03

ROOFS
Trends in roof design
Metal roofs
1 Metal standing seam
2 Metal profiled sheet
3 Metal composite panels
4 Metal rainscreens
5 Metal louvres
Glass roofs
1 Greenhouse glazing and capped glazing
2 Silicone-sealed glazing and rooflights
3 Bolt fixed glazing
4 Bonded glass rooflights
Concrete roofs
1 Concealed membranes
2 Exposed membranes
3 Planted roof
Timber roofs
1 Flat roof: mastic asphalt coverings
2 Flat roof: mastic bitumen-based sheet membranes
3 Pitched roof: tiles
Fibre reinforced polymer roofs
1 FRP rooflights
2 FRP panels and shells
Fabric systems
1 ETFE cushions
2 Single membrane
3 Single membrane: barrel-shaped roof

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 Roofs 03
Trends in roof design
a metal standing seam: Walt b metal composite panel: Sainsbury
Disney Concert Halll, Los Centre for Visual Arts, Norwich,
Angeles, U.S.A. U.K. Architect: Foster Associates.
Architect: Frank Gehry
An overview of roof systems
Where roofs were once considered to be either of traditional
appearance, as with tiled and slated pitched roofs, or else completely
concealed as flat roofs, they are now increasingly considered to
be a part of a completely visible envelope design which is as visually
important as the external walls, both in their appearance and their
technical performance. In recent projects, walls and roofs have been
taking on a single form, with the same construction methods, materials
and detailing used on both walls and roof. The increased technical
performance and long term reliability of roofing materials of all types
has led to a much more ambitious design approach. However, an
essential difference between facades and roofs is that facades have
rainwater running across their surface, but roofs can be submerged
in water during rain. A roof has to be completely sealed in areas where
water can collect, such as parapet gutters, with the assumption that
rainwater will be expected to remain on the roof if the rainwater outlets
become blocked.
Metals
The increased reliability of jointing, together with the increased use of
aluminium sheet (with its increased flexibility) instead of steel sheet has
led to more adventurous roof forms without affecting the waterproofing
performance. By the early 1990s profiled metal roofs were using
standing seam joints, which combined the long span capability of profiled
sheet with the visually refined and very water-tight standing seams
which are ‘zipped’ together by machine on site. Since the introduction
of ‘zip up’ sheeting, the difference between profiled metal and standing
seam systems has reduced, with new hybrid systems having a lining
panel system which can be fixed with metal sheets, some of which are
hung down from the roof level without scaffolding. This makes large
roof spans, particularly at high level such as in covered sports halls,
much easier to construct since scaffolding is not required.
Composite roof panel systems have been in development since the
1980s, with panels that provide an internal ceiling finish and outer
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c profiled metal sheet: Atelier and d concealed membrane: Persistence
House, Bwa-Cho, Japan. Works, Sheffield, U.K. Architect:
Architect: Shuhei Endo Fielden Clegg Bradley Studios
roof covering in single panels that are semi-interlocked, with either a
lapped metal joint between panels or a metal capping that clips over
a standing seam-type joint. Composite panels are now being used as
an insulated structural deck to a separate waterproof membrane set
on top. While lacking the visibility of metal faced panels, they are very
adaptable and economic, with thermal insulation not only filling the voids
between peaks and troughs of the metal sheet on its underside but also
providing some structural stability.
Metal rainscreen panels are a recent addition to metal roofing systems.
They do not use the outer seal as a first line of defence against rainwater
penetration, but rather as a protection to the membrane beneath
against the effects of the sun as well as foot traffic. Metal rainscreen
panels are required to be sufficiently rigid and resistant to impact
damage from occasional access. Composite sheets with a plastic core
and thin metal outer facings are popular in this regard since they achieve
high levels of flatness and are flexible enough to withstand foot traffic,
usually when aluminium sections are silicone-bonded on the underside
of panels. Perforated and slotted metal sheets are also being used as
metal rainscreen panels, partly shaping the expression of the building
envelope in forming a continuity between different parts of a roofscape,
ranging from covering air extract terminals, rooflights and gutters to
producing a (seamless) smooth continuation of the facade below. These
rainscreen panels can also accommodate complex geometries without
having to make individual composite panels to achieve the same visual
effect. Although such panels are an additional roof covering rather than
being formed entirely from metal, they can provide varying amounts of
translucency and transparency in a single metal layer that can reveal its
depth both from inside the building and from outside.
A change over the past 10 years which has influenced all types of
metal construction is the increased quality of the finishes. The quality of
powder coating has improved enormously, with greater durability and
colour-fastness, so that it competes strongly with the more expensive
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e exposed membrane: Tenerife f greenhouse glazing: The
Concert Hall, Spain. Glasshouse, RHS Wisley, U.K.
Architect: Santiago Calatrava Architect: Peter van der Toorn
Vrijthof
PVDF finishes. Consequently, the main constraint in the design of metal
roofs in any of these systems is that metal sheet is produced in widths
of around 1200mm or 1500mm, from which most metal panels in
facades are made, but is usually available in long lengths where coil
material is used; that is, where the metal is rolled into a long coil in the
factory. Thicker plate, at a 4mm thickness and above, is made in flat
sheet form, at around 1000mm x 2000mm in size, with larger sheets
being more difficult to obtain easily in large quantities. Working with the
width of the coil in forming joints and allowing for the folding or turning
of the material at the joints is the main constraint, but metals can still
be be curved and folded economically.
Glass
Although drained and ventilated systems have been in use for the past
25 years, the issue of the water tightness of the horizontal joint, running
perpendicular to the fall of the roof, has been undergoing continual
development. Glazing bars have been used to support glass down the
slope of the roof where they do not impede the passage of rainwater.
Horizontal joints have been supported with stepped joints where water
