Objectives Material removal is the principal operation carried out by a majority of the manufacturing industries. This chapter provides a summary of the major factors that need to be considered in metal cutting. After completing the chapter, the reader will be able to understand the basic parameters in the metal cutting operation appreciate different types of chips formed in metal cutting, and their relevance in manufacturing calculate analytically the forces and other parameters associated with orthogonal cutting understand the importance of shear angle in metal cutting select the cutting tool material for a given application understand the temperatures developed in metal cutting, and the variables that control it understand tool wear and tool life and the variables that control them determine how the surface finish varies with the process parameters know the various cutting fluids and their application methods empirically determine the cutting forces optimise the machining process to satisfy the required conditions 24 INTRODUCTION ‘The importance of machining processes can be emphasized by the fact that every product we use in day- to-day life has used this process either directly or indirectly. (a) Inthe US, more than $100 billions were spent annually on the machining and related operations. () Typically, a large majority more than 80 per cent, ofall the machine tools used in the manufacturing industry are metal cutting in nature. (© Anestimate in 1957 showed that about 10 to 15 per cent of all the metal produced in USA is converted into chips. ‘These facts show the importance of metal cutting in general manufacturing. Itis therefore important to understand the metal cutting process in order to make the best use of it. Before the end of 19th century, some amount of work was done by people like Tresca, Thime, Mallock, etc, Butit was mostly a scattered work. The monumental work done by F.W. Taylor in the last stages of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has been, in fact, the starting point for rational thinking on the metal cutting process. He is mostlyal Fe Manufacturing Technology interested in empirical research, and the results of his 30 years of experimental work was published in Transactions of ASME in 1907 running to about 300 pages. Later, a number of investigations have been carried out in understanding the metal cutting process, and using this knowledge to help improve the manufacturing operations involving metal cutting. In this chapter, wwe will study, in brief, the various understandings available from the metal cutting research work, A typical cutting tool in a simplified form is shown in Fig. 2.1. The important features to be observed are _ Rake angle Ttisthe angle between the face ofthe tool, called the rake face, and the normal to the machining direction. This angle specifies the ease with which a metal is cut. Higher the rake angle, better is the cutting and less are the cutting forces. Increasing the rake angle reduces the metal backup available at the tool rake face. This reduces the strength of the tool tip as well as the heat dissipation through the tool, Thus, there is a maximum limit to the rake angle, and is generally of the order of 15 degrees for high speed steel tools cutting mild steel. It is possible to have rake angle as zero or negative, as shown in Fig. 2.2. These are generally used in the case of highly brittle tool materials, such as carbides or diamond, for giving extra strength to the too Tool Rake face Rake angle: \ Clearance angle Machined surface Rake face Yclearance angle Machined surface Workpiece Workpiece Machined surfdce (2) Zero rake angle (b) Negative rake angle Fig.2.2 Tool cutting at different rake angles f Alearance angle This is the an gle between the machined s epee ; ined surface and the ‘af ace. The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will not rub themastn ts : tot i surface,O-1M- 6€- 6-8 - Jo-2 Back Side End . Stele i Nose Yack yeudee yehet xeher yadion a 8 argls angle angie angle desea angle * the machined surface and, at the same time increasing the cutting forces. A very large clearance angle reduces the strength of the tool tip, and hence normally an angle of the order of 5 to 6 degrees is generally used. ‘The conditions that have a predominant influence on metal cutting are work material, cutting tool material, cutting tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and cutting fluid used, Ute cutting speed, V, isthe speed with which the cutting tool moves through the work materia. This is generally expressed in metres per second (ms"). Feed rate, f, may be defined as the small relative movement per cycle (per revolution or per stroke) of the cutting too! in a direction usually normal to the cutting speed direction. _Bepth of cut, d, is the normal distance between the unmachined surface and the machined surface. 2.2 __CHIPFORMATION Metal cutting process is one of the most complex processes. Fig. 2.3 shows the basic material removal operation. The metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately compressed, first elastically and then plastically. This zone is traditionally called shear zone, in view of the fact, that the material in the final form is “temoved by shear from the parent metal. The actual separation of the metal starts as a yielding or fracture, depending on the cutting conditions, starting from the cutting tool tip. Then, the deformed metal, called chip, flows over the tool (rake) face. If the friction between the tool rake face and the underside of the chip (deformed material) is considerable, then the chip gets further deformed, which is termed as secondary deformation. The chip after sliding over the tool rake face is lifted away from the tool, and the resultant curvature of the chip is termed as chip curl. _ Plastic deformation can be caused by yielding, in which strained layers of material get displaced over other layers along the slip-planes, Which coincide with the direction of maximum shear stress. Piispanen presented an interesting mechanism to account for the deformation process taking place atthe cutting edge. He considers the undeformed meta as a stack of cards, which will lide over one another as the (@i) cos (@ + B—a) bt sin (B - a) ae VY" sin (gi) cos (p+ B—a) 15) (2.16) Merchant considered that t would have the value of the yield shear stress for the work material, and that # would have the usual value for any dry sliding friction. To determine 9, he assumed that the minimum energy principle is applied in metal cutting so that the deformation process adjusts itself to a minimum energy condition, or dF y _ tht cos(B ~ 0) cos(29 +B ~ a) 2 2.17 dp sin? 9 cos? (g +B - a) Co or cos (29+ Ba) =0 (2.18) or 29+B-a=5 — 2.19), =e_16 0) 2.20) rer’ y 220) Substituting back, we can show that / Fy, =2 tbr cot 9 21) F, = tht (cot? @-1) (2.22) The above deductions, which we have obtained assuming two things, are not supported by experimental evidence. Firstly, the minimum energy principle, though appealing is not supported by evidence. Next, it c assumes that B and o. are constant with respect to 6. But later studies on metal cutting have shown that at least B is dependent on 6. Of course, this is concerning only steady state operation. But under dynamic conditions, also varies considerably. Experiments were conducted and it was found that this equation is not valid. We will see more about this shear angle relationship later. TooL Shear Plane WORKPIECE Fig. 2.18 Orthogonal cutting with thin shear plane. To determine the shear angle experimentally, we have to stop the cu the help of a microscope or a photograph. Alternatively, of chip formation, as shown in Fig. 2.18. ig process and study the zone with we can also derive a relationship from the geometry FromFig.2.18, \ t ABsing 223) 1, = AB cos (—«) 24) ‘The chip thickness ratio, r, which is also termed as cutting ratio, would be‘Manufacturing Technology 16 sing 1 : cos (@—G) cot pcos a +sin o ~sin cot @ cos 0 = ae (2.26) ng = 2 1=rsin & Experimentally, the chip thickness ratio, r, could be determined by measuring the average thickness of the chips produced under given conditions of feed and speed. From this, it is possible to evaluate the shear angle using the above equation, However, direct measurement of chip thickness is difficult, because of Vv ¥ the roughness on the outside of the chip. For this purpose, an indirect measurement is followed, wherein the length of a chip, /., equivalent to a known length of uncut chip is measured. Then, considering the fact that the depth is same, the average chip thickness, z,, would be given by Fig. 19 Velocity relationships in orthogonal cutting. = (228) where, |= length of uncut chip To get an exact size of uncut chip length, J, we may introduce a small s: : : aw cut parallel to the axis on the workpiece, so that uncut chip size is l=nD (229) where Dis the diameter of the workpiece. v y, v. sin{90°—(—a)} ~ Sin @0°—a) ~ sing 230) Vsing Vv, = ———— uw cos (9 — a) 3!) Vv, = V cosa . 