LWEB 311 REVIEWER

WEEK 13

Communication Disorders in the Classroom

Students who have communication disorders will need special help from teachers in the regular
education environments
Being able to communicate opinions and ideas verbally is one of the most important skill that
students will learn in school. When a child has a communication disorder, it can adversely
impact
both speech and language development, resulting in the student falling behind both socially and
academically. Teachers can help by first understanding what type of communication disorder the
student has.

Is it a Speech Disorder or a Language Disorder?

Communication disorders are some of the most prevalent problems in children’s early speech
development. A student with a communication disorder may be suffering from difficulties in
either
speech or language development. In a speech disorder, a child may have trouble forming the
typical sounds of verbal speech, omitting or adding consonants to words and distorting or
substituting incorrect sounds. A child with a speech disorder may also stutter.

A language disorder is indicated when a child has difficulty understanding language, both verbal
and written. Students with language development disorders often have trouble with sentence
formation, word sequencing, clarifying ideas, following directions, and may demonstrate poor
classroom participation.

Effective Teaching Strategies for Speech and Language Impairments

Students with communication disorders will most likely have a speech therapist, and in many
cases
that resource will be available in the classroom. Working with a speech therapist either within
the
classroom or as a collaborative resource outside of school will immensely help the regular
teacher
with speech and language disorders. Additionally, the following tips may be helpful in the
inclusive
setting:

 Show understanding, patience, and acceptance.

 Provide extra time to answer questions.
 Encourage speech practice by having one-on-one conversations with the student about his
or her interests.
 Keep lectures clear, simple, pronounced, and in proper language syntax (no slang).
 Make eye contact with the student when listening and speaking.
 Repeat mispronounced phrases properly as a question so it does not seem like criticism.
 Never mimic a child with a speech disorder.
 Don’t avoid calling on children with language development problems, and particularly if the
answers are to be short (a couple of words).
 Make sure the student speaks in front of the class, answers a question, etc. at least once
per day.
 Set up practice verbal skills sessions between pairs of students where they read aloud,
work on a problem orally, or play games that encourage speech.
 Do not tolerate teasing or bullying by other students.
 Do not point out communication disorders to others in the class.
 Keep the classroom environment relaxed and organized.

Classroom Accommodations/Modifications for Speech Impairments:

 The most effective support for students with speech impairments is to receive speech
therapy given by a speech-language pathologist
 Based on speech severity, allow the student to substitute oral assignments with written
papers or use other available technologies
 Modify grading based on speech impairment
 Allow the student time to express themselves, do not interrupt a slow speaker
 Provide the SLP with spelling/vocabulary lists
 Allow the use of assistive technologies
 Develop a procedure for the student to ask for help
 Be a good speech model and speak directly to the student
 Reduce unnecessary classroom noise as much as possible

Classroom Accommodations/Modifications for Language Impairments:

 Students are greatly benefited by receiving language therapy from a speech-language

therapist
 Provide the student with information on topics prior to going over them in class
 Minimize classroom noises and distractions
 Provide copy of class notes
 Give assignments both orally and written
 Allow extended time for assignments and tests
 Modify the length of assignments
 Provide a private location for testing
 Allow use of adaptive technologies
 Provide SLP with spelling/vocabulary lists
 Pre-teach words/ideas before using them in a real situation
 Do not assume understanding of spoken instructions
 Ensure student has a way to appropriately express wants and needs
 Ask open-ended questions
 Present only one concept at a time
 Work at the student's pace
 Use tactic and visual cues (e.g. pictures, 3-D objects)
 Use as many hands-on experiences as possible
 Graphic organizers are useful in helping students organize and understand various
language concepts

Working with children with communication disorders is a challenge that requires well-trained
and
experienced professionals. In these circumstances, teachers can be of great help if they learn
about the particular speech and language disorder afflicting the student. In permitting
environments
the teachers then follow applicable specific teaching strategies, and work cooperatively with the
child’s speech therapist either within the classroom setting or externally. It has been observed
that
in many cases, a child with speech problems will achieve normal language development and
outgrow their issues by adulthood, especially with the proper support and understanding.