runs off the top of the upper glass down onto a lower glass. The glass is
traditionally secured with clips and is sealed with a proprietary sealant.
This joint is difficult to seal reliably in order to achieve water tightness for
higher wind pressures, and is difficult to adapt to a drained and ventilated
system. This issue has been resolved over the past 20 years with the
development of silicone sealed glazing that was originally used in glazed
curtain walls. In this method, a metal channel is set into the edge of
double-glazed units, with the units being set flush with one another along
the horizontal joints. The units are then secured with metal ‘toggles’
held to the metal channels within the depth of the joint, and fixed to
an aluminium frame below to provide a mechanical fixing. The flush
horizontal joint between units is then sealed with silicone. The aluminium
frame onto which the glass is fixed has ventilated drainage channels to
take away any water that passes through the outer silicone seal. With
the development of silicone bonding techniques, the double-glazed unit
g silicone sealed glaz- h capped glazing: House in London, U.K.
ing: Dulwich picture Architect: Gianni Botsford Architects
gallery, London, U.K.
Architect: Rick Mather
can also be bonded to aluminium profiles which are mechanically fixed
with screws to a supporting frame. The joint between the glass units is
then sealed with silicone in the same way as the previous example. An
alternative approach has been to introduce horizontal glazing bars with
pressure plates that are shaped to allow as much water to drain down
the roof as possible, and accepts that the same water will be trapped
behind the upper edge of the pressure plate. Small amounts of water
that find their way through the outer seal are drained away within the
system back to the outside. Both the recessed fixing method with a
silicone seal, and the modified pressure plate ‘toggle’ system have been
proved reliable in their performance.
Bonded glass rooflights are a recent development in glazed roofs, where
double-glazed units are bonded directly onto a lightweight metal frame
that has no visible fixings on its external face. While bolt fixed glazing
can conceal the fixing bolt within the double-glazed unit on one side,
structural silicone glazing has no visible structure at all, with supporting
glazing bars being concealed within the width of the joint behind the
external seal. This has led to greater freedom in the forms used for
rooflights with this technique, where the position of the glazing bars,
and how they intersect, does not have to be considered in rooflight
design. Bonded glazing has encouraged the use of structural glass
beams, which suit a structurally glazed rooflight well. Most bonded glass
rooflights with a gently sloping, but planar surface are derived in part
from examples of glass floor decks and staircases used in buildings that
have been developed over the past 15 years. A new addition is to bond
point fixings directly to the inside face of the glass, with brackets and
support systems used for regular bolt fixed glazing.
Concrete
Developments in waterproofing membranes for concrete roofs over
the past 25 years have focused on increasing the flexibility of the
material used. Asphalt, a well established material for concrete decks,
suffered traditionally from an inability to take up movement from
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 Roofs 03
Trends in roof design
a bolt-fixed glazing: Tower Bridge b exposed membrane: Canary
House, London, U.K. Wharf underground station,
Architect: Rogers Stirk Harbour London, U.K.
+ Partners Architect: Foster and Partners
either the building structure or from solar gain when exposed to the
effects of the sun. A solution to this problem has been the ‘inverted’
roof configuration, where thermal insulation is fixed above, rather than
below, the waterproof membrane in order to keep its temperature
cool and relatively constant. Pebbles or paving slabs are set onto the
insulation. In addition, the introduction of polymers into asphalt to
provide greater flexibility has led to the material being easier to apply
on site, particularly as torch-on membrane sheet rather than in liquid
applied form. However, polymer materials, mainly thermoplastics and
elastomers, are becoming more economic. Polymer materials have the
advantage of increasingly being able to be exposed to sunlight, which
is leading to roofs being covered in a few of these materials as a self-
finish, with some buildings taking the membrane down the facades to
form a complete building envelope. Where a smooth or level insulated
substrate can be formed, these waterproofing layers can be fixed in
a similar way to fabric membranes, welded together in the factory to
form a membrane with straight and crisply formed joints that can form
a visible self-finish to a roof, with an appearance similar to that of fabric
‘tent’ membranes. This change from roof membranes which are kept
concealed, due to their poor visual aspect, to ones that are now capable
of being a visual part of the design, is an increasing trend in roof design.
On pitched roofs, visually exposed polymer-based membranes, or
polymer modified asphalt sheet, are beginning to be used as materials
in their own right rather than imitating the appearance of traditional
roof tiles or shingles. The more refined fixing techniques that are being
made available by manufacturers will assist in this change. Waterproof
membranes are increasingly being used on substrates such as folded
steel sheet decks and foam insulation-clad roof decks where there is a
strong modelling of the form of the roof structure seen either from inside
or from outside the building. Membranes are required to accommodate
more structural movement and higher temperatures combined with an
external wearing surface that can be walked upon without reasonable
risk of damage, for maintenance access.
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c timber flat roof: Private d timber pitch roof: The
residence, London, U.K. Lighthouse, Watford, U.K.
Architect: Lynch Architects Architect: Shepherd Robson
Architects
Timber
Timber-based roofs have developed over the past 20 years to improve
their thermal insulation performance. So-called ‘cold’ roofs, with the
insulation set at ceiling level and the roof void being ventilated, continue
to be used; however ‘warm’ roofs have undergone much development in
order to properly deal with the needs of ventilation to avoid condensation
occurring within the roof construction. Some manufacturers prefer to
have no ventilation within the roof construction where it cannot be easily
provided, by using a high performance vapour barrier on the inside
face of the wall construction immediately behind the internal finishes.
Manufacturers also provide increasingly better performance vents to