60s (9 — a) (232) To evaluate the shear strains, We take the help of Piispanen’: . Shear strain yis given by 3 Panen’s model, as shown in Fig, 2.20 AS _AB_AD pp AY CD CD * Ep > 8h PF cot (@ ~a) (233)d e gee OF \B Metal Cutting 17 ete (234) yy Fig. 2.20 Strain and strain rate in orthogonal cutting. ‘The strain rate is given by ASHER cosa V ao = — f (2.3: AY At AY” cos(p—a) AY ~ ) where, AY is the thickness of the deformation zone and ris the time to achieve the final value of strain. AY can be‘considered as the mean value of the spacing of successive slip planes, which is of the order of 2.5 microns, 1 Most of the energy consumed in metal cutting is utilised in plastic deformation. The total work done, W, is given by W=FyV U7 236) “The work done in shear W, is , WaFV, ye 37) Sioa, he work cone inion Win | Wake (238) Thus, Wa Fy VoF, Vit FV 239) To get a better picture of the efficiency of the metal cutting operation, it is necessary to have a new Parameter, which does not depend on the cutting process parameters, The specific cutting energy, u,. is such a parameter, which can be obtained by dividing the total work done wit! te th the material removal rate. The material removal rate is MRR = Vbt (2.40) a FV ___tc0s(-a) MRR” sin(gi)cos(9+P—a) aan To understand the significance ofthe various equations derived, «numberof numerical examples are solved below.Manufacturing Technology ——— 18 m by a cutting tool, while cut, is reduced to 73 tin, bar of 75 mm diameter is ing ratio. If the rake angle js js l ee a eer af the cut chip is 73.5 mim, find the cutting ratio. If ae orthogonally. If the what is the shear angle? "(05+ 73) _ 939.4779 mm Length of uncut chip, ar . =—39_-93179 Cutting ratio, = SAT aren 0.3179 cos 15 | Shear angle = tant Fn 7 1=03179 sin 15 Shear angle, g =tan (0.3346) = 19° [Example 2. [ @ an orthogonal cutting test with a tool of rake angle 10°, the following observations were made: Chip thickness ratio. 3 Horizontal component of the cutting force = 1290 N Vertical component of the cutting force = 1650 N From Merchant's theory, calculate the various components of the cutting forces, and the coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface. Given r=03ando=10° The shear plane angle, 6, is ros tang = OOS _ 0.3 cos 10° l-rsing, T-03sin10°= 0.311679 shear angle, =tan“! (0.31 1679)=17.31° Fy = 1650, Fy= 1290 ‘The friction force along rake face is Given P=Fy sins p, £8 &= 1290 sin 19° ‘The normal force on the rake face is $n 10° +1650 cos 10° = 18, 48.94. N N= Fy cosa p, 5 ‘i . V Sin = 1299 oe ae The coefficient of friction, 1, at the chip tool interface ig give reat ~ 1650 sin 10° = 983,88 N en by n= FL 1848.95 . N > 83g 71-8792 The friction angle, B, is given by B= tant tag! (1.8792) = g50 The resultant cutting force, R, is given by 792) = 62 R= 1650? + 12992 = 2094.42 NMetal Cutting 9 ——— ‘The shear force along the shear plane is F,,= Fi cos @ ~ Fy sin @ = 1290 cos 17.31° ~ 1650 sin 17.31° = 740.63 N The normal force on the shear plane is N, = Fy cos @ + Fy, sin = 1650 cos 17,31° + 1290 sin 17.31°= 1959.10 N ‘The area of the shear plane is given by bt__ 6x0.10 ing sin 731° jon suggested by Merchant: = 2.0165 mm? To verify the shear angle from the rel: xl x (62-10) = ZL g—ay=t- Me = 19 eZ z8-o7 19' Itcan be seen that the actual value of the shear angle is 17.31, whereas the value calculated from the shear angle relation of Merchant's is 19. The error is 9.76 per cent. [Example 2.3. | The orthogonal cutting of steel with 10° rake tool, with a depth of cut of 2 mm, and feed rate of 0.20 mm/rev. The cutting speed is 200 m/min. The chip thickness ratio is 0.31. The vertical cutting force is 1200 N and the horizontal cutting force is 650 N. Calculate from Merchant's theory, the work done in metal cutting and shear stress. Given r=031,0.=10° Shear plane angle, 6 is in 10° = 0.32266 tan = tar 1 shear angle, $ = tan7! (0.32266) =17.88° Given Fy =1200, Fy =650 The shear force along the shear plane is F,, = 650 cos 17.88° ~ 1200 sin 17.88° = 250.18 N The normal force on the shear plané is N, = 1200 cos 17.88° + 650 sin 17.88° = 1341.61 N The area of the shear plane is given by bt 2x0.20 eee na 2 ing 17.98° | /3028mm Friction force along rake face is F = 650 sin 10° +1200 cos 10° = 1294.64 N‘Manufacturing Technology 20, Normal force on the rake face is N = 650 cos 10 - 1200 sin 10° = 431.75N ‘The coefficient of friction, 1, at the chip tool interface is given by F _ 1294.64 Bey 3175 ‘The friction angle, B, is given by B= tan” p= tan“ (2.9986) = 71.56° ‘To verify the validity of the shear angle relationship suggested by Merchant: ! x_ (11.5610) a Itcan be seen that the actual value of the shear angle obtained from measured values is 17.88, whereas the value calculated from the shear angle relation of Merchant's is 14.22, the resulting error is 20.5 per cent. by Vcosa _ _200cos 10° cos (a) cos (17.88 —10) = 2.9986 © ° =14.22° | ‘The shear velocity, V,, is gi i V, 198.84 m/min The chip velocity, V.., is given by Vsing __200sin17.88 V2 Sk i 0s (@ =a) ~ cos (17.8810) = 099 m/min Shear strain, y, is given by 1 VY, ___198.84 A | Ving 200sin 17.98" —°2982 The strain rate is given by i - cose cos 10° 1 aso 200000 AY cos(@—a@) AY cos (17.88—10)°x0.0095 7 ae 8810) | taking AY =2.5 microns, 0x 0.0025 The shear work done, W, is W,= F, V_ = 250.1767 «198.84 = 49745.14 N m/min The work done in friction, W; is Wp=F XV, 294.64 x 61.99 = gors, 4.7 The total work done is 77 N m/min We Fig XV = 200% 650 = 130000 N mimi ‘The shear work proportion out of the total work done is " 49745.14 = 38.27% 130000Metal Cutting 2 Friction work proportion in total work done is 80254.77 130000 Friction _Itis found that determined in this way is exceptionally high in value, and that it varies with tool geometry and other cutting conditions. But this is contrary to the sliding friction studies. =61.73% Under a microscope, the actual contact of two sliding surfaces through the high spots (asperities). In the case of normal contacting surfaces, as shown in Fig. 2.21, the real area of contact is different from the apparent area of contact, Real area changes by first, the elastic deformation, and when load increases, by plastic deformation, Thus, (242) Pp where, p = mean yield stress of the asperities, and N =applied load. Under the influence of normal and tangential 7 load, it has been shown that very high 7 Yi temperatures are developed at the contacting asperities, and that metallic bonding of the high spot . Thus, NX contacting high spots can occur. Thus, sliding \X of one surface relative to the other must be accompanied by shearing of the welded Fig.2.21 Micro view of asperities in contact. asperities. When plastic deformation takes place at the contacting surfaces, the friction mechanism is different because of the fact that real area of contact approaches that of apparent area of contact. Under these conditions, the friction force is independent of normal force. Another similarity noted with the experimental data of metal cutting is that the friction coefficient increases ‘with an increase in the rake angle, as shown in Table 2.1. It is normally expected that with an increase in the rake angle, the metal cutting forces decrease, and should normally be associated with a decrease in the friction. However, in actual practice, the friction coefficient increases, as shown in Table 2.1. rag arin of coefficient of friction with rake angle in orthogonal cutting Rake angle, Coefficient offriction, w = 30 058 -5 os 0 078 5 0.90 20 1.19Manufacturing Technology 22 not the same on the different components Of the s greatly compared to the friction face, a8 shown in . the coefficient of friction is increasing, That jent of friction. appens because the influence of the rake angle ‘cutting force. The normal force on the rake face decreas ble 2.2. Thus, though there is an overall decrease in the forces, the Ta how Kronenberg calls this friction coefficient as apparent coeffi ‘Table2.2 Rake Friction Normal angle, 0° force F forceN N 16 3025 4518 0.67 30 2524 2938 0.86 1687 35 45 2470 2034 121 18.62 55 In metal cutting, we have a sliding situation under conditions of high normal load and with a metal surface, which is chemically clean, having been recently exposed from the body of the parent metal. The cleanliness of the metal surfaces can explain the high value of , and high normal load can explain the departure from the usual laws of friction. Normal stress 7 Shear stress Rake face Sticking region Thus, the friction along the rake face of a cutting | tool can be considered as partially sticking and partially sliding, as shown in Fig, 2.22. In the sticking zone, the shear stress is constantly approaching the work materials yield stress, while in the sliding zone, 4, 7 aera * Fig.2.22 Stress distribution expect 7 Coulomb's laws of friction hold good. ig. Stress distribution expected along the rake fact region Another aspect to be noted is the inclusion of the rubbing force component at the clearance face inthe measured forces. This component can be obtained by plotting the measured cutting force against the depth ofeut and extrapolating back to zero depth Even after the deduction ofthis anaes ee ai ote shear, we get a higher value of p, which ea a ofthis, contri as shown in Fig, 2.22. 'e distribution of stresses on the rake face, 25 __ SHEAR ANGLEANDITSRELEVANCE > The importance of shear angle has already been discuss derive a simple relationship for shear angle which without going in for extensive experimentation, sed previously, There wore ca . a attempts (0 an be predicted trons ng mb often ing process paramete Scientists have been interested in the sheat ang the Ws investigations in metal cutting. Before 1896, dnly approaches ha 7, when Thime published bis varies under differing conditions, but no specific * have been macle to see how the sheat ansl® . i + has by ade as a relationship. Zvorkyn, in 1897, first derived a relationship ag follows ® * © any certain mathematiMetal Cutting ae ==, (-B-G) 43) ong Y where, C; is a constant, depending on the shape of the outer boundary of the chip. Herman, in 1907, developed the following relationship between the shear angle, 6, the true rake angle, 0, and the friction angle at the rake face, B. x, (@-f) (2.44) 8 27 Krystoff, in 1939, gave the following relation: o=F+@-p) © 45) This equation would give zero shear angle for friction angle of 45° and rake angle of 0°, which is most unlikely, and hence this formula is not universally valid. As shown above, Merchant, in 1941, derived the following formula: z 1 2 9=FGt7@-B) (246) However, the experimental observations made (Fig. 2.23) were in variance with this formula over its entire range of operations. Merchant assumed, further, that shear stress, t,, on the normal plane would be affected by the normal compressive stress, t,, in a linear fashion as follows: at tKxt, 47 [- Errst and Merchant 40 $30 2 Led and Shatter 4 N B32 <. ~ B10 [I a — 5 o -20 10 1020 ~30 0 Bea Fig. 223 Comparison of experimental results withthe shear angle relationships, ‘The modified equation, therefore, is cil o=5+50-B) 4s) Where C, represents the factor dependent on the plastic properties of the material, and is given byManufacturing Technology —— 4 C=cot! K 24) Merchant called this factor as machinability constant, but it is not a constant. An average value of C for steels is 75°. Hucks established a relationship as follows: x_tan!2p wy ie) Lee and Shaffer have used the mathematical theory of plasticity based on the behaviour of a rigid plastic material, to produce a solution of the orthogonal machining problem. The solution involved in the construction of a slip-line field pattern using a shear plane model (Fig. 2.24). They considered that there must be a stress field within the chip to transmit the cutting forces from the shear plane to the tool face. They represented this by a slip-line field in which no WORKPIECE deformation occurs although it was stressed up to the yield Fig. 2.24 Shear plane model of Lee and Shaffer. point. This shows Mohr’s circle for the stresses at the boundaries of the stressed zone, which results in the equation: o=t+(a-p) 25) This relationship is same as Krystoff's formula and is not of much use. Shaw, Cook, and Finnie have slightly modified the above analysis by assuming that the shear plane isnot a plane of maximum shear stress. Hence, shear plane will not be a slip line, and the ultimate result is the equation, x - 9a GtN +@-p) en) The angle, 1, is not established by the analysis. It is su ‘ : alia : iggested that 1° ith the cutting conditions. This 1/ is present because of the very fact that Files fa Giffen but ean vary wi friction in metal cutting, in comparison with pure compression, erat nee ticceae) Some other empirical relationships given are as follows: By T. Sata _a-i5 era es) where, the + sign is taken when o> 15 degrees and ~ sign i gm is take By Stabler n when ot < 15 degrees. os) Bastein and Weiss have given the following equation for BCC metal s = 55° +08 os)Metal Cutting ee Be By Oxley 1 2(0- one-potm-i[(S+ 2-9) .{im2e=9 (=a) tan in 2(9- al] 2.56) According to Kronenberg, there is a braking action by the tool rake face on the movement of chip, which is decelerated. Hence, he thinks that in addition to the static forces, the kinetic forces are also acting on the chip, viz. friction force and the centrifugal force. From this consideration, he gets an equation of the form cos tan sn ) sina which can be approximated to E+ $-BO75+0.0045a) (258) Zorev, taking a thick shear zone approach, derived the following equation: wo=b ¥e (259) . o Pata where, W,p is the angle between the tangent to the upper boundary of the plastic zone at the point ofits intersection, with the specific shear plane and the cutting plane. Hill suggested that the large number of unknown factors in metal cutting, such as anisotropy, work hardening, variation in the coefficient of friction, and thermal effects mean that a unique value of the shear angle may not exist. Thus, Hill suggests that any analysis should not be directed at establishing a single relationship, but instead should locate the possible bounds within which the shear angle must lie, Though this is a reasonable approach, it suffers from the fact that the bounds established by Hill are far apart for the shear angle values to be of much practical use. Vidal uses the Lee and Shaffer solution, but introduces an efficiency factor, €, which he terms as the efficiency of plastic deformation and arrives at the following equation: sin7'[e cos (B-a) +(1~-2)sin(B-a)) | (a-B) SS ———e———eeeeeeew_ + 2 2 eis an empirical constant, and from Vidal's test the following values are derived: 2.60) Steel = 0.97 Copper = 0.70 Tellurium lead = 0.75 When € = 1, the expression reduces to Lee and Shaffer's solution. Roth modified Hill's solution by taking the variation of hydrostatic stress on the shear plane, and the variable friction angle along the rake face. Though this analysis is more realistic, it widens the shear angle range, thus permitting all experimental values to fallin, bu this