Teacher-centered teaching methods: These are teaching philosophies and practices that tend to
be more authoritarian and conservative, and emphasize the values and knowledge that have
survived through time. They are highly teacher-controlled learning processes and practices.

Pupil-centered teaching methods: These are learner-centered teaching methods in which the
pupil has power and control in determining both the outcome and pace of the learning process.
The learner is not only active but has power to control the learning process as in open and
distance learning.

WEEK 14

Written Language Disorder

A disorder of written language involves a significant impairment in fluent word recognition (i.e.,
reading decoding and sight word recognition), reading comprehension, written spelling, or
written
expression.

Written language disorders, as with spoken language disorders, can involve any of the five
language domains (i.e., phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics). Problems
can occur in the awareness, comprehension, and production of language at the sound, syllable,
word, sentence, and discourse levels.

A written language disorder may occur in the presence of other conditions, such as the following:

 spoken language disorder

 attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
 emotional disability
 intellectual disability (ID)
 deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH)
 autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Children need strong knowledge of both the spoken and the written word in order to be
successful
readers and writers. Children with spoken language problems frequently have difficulty learning
to
read and write, and children with reading and writing problems often have difficulty with spoken

language.

Reading
Reading is the process by which an individual constructs meaning by transforming printed
symbols
in the form of letters or visual characters into recognizable words. Components of reading are
outlined in the following definitions:
 Reading decoding—the ability to transform orthographic patterns of alphabetic letters into
phonological patterns of a corresponding spoken word
 Word recognition—the ability to identify words when reading, either through word decoding
or sight word identification, which may be called the “direct route” (i.e., automatic
recognition of word as a whole without using strategies to decode)
 Reading fluency—the ability to recognize and read words accurately, smoothly, and quickly,
usually in context
 Reading fluency is affected by reading automaticity—the ability to read a list of words
accurately in a specified amount of time.
 Reading fluency combines rapid decoding and sight word identification.
 Reading comprehension—the ability to understand the meaning of written text
 Comprehension is an integrated skill that includes having vocabulary knowledge, using
cues (e.g., relational terms) to “unpack” complex syntax, and making sense of the different
discourse structures (e.g., stories or expository text).
 Comprehension also requires application of executive functions (e.g., the ability to use prior
knowledge and make inferences and predictions; the ability to monitor one's
comprehension).
 For information about research supporting the five key components of reading instruction
(i.e., phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension)

Writing
Writing is the process of communicating using printed symbols in the form of letters or visual
characters, which make up words. Words are formulated into sentences; these sentences are
organized into larger paragraphs and often into different discourse genres (narrative, expository,
persuasive, poetic, etc.). Writing includes the following:
 Writing process—the ability to plan (i.e., “pre-writing”), organize, draft, reflect on, revise, and
edit written text; the ability to address specific audience needs and convey the purpose of
the text (e.g., persuasion). This process is iterative.
 Written product—the end product of the writing process; it can be examined at the word
level (e.g., word choice and spelling), sentence level (e.g., grammar and complexity), and
text level (e.g., discourse structure, use of cohesive devices and coherence). The written
product can also be described in terms of writing conventions (e.g., capitalization and
punctuation), communication functions (e.g., to inform, to persuade), organizational
structure (e.g., chronological, sequential, compare and contrast), and effectiveness in
meeting the information needs of the audience.

Spelling
 Spelling, also known as encoding, requires the ability to segment words into phonemes and
map those phonemes onto graphemes (letters or letter combinations) in an acceptable
sequence in written form. Words may be spelled “regularly,” which means that each
grapheme is associated with a corresponding phoneme (e.g., cat), or “irregularly,” such that
not all graphemes in a word are represented by one phoneme (e.g., right). However,
irregularly spelled words may have predictable features based on their morphological
makeup.

Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms of written language disorders vary across individuals, depending on the
language domain(s) affected, severity and level of disruption to communication, age of the
individual, and stage of linguistic development.

In preschool and kindergarten, children who are at risk for reading disorders are likely to exhibit
difficulty with phonological awareness and phonics. This problem may continue as they struggle
to
develop the skills they need for accurate and fluent word recognition.