ensure that air can be drawn through the void between the roof tiles,
slates or shingles, and the breather membrane or roofing felt that is
set above the thermal insulation. Most of the effort in ventilating pitched
roofs of this type is in trying to retain the appearance of traditional roofs,
where ventilation ducts and boiler flues did not, until recently, play a part.
Modern tiled, slated and shingled roofs use two lines of defence against
rainwater penetration, where the outer layer is the outer line of defence
to, and protection for, a waterproof membrane or breather membrane
beneath.
The use of metal shingles has been a recent development. This technique
is a hybrid of lapped tile roofing and standing seam facades, and can be
used to form both wall and roof in a single system that is both economic
and able to deal with a variety of fixing angles. While shingles or tiles are
hung from their top edge, metal shingles are folded over into a seam on
their sides and lower edge, or edges if the shingles are not rectilinear,
but are set at 45° to the vertical, for example. The top edge or edges are
fixed with nails or screws with the shingle immediately above being lapped
over the top of the nailed fixing in the manner of tiling. This fixing method
secures the shingles on all sides while retaining a visual lap, allowing the
shingle to be fixed in any position, even in a soffit condition. The fixing
method usually follows rainscreen principles by assuming that rainwater
will pass through the joints, which are drained in a ventilated cavity behind.
Metal shingles are economic to fabricate, since they can be cut easily
from sheet metal, aluminium, mild steel, copper or zinc. In addition, tiles
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e GRP roof: ARC, Hull, U.K. Architect: f fabric ETFE cushions: Kingsdale
Niall McLaughlin Architects school, London, U.K. Architect
De Rijke Marsh Morgan
can be formed to a curved shape in a press to give a very textured facade
with a three-dimensional quality that has yet to be explored.
Plastics
Translucent plastics are used mainly both to imitate the appearance of
glass rooflights as flat sheet materials and to form composite panels.
This is gradually changing as plastics are no longer seen as economic
substitutes for other materials but as construction materials in their
own right. Earlier examples of plastic rooflights suffered from the effects
of colour fading or of yellowing in transparent / translucent rooflights.
The materials and finishes used in bonding are superior to those used
previously, ensuring that colour fading is far less pronounced than it
was. A greater acceptance of plastics as durable and capable of being
moulded economically into complex shapes has prompted a revival in
roof design. Some panels have been used as translucent rainscreen
panels with lighting or graphic displays set beneath the outer plastic
skin. The essential difficulties for plastics remain in the perception
of them as being less durable than either glass or metal, for which
polymer materials are seen as economic substitutes. This perception
will change only when more complex geometries of external envelopes
are demonstrated in buildings which could not otherwise have the
budget available for such work in other materials. Working with plastics
and composites is still undertaken in relatively small-scale workshops,
where mock-ups can be produced easily and economically, allowing
an interaction between designer and fabricator that is more difficult
in larger scale factory-based methods where repeatability of large
numbers of identical components still dominates production methods.
Fabrics
The use of woven textiles made from polymers has been focused on its
application to form tent-like roof forms. Tent-based structures stretch a
single membrane sheet, which is waterproofed on its external face, over
a supporting structure that may use a mast to support the tent and
cables to hold the membrane in position, in the imitation of a traditional
tent. This has led to developments in the connection of membrane
to cable and restraint of cables to adjoining structure. Alternatively,
g GRP panels: Bus Station, Hoofddorp, The Netherlands.
Architect: NIO architecten
h single membrane fabric: National Tennis Centre, Roehampton, U.K.
Architect: Hopkins Architects
membranes are stretched over more sculptured supporting frames,
which are derived more from the established language of building
construction rather than from the masts and cables of tent-based
roofs. The design life of these roofs is gradually increasing, both a
result of observing earlier examples and developing them as well as
an improvement in the performance of the protective coatings applied.
The introduction of double layer membrane roofs will no doubt change
their use from purely as a weather barrier to a thermally insulated
roof, making them more attractive for roofs to internal spaces than
shelters for external spaces. More translucent insulation materials
reduce the amount of light transmission lost through these roofs, with
research being undertaken to form an economic and highly translucent
thermal insulation material that would suit double layer membranes. An
alternative method of insulating membranes is to fill the gap in a double
layer membrane roof with air to form an inflatable roof. The concern
with this approach is that it relies on a constant supply of air to hold
the roof in place rather than on a supporting frame. This method has
been adapted as small ’cushions’ or ‘pillows’ filled with air to provide an
insulated fabric membrane roof. The most visually striking examples use
ETFE foil which is both very durable when compared to other polymer
fabrics, and also highly transparent. While this can be a disadvantage in
rooflights, where some amount of solar shading is usually required, it is
ideal for many facades and is finding use in complete building envelopes,
where wall and roof are formed from a mixture of transparent and
translucent panels. These panels are inflated and fixed to a permanent
air supply that periodically refreshes the cushions with more air to
maintain the pressure required to give them structural stability. The use
of fabric is set to grow, with air cushions that can be used in conjunction
with external solar shading or internal screen walls in a variety of twin
roof or twin wall applications. Like sheet plastic materials, ETFE cushions
are becoming liberated from the design language of glass rooflights,
with more complex geometries to form curved roofs. Loadbearing air
cushions, which do not require any supporting structure, are in their
early stages of development and application and we are likely to see
much of this development in roof structures and self-supporting
envelope structures in the coming years.
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 Roofs 03
Metal roofs 1: metal standing seam