analysis will be of no use as faras the practical utility is concerned. So far, an impressive list of equations have been suggested, some of which are based purely on theory while some on theory with some empirical constants with differing assumptions. But when these are compared| ‘Manufacturing Technology 9. = ——e—~—SO ven the correct picture. A careful examination of the equation, cutting conditions. In practice, iis nog 6 with the experiments, none of them h he work properties or the reveals that none of them incorporates t that they do play a significant role in affecting the shear angle. fe are not strictly valid, which may be the cause forthe rp, so that the tool nose force is negligible, cay ‘at small values of undeformed chip thickness, ear plane may be unrealistic. {In addition to this, the various assumptions mad deviation, The assumption that the cutting tool is perfectly shat be a rough approximation to the actual condition, particularly Further, the representation of the primary deformation zone by a sh Rowe and Spick used the minimum energy principle without reference to the coefficient of friction, ts proposed thatthe shear plane will be oriented at an angle, such that the total work done in plastic shearing of the material in the shear plane and at the rake face has an extremum value. ‘They obtained the following equation: cos 0608 (29-4) ~& sin p =0 (261) to the yield stress of chip, 056 < 1.0, (0 of shear stress at rake f where, & is the ra and, 2 is a multiple of s (undeformed chip thickness), defining the length of contact on rake face, as Now, when the classical methods fail, or are unable to isfactory relationship, then one has to drift towards the empirical approach. One of the classical example is the dimensional analysis, which is extensively used in fluid mechanics and has bet fully applied to some problems in metal cutting by Kronenberg. ‘The same approach can be t 1" Based on dimensional analysis, the following two e M7 yb a) (£ (8) aa ® oe osays (L£)° FF = (cose (4) on) where, ky as ky ay, and by are empirical constants to be established from the experimental da crimental data, Fit these equations based on some experime nental data and give the cons wf Bive the constants as well as the plots of 2.6 CUTTING TOOL MATE TALS —__— Various cutting tool materials have been used in the ind Jevelopments haye occurred in the 20" century thanks to ae1 cutting tool materials have been developed to cater to th Phe important charueteristies of a cutting too! material ar lustry for different rospace and nuclear Ne variety of mates applications, A number of Programmes, A large varielY als used in these programmes: () Higher hardness than that of the workpiece 1 material being machine work material, being machined, so that it can penetrate into the (iy, Mot hardness, which isthe ability of the materia to retain ts hard of the high temperatures existing inthe cutting zone. Thig ner cn atelevAed temperatures vie gent with the inereasing emphasis on higher cutting speeds ws bolmes ees more and more sti” ® bolster productivi : ity,Metal Cutting 7 ——— Gil) Wear resistance—The chip-tool and chip-work interfaces are exposed to such severe conditions, that adhesive and abrasion wear is very cor abrasion resistance t prove the effective life of the tool Gv) Toughness—The tool, even though is hard, should have enough tough Joads that come in the begin material. This requir ‘ing of cut, oF to force fluctuations duc to nent is going to be more useful for interrupted cutting, for example milling. Jon, The cutting tool material should, therefore, have high ss 10 withstand the impact mperfeetions in the work (¥) Low friction—The coefficient of friction between chip and tool should be low, which would allow lower wear rates and better chip flow. (si) Better thermal characteristics—Since a lot of heat is generated at the cut the tool material should have higher thermal conductivity to dissi Otherwise, the tool temperature will become too high thus reducing its life. All these properties ma of the cutting tool materials is presented in place over the past century to give us better cutting perfor je this he; nance, le 2.3. Comparative properties of cutting tool materials Giting 00 zone, itis necessary that in the shortest time. not be found in a single tool material. A comparison of the various properties, Je 2.3, Improvements in tool materials have been taking Hardness. Ri, Transverse rupture material Room 540°C 760°C strength temperature x10! MPa High speed steel 8510.87 770 82 Very low 3.8 0 45 Cast cobalt 821085 75 to 82 101075 1.41028 Carbides 8910.94 80 t0 87 10 10 82 to24 Ceramics 94 0 87 05 t0 04 Diamond 7000 Knoop 7000 Knoop 7000 Knoop 7 2.6.1 Carbon Tool Steels These are the earliest tool materials used, These are essentially plain between 0.6 and 1.5 per cent and some very small alloy additions, such as Manganese, Silicon, Tung Molybdenum, Chromium, and Vanadium. The major disadvantage with this range of cutting tool materi their inability to withstand high temperatures, Beyond 200°C they lose th these are useful only for very low cutting speeds, about 0.15 m/s, and to be used with low temper: generating operations, such as machining wood, magnesium, brass, and aluminium. They are and grind. As a result, they are used for form tool making to be used for low quantity product ‘arbon steels with n. 2.6.2 High Speed Steel Taylor and White deycloped this new generation tool material Sabie toSignificantly improve the cutting speeds 3.0 5 times ( using carbon tool steels, Because of this high cutt or more popularly called HSS. speed rbon percentages, ir hardness and cease to cut. Thus. ature y tO prepare atthe turn of the twentieth century. They were {about 0.5 m/s) that were prevalent at that time apability, they were termed as high speed steels‘Manufacturing Technology ———— 93) ——— ng Technology 90 85 é ae 75 Ps g g g g g ! 5 8 os g go Z Z ss 100 300 «= 500-700 TEMPERATURE, °C Fig. 2.25 Variation of hardness with temperature for various cutting tool materials. This class of tool materials have significant quantities of tungsten,-molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium. The complex carbides of tungsten, molybdenum, and chromium distributed throughout the metal matrix, provide very good hot hardness and abrasion resistance. The major alloying elements, which contribute to the hardness are tungsten.and molybdenum, Tungsten is expensive, while molybdenum is cheap but has higher toughness. For the same hardness, less amount of molybdenum needs to be added, however, more care needs to be exercised in hardening as decarburizing takes place in molybdenum steels. Also, they have narrow temperature range for heat treatment. Molybdenum tool steels are more popular. __ The main advantages of high speed steels isin their high hardness, hot hardness, good wear resistane®, high toughness, and reasonable cost. Toughness of high speed steels is highest among all the cutting oo! materials. Thus, they are quite extensively used in interrupted cutting, such as in milling. The hardness of HSS falls rapidly beyond 650°C, as shown in Fi A . ° HSS als rpilybeyon own in Fig. 2.25, and thus they are limited to lower cutting speeds of the ‘ * type and M-type, d sien of molybdenum is the major alloying element present in the steel, Some'y ae bent irlnieea in Table 24. ical compositions have been given Recently, the HSS tool steels are also being produced throu, fine powder of alloy tool steel is compressed under hot is, tempering, this method provides for more uniform dispers found to grind more easily, exhibit more unifor i the powder metallurgy route, In this method on of ressure, With suitable hardening a Mic tbides in the matrix, These have be? the structure passes through a series of changes, irk, and etching, To determine temperatures, the parting nee owed by micro €xamination after polishing tests, in which the fully hardened steel is reheated cy Oe ow : investigations and hardness measurements on the related pices es A