ILETISiM KURAML-I DERS NOTLARI Haarlayan: | Y.Dog.Dr.Demir Oner sans thin adn istanbul Universitesi Mithendislik Fakiiltesi Elektrik-Elektronik Mithendisligi Boliimii Ocak 2006 Aveilar-istanbulDe INTRODUCTION ‘ The -purpore of @ communication system is to convey information from a rie which is called “source” Pea eae calles ‘erhinotion’, Blephene , vedio and Heleviion are fhe mock familiar examples of communication systems. Oher examples are wireless , radar, felemeter, factinile ete. Communication systems are clesignedt according to He type of communication, Various factors such as the number of Sources , the number of users, the olistance’ } whether fhe users are mobile or stationary 7 the aaliadsility of the rystem are considered in Hhe eevian of communication systems. In this course , after lookinp over the main types and basic clefnibont common to alll electrical communication syHems we are guing Yo examina the basic principles ood dLypes of oligitel communication Systems . ELEMENTS OF A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Adapted communitetion sytem can be mocdelecl of fe/Jows i Input Input Transmitted — Receiveol h outpuck Onlpuk oe Signal i signed Sipe message aa ° frensmission] . output - Transducer || animitter|>-] ee fo] Receiver pee ' Source DESTINATION oa (user)Source: Onginates the messager (such as voice , hort , heat, cliplacamenrt , ee.) . Some sources create electrical signol, such. 2 as conpulert , In this case no irput transducer ts neccled.. Input Travsdscar + Convert: a nanclectieal input mesaze inte an electrical “input signal” (microphone, video camera , photocell, thermocouple , olijplacament gouge ete.) . The" input signal” can also be referred as the "baseband signal”. Transmitter + Modifies the baseband signal for efficient: trontmission Alte pecfacming the necessary modulation and amplification the transmitter sends the. signak Ctransmithed sighal) to the Hrancmission medium or channel . The transmitter consists one er more of the fallowing subsystems : preemphasizers Sampler, coder, modulator and amphifier . Pansmission Media oc Channel : The mecium tprough whieh the transmitter ookpuk is sent (such as a pair of wire, @ coawiak cable, @ waveguide , cn. ophical fiber or a rodio Link ) & Receive : Leyponses the signak from the channel by undoing the Signal modifications made af the fransmilter and the channel , The ceceiver output it fecirto the oufput fransolucer. The receiver may consittefa demodulator , a decoder. @ filler , a deemphasizer and an amplifier. Demodulation, oleco ding and deemphasiauing mast be made in accordance with modulation , coding ond preemphasiains made at tha transmitter, Output: Transelucer i converts fe electrical signals inte its original formas needed by the user. A loudspeaker and a picture tube ave the mort familiar exomplet oP ovtpad. frearducer.ses oc Destination; The unit to which, tha mestage it com munccated it can be a Person (user) » & computer , a plotter, ete. The output mesioge it similar fo the orginal inouk massage. AUAITATIONS OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS The transmitted signak 13 subjected to the following undesiroble effects created by the Fransmission. channel : 1. Mose it definecl as random and unpredictable eleediicad signals produced by natured proceses both internol and externa to the system, g&xternal Noise sources + Man-made noise generated by fully i contact switches of electrical equipment 5 + Automobile ignibien cadtation 3 o Fluorescent lights 5 + Natural noise from lightniag : + ElectricoQ storms ; + Solor and intergalecke radiation ; With proper care, extecnal noise can be minimized on even eliminated. Internal Noise Sources + Thermal metion of clecdrons in condusclors (Thermal nvise) + Random emission, ALffusion