Some children are identified as having reading difficulties only when they reach higher
elementary
grades (fourth grade and above), when the focus of reading changes from “learning to read” to
“reading to learn” and the emphasis shifts from word recognition and spelling to reading
comprehension and use of reading comprehension strategies.

Poor reading comprehension test scores in these post-primary grades can be the first indicators of

reading problems. These difficulties are likely to be accompanied by weak higher order
comprehension skills in areas such as metacognitive awareness and use of strategies to aid
comprehension. Comprehension difficulties also may reflect mild or well-disguised reading
acquisition problems (e.g., word-level reading skills) that become more severe with increasing
word-level decoding demands.

Causes
The specific cause(s) of reading and writing disorders remain unknown. Disorders and
difficulties with reading and writing have historically been associated with a number of external
and internal causal factors and may be the result of interplay of these factors. They are likely
multi-factoral, with no single cause that can account for all written language disorders

External factors are environmental variables that can have a negative impact on the child's

reading acquisition. They include the following:

 Limited early literacy experience (e.g., absent or limited early joint reading experiences and
insufficient opportunity to draw/scribble with crayons) that affects exposure to vocabulary
and advanced grammar and discourse and can, in turn, lead to further language problems (
 Insufficient and/or inadequate reading and writing instruction
 Insufficient early oral language experience that is too constrained to support the acquisition
of literacy
 Matthew effects - which are negative consequences associated with low performance in
reading and writing (e.g., child is in a low-ability group) that can lead to low expectations,
poor motivation, and limited practice, which, in turn, affect written language development.

Internal factors are those intrinsic to the child. They include genetic and neurological
factors as
well as spoken language.
 Genetic factors—Several genes have been associated with reading disabilities or with
increased susceptibility to reading disabilities
 Neurological basis—Differences in brain structure and function have been found in
individuals with reading disabilities as compared with typical readers, although the
relationship is not clear. It may be that some differences are the result—rather than the
cause of—reading problems
 Structural differences include the following:
 Atypical patterns of symmetry in the temporal lobe
 Presence of focal dysplasia in the cortex
 Differences in the corpus callosum, inferior parietal lobe and cerebellum
 Functional differences include the following:
 Less left-hemisphere dominance than typical readers
 Differences in activation (over- or under activation) in various brain regions

Intervention Approaches

Intervention for reading, writing, and spelling is complex. Literacy activities in the classroom
rarely
involve only one of these skills; for example, writing a story requires writing (process and
product)
as well as spelling and reading (e.g., proofreading for editing, making content revisions).

It is important to design literacy intervention programs with a balanced focus on all areas of
difficulty, which may include both sound/syllable/word–level decoding/encoding (spelling) and
sentence/discourse–level comprehension and composition. Although the focus of intervention
may,
at times, be on specific skills, it is important to teach them in the context of authentic language
uses whenever possible.

The following reading, writing, and spelling approaches are listed separately and by skill area for

descriptive purposes only. Multiple approaches are often used in combination, and more than one

skill can be addressed at any given time.

Reading
 Word structure approaches focus on reading decoding — systematic and explicit
approaches that are designed to teach such elements as grapheme-phoneme
correspondences (for reading and spelling regular words), irregular orthographic patterns,
and associations of morphemic components of words and orthographic patterns.
 Language comprehension approaches focus on identifying and closing gaps in
comprehension that may be due to problems with discourse organization, understanding of
cohesive devices, unpacking of syntactic complexity, recognition of unknown vocabulary,
and the ability to make sense of words in context.

Writing
 Process-oriented approaches focus on the processes involved in writing, including
developing ideas, planning (pre-writing), organizing, drafting, reflecting, revising, and
editing.
 Product-oriented approaches focus on the written form, including vocabulary, spelling, and
grammar; use of cohesive devices; use of writing conventions; and effectiveness of
intended communication.