tithes, followed by structMetal Cutting =a Another recent development is the physical coating process called Physical Vapour Deposition or PVD, at lower temperatures, which allows the HSS tools to be coated with hard nitrides of titanium and aluminium, With much favourable cutting geometries and the hard coatings, the cutting performance and tool life of HSS tools has improved substantially. The PVD coatings are generally done at low temperatures. Asa result, the adherence of coating is a problem, which is solved by improved cleaning and etching techniques. There are efforts to further improve the cutting performance by improving the coating characteristics by combining various nitrides. Table 2.4 Typical compositions of high-speed steel materials ‘AISI steel . “Ge Chemical composition pe c cr v Ww ‘Mo Co TL 0.70 4.0 10 18.0 T6 0.80 4.25 1S 20 0.90 12.0 M1 0.80 4.0 10 13 80 Mo 0.80 40 150 4.0 5.0 M30 0.85 40 1.25 20 80 M42 110 3.75 13 1.50 9.50 2.6.3 Cast Cobalt Alloys Cast cobalt alloys, also called stellites, are normally produced by the powder metallurgy method, though casting is also used by some manufacturers. Fine powders of a number of non-ferrous metal compositions, as shown in Table 2.5, are thoroughly mixed and compacted to the final shape under hot isostatic pressure, They are then ground to the final geometry. They retain their hardness even at elevated temperatures better than HGS, and consequently these are used at 25 per cent higher cutting speeds than HSS. Because of their formability, these are used for making form tools. They have higher toughness and higher stifth these are being phased out since carbides are available over much larger range of properties. Currently, Table 2.5 Typical compositions and uses of cast non-ferrous alloys ‘Nominal % composition ter: Ww Mo c Mn Si Ni © 30 45 15 1 10 15 3.0 rest Roughing en 10.5 = a7 10 10 3.0 rest General purpose fees 17.0 = 25 1.0 10 25 rest Finishing 2.6.4 Cemented Carbides ‘The best thing to have happened for metal cutting is the invention of cemented carbides around 1926 in Germany. By far, this is the largest percentage of cutting tools used in metal cutting production, Cemented carbides are produced by the cold-compaction of tungsten carbide powder in a binder, such as cobalt, followed by liquid-phase sintering. These have a very large number of advantages compared to the other cutting tool materials, such as @ High hot hardness. These can retain their hardness to much higher temperatures and as a result, the cutting speeds used are 3 to 6 times (about 5 to 6 ms) that of HSS.4 | | | | i Manufacturing Technology —— 30 (i) Higher Young's modulus. This results in stiffer cutting tools with less tendency towards chater (i) Hi . This re ‘ However, carbides are more brittle and expensive. i ies. The variations aghj is possi ition of carbides to get a range of properties. tions aghieyeg Ics possible ovary the composition of types of carbides, and the grain size of carbide. Increasing i f Co binder, : E ea hinder vreveases the hot hardness and wear resistance, while increasing the strength, The 1a composition of the straight grade carbides is 6 wt. per cent Co and 94 wt. per cent WC, with the coba composition ranging from 5 to 12 wt. per cent. For heavy interrupted and roughing operation, high cob (Co) content is required, while medium coarse grain tungsten carbide is use fo withstand the Shock. Fr finishing applications, lower cobalt content is required as hardness becomes the important requiremen, Addition of titanium carbide (TiC) increases the hot hardness, wear resistance, and resistance to them deformation, but decreases the strength. The usual composition is about 5-25 wt. per cent. Similatly th presence of tantalum carbide (TaC) increases the hot hardness and resistance to thermal deformation, while decreasing the wear resistance and strength. The ISO classification of carbide grades and their possible application is given in Table 2.6. The lower designation numbers, such as P10, M10, and K10 are for higher speed finishing cut applications, while the higher numbers such as P40, are for lower speed roughing applications. The following guidelines would be useful for selecting a carbide grade: (a) Choose a grade with the lowest cobalt content and the finest grain s strength, to eliminate chipping, (b) Use straight WC grades if cratering, seizure, or galling are not experienced in case of work materials other than steels. (©) To reduce cratering and abrasive wear when machining steel, use grades containing TiC. (@) Forheavy cuts in stee!, where high temperature and high Pressure deform the cutting edge plastically, use a multi-carbide grade containing W-Ti-Ta and/or lower binder content. As the cobalt content increases, toughness and strength of Cemented carbide increases while hardness Young's modulus, and thermal conductivity decreases. Fine grain carbides are harder compared to cost grain carbides. Multi-carbide grades increase chemical stability, hardness, and hot bardvess, Since tungsten and cobalt are expensive, some special cemented carbides having predominantly tantalum carbides with Ni and Mo as binder, have been developed for auto industry application for finish machining of steels and malleable cast irons. These are sometimes called cermets. These are relatively brittle and easy to chip. These are relatively cheap and should find widespread use in future, ve consistent with adequate Tool shank Cemented carbides being expensive, are available in insert form in different shapes, such as triangle, square, diamond, and round. Each of the edge acts as a cutting edge. The typical construction of a cemented carbide tool is shown in Fig. 2.26. As seen from Fig. 2.26, the tool bit is made of tungsten carbide, while the tool holder Fig. 2.26 ¢, - 26 Construction of a 7, ing (Courtesy Seco Toots, *en carbide tnMetal Cutting 0 uot ysv9 ar8 pur ‘Joars osoue 7] steyou snos -Sueu so onquarsne ‘sBunseo yaais‘ees_ OZ 1 12 vou pue a sdiys uoys Kk so8uy WW uour sea oye put ‘wos! seo Kau (nym sper ‘years asauvSuom ‘suse jaars ‘T2a1§ OT smoxs944 ‘songavo pus uorsnjour pues yim ypuau tS mo] 10 uinapaur Jo sBunse9 foaIs TES OSA -o1ne Uo OM puL “SONIpuOD 9]qesnoAv -eUU Jog saySue Bupn9 a8: sontavo pate diyo 98:07 ‘sponds Bumn9 0 Uuoysnyouy pues yn sBunseo [ears ag Ord A ‘SuOTIpHOD aqqeanonryun ut Sunuryseus p sdiyp Buoy vuost seo aqqearreu's Oed_ a sdiyo Sao twos yse9 91quayqeu ‘ss oz 1 a SSunseo poms ‘PAS Old _ A — stout Tworrezedo RIQIA “stu pur suoIstaUNNp jo KozsnooE “U jews ‘spaods Sumno yy ‘Sutz0q pue SuyUIM YstULT sBuyseo eas ‘feos 10d 7 Q pout © -yoeur 9q 0 von | sfeuayeurjo " -w8 0 souofawo 6 lars pouryouur oq ornare -tseqd__ prorg -wkg ‘ana JO Toaouten eanel bo ee uonvoyddv fo dnoiy —__dtyo fo sdnos8 yoy S100} apiquno pamuowaa fo won: Asso) OSI 9°T NALManufacturing Technology 32 sofsur Sunn 9822] J0 AuqIssod amp MIM pur “suoNIpuod o[qeanoavyuN uy Suyuryoeur 0} Sumoys pue Sunt ‘Furweyd Suu, sprout Snous9J-WOU pure ‘POON pILY{ 10 pom OS, ‘sais BuO Bae] Jo ATqIssod aun qua pue ‘stortpuos a[quanoatsun uy Surunypeur 407 Sumiojs pur “Sur U “Suyumy, oo possardutoo pur “[2018 21 Moy “tou S89 Kau ssoUpIEY NOT SOpIqIED YsHOD ‘saa Surpuowap “Furyooorg “uy “Suy0g a TunjuTUne pus sseaq saddoo “s[erour sn ~oua}uou ‘NH 0Zz 01 da vow seo £15 Budeaos “Sumyov019 5 war Buog ‘Fup ‘Buys, BUOTS puP Uyujoa100 “pIvOq -prvo pavy ‘saqqny pry ‘ss0ya ‘9 undesos pur Buy “Supog *Saqwsm ysiuy Ruy, “pivogpie prey sonst [901s pouaprey ‘sKoyye juunye UODITIS YET ‘ALOYs ¢g 30A0 Jo 09 Kau panty 19, soulypew snewome uo KuEoquEd ‘yyo-Suned ‘Surumy, ‘sjHiou snOn;TOW ‘ypars Sumno 904 PIE suonsas diy afse] 10 wnipour pur spaads Sunn 10 wingpour “duruejd “Burru Burm, S[p1s TaUISTSON ‘anyesoduor yiy pur “uo seo foi osm 'suNse [9918 TaoIg asoanDI fo wowed uonvoyddn fo dnosp, Oy ocd a oem a speyayeut eau YOK pure sqeraur ON A smouy-uow —-y “sdiyo MoYs Tp speeut 10% smousoey Orn OfW At paowaa diya fo sdnoa8 uopyMetal Cutting _—_— ss shank is made from alloy steel to provide the necessary strength and reduce the total cost. After the use of a single edge, the tip is indexed in the cutting tool holder, and thus these are called indexable bits. After all the edges are utilized, the tools are thrown out and a new bit is used in the tool holder. Thus, these are also called throw-away bits. Because of their brittleness, generally small negative rake angles are used with the bits. However, in view of the developments in the processing methods and compositions, a number of grades are being offered by the various manufacturers that can have a positive rake angle also. Cemented carbides are not suitable for lower cutting speeds, since chips tent to weld and consequently chipping takes place. It is also not economical to use them at lower speeds, since they can withstand higher temperatures. 