of recombination of charged carvers in electronic devices (shot noise) Proper care can veduce the effect of infernal noise but con never eliminate it Noise is one of the basic factors that sets a llait on the rale of communication , Ace ete a a ests tiDC, Signal. fo Noise Ratio (SNR). ’ Signal Power By definition SNR oh Noise Power 5 the distance fom the transmiter inerecces the sgoal stoenghh cecrenses while the noite Jevel increases . Therefore, SNR continuously clacreases along the chownel , i Aeplification of the received signal 4o recover tha attenuotion is of no use because tha noite will also be amplifted . In addifion, owplifiention further deteriorates “the SNA because of the woise creoked by the amplifier itself. Special filters are used at the receiver fo increase the SNR, é 2. Attenuation 2 Heauation is clefiered as the reduchon in the signal strength as it travels along the transmission medium , lt 13 alsa called “ transmission loss”, Attenuation is directly proportional tx distance and freguaney ee Roane and snow also increases attenuation where the atmoghare use as the trantmition medium. Gpoetal fiber) Repeaters ore used along the. trantmistion medim and egue lizer with gain and phase characteristics complementary to those of the chomnal it used at fhe receiver. 3. Distorsion The waseformm perturbation canted by the impacfect cesporte of the Sqstem tt called distorsion . 4pe Vuneler the effect of divtorrion , Me shape of Ihe trinsmi ted Signed 1s changed.” EE - ee laput Hgnel output vignad (elisforted ) In order to avoid chstortion , the bandwith of the tyrkem should be selectel in the constant region. q FAL system rerponse chacacterishes, and He bandwidth of He Sistem shoul be. mace greater than thot of the signok « This fs not elway possible in practical systems. Incase of linvar distortion , fhe duitorsion may be corrected, or ad “least ‘reduded bg iuscng equalizer at the receiver, 4a Interference Interference results {rom the combination of two om more Sigool in He same fiequeray band, Ata retul lakerference , the signals some times aclel up to create a more powerfull signal ‘anol come times cancel cack other to creake a weaker signol .206 AND. DIGITAL_ MESSAGES Analay messazs are charactented by data whose value varies over & continuous range . Fromples af analop mesiages + The temperature or atmospheric pressure of @ certain lo cation; » water level fa certain water reservoir 5 + Speech signal at the output of a wierophane . Digital messages are constructed with a finile number of Symbols. Examples of digital messages emack and space + Morse coded delegraph enewage (conrtructed from ve symbols? + Printed Lext constructed. fom a known quantity of symbols (fr example, 50. symbols of letters, numbers , space and punchuations) 5 + Computer messager. Binary digth i bru 0 symbul: in digital message is constructed from tw sabe. Ma ary digit? message is constructed: from M Symbols The task of the receiver isto extract a mesiage from a dis tortect and noisy signak at the channel output. Since chyteal messages are transmitted by using finite set of electneal signals, rmascage i toh signals ts easier phan from analop signals. extraction from i} fA ca) Transmitted signal PP ae ©) Received chitorted signal (without noise) AMA; ©) Received cittorted signa (with noise) GC) Regeneroted Signob at the receiver (delayed) 6MODULATION oc Baseband signals produced by various information Joucces are not always suitable for direct trantmission over a given channel . Therefore, the baseband signal ts usect to modify some paromeler of @ high frequency carrier signal . Ths process ts know as'modulation’ Rt the receiver, the modulated signal must pass Harough a reverse process called “ slemodulation ” jin order fo obtain. the base anol tignak . There