Spelling
 Auditory (e.g., phonemic awareness)
 Visual (e.g., attending to words in print—orthographic pattern awareness)
 Kinesthetic (e.g., tracing letters of a new word)
 Multisensory approaches that integrate auditory, visual, and kinesthetic approaches
 Developmental sequence of spelling to facilitate acquisition of conventional spelling skills
 Memorization and testing of selected words in list format and in composition

Receptive language – the understanding or comprehension of spoken or written language,

including both figurative and literal language
Expressive language – is the ability to communicate with others using language.
Expressive writing – also known as written expression
Grapheme – a unit of a writing system consisting of all the written symbols or sequences of
written
symbols that are used to represent a single phoneme
Phoneme – the individual sounds in spoken words
Phonemic awareness – is the ability to deal explicitly and segmentally with sound units smaller
than the syllable
Phonological awareness – phonological awareness is a broad skill that includes identifying and
manipulating units of oral language – parts such as words, syllables, and onsets and rhymes.

WEEK 15

Augmentative and Alternative Communication

People can have difficulty with face to face communication for many different reasons. Physical
disabilities and motor co-ordination problems can make the production of speech difficult or
impossible. People with some types of learning difficulties can find it hard to produce speech or
handle spoken language.

The term AAC (Alternative and Augmentative Communication) is used to describe the different
methods that can be used to help people with disabilities communicate with others. As the term
suggests these methods can be used as an alternative to speech or to supplement it.

No matter what their difficulties are few people can be said to have no method of
communication.
However, many people will have difficulty in getting their message across and it must always be
remembered that this will require effort on the part of the listener (communication partner) as
well.

Communication is essentially a two way process which must involve some degree of mutual
understanding and a commonly agreed method. Even when two people can talk and understand
the same language easily there can be misunderstanding and failed communication.

Communication Methods
It could be said that everyone employs augmentative communication methods for much of the
time. When holding a conversation we contribute to the meaning of the words used in many
ways,

including facial expression, gesture and body language, or by yawning. These additions can add
to
the meaning of the words used, or even reverse them completely: a verbal expression of interest
may be completely negated by a yawn.

For people with disabilities that give rise to speech production problems many different methods
are used to support and augment their communication. These can include an individual method
of
sign and gesture, standardized signing and symbol systems or complex electronic devices.

Developing and using a system of AAC can be a long and complex process for many users and
their likely communication partners. Training and practice will be needed - materials have to be
prepared and kept up to date. It should always be recognized that these processes will involve
everybody: a communication system or method should be mutually understood and recognized.
Systems and methods
These terms are sometimes used interchangeably but we have decided to view them as distinct
terms. For example, the English language is a system of communication; speech and writing are
two different methods of using this system.

Symbol systems
A variety of symbol systems are in common use. They have generally been developed to suit
users
and listeners who have difficulty with understanding written language, e.g. people with learning
difficulties or young children. Systems can also be combined with individually designed
symbols,
objects and photographs if required.

Symbols can be useful for expressing longer messages and are often quick and easy to recognize
as shown by the number in use today in all situations. Symbols can be presented in different
ways
including using a computer screen, a paper chart or communication book.

Symbols can be presented in various ways including charts, boards, and communication books
and on individual cards. These can be produced by drawing the symbols, photocopying or using
a
computer program to print out charts.

Signing and gesture systems

Manual signing systems have been in use for some time, especially in the deaf community.
Different systems have been developed to meet the needs of individuals with learning and motor
disabilities. Signing systems have the major advantage of not requiring any additional equipment
or
materials, but can be harder to learn.

Text based
Written or computer generated text is often used to convey messages. This may be produced as
required or used in the form of pre-stored messages.

AAC methods
The AAC user will require a system and method suited to their particular disability. They will
have
to be able to learn and understand the meaning and use of the system and be able to operate the
chosen method.

 Electronic systems are often a first choice as they can offer the added bonus of speech
output and convey a positive image. They can often disappoint as successful use can be
dependent on the support available to set up and maintain the machine and available
vocabulary. They can be prone to breakdown and can be easily damaged. Some users will
find them difficult to carry and inappropriate in some situations, such as in the bath.
 Low-tech paper and chart based systems are easier to set up and manage, though it
must be stressed that choosing an appropriate vocabulary for any system and method is not
a trivial task. They are often less intimidating for the listener and are easily carried. The lack
of speech output can be a big restriction for some users whose peers may be unable to
understand a printed system. A low-tech system may not carry the same status as an
electronic aid.

No-Tech AAC: Communication aids which do not require anything outside of the user’s body
(e.g.,
sign language).