2.6.5 Coated Carbides With the increase in material characteristics to cater to the increasing service requirements, the need for developing better cutting materials has been felt since World War Il. Since the range of work materials is large, they need hard and refractive coatings on conventional tool materials, such that the same can be used in diverse situations. Thus, several coatings and coating methods have been developed for cutting tools. Since late 60's, thin coating (about 5 im) of TiN has been used on cemented carbide tools. Ceramic coatings used are hard materials, and therefore provide a good abrasion resistance. They also have excellent high temperature properties, such as high resistance to diffusion wear, superior oxidation wear resistance, and high hot hardness. Further, the good lubricating properties of the coatings minimise fri at the tool-chip and tool-workpiece interfaces, thereby lowering the cuttin into lower forces generated during machining compared to ion 1g temperature, All these translate -oated tools. The substrate is a normal cemented carbide tool that has the necessary strength and toughness. The coating on the top, as shown in Fig. 2.27, will provide the required hardness and refractoriness that will prolong the life of the tool. The life of the coated tools is often two to three times that the uncoated tools. ‘These can be used at higher cutting speeds, thus increasing productivity. Te ALOs TN Ka KiéEecccccccd’ee eee KEK LL OSs SSS MMM Tungsten Carbide Substrate 5 um.Manufacturing Technology, —— 31 ‘The coatings need to be metallurgically bonded to the substrate. ‘These coatings, such as titanium Carbide : i iple coatings of the : _ The coatir to ‘ - .d hafnium carbide, or multip! above, Stanium nitride, aluminum oxide, hafnium nite na anon (CVD) process. The chemicg deposited generally on the carbide tool bits by the C 2 Varo to te aubgtrte. The coatinginde reaction necessary to deposit the required coating takes plact ‘ihesion between the coun tie atom by atom onto the surface, thereby providing a very strong aches ng and thy substrate, Typical coating materials used include TiC, TiN, AlO3, TICN, TiAIN, a ee om ray Typical physical properties of the coating materials are given in Table 2.7. Figure 2.28 shows the plot of Vickers microhardness as a function of temperature from 25°C to 100°C, for some of the coatings. The TiCN coating has the highest room temperature hardness, but above 750°C, the TiAIN coating is harder than TiCN or TW coatings. At 1000°C, TiAIN is considerably harder than TiCN and TiN. Titanium nitride is one of the fst coatings and the most widely used one. It provides low friction, high hardness, higher refractoriness, and good adhesion to the substrate. It also has greater resistance to flank wear. Titanium carbide has higher resistance to flank wear. Ceramic, such as Al,O; coatings have higher refractoriness and resist crater wearas well as flank wear. However, these do not bond well with the substrate. Typical improvement in the tol ie with different types of coatings in actual experiments is shown in Fig. 2.29: 2000 mea TIN 2500 : a vf “~E 2000 - : F 4 2 aa ™. TAIN Eso / 7 1000, 4 s q sol ij | P| ° 200 400 600 800 1000 Temperature, “C Fig. 2.28 Variation of Vickers microhardness of ir Scheiofer and Sheng ess fhe coatings, with temperature (Jindal, Sathana, Table2.7 Properties of some coating materials Coating Room tenperatire Odahon 7 Cogyiiongf a tardness, (HV) Tesistance, °C Sriction 7 1930-2200 600 TicN 2730-3000 400 aos TiAIN 3000-3500 07 TiN/AIN 4000 Bed ss TiAICN 3200 aan =Metal Cutting Td PVD TiCN oom \ 5 08 Maximum flank wear, mm m0 TAN ° LS] 7 > wea af Cutting Time, minutes Fig. 2.29 Improvement in tool life with different types of coatings on carbide too! machining AISI 1045 steel (305 m/min, 0.75 mm doc, 0.15 mnvrev) (Jindal, Santhanam, Schleinkofer, and Shuster). ‘Multiple coatings generally provide higher tool life and offer broader use for machining differing work ‘materials, The combinations that have found wide use are TICN + Al,03 + TiN; and TiN + TiC + Al,03. By virtue of the general applicability of a single grade for a spectrum of ns, a shop needs to maintain an inventory of small number of varieties. Coated carbides are being increasingly used in the industry, in comparison to the uncoated varieties. It is estimated that 40 per cent of all cutting tools used in the industry are coated. 2.6.6 Ceramics Ceramics are essentially alumina (Al;03) based high refractory materials introduced specifically for high speed machining of difficult to machine materials and cast iron. These can withstand very high temperatures, are chemically more stable, and have higher wear resistance than the other cutting tool materials. In view of their ability to withstand high temperatures, they can be used for machining at very high speeds of the order of 10 m/s. Itis possible to get mirror finish on cast iron using ceramic turning. The main problems of ceramic tools are their low strength, poor thermal characteristics, and the tendency to chipping. About 2 to 5 wt per cent of zirconium oxide (ZrO,) is added to alumina that increases the fracture toughness of the tool without affecting its wear resistance. The machine tools used for ceramic machining have to be extremely rigid to provide smooth machining conditions for machining with ceramics, and are able to provide high cutting speeds. They are not suitable for intermittent cutting or for low cutting speeds. Apart from the pure alumina based ceramics, sometimes other materials, such as Titanium carbide (TiC), Titanium nitride (TiN), and Titanium diboride (TiB,) are added to enhance the transverse rupture strength, hardness, and thermal shock resistance. Some yittria may also be added as a sintering agent. Other ceramics of relatively recent origin are alumina-titanium diboride, alumina-zirconia-tungsten compound, and silicon- aluminium-oxygen-nitrogen (Si-Al-O-N) complex compound. These are less hard than alumina ceramics, but are tougher. Whisker reinforced alumina (Al03 + SiC,) are alumina based ceramic tools that have strengthening silicon carbide fibres (about 25 wt per cent) added into the alumina matrix. This material has increased fractureManufacturing Technology ——— 36 ~ ansion coefficient. Silicon nitride (Si ‘oughness, high thermal conductivity, and lower thermal expansion eoe'ficient. Silicon nitride (SisN,) baeg ool materials, These have good oxidation resistance, good mechanical amie materials that are used for cutting tool materials ceramics ate also used as cutting Mrength, and high hardness. Typical properties of ate given in Table 2.8: Table 2.8 Properties of ceramic materials Hardness Transverse rupture strength, MPa gden* 25 1000°C (HY) Base system Density NO ON 70 50 ALO, + TIC 44 7710 80 iN 427 1100 100 Ceramic tools should be used with very high cutting speeds on steels, They are not suitable for low cutting speeds or for intermittent cutting. Cutting fluid, if applied should be in flooding with copious quantity of uid, to thoroughly wet the entire machining zone. amics have very poor thermal shock resistance Else, itean be machined with no coolant, Ceramic tools are used for machining workpieces, which have high