Details 1

1 Metal sheet 10 Clips at centres

1 2
2 Standing seam joint 11 Folded metal gutter
3 Breather membrane 12 Curved eaves sheet
4 Thermal insulation 13 External wall
5 Substrate, typically timber/ 14 Structural frame
metal rafters with plywood 15 Outersheet fixing bracket 2 4
facing Rooflight 1
16 5
6 Vapour barrier 17 Metal flashing 5
7 Drywall/dry lining if required 18 Ridge piece
8 Outer standing seam sheet 3 4
9 Inner lining sheet
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a 3D detail view showing section through metal profile roof on timber structure

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b 3D sectional view showing section through metal profile roof on timber structure

System design
Standing seam roofs are increasingly being used for industrial and
commercial buildings where concealed fixings and low roof pitches are
required for visual reasons. The main advantage of standing seam roofs
over profiled metal roofs is that almost no fixings pass through from
outside to inside the construction. This gives the roof surface a visually
crisp appearance with very few visible fixings. The standing seams allow
the technique to be used on very low pitch roofs. The traditional method
of forming a standing seam roof is to set the sheet onto a timber
substrate, and to fold the long edges of the metal upwards to form a
standing seam joint. However, this method is increasingly giving way
to prefabricated systems where the sheet metal is folded to a specific
profile either in a factory or on site with a rolling machine. The folded
metal is then secured with a clip-based fixing system rather than onto
a continuous substrate.
The site-based method of fixing sheet is well suited to smaller-scale
applications, or where complex geometries are used. These applications
make the use of prefabrication both unnecessary and uneconomic, due
to the time saved by forming junctions and edges on site. The use of a
single sheet metal profile and angle support clips used in prefabricated
methods is typically too inflexible for such conditions. This traditional
method of forming standing seam roofs has timber boards or plywood
sheet used to form a continuous substrate, or supporting surface.
Standing seams are formed by timber strips of rectilinear or curved
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section which are set at 450-600mm centres down the slope of the
roof, corresponding to the width of the sheet metal used. Sheet metal is
laid along the length of the roof from top to bottom, with the sides of the
sheet folded up and over the timber battens. Successive strips of metal
sheet are lapped over the next to form a continuous sealed surface.
The standing seam joint is produced by folding the metal together to
create a seal. Because the roof is effectively formed as a series of linked
gutters, the standing seam between each gutter is above the level of
the water draining down it. Rainwater is avoided from being drawn
through the joint by capillary action by one of two methods, where the
joint is either sealed or ventilated. In a sealed joint the seam is pressed
tight, as in a traditional lead or copper roof, either by folding the metal
over itself to form a thin seam, or by forming the metal over a timber
roll or section. In a ventilated joint, a small gap is left between the folded
sheets to allow air to pass through but not rainwater.
For prefabricated standing seam roofs, the most common
configuration is to fix the brackets supporting the outer sheet to a set
of metal purlins. A metal liner sheet is set below the purlins to support
the thermal insulation quilt, set between the purlins. A vapour barrier
is set between the insulation quilt and the liner tray on the warm (in
winter) side of the thermal insulation. An alternative configuration is
to have a full structural deck with insulation set on top and an outer
(upper) sheet supported on brackets set onto the structural deck. In
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 2 8
10
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c Vertical section 1:10. Typical roof assembly without acoustic layer d Vertical section 1:10 Typical roof
assembly without acoustic layer