Low-Tech AAC: Simple communication aids which do not need batteries or electronics
consisting
of letters, words, phrases, pictures and/or symbols on a board or in a book, which may be
accessed in multiple ways including direct pointing, head or mouth stick, light pointer, or
signaling
confirmation as a communication partner scans through the possible options.

Mid-Tech AAC: Battery operated or “simple” electronic devices requiring limited

advancements in
technology (e.g., recorded voice output buttons such as Big Mack or Step-by-Step and static
display paper overlay devices such as Go Talk and QuickTalker).

High-Tech AAC: Dynamic display devices which contain page sets with letters, words, phrases,

pictures, and/or symbols that the communicator navigates between to express messages. High
tech devices vary in size and weight, as well as how the user can access messages, including the
use of direct selection of a screen or keyboard with a body part, pointer, or eye gaze, adapted
mice
or joysticks, or indirect selection using switches and scanning.

WEEK 16

Professional Development of Teachers

Effective professional development is on-going, includes training, practice and feedback, and
provides adequate time and follow-up support. Successful programs involve teachers in learning
activities that are similar to ones they will use with their students, and encourage the
development
of teachers’ learning communities. There is growing interest in developing schools as learning
organizations, and in ways for teachers to share their expertise and experience more
systematically.
The development of teachers beyond their initial training can serve a number of objectives
including:
 to update individuals’ knowledge of a subject in light of recent advances in the area;
 to update individuals’ skills, attitudes and approaches in light of the development of new
teaching techniques and objectives, new circumstances and new educational research;
 to enable individuals to apply changes made to curricula or other aspects of teaching
practice;
 to enable schools to develop and apply new strategies concerning the curriculum and other
aspects of teaching practice;
 to exchange information and expertise among teachers and others, e.g. academics,
industrialists
 to help weaker teachers become more effective.

Professional Development Activities

Within the scope of a professional growth plan, teachers and school administrators can undertake

a range of professional learning activities including reading professional journals, trying out new
practices in the classroom and joining professional organizations. Below is a list of professional
development activities that can be undertaken individually or collaboratively as part of a
professional development plan.

Action Research
In undertaking action research, educators begin by asking how current practice might be
improved.
They then study the relevant literature and research to select an approach that might improve
current practice.

Book Study
Book study groups are an effective form of professional development that educators at all levels
can use to facilitate their professional growth. Book studies work best if the participants have
similar skills and interests

Collaborative Curriculum Development

Collaborative curriculum development provides a unique opportunity for teachers to delve
deeply
into their subject matter. Working together, teachers can design new planning materials, teaching

methods, resource materials and assessment tools.

Conferences
Conferences can provide very effective professional development opportunities, particularly
when
they are part of a teacher’s ongoing professional development plan.

Community/Service Organizations
Community and/or service organizations provide an opportunity for teachers and school
administrators to develop leadership skills and gain important knowledge related to their role and

community context. Examples of community/service organizations include church, service clubs,

Scouts, Girl Guides and sporting groups.

Curriculum Mapping
Curriculum maps are tools to organize teaching. They outline a sequence for delivering content
and provide a clear scope for what must be taught to all students as specified in the provincial
curriculum. By mapping what's actually taught and when and aligning it with assessment data,
teachers can modify instruction.

Hosting a Student Teacher

Hosting a student teacher is a form of mentoring, except that the experienced teacher has an
obligation to focus on supporting the development of standards related to interim certification.

Integrated Curriculum Planning

The terms “integrated curriculum planning,” “interdisciplinary teaching” and “thematic
teaching” are
often used synonymously. The teacher organizes curriculum so that it cuts across subject-matter
lines, bringing topics into meaningful association and allowing students to focus on broad areas
of
study.

Leadership Development Programs

Leadership development programs are generally designed to provide teachers aspiring to school
or district administration with an opportunity to learn about various aspects of the role and thus
increase the pool of applicants for leadership positions.

Mentors and Mentorship

Mentoring is a confidential process through which an experienced professional provides another
with information, support, feedback and assistance for the purpose of refining present skills,
developing new ones and enhancing problem solving and decision making in a way that
promotes
professional development.

