of the physical, structured environment involves how individuals interact with it, For this, the fact that the experience of architectural space is more internal than extemal should not be disregarded. The study of the relation between aestheties and emotions is significant for design, allowing designers to predict the emotional responses that different archi- ‘tectural elements would clicit from the users of a space, depending on the functional use of the structure. This paper has attempted to understand this aspect through the study of Hindu temples bby examining how individuals perceive and are affected by their surroundings. Continued research ‘on this relationship is needed, REFERENCES ‘Centre for Cultural Resources and Training (n.<.) Temple architecture. btip://ccrindia gov:in'temple architecture. php. Site accessed 14 February 2018, Correa C (2010) A place in the shade: The new landscape and other essays. Gurugram: Penguin Books India. Das S (2017) History of Hindu temples: The temple's journey through the ages, www.thoughtco .convhistory-of-hindu-temples-1770625. Site accessed 5 December 2017, Dehejia HV (2000) The Advaita ofart. 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