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e 3D cutaway view showing typical roof assembly

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f Vertical section 1:10. Ridge with recessed flashing g Vertical section 1:10. Ridge with flashing

h (Left) 3D views showing rooflight opening

within sheet metal roof

j 3D view showing sheet metal

on pitched timber roof

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 Roofs 03
Metal roofs 1: metal standing seam
Details
1 Metal sheet 4 Thermal insulation 9 Inner lining sheet
17 2 Standing seam joint 5 Substrate, typically timber/metal 10 Clips at centres
3 Breather membrane rafters with plywood facing 11 Folded metal gutter
1 6 Vapour barrier 12 Curved eaves sheet
2
7 Drywall/dry lining if required 13 External wall
8 Outer standing seam sheet 14 Structural frame
4 15 Outer sheet fixing
bracket
16 Rooflight
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2 17 Metal flashing
18 Ridge piece

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14 1

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a 3D view of folded eaves and ridge junction b (Below) 3D sectional view showing metal standing seam roof construction

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hot, humid countries an additional vapour barrier is set on top of the

c Vertical section 1:10. Folded eaves insulation where the risk of interstitial condensation is from the outside
as well as the inside.

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For both site-based and prefabricated construction methods, the
10 roof pitch can go down to 1°, after taking into account any structural
6 deflections that would further reduce this angle. Metal sheets can be
made up to 40 metres in length, but road transport is difficult, being
considerably longer than a trailer length. For larger projects, long sheets
4
are formed on site with a rolling machine that can form the profile of the
standing seam sheet to any length required, the profile being formed
5 4 from metal coil.

System details
Support brackets are usually T-shaped and are fixed either to the
14
structural deck or to purlins with self-tapping screws. The brackets are
usually made from extruded aluminium in order to provide a profile that
d Vertical section 1:10. Monopitch ridge
is both thick enough to form a rigid connection and sufficiently precise
in section to retain a given standing seam profile in place. Metal sheet
is formed in long lengths of folded trays which are then fixed onto the
support brackets.Brought
Finally the standing seam joints are crimped to form
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 10 8

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6 17
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8 4
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f Vertical section 1:10. Junction with rooflight

e Vertical section 1:10. Eaves with curved gutter 17

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g Vertical section 1:10. Parapet gutter at

4 abutment

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h 3D detail view showing metal roof
showing eaves with curved gutter
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a seal, usually with a ‘zip up’ tool that travels along the joint and across 16

the roof, sealing the joint as it moves along. Standing seam sheets can
form shallow curves by gently bending the metal on site, or alternatively
by curving the sheets in the factory, to give a smooth appearance. Small
radius curves are formed by crimping the sheet in the factory, where 17 4

the material is mechanically formed with small local folds. Sharp folded
corners are made by welding two sheets together along the fold line. 1 2
1

Ridges are formed by a variety of methods, the visually sharpest being a

8
ridge line formed as a standing seam joint, with the seams meeting the 4

ridge being terminated to avoid the need for visually bulky filler pieces
j 3D detail view showing metal roof at abutment
which could be seen from below. Valleys are formed by lapping the ends
of the standing seam roof into a folded metal tray forming a continuous
8 4
gutter. Eaves are formed in a similar way, with a gutter set at the edge 1