Online PD Programs
Some organizations and postsecondary institutions have developed online courses, tutorials and
self-guided programs for teacher professional development. Most programs have a registration
fee.

Post-Secondary Courses
Teachers interested in continuing their academic development can register for credit courses
offered by postsecondary institutions. Some programs are offered using outreach or online
strategies.
Symposia, Institutes and Retreats
Institutes are intensive, specialized sessions that focus on one topic or issue. Institutes and
retreats provide opportunities for teachers to learn new teaching strategies and techniques and to
explore in depth with colleagues different dimensions of their profession.

Teachers’ Conventions
Local, provincial and national conferences provide a forum in which ideas can be debated,
analyzed and sometimes validated. They can inspire, motivate and create feelings of renewal.
Some school staffs participate in conferences and seminars as groups and then meet to discuss
what they learned and how it can improve student learning and classroom practice.

In-service Education: the professional development programs that are offered to practicing
classroom teachers.

Preservice Education: the programs at institutions of higher education (typically through

schools
or colleges of education) that prepare new teachers for grades K-12.

WEEK 17

Planning A Teaching Demonstration

A demonstration lesson is a planned lesson taught to an interview committee or a group of

students to assess your teaching abilities and skills. The process can vary depending on the
school:
 You may be directed to teach a specific topic or a particular skill; or, you may be able to
teach a lesson entirely of your own choosing.
 You might be asked to teach a 15-minute lesson to the interview committee; or, you might
be asked to teach a 45–60 minute lesson to a class of students.
 Sometimes the interview committee will provide time after the lesson to reflect with you on
how it went as well.

Below are four important criteria for giving a successful demonstration.

 Organize and deliver a purposeful lesson

What with standardized testing and criteria for teaching to specific standards, teachers face
high demands for accountability. There never seems to be enough time in the school day to
cover everything. Effective teachers must be well-prepared, well-organized, and purposeful
in their instruction.

Tips for making it happen:

 Practice, practice, practice! You can never practice too much before your actual
teaching demo.
 Provide a copy of your formal lesson plan to all evaluators.
 When preparing, make sure you are clear about the objective of the lesson. In the
classroom, begin by telling students the goal of the lesson so they have clear
expectations.
 Choose a lesson subject that you know inside and out.
 Don’t load up on creative strategies or tools (such as technology) that don’t add to
the purpose of the lesson.
 Have a clear beginning, middle, and end to your lesson.
 In preparing, give yourself a rough timeframe for each part of the lesson.
 Although you need to plan the sequencing and flow of the lesson, be flexible. Don’t
rush to a new part of the lesson if students aren’t ready. Don’t linger on another part
if students have a good grasp of the material
 Use interactive teaching strategies such as cooperative learning to engage all
learners simultaneously.
 Provide students with many opportunities to interact, both with you and each other.
 Model concepts and instructions.
 Deliver positive feedback that is specific and genuine.

 Respond to all learners.

Effective teachers recognize the wide range of needs among diverse learners in the
classroom. They use knowledge of how their students learn along with their students’
individual interests, strengths, challenges, language, cultural backgrounds, and
developmental needs to mold their lessons. In addition, effective teachers collaborate with
other school personnel in teaching students with special needs.

Tips for making it happen:

 Begin the lesson by getting to know the learners, building rapport, and pre-
assessing.
 Incorporate a variety of teaching techniques into your lesson to ensure you address
all learning styles.
 Anticipate the cultural differences in your class and weave in cultural connections in
your lesson.
 Check in with students regularly to make sure they are grasping the content.
 If some students are having difficulty, determine whether you might reach these
students using another technique.
 Bring the lesson to a close by allowing students to self-assess and/or summarize
their learning.

 Manage the class.

Effective teachers create the conditions for a safe, productive learning environment. They
have a plan for a well-managed classroom based on a learning community, structures,
routines, and clear expectations and instructions.

Tips for making it happen:

 Begin the lesson by setting ground rules (norms) for successful learning (e.g.,
respect, safety, responsibility).
 Use specific positive feedback to motivate students and set a positive tone for
learning.
 Make notes in your lesson plan about when working with small groups might be
advantageous.
 Have students form small groups at the start of the lesson so you can easily move
from whole-class instruction to small-group interaction.
 Remind students of the ground rules you established at the beginning.
 In order to foster trust and rapport, address individual students (or small groups) by
name when providing feedback, and make the feedback specific to the actions of
those students.
 Don’t be afraid to move around the classroom.