ore two types of modulation eepending on the dype of camer: Continuous Wave (Cw) Modulation Continuous Wave (Cw) Modulation Mere, the carrier ss a sinusord of high Frequency » and one 4, os of Ms parameters (such as amplituce, frequen In proportion to the amplitude of the basthand tignal . (a) Analog CW Modulation Cwhere the modulating. s/gnal is analog) do thls case, we obtain the following modudot'on types s ~ Amplitucle Modulotion — Frequency Moduulettio n, ~ Phase Modulatbon (AM) CFI) (Pm) FM ood PIA are also clasifect as Pogle Modu lotion” Linnnn VUUUUY if - 2 ayn nec ult Carrier Modilating (besebard) signad (analog) Amplitude Modulatecl wave Frequency Modulated soit (FM wove resembles FM wave) er phase )isvaned |(6) Digital Cw Modulation in digital CW modulation the moculahing signal i's ~ digitah,end it vacies the amplitude , frequency or phase of a sinusoidal carrier in proportion to its omplitude. There are hoe types of digild CW modulation dupending on whether the modulating signa is binary or Meary: @) Binary Modulation were, the modulating by Sin nwt fer ar To/2, 2 Age 4b Fede + f Adee Ab )24e ~To/a ten eee 2 To/2. fa. 2 £4) cosnu,t At = 2 A cosnurt dt lb J~toa Te Jee d ea ; = 2 A_ cinnwst |= 2A [sinna, &~ sinnw.3)] Te NW, 2/2 To 2 2A (2 oS =_4A v 224 ( sin nw. Z) = tha om BS) = 2A sin OTE Tr Te Tole, ze. byez 2 £G) smawet dt = af Asinqw, ¢ dt Te Dayo. Te Jejn, te 7 224 aia Ze cosnw,6& aA cosnuy, ae 24 [cosmo cosnw,(- 5) = 2A (cosnw, % — cosnw, & 2, . & 2 ) oe Hence, we can replace the values ay , aq and ba in the above Fourier series expansion or use them to obtain the drigonometne Fourier series which is more compact and meaningful . 20dd ; De The ‘trigonometric Fourier series \s given by” - 2 f(t) = Cot Z Cy cot (nwt +0,) “Cea, = Ae Coe Varah 2 (24 sic ne) 4 (o)* = 2A gy nite, Tr Te Tr To O2- ton 2 tewto 2 0 ay lnsecting these values we obtain the tigonometie Fourier series of the qiven pulse tran. a : ; f= Aes 2(24 sin STZ) cos (nwt) ie Red Ta : As a special case of the rectangular pulse , we can consider a square pulse train , where T= To/2. For this case Co= 4 cayer/2 CBUIEY POS all ae for m odd ° for n even he Fourier series becomes “1/2, : ¢ ae os COS nudet nh (ie A f 2a NEL 2,5) oP + a se cosut 2A cos Bunt + 2A cos Suit cTiy st ~ 2A cos twrtyn. 71 Notice thet the alternating odd harmonies (3rd, Fh, HMMs) have negative sings. 24 YeDe “For example , the third harmone term € 2A)cos duet | 31 can be expressed as 2A cos (3w.t -71)- an Hence, the amlitude and ‘phase of the 3rd harmoaie are 20/3 and — 1, respectively . However, such a representation will require both amplitude and phase spectra . On the other hand, if we allow amplitude +o be negative, we can Sou thot the 3rd harmonic amplitude is - 2A/3I and the phase is zero. For his reason whenever b, =O, we shall allow amplitude to take on negative valuec and avoid the necessity of a phase spectrum (all phases zero) ; The amplihde spectram of the square pulse is as fellows : Another special case of inferest ic when TO and A-reo such that At= 4 In tus case, each pulse becomes an impulse of unit strength, and £(b) becomes an impulse drain as shown -below : 22 ;c fe ; ie t “3% -2% -T ° Te 2% 3% Thus, f(4) can be expressed os faye Z SkenT)= Co Z Cy connuist Replacing At=4 and &o0. in the constants already obtained, we have Coe AE A To Te 2m C2) BA eee tso CT/To) Tr Te Applying Hoe L Hopital’ rule to obtain Bim SK 4 x20 x mh (SIn5) = im SK at Cue 2 (= stat) Hence, the Fourier series of om impulse train is obbained as : FQ= La Beast + eos dnt + Zcosdwot +n The ampli Pe spectrum (or the frequency spectrum) is shown bebw. cn ° W 2Qw. Bure NW 23De Exponential (or complex) Fourier Repretentation of Pen'ed’e Signals From “the Euler focmula je . e@ = cosO+jsmd -jo eM cos —j sine and