hardness, such ay hard castings, case hardened, and hardened steels, Typical products that can be machined are brake dises, brake drums, eylinde nd flywheels. Correct cutting speed produces good surface finish, optimum productivity and better tool life Ceramic tools cannot machine some materials, such as aluminium and titanium, since they have strong affinity towards them, a a result of which, chemical reactions are likely to take place. Among other things, some of the vit ail requirements when machining with ceramics are: * Use the highest cutting speed recommended and preferably, select square or round inserts with large nose radius, * Use rigid machine with high spindle speeds and safe clamping angle, * Machine rigid workpieces, - * Ensure adequate and uninterrupted power supply, ‘Use negative rake angles so that less force is applied directly to the ceramic tip, * The overhang of the tool holder FT should be Kept to a minimum; not more than 1.5 times the shank hickness, * Use large nose radius and side cutting edge chipping. © Always take a deeper cut with a light feed rather than capable of cuts as deep as one-half the width of the cut * Avoid coolants with aluminium oxide-based ceramics * Review machining sequence whi se ile converting to ceramic: t feed rate at entry. a ce angle on the ceramic insert, to reduce the tendency a light cut with heavy feed; ceramic tips ing surface on the insert. A ; ce sible, introduce chamfer or edt 2.6.7 Diamond Diamond is the hardest known material. It has most of the desi ing too! that can be used as a cutting uch as high hardness, good ther™ terial (Knoop hardness ~ 8000 ky/tmm’ ble properties of a cutting tool material, s. Possible for difficult to machine materials Metal Cutting 7 conductivity, low friction, non-adherence to most materials, and good wear resistance. However, the factors that weigh against its use are the high cost, possibility of oxidation Hotropic transformation to graphite above temperatures of 700°C, very high brittleness, and difficulties associated in shaping it to suitable cutting tool form. Natural diamond tools can be used for relatively light cuts, where these provide extremely high tool life, which can easily justify the high cost of diamond, However, natural diamond is unreliable in performance because of the impurities present and easy cleavage. Artificial diamonds, which are basically polycrystalline (PCD) in nature, are extensively used in industrial application because they can be formed for any given shape with a substrate of cemented carbide. Tungsten carbide tool bit Polycrystalline diamond tools are metallurgically Diamond ~ bonded to a tungsten carbide substrate and cut into small bits. The tungsten carbide provides the necessary clastic support for the hard diamond tool. This is then placed in the carbide inserts that have precision pockets to receive the diamond bit and then brazed, as shown in Fig, 2.30. Brazing 2.30 Polycrystalline diamond bratz They are used with a negative rake angle (~5°) for machin (15°) can be used for soft materials, such as copper. Th not be used for machining low carbon steels, titanium, nickel, cobalt, or zirconium because of the possible reaction with the work material, Typical materials that are machined with diamond tools and the suggested process paranicters are given in Table 2.9, ng hard materials, while positive rake angles Table 2.9 Cutting data for Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) tool bits (From Seco catalogue) ‘Material Cutting speed, mimin Depth af cut, mn Feed rate, mmirev ‘Aluminium alloys > 119% Si 300 — 3000 Ups 0.10-0.50) MMC SiC-partictes (15-30%) 200-800 Upto 3 0.10-0.50 Copper. Brass, and Bronze 600 ~ 1200 Upw3 0.10-0.50 Carbon and graphite 100-400 Upw3 0.10-0.50 Sintered carbide 10-40 Upt03 0.10-0.50 Green carbide 80-200 Up 05 0.10-0.50 Green ceran 100-600 Up w2 0.05-0.20 __ Plastic composites 100-1000. Up w3 0.10-0.50 2.6.8 Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) is next in hardness only to diamond (Knoop hardness ~ 4700 kg/mm? natural material but produced in the laboratory using a high temperature and high pressure process similar to the making of artificial diamond, CBN is less reactive with materials like hardened steels, hard chill cast iron, and nickel-based and cobalt-based super alloys, and hence is used effectively for machining these alloy: ‘These are more expensive than cemented carbides, but in view of the higher accuracy and productivity they are used in special applications, as .Itis nota,Manufacturing Technolog ~~; —_—_— re e---— TT . erials availabl Thus, there are a large variety of cutting tool materials given application, taking all the intervening factors into Table 2.10 Summary of applications for varion which should b account, The re lected carefully fogg commendations and charactetistgs us cutting tool materials (Komanduri), Remarks Bes icine Eo ae Work materials feral v cl g speeds, strer cian Tow siength, softer materials, non-ferrous Low cutting speeds, low strengiy ee Siren Se mate alloys, and plastics Seat Low/medium alloy steels ae strength, softer materials, non-ferrous oe suing sped low strength " mau materials: pia ae tae cdium cutting speeds | erials of low and medium strength — Low to mediut 18 speeds, low a4 —— ain strength materials and hardness vias . edium strength and har- Not suitable for low speed applieae Cemented carbides aller up to medium strengt No ok ot for Titanium alloys and nonfer arbi ‘ast iron, alloy steels, stainless steels, and Not for Titanium a ames cubes roe rous alloys, as the coated grades do —alend not offer additional benefits over uncoated prades Ceramics Cast iron, Ni-base super alloys, non-ferrous Not for low speed operation of alloys, and plastics interrupted cutting, not for n ing AL, Ti alloy CBN Hardened alloy steels, HSS, Ni-base super High strength, hard materials alloys, hardened chill cast iron, and commer- cially pure nickel Diamond Pure copper, pure aluminium, Al-Si loys, Not for machining low carbon steels, cold pressed cemented carbides, rock, cement, Plastics, glass-epoxy composites, non-ferrous alloys, hardened high-carbon alloy steels (or bumishing only), and fibrous composites have been summarised in Table 2.10. These can act manufacturers, such as Sandvik and Widia provide det These along with the Metal Cutting Handbook should as guidelin railed lite 27 __THERMALASPECTS _ Benjamin Thomson (1798) conducted first experiments energy involved during the boring of bra into thermal energy. He used the calorimet, Temperature of cutting is a very inp life of a tool. The surface of the tool, and localized phase transformations ¢ frequently very small cracks will be for surface transformation. cannon. He observed that tric method. portant parameter, which is Proper precautions are not i ‘n Occur, This may result j med as a result of the intense n Because of the very large amount of plastic strain iny a per cent of the work done is stored a ‘olved in meta s clastic energy, which ca on machine tools when he m fa all the mechanical energy is conve cutting, it is unlikely that more = an be neglected, the remaining 99 per ce™ Co, Ni, Ti, and Zr ! however, many of the cutting too! ture to help in the choice of cutting tools: be used for finalising the tool material sele n ured the therm! : ence tothe of great consequence with reference aiken, may be overheated at iso in softe ed points tool an anies 1g Of the surface of the system that accomps than!Metal Cutting 39 in heating the chip, the tool, and the work. The typical zones in metal cutting, where heat is generated (Fig.2.31) are (@ The shear plane, where the heat is gen- erated because of internal friction, and this accounts for a majority of the heat of the order of 65 to 75 per cent of the total heat generated. Gi) The friction at the chip tool interface, which causes a heat of the order of 15 to 25 percent. (ii) The friction at the tool work interface, which causes a heat of the order of 10 Fig 2.31 per cent. Workpiece The main regions of heat generation in metal cutting. The metal in the area ahead of the cutting edge of the tool is severely compressed, resulting in temperatures high enough to allow plastic flow. As the atoms in the metal ahead of the tool are disturbed, the friction involved in their sliding over one another is responsible for the shear plane heat. As the tool continues to push through the workpiece, a chip eventually slides up the rake face of the tool. This sliding is responsible for frictional heat. ‘There are a number of methods for measuring the chip tool interface temperature. (a) Radiation pyrometers _(b)_ Embedded thermocouples (©) Temperature sensitive paints (@ Temper colours (©) Indirect calorimetric technique (f) Tool work thermocouple Of all these methods, the tool work thermocouple technique is the most widely used technique for the measurement of the average chip tool interface temperature. The other methods suffer from various disadvantages, such as slow response, indirectness, and complications in measurement. 