of the roof. Increasingly, gutters are being integrated into roof forms 17
11
in order to avoid a weak visual line formed by a gutter which is not
12
continuous with the smooth lines of the roof. When additional closer
pieces are used, such as bull nose profiles, the metal panels are usually 4
designed to be drained and ventilated to the exterior, and the line of
13
waterproofing continues up the external wall to the underside of the
standing seam roof. k 3D detail view showing eaves with curved gutter
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 Roofs 03
Concrete 1: concealed membrane
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a 3D overview of a concrete roof with a concealed membrane and visible
rainwater outlets
System design
Bitumen has traditionally been used as a waterproof layer, applied
while hot in liquid form onto a concrete roof slab. As it cools it hardens,
forming an impervious membrane, but will soften again if heated by the
effects of solar radiation. For this reason, in order to keep the material
cool, bitumen membranes are concealed by smooth pebbles or paving
slabs, usually with thermal insulation set between the bitumen and
the pebbles or paving. Traditional bitumen roofs are usually laid in two
layers, with an overall thickness of around 25mm. One of the limiting
factors with bitumen is folding the material at a corner or edge. When
the material turns through a right angle from the horizontal roof to a
vertical parapet wall, it can pass through a maximum of 45° in a single
fold. For this reason, 45°angle fillets are used to make a 90° turn from
roof to wall.
Modern bitumen-based membranes that are concealed beneath roof
finishes are typically a combination of bitumen-based sheet mixed
with synthetic rubber to give flexibility combined with a reinforcement
to give dimensional stability and tensile strength. This reinforcement
often allows the material to be folded through 90°, making its use
considerably easier where angle fillets are not required.
With the development of much thinner membranes in thermoplastics
and elastomers, together with their competitive costs, there have been
considerable efforts made by manufacturers over the past 20 years
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Details
1 Waterproof membrane
2 Thermal insulation
3 Concrete deck
4 Paving slabs
5 Smooth pebbles
6 Parapet coping
7 Rainwater outlet
8 Slot drain
9 Opening for overflow
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3
to make the bitumen layers thinner, to reduce the material required
while enhancing its properties of strength and flexibility. This has been
achieved by replacing the thick two-layer method with a mixture of
thin layers, still applied in hot liquid form on site but reinforced with
an elastomeric sheet, usually bedded between the layers. This is
typically two layers, each 3mm thick with reinforcing layers bedded
into the material. This allows the bitumen to accommodate both small
amounts of movement at these junctions as well as the sharp fold in the
material, creating a weakness in the membrane which might otherwise
be damaged during the life of the building. An outer protective layer is
added for vulnerable locations such as at gutters and at upstands.
System details
Concealed membrane roofs are typically in 'inverted' roof configuration
with either open joints or sealed joints in the top layer that covers
the thermal insulation, usually paving. In the open joint version the
membrane, bonded to the concrete slab, is covered by a protection
layer, with closed cell and rigid thermal insulation set on top. A polyester
filter sheet is set on top, with paving or smooth pebble ballast on top
to hold the insulation in place as well as to walk on. Pebbles are 20mm
- 40mm diameter, while paving slabs are around 600 x 600mm in
size and 30 mm - 40mm deep. In the sealed joint configuration, the
bitumen membrane with its protection layer has a drainage layer on
top, onto which is laid a minimum 65mm sand/cement screed, usually
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 4 4

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7
3
3

2
b Vertical section 1:10. Rainwater outlet detail

3
7 3

c 3D view showing detail of

rainwater outlet

3
3
7

d 3D view showing details of parapet and rainwater outlet

4 4

5
1 1
2 2 2

3 7 3

e Vertical section 1:10. Parapet and rainwater outlet details

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AuthenticatedMCH_ 237
Download Date | 3/1/17 4:41 PM
 Roofs 03
Concrete 1: concealed membrane

4 4 4

3
1
2
2 2
1
1
3

b 3D detail of concrete upstand

a Vertical section 1:10. Concrete upstand

Details
4 1 Waterproof
5
membrane
1 2 Thermal insula-
1 2 tion
3 Concrete deck
4 Paving slabs
3
5 Smooth pebbles
2 1 6 Parapet coping
7 Rainwater outlet
8 Slot drain
c 3D overview of a concrete roof with a concealed membrane and 9 Opening for
concrete upstand overflow

reinforced or made sufficiently thick to avoid cracking both in the screed

and the sealed paving above. Paving slabs or blocks are bonded to the
4
5 screed with mortar and grouted.

2
Expansion joints between concrete slabs with widths of between around
1
10mm to 50mm are formed by stopping the material each side of the
joint and setting a rubber-based strip that dips into the gap between
3
the slabs, linking the membranes into a continuous seal. The joint is
protected and reinforced with an additional layer, either flat and bonded
d Vertical section 1:10. Junction of external wall and roof on one side only, or formed as a folded, S-shaped cover that folds back
slab over itself, held in place by an additional protection sheet on top. The gap
between the membrane, dipped into the joint, and the reinforcement
cover is filled with a foam backing rod or tube, as used in the glass joints
of bolt fixed glazing. The material used for the reinforcement is either
the same bitumen based material, or increasingly, a rubber-based strip.
4

2 The top of the joint is finished as level as possible with the adjacent
1 areas of roof to allow water to drain freely from the roof. The reinforcing
7
membrane is sometimes folded down into the gap, separated from the
membrane below with a foam backing rod. It can be difficult to drain
3
water from this groove at the edge of the slab unless water at this
lower level can discharge into a rainwater outlet.
e Vertical section 1:10. Two-way drain outlet
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MCH_ 238 Authenticated
Download Date | 3/1/17 4:41 PM
 7
4 4