using Osnurt we olotaue the exponential form of the Siw and cos : . jnart — —jrwet cos nut = & € Siw nWet inserting hese expressivas in the genera exprestion of Fourier series 2 . fe) = a +2 Can cosnwst + by sin nuit) ne we oblam the exponential representation of Fouder Series jug oo jmnot — ~ C+ jqitnyos i 2k atmos 99 | — (tej ttn) t -0.5 (144-7) See: [ 7 (tty i 1] ~ (Uj 4m) -o5 -j2m eee (- ee iH) taj4qm “05 : = 2 A— @°( cosatn 47'sin 210) V4 jh Pe eser mie: ed) = 2(\- 060653) : (4j4in Ve 541 | = O.F9 At jan Here , Ja,]= eOameg a the amplitude (or magnefude) V4+ tem nt 8, = — tan'(4mn) the phase 22De! 0.79 Amplitude. Spectrum -24n ism Bn BCT Phase Spectrim The trigonometric. Fourier series of the fame pertodic Lunehon is 2 f= G+ Z Cy cos (Ymmt+ 0, ) nee Where Co, Cy and Oy com be obtained as 2 : - Cor OFS 5 Re 0°89 ( Fame 5 G2 tax! (att) Cus O79 Notice that pte Amplitude Speetrm [CnJ=2])6n] for mod oot | fog t Co = Ge > w and the phase of an ter ae Spectrum: are the ot Same for nyo ot Bt bt ty nn \ “a Se Phaie Spectrum 28ce De THE FOURIER TRANSFORM Some physical problems are difficult 4o be solved in time-domain. In order to simplify the solutions of such problems we can transform the problem into a proper clomam. We have seen that periodic ‘signals can be reprented by Fourier sees. Similardy, hon pervodce: simals caw be expressed in terms of its frequency components by using the Fourier transform Cor the Fouirer \ntegral) wethod. Among the other transforms , Laplace , 2, Walsh, Hadamard , Hilbect transfoms con be menHoned . The Fourier transform Fw) ef a signal f(t) is a frequency-domain : expression , and the analysis rode by using tis transform is called spectro analysis? The Fourier Transform of a nonpenodse signal f(t) is defined by the following expression : 0 Hs cs ae 2m Fla) = P{W} = f foyer ae | or Fe fees This is called “direct Fourier transform ” The ceverse proces is the" inverse Fourier transform’, and it is defined as : fw) = F free} { Fle) a” Ls | on 00 [Ears fay feceie ay Im the above. expressions £ can be used instead ef wi. Then we hove w= 2Hf , due amdt . xDe AY simple representation is shown below FlEw} Time dornain fe) Frequency domain Ff Fs) FW and Flaw) are called. a ‘Fourter Transform Pale” and cam be shown as fe) <> Foo) The necessan condition for the existance of Fourier transform is 2 i ff lf@y| dt <0 a0 'F €@) has even symmetry , then Fw) is real and only the amplitude spectrum con be drawn. Tf Fw) is not real, then the Omelitude spectrum ond phase spectrum are drawn. 30De Properties of, Fourier Transform i @) near Superposition Since Fourier transform isa linear transformadion , it has the following property ; fo EG) Fw) falt) <> Fa(w) & and Bare conctants , then. [x feel+ PE@)er[ FG) + BFC) ] Roof: PEON Le Stay eee (2) Scaling Let xsat ode gn dbe ds. Then for a>0 1 $< Fw) Fifa = £ [p00 34, =LF() ther. for a reall constant a,| far aco , the limits of integration are inferchanged. that Se hace the multiplying factor = (4/0) or, equivalently, taj. F(0k) <> a F(2) Tris completes the proof, Note that the function fat) represents £(t) compressed in. fime by a factor “a”, whereas the function Fw) represents F(w) expanded in feequency by the same factor “a”. States that Thus Whe scaling properiyYThe compression of a function fe) the. 7 7 . rs ., in"time clomaim is equivalent +o the expansion of its Fourier transform F(w) in the Frequency domain by the same factor, or vice versa . For a special case of a=-41 , if f(t) es Fw) then (Ct) <> FCw) 34 where F(-w) = F*()na (3) Symmetry or Duality Le f(t) <> Flw) , then 1 Fe) o 7 &) <> {Ew) aw. Example: If 1. 