 Reflect and make adjustments in the moment of teaching.

Effective teachers work from a well-conceived plan of action. However, during instruction
they should monitor their students’ learning and make changes to their lesson plans as
needed.

Tips for making it happen:

 Frequently ask students questions to assess their understanding.
 Change direction if students are not grasping a concept.
 Re-teach if it’s clear students are confused or need more information.
 In preparing for your lesson, consider other ways to present the material if students
aren’t grasping the concepts.
 If you need to change direction during your demonstration, make sure you keep the
overarching goal of the lesson in mind. Don’t go off on tangents that take you away
from the purpose of your lesson.
 Use your gut. Every lesson is different, and there are no set prescriptions for how to
react to the unexpected in the classroom. Don’t be afraid to follow your instincts.

Demonstration is a teacher activity with a purpose to teach a practical skill or why certain
outcomes occur

Feedback the information received by the teacher about the success of, or problems experienced
with, a session or course as it is progressing
1

Definitions of Communication Disorders

and Variations
Ad Hoc Committee on Service Delivery in the Schools

About this Document: These guidelines are an official statement of the American Speech-Language-
Hearing Association (ASHA). They provide guidance on definitions of communication disorders and
variations, but are not official standards of the Association. They were developed by the Ad Hoc
Committee on Service Delivery in the Schools: Frances K. Block, chair; Amie Amiot, ex offico; Cheryl
Deconde Johnson; Gina E. Nimmo; Peggy G. Von Almen; Deborah W. White; and Sara Hodge Zeno.
Diane L. Eger, 1991–1993

vice president for professional practices, served as monitoring vice president. The 1992 guidelines
supersede the paper tItled “Communication Disorders and Variations,” Asha, November 1982, pages
949–95O.

I. A communication disorder is an impairment in the ability to receive, send, process, and

comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems. A communication disorder may
be evident in the processes of hearing, language, and/or speech. A communication disorder may range in
severity from mild to profound. It may be developmental or acquired. Individuals may demonstrate one or
any combination of communication disorders. A communication disorder may result in a primary
disability or it may be secondary to other disabilities.

A. A speech disorder is an impairment of the articulation of speech sounds, fluency and/or voice.

1. An articulation disorder is the atypical production of speech sounds characterized by

substitutions, omissions, additions or distortions that may interfere with intelligibility.

2. A fluency disorder is an interruption in the flow of speaking characterized by atypical rate,

rhythm, and repetitions in sounds, syllables, words, and phrases. This may be accompanied by
excessive tension, struggle behavior, and secondary mannerisms.
 3. A voice disorder is characterized by the abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality,
pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration, which is inappropriate for an individual's age and/or
sex.

B. A language disorder is impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written and/or other symbol
systems. The disorder may involve (1) the form of language (phonology, morphology, syntax), (2) the
content of language (semantics), and/or (3) the function of language in communication (pragmatics) in

any combination.
1. Form of Language

a. Phonology is the sound system of a language and the rules that govern the sound combinations.

b. Morphology is the system that governs the structure of words and the construction of word forms.

c. Syntax is the system governing the order and combination of words to form sentences, and the
relationships among the elements within a sentence.

2. Content of Language
a. Semantics is the system that governs the meanings of words and sentences.

3. Function of Language

a. Pragmatics is the system that combines the above language components in functional and socially
appropriate communication.

C. A hearing disorder is the result of impaired auditory sensitivity of the physiological auditory
system. A hearing disorder may limit the development, comprehension, production, and/or maintenance
of speech and/or language. Hearing disorders are classified according to difficulties in detection,
recognition, discrimination, comprehension, and perception of auditory information. Individuals with
hearing impairment may be described as deaf or hard of hearing.

1. Deaf is defined as a hearing disorder that limits an individual's aural/oral communication

performance to the extent that the primary sensory input for communication may be other than
the auditory channel.