4
5
5
5

1
2
2

3
3

f 3D detail of balustrade within roof system g 3D detail of roof parapet

4 4 4

1 1
2

2 3

j Vertical section 1:10. Expansion joint in concrete slab

3

h 3D detail of expansion joint in concrete slab

4
5
In forming parapet upstands, an essential requirement is to keep the
2
waterproof membrane as well protected from the effects of the sun as
elsewhere on the roof. For this reason, thermal insulation is applied to 1

the inside face of the parapet, even if this has no direct benefit to the
3
passage of heat through the building. The membrane is turned through
a full 90° as shown in the drawings, but an angle fillet is required by
some manufacturers to limit the angle of any fold to 45°. A reinforcing
strip is usually added where a 90° fold is made. k Vertical section 1:10. Parapet detail

Plinths which are formed as short columns for the support of roof-
mounted mechanical equipment or balustrades are waterproofed in a
similar way to a parapet upstand. The membrane is folded up through
90° from the roof level and is formed to cover the complete plinth. The
thermal insulation extends across the complete plinth to prevent a 7
thermal bridge through the roof construction.
4
5 5
Rainwater outlets are set at the level of the waterproof membrane,
drained at both the level of the sealed paving and the level of the 2
waterproofing layer. The base of the rainwater outlet is fixed to the 1
concrete slab. The waterproof membrane is dressed down into the top
3 3
of the rainwater outlet and the upper part of the rainwater outlet is
bolted down onto the part already fixed and sealed. The geotextile sheet
is wrapped around the outlet to avoid dirt and debris being washed into l Vertical section 1:10. Base of balustrade
the rainwater drainage system.
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AuthenticatedMCH_ 239
Download Date | 3/1/17 4:41 PM
 Roofs 03
Timber roofs 3: pitched roof: tiles
2
2
3
7 10
5
14
1
5 2
5 5
2 10 5
7 7
b 3D view of ventilated roof with terracotta tiles c Vertical section 1:20. Unventilated roof
System design
Clay tiles for roofs are most commonly made from clay or concrete. In
the clay type, natural clay is mixed with additives such as quartz, mica,
iron oxide and crystalline aluminium oxide. Clay tiles are fired in a kiln at
around 1100°c to make the material both rigid and resistant to moisture
penetration. Plain tiles are used on pitched roofs ranging from vertical tile
hanging to pitches as low as around 35° above the horizontal. Interlocking
tiles with grooves and complex laps can be used in down to a minimum
pitch of 22.5° above the horizontal. Concrete tiles are made from
aggregate and Portland cement which are mixed together and then cured
in temperature-controlled chambers in the factory. Their appearance
tends to imitate those of traditional clay tiles in both shape and variety of
colour, but large interlocking tiles are available in sizes that are difficult to
achieve in clay. In common with clay tiles, concrete plain tiles are used in
roof pitches down to 35° above the horizontal. An advantage of concrete
tiles over clay tiles is that some concrete interlocking tiles can be used for
pitches as low as 12.5° above the horizontal.
Both tile types are fixed to timber battens set horizontally, that is, at
right angles to the direction of the slope. The battens are fixed onto
roofing felt, which forms a second line of defence and a full weathertight
barrier to the roof. The roofing felt is set on timber rafters (sloping
timbers) or full timber trusses. The tiles provide the first line of defence
against rainwater penetration as well as protecting the roofing felt from
direct windblown rain, the effects of the sun, as well as protecting the
felt from accidental damage. Many tile shapes and profiles are available
MCH_ 256
14
a 3D view of ventilated roof with terracotta tiles
14
14
1
1
2 2 2
3
5 10 7
5
7
3
d Vertical section 1:20. Ventilated roof
which have been developed from historical examples. The design life for
tiled roofs in both clay and concrete types is around 30 years, but they
are actually expected to last for around 100 years.
Like flat roofs, pitched roofs are formed as either warm roofs or cold
roofs. In the cold roof, horizontal joints are insulated and the void is
ventilated to ensure that any condensation forming in the roof void
can escape, which avoids damage to both the timber and the thermal
insulation. In recent years it has become more common to use a vapour
permeable membrane or ‘breather’ membrane as the underlayer
to the tiling instead of waterproof roofing felt. This is done to avoid
ventilating the roof void, which can become very damp in temperate
climates during winter.
In the warm roof, the sloping rafters are filled with thermal insulation
in order to allow the internal space of the roof void to be used. As with
the cold roof, a vapour barrier is set between the thermal insulation
and the internal dry wall lining. A vapour permeable membrane is set
on the outside face of the sloping rafters as an underlay to the tiling.
If the insulation completely fills the void between the rafters, then
this breather membrane serves to allow moisture trapped within the
construction to escape. If the thermal insulation does not fill the void,
and is set against the internal dry lining, then the void between the
insulation and the breather membrane is ventilated at the ridge and
at the eaves. Where a breather membrane is used, the cavity between
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Authenticated
Download Date | 3/1/17 4:41 PM
 14