2.7.1 Tool Work Thermocouple Tool and work materials are dissimilar and the temperature in the cutting zone is higher than the rest of the tool or work. Hence, the tool work contact area serves as the hot junction in a thermo-electric circuit, and the ‘emf generated is proportional to temperature. A typical setup is shown in Fig. 2.32, The end of the tool is ground to a very small diameter, such as 3 mm, and a long chip generated by machining with very light feed js made as the tool work thermo-couple, A mercury slip-ring connection at the end of the workpiece through the spindle bore is a convenient way for completing the emf circuit. Sources of errors in tool work thermo-couple: @ Notan ideal thermocouple, which means emf is low and the calibration need not always be a straight line. (i) The calibration procedure, because it is done in the stationary situation, ‘As has been shown, itis possible to find only the average chip-tool interface temperature from the above experiment, However, itis possible to use analytical techniques for predicting the average temperatures as well as temperature distributions. The actual analyses are complicated and would not be covered in this book. The reader is referred to other books specializing in metal cutting,Manufacturing Technology SL chip ————— 1 TOOL VZA ritaion insulation Mercury Contact (a) Set-up for measuring interface temperature. Copper wire Tool Lead bath Potentiometers Uy MLL (b) Set-up for calibrating the tool-chip thermo-couple. Fig. 2.32 Set-up for measuring average chip -tool interface temperature using chip-tool i thermo-couple technique. ‘The source of major heat in metal cutting is located at the tool-tip, where the temperature is highest. The temperature conducts through the tool, work, and chip. The tool accumulates most of the heat, while the chip and the work surfaces in contact with the tool are continuously changing. Thus, the temperature on the too! is the highest, as shown in a typical temperature contour plot in metal cutting in Fig. 2.33. Temperatures in’c Fig. 2.33 Temperature contours ing cutting tool (Boothroyd).Metal Cutting at The cuttings process parameters, stich we ypecd foe, and dept, af cut haye considerable effect on the eating Fomperatinon generated OF these, cutting: speed has the highest effet, wx shown in High, 2d, since Ais contrts the total eneay pat the metal cutting aperation, The went ifenee iv that of Feet a shown iw big 248. The effect oF depth af cutis the least ot all 400 fl a LI ae i 100 nhs | 100 oat? - . yon cs Wo i “rH 7 [| | i 0 40 Cutting speod, ms The ethvet of eutting speed on the temperature ofthe took, Q) Supothard £ Goramies. Comontod carbides: Foed rate Fig 238 The effecroffeed on the temperature ofthe to 28 TOOL WEAR AND TOOL LIFE With the usage of tools over a long tie, they are subjected to wear, The type of wear found in cutting tools: . 2.36, There are two major types of Wear found in wols, They areManufacturing Technology 42 Crater wear The crater is on the rake face and is more or less circular. The crater does not always extend to the tool-tip, but may end ata distance from the tooltip, It increases the cutting forces, mod the tool geometry, and softens the tool-tip. Crater wear Flank wear Flank wear or wear land is on the a <—— clearance surface of the tool. The wear land can be characterised by the length of wear land, w. It modifies the tool geometry and changes the cutting Fig. 2.36 Typical wear patterns present in cutting ny parameters, such as depth of cut. ‘The typical wear patterns used as tool life criteria, as standardised by ISO, are shown in Fig. 2.37. Thee are to be used as tool life criteria as discussed later. KT Tool face Crater fone kM Section A-A F ve View on Ch major flank 18237 The wear parameters and their characterisation, a as suggested by ISO. utting tool: i 18 tools are subjected to extremely severe. Cutting conditions, such as the following: 3 Metal-to-metal contact with work and chi : * Very high stress , * Virgin metal * Very high stress gradients * Very high stress gradients * Very high temperature Because of all the above-ment -mentione Wears found. As tool wear p a rs, the tole ‘ rosresses le tool. flows plastically and gets a ite 05 cutting fore go ehP and tool-work interfaces exhibit i Wigd ! Tl blunt edge, which wilt anore88e and vibrations increase. Tool-tip So SGOMED 0 the interior. After that, almst a tip ory it further progressing of plastic deform Ie tool ‘The presence of crater wear in eee ; Very small sizes performance is concerned. Initially I sizes is int + they may increase 4 act ‘ot of much consequence as far as the MY he rake angle and thus decrease the cutisHowever, as the depth increases, the friction increases, the chip contact length increases, and consequently the decrease in the machining performance. Ultimately with very large crater depth (K'T), the tool-tip weakens i ee catastrophically. However, normally the tool is removed from service much before this, because of Jank wear. Flank wear directly affects the component dimensions produced. Thus, there is always a close limit kept on the value of the wear land. In addition, as the wear land progresses, the tool-tip becomes weak because of the progress of crater wear. Thus, in many a situation, the crater wear is more harmful if itis deep from the tool resharpening point of view, since sizeable tool material volume needs to be reground away. A number of wear mechanisms have been proposed to explain the observed tool wear phenomenon, such as * Adhesion * Abrasion © Diffusion © Fatigue ‘The rate of change in wear patterns with time is shown in Fig. 2.38 for crater wear, and Fig. 2.39 for flank wear. Note that at low speeds, the land wear predominates, whereas at higher speeds, the two wear rates are essentially equal. At even greater speeds, crater wear predominates. At high specds, probably the temperature is a predominant factor, which governs the wear growth. The land wear curves generally exhibit aportion of initial rapid wear, whereas the crater wear curves are generally linear (Fig. 2.39). a aad “SE 20 \ E \ § 16 reason & S A > i s g 12 S ist ge : 3 34 ° ° 10 20 CuI A . . Fig.2.38 Progress of crater wear with time. a ‘ apidtiwyan : : in tendrs Initially, when the sharp tool is coming into contact with the workpiece for metal removal, all the heat generated would quickly raise the tool temperature to a very high level. This is because the tool material present at the tip being small, would not be able to conduct all the heat. This causes a very rapid wear rate, as Seen in Fig. 2.39, in the first region. With a small amount of flank wear taking place, the tool material becomes sufficient to conduct the heat conveniently, and thus the temperature gets distributed uniformly in the tool. This results in a lower temperature and consequently a uniform and lower rate of flank wear growth, Thi characterised by the second region in Fig. 2.39. As the time progresses, with increased friction, the cutting