2. Hard of hearing is defined as a hearing disorder, whether fluctuating or permanent, which

adversely affects an individual's ability to communicate. The hard-of-hearing individual relies on
the auditory channel as the primary sensory input for communication.

D. Central auditory processing disorders are deficits in the information processing of audible
signals not attributed to impaired peripheral hearing sensitivity or intellectual impairment. This
information processing involves perceptual, cognitive, and linguistic functions that, with appropriate
interaction, result in effective receptive communication of auditorily presented stimuli. Specifically,
CAPD refers to limitations in the ongoing transmission, analysis, organization, transformation,
elaboration, storage, retrieval, and use of information contained in audible signals. CAPD may involve
the listener's active and passive (e.g., conscious and unconscious, mediated and unmediated, controlled
and automatic) ability to do the following:
attend, discriminate, and identify acoustic signals;

transform and continuously transmit information through both the peripheral and central nervous systems;

filter, sort, and combine information at appropriate perceptual and conceptual levels; store and retrieve
information efficiently; restore, organize, and use retrieved information;

segment and decode acoustic stimuli using phonological, semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic knowledge;
and

attach meaning to a stream of acoustic signals through use of linguistic and nonlinguistic contexts. II.
Communication Variations

A. Communication difference/dialect is a variation of a symbol system used by a group of

individuals that reflects and is determined by shared regional, social, or cultural/ethnic factors. A
regional, social, or cultural/ethnic variation of a symbol system should not be considered a disorder of
speech or language.

B. Augmentative/alternative communication systems attempt to compensate and facilitate,

temporarily or permanently, for the impairment and disability patterns of individuals with severe
expressive and/ or language comprehension disorders. Augmentative/alternative communication may be
required for individuals demonstrating impairments in gestural, spoken, and/or written modalities.

Communication Disorders in the Classroom

Tips for Helping Students with Speech and Language Impairments

Students who have communication disorders will need special help from teachers in the
regular education environments

Being able to communicate opinions and ideas verbally is one of the most important skill that
students will learn in school. When a child has a communication disorder, it can adversely
impact both speech and language development, resulting in the student falling behind both
socially and academically. Teachers can help by first understanding what type of communication
disorder the student has.

Is it a Speech Disorder or a Language Disorder?

Communication disorders are some of the most prevalent problems in children’s early speech
development. A student with a communication disorder may be suffering from difficulties in
either speech or language development. In a speech disorder, a child may have trouble forming
the typical sounds of verbal speech, omitting or adding consonants to words and distorting or
substituting incorrect sounds. A child with a speech disorder may also stutter.

A language disorder is indicated when a child has difficulty understanding language, both verbal
and written. Students with language development disorders often have trouble with sentence
formation, word sequencing, clarifying ideas, following directions, and may demonstrate poor
classroom participation.

Effective Teaching Strategies for Speech and Language Impairments

Students with communication disorders will most likely have a speech therapist, and in many
cases that resource will be available in the classroom. Working with a speech therapist either
within the classroom or as a collaborative resource outside of school will immensely help the
regular teacher with speech and language disorders. Additionally, the following tips may be
helpful in the inclusive setting:

1. Show understanding, patience, and acceptance.

2. Provide extra time to answer questions.
3. Encourage speech practice by having one-on-one conversations with the student about
his or her interests.
4. Keep lectures clear, simple, pronounced, and in proper language syntax (no slang).
5. Make eye contact with the student when listening and speaking.
6. Repeat mispronounced phrases properly as a question so it does not seem like criticism.
7. Never mimic a child with a speech disorder.
8. Don’t avoid calling on children with language development problems, and particularly if
the answers are to be

short (a couple of words).

9. Make sure the student speaks in front of the class, answers a question, etc. at least once
per day.
10. Set up practice verbal skills sessions between pairs of students where they read aloud,
work on a problem
 orally, or play games that encourage speech.

11. Do not tolerate teasing or bullying by other students.

12. Do not point out communication disorders to others in the class.
13. Keep the classroom environment relaxed and organized.

When a student has a communication disorder, teachers can be immensely helpful by learning
about the particular speech and language disorder afflicting the student, following a few
straightforward teaching strategies, and working cooperatively with the child’s speech therapist
either within the classroom setting or externally.