14
1

1
3
1
3

e Vertical section 1:20. Ridge

detail for ventilated roof
3

5
5
2

5
3
14 1

5
15 5

9
1 10 7
5

3 1
2 5
7
10 7
5 13

10 4
11 12
7

13

f 3D view of timber shingles on g 3D view of timber shingles on timber

timber roof construction roof construction

Details
1 Roof tiles, slates or shingles
(tiles shown)
2 Softwood battens
3 Roofing felt 3
4 Gutter
5 Softwood rafter 1 2
6 Ventilation void 9
1 3
7 Thermal insulation 2 1
8 Vapour barrier 2
7
7
9 Softwood joist 4
3
10 Dry lining/drywall internal
finish
11
11 Soffit board to conceal 5
rafters but allow ventilation 4 k Vertical section
to air gap behind 1:20. Tiles
12 Fascia board j Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail for profiled tile applied to
13 Supporting wall (brick cavity vertical wall
wall shown)
14 Ridge capping (ridge tile
shown)
15 Metal flashing h Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail
16 Standing seam sheet
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AuthenticatedMCH_ 257
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 Roofs 03
Timber roofs 3: pitched roof: tiles

14

1
7
1
5
2

10 10

15

a 3D view showing slate tiles on unventilated

1
timber roof at ridge

7
2
5 10
1

5
2 1
1
4
7
3
4
10 1
3 7
15
5 2
5
7 4
b 3D section through slate tiles on unventilated timber roof
showing valley and fold details 9
15
10

13

c Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail. d Vertical section 1:20. Valley

2 Standing seam roof covering details for ventilated and
1
unventilated roof
3
the outside face of the membrane and the tiles is increased from 25mm
7
15 5 to 50mm with counter battens to allow the air within the void to move
10
more freely, ensuring that vapour being released to the outside can be
dispersed easily.

System details
Both plain tiles and interlocking tiles are terminated at their base with a
gutter. In order to maintain a constant pitch of tiles down to the gutter,
1
2 the bottom row of battens is raised up on a wedge-shaped timber profile
called a tilting fillet. This allows the underlay to meet the underside of
the bottom tile, and drain both rainwater running down the tiles as well
15
7 as any moisture running down the underlay into the gutter. A ventilator,
10 typically in PVC-U, is set between the bottom tile to ventilate either the
5
roof void in a cold roof, or the cavity between the underlayer and the tiles
2 in a warm roof configuration.

In the cold roof version the proprietary ventilator is set beneath the
underlayer. Fresh air is allowed to flow into the ventilator set beneath the
e Vertical section 1:20. Internal fold bottom tile and is released into the roof void without affecting the thermal
insulation of the roof at ceiling level, which is continuous between wall and
roof. In the warm roof version, a ventilator set between the bottom tile
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Download Date | 3/1/17 4:41 PM
 15

1
9
7 5
3
1 2 16

3 10 7
5
10
4
13 13 9

f Vertical section 1:20. Eaves detail of slate tile g Vertical section 1:20. Ridge detail. Metal tiles on timber roof

15

5
16

5 16
7

15
10

7
4

13

h 3D section through standing seam

roof on timber structure
13

and the felt underlay introduces air into the void between the tile and
the breather membrane. The thermal insulation either continues to the
fascia board, then returns horizontally back from a continuity with the
Details
wall insulation, or alternatively the wall insulation continues vertically until
it reaches the sloping insulation set between the rafters. In the second 1 Roof tiles, slates or shingles
version, the void forming the fascia and soffit immediately beneath it is in (tiles shown)
2 Softwood battens
‘cold’ roof configuration and is required to be ventilated in order to avoid 3 Roofing felt
damp, stagnant air from damaging the timbers. 4 Gutter
5 Softwood rafter
6 Ventilation void
Where a sealed ridge is required, ridge tiles are either bedded in a sand 7 Thermal insulation
cement mortar, or are dry fixed with metal screws, typically stainless 8 Vapour barrier
steel, where a rapid installation is required. For ventilated ridges, 9 Softwood joist
10 Dry lining/drywall internal finish
proprietary fixings usually made in PVC-U with ventilation slots are used 11 Soffit board to conceal
to ventilate either the batten cavity between the underlay and the tiles, rafters but allow ventilation
in a warm roof, or the roof void in a cold roof configuration. Where the to air gap behind
12 Fascia board
batten cavity is ventilated the cavity is sealed across the ridge. Air is 13 Supporting wall (brick cavity wall shown)
allowed to pass through a gap between the bottom of the ridge tile and 14 Ridge capping (ridge tile shown)
15 Metal flashing
the roof tile immediately beneath; the gap being formed by the PVC-U
16 Standing seam sheet
ventilator. Where the complete roof void is vented to the outside in a
cold roof, a gap of around 10mm in the underlay is formed at the ridge.
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AuthenticatedMCH_ 259
Download Date | 3/1/17 4:41 PM