25 gre uw) , ther art + at Suct)es 1 or ov ue) ee a-jo are Example: Tf f(t) <> Fw) and if fb) is given fay Fw) 4 Fay “tho ee % o ia FC) } F(a) a. 3 t ——> G) Time Shifting TE f(t) > FW), then fe-to)er Flayed”*e This property states that if a function {(L) is shifted in the positive direction Ly an amount t, , the effect is equivalent to multiplying its Fourier transform by eni*s This means that the amplitude of the spectrum js uneffected but the phase is changed by -wt» (the phase shift takes the values ate, ~Wate puny ~ Wate for sw, ser) 32elglenes a Dewees OG) Frequency Shifting ; a i Af fl) ae Flw) Aver : just Ft) ees F(w-w.) This means that’ multiplication of a function f(t) by the factor ed js equivalent to shifting ity Fourier transform by amount we. This property is calle the modulation theorem. Example: Tf f(t) <> Fw) and if F(w) is given as shown below — Fw), -Wmn OO Yn bat Find the Fourier transform of - (4) cosw,t Replacing cos Wet by its exponential expression f@) ( et) = 4) Sa a fa) ot 2 2 z Applying the frequency shift property FE) coswet ae AF (wun) + 5 (w+) (6) Area_under £(&) If £4) <> Flw) , then {farat = FG) The cesult is obtained simply by putting w=0-in the Fourier transform formula . 23(7) Area under Flu) ; De “TF FQ) ee FQ), hen f Flw)dw = £6) The result is obtained simply by patting teo in the inverse Fourier transform formula . ) Differenvation Tf £@ <> Fw) , then a £) <> Cw)" Flw) ie dhe Hime ~ domain, 2 Foo) <= (je) ¢®) in the frequency - domain ) Integrator TE ft) e+ Flo) then, i [feo fe FH) w FW)dw 4 fe f e got (0) Conjugate Functions LE £(t) <» Fw), then for a complex-valued Hime function {@) we have £4) > Fw) 5 for arealualued (4), we have a4 Flo) = F%Cw)peercasey pe Suhit Impulse Function (or Dirac- Delta Function) The unit impulse can be considered as a narrow pulte of unit area in the limit as its width €->0 and its hight 4/€ > eo . t S()z00 for too SO, 4 S(t)= 0, for t#0 t ail “Slated ol ae ° ro nie) a narrow pulse The unit im pale The unit impulse is alo known os the derivative of the unit step function 4) - 4 4.onr— where, we) = oO fie to ! got “) = for tro Properties of the Unit Impulse Function for tate S(t-t.) a) 5(4-4,) 24° (tet 4 fie LAte Oo + t 8 toté = [EG )des f S(beteWt = 1 (The ace under the ay toe unit impulse is unity) @) f&) (4) = FOIE) | and oF <__T Loft) separ [FO se db = Seo) (Ie)de = Feo) This is known as the ” Sampling property “of the unit impulse . 35coed | 4). Similar to the aloove property De £4) S(k-to) = f(t0) F(t - te)» S $04) 5( te) = f FQ) (tte) dt = FQ) fOR-b dE = €l4e) J J J 4 &) Time - shifting Property where the sign @ cepresents F(t) @ SG = F@) the convolution iateyl f(t) @ Skt) = £(k- to) f() @ 5(b-nT) = f(4-T) (6) Scaling properly S(kt) od “t at; : (ets 5 fs@aeat SLGay ett 1 Therefore Sy = kS(KE) (#) The Fourier transform of S(L) is F[SW}- [sy Sue = fs) Sdes [Se rde= 4 =e Pear —s Theefire SE) ao 4 fay F(a), &&) <> cn estesaa fo ° He Similarly the Fourier transform ef F(4-to) is F(St-tys [dete ees feeee irae. gate &(4-4,) > 8% Line shift in Hine domain is equivalent to phase shifE in the frequency domain 36DC Jie'-ef amplitude k is represented as " fw, ‘ 4k £&) =k S(b-t,) ° ie An impulse tram wi fey i Pt ttt tte dt fa= 2 S&-nT) -aT 31 -27-7 O] TF ar 3T aT t th a cepetition cale Tis represented as The impulse function has similar properties in the frequency domain (a) Fw) Sw) = F(0) S(w) and i F(a) Sw w%) = F(%) 6(w-we) J[ F(0) S(o-w.) dw = Flos) @) Frequency shifting property F(w) @ S§(w) = F(w) F(w) @ S(w-w,) = F(w- %s) ©) Sealing property S(kwo) = S| tae (kl a (1) The javerse Fourier transform of S(w) 2 P*(stul] = bf 6 odo 2d if Saye dts fe F(w) Yaa So) — or o isdade The inverse Fourier, transform of J(u -we). «ise a jak : - jet yd e" FL Slowed]s A f Sfaren) odes $f sca-ey)e se i oo } ; = pelt Sy wjdw 2d or & 2, ar Therefore jut a er Slur we) and similarly 2" <> 2nSloa) an De = or <> US (WF we) it and fF) <> Fw) foreanple t {(k) = € ‘w) = ; FCW), ar . ie I : ge agceeee eee Cc Neaeea gpetaearigy tite Teaipe : 28sod “Example + pe Find the. Fourier’ transform of the function f(t) defined below fa) A fay.fh Ete Ofer IE) >= Teo z z° zw aiiea re njwt -jwt ajwt Fw) = FFG = f pay e oes fA edt = AE a - tr. a te ; Hue! Z =A ek 82) A (o°2_ et) je Multiply 9 both the nominator and the clenominator by & we obtain 7 . 3 jwt/2 wr, Fla BA CE BM) ge (2 ne ti 2 yok Qjor/2 ) 39att pe | Example : Find the Fourier. transform. of f(4)=Acoswet and | plot the frequency spectra . a fee) = Acosu,t 2A (eo, elt) FFQ)] = Plo) = f fe) oe =A (ce eat Sot gio Nl 2b fot aa, A fem. eit at As previously obtained from the inverse Fourier transform of Yoo impulse function we have oe dt = 20 Sto) and | set ae -[@ eS (unwedt = 2nd (w-w,) i J, ——— fot stay. ff gions oo dt 2 2S (waur) | ao -_ Hence wie obsbain Ce Sef) 4468) F(w)= Aon S(w-w.) +4 2 5 (w tw) SAN S(w- we) + ANS(urtw,e) or intems of f lee| ES FC Qt 2a Ar A Att t t 4 t ny a 7 wor Wo oO We Ww oO we Double sided amplitude spectra Single- sided Nok: Phase spectra is Bere amplitude spectrum since. £04) has oven fonction symmely 40De Find” the Fourier transform of f(t) <'Acos (wt +8) and plot the frequency spectra. E xaimple 2” (wot -jwek $0): ae ree +6) 30 wet je -} s4e e€ +48 eat ie 530 F(w) = 4é 21S (w-v.) + fe amd (w +.) = AW eo? S(w wd) + ATT a? S02 40.) lela, [Fo ama A t mA "wee We ° saga Fw) Fw) e .o =a te ee a Dowble- sided Single ~sided Amplitude and Phase spectra Amplitude and phase spectra il i or Fe Be SUL) + 4° 5(F 4G) Fal A A Zz Zz7 iC. | Homer + Find the: Fourier transform and plot the frequency : spectra of Yhe function f£@). ; Fk) = 2+ 6 cos (210.430) + 3 sin 2m30t - eos 235% Solufion : £&) =2+6c0s (mTdoe+ E )+3cos(2m3o¢- )+ 4 00s (amast-m) F(w)= air| 25(w) & oO 5 (amv) +$ OMS (weami0) 2 PSone) 43. $ (1042130) -t ne +4 J" S(w- 2135) + 4 e 5(w +2135) } \Fe)| [Foo an 1 on an re id pele gel -pr Gn -2or 0 dow or Yor ts 0 Aoir gor Fon? : Flo) Fw) Tr z rz L l -2on if 60m Fon ‘i t 60m Fon. a | 9 aor iu - - -ay eat at Double-s/oled frequency pacha One-sided frequ ency spectra 42aC anole + Find the Fourier transform and plot the frequency is Spectra of the function g(t) given vélow ; JQ) = fC) Acosuet —, where $Q) 2 meas, Solution + 9) = Mr coswiet cosy t 2 mA [cos (w.-wre) t 08 (twa)t] Cle) = ar nah [F(1Crewa)) +5 (00 + (ure wn) + F(w- (ern) +5 (ws (ween) ] Glu) lw) MAN, Tok ‘ Sa ae we “Wer Wyn, Wet Wy, Oo We Wry Wet Wn o we Wendy Wet Dye Double-sided speckum Single-sided spectrum The phase spectum is zero since g(t) has even function Symmetry 43a _ de Convelution Integral The convolution integral is one of the ynost powerfull. tools im Founer analysis. (a) Convolution in Time - Domain, The convolution integral defines the relation between the input and. output Lime funchons of a linear system in fees of the "unit impulse cesponse” of the system a hy fl) = 9k) @ h(t) Unear systems gle): input signak F(A) + output signal nC) + impulie responce. of the system ® : coavoluhon integrod symbet The output time function (4) is equak to the comvedution of g(t) and W(t) : fara [gla ha-ede = fre g@-Ode This integral oan be uritter in symbolic. form as follows FQ) = 9G) @ kG) If dhe input is a unil impulse function J(t), then the output is equal 4o the impulse response of the linear system , namely f(t) =h(4). 44See ap (DE The interpretation of the integrancl written below is as Gilows: is qwehee f gehe-r) de co G(T) thas the same shape as g(t). Here, a dummy variable T is ued insead of 4. But obtaining. the shape of h(L-t) requires two steps : ~ Fiest, we reverse h(t) in time Cy folding h(t) about the vertical axis and replace + with & to get h(-%); =e Seeond, we chift h(-%) to the right by + units to h(t-@. < to} ue As t takes values from—oo to +00 , the funchow h(t) slides from left to right. as h(£-&) passes over gle), the integral of the multiplication of W(k-t) and'g (Z) is evaluated . That is the area under the mulkilication of h@-z) and g(t) is obtained . This process is done for all values of + from -co to +o. Example : Evaluate the convolution integral of the fanctions g(t) and W(t), and find the output time function f(E) and show each step graphically . yw _| ha | fay V for Rist 0 for Kio v a= { € 45pe. al nao. {Hee for tz0 ° for £40 hee) for LZ-F , Ft) 0 5 7 for Wg. fe) £ “Ye [eco tanac: ef we because 9(7) and hQ-@) do not overlap. Multiplication of these funchons for this region is 2e0, Therefore, the convelution integral for this region is 2ero. =~ Te -T/2, 4Dc 1 ad ot & | fas vist (e*?") i evasr (ae MT gE) ee M2 -@eyIT (et) For teE {We (vie de ewer (é Tole ap. -T -G-D)/r _(4t =Viet (e pir eer) ie ~t, = VHoT (al e”) e Ceres ® For teZ, from equation 1 or 2 we get £(S) = VHT C1- 6!) = VuoT (1-4) £4) 24) @h@) HoT £) rae r/2 Th's plot shows that convolution is a smoothing operation in the sense that g(t) @ W(t) is “smoother” then either of get) or hit). The same result is abbained by reversing shifting, and slicing gt) rather than WG), so convolutionis commutadue ond also associative and distributive : oh=heg commutative 9@ (wv @h)=(gow)oh ossovahve 9@ (w+h)=(4@u)+(g@h) aishibubve 47u pe Homework : Evaluate the convolution integrod f@) = 94) @hw® for glt) and h(t) given below . 4) at 4 4 Dien ary ° zt Solution + for £02 epee) Zhe zs € ~2 ° 2 For t<-3 no overlapping , therefore f(t) =0 (4) For 444, f= fUU)de ee]! = 444]2 --(2) ft t For -34C-1, FO)= [UD de- ce]! = b43 23 3 for HZLSS, FW) = fat et Beat (3) t For t>3 no ovelapping , therefore {) =o fH | aConvolution Property of the Fourler “Transform bc Tf g(t) <> Gl) and h(t) <> HOw) then 9) @ h) <> Glw).Ww) | Hime convolution or 9) @ h(Q) <> G) HY) and 9) hh) es z G(w) @ Hw) frequency convolution or 9G): hi) <> _GC)-@ HO) Proof of 9¢4)@ h(t) c+ Glu).Hdw) eo Cs -jwt Flgmokel] =f [ fy ne-war] er ak Sie aing the integrand = iy =f g(t) [f net) eo at}az ed a WG-0) o> H(w) od . Pa EI =f 4ce) Hewye! "he = HG) [aoe ae Gw) = G(w) H(w) This property clades that evaluating the convolution inlegral of two Hme functions is equivalent to maltiplying their Fourier transforms 49Ya Proof of 9 (4). bd) <> 3 @(w) @ HOw) ais “i ft. (¢ jot ¥ 0 HOO] =A, | [a Set weo-u Je lw rearranging the iokgranct , ; Z é jut -4, foo [af wove eo | dw iv i h(k).€ <> H@-4) De jut 6(a) h@).eo” du 00 = h@ 4 fom ede qt) = h(a) This property states that multiplying Ywo me functions is equivalent to evaluating the convolution integral of Hoe Fourier transforwas of these funchons . This property will be used to simplify the analysis of amplitude modulates signals. § 50pe | Energy Signals and Power Signas “The instantaneous power dissipated in a resistor Q sis defined by a pe et or p= R]iw|* In signal analysis it ts customary to work with a 4 ohm resistor. Regardless of whether a given signal FC) represents a volage or a curcent, the instantaneous power may be expressed as P= |FQ)| 5 for areal signal [feo fea) The total energy of the signal is defined as c= f 1fe))* oe 20 and its ava ower as Po tim Lf mest ‘2 Teme {@) is defined as an energy signal ifand only if the tolot energy of the signal satisfies tha condition OE Soo “£G) is defined as a power signal if and only if the average power of the Signal satisfies the condition a 9S P Ceo The energy and power classification of signals are mubually exelussive . Bt4 De An energy signal has a 2er power, where as a power signal War infinite energy - Signals thot are both deterministic and nonperiodde are energey signals Perto dic. signals and random signals are power signals. ENERGY SPECTRAL DENSITY (ENERGY SPECTRUM) The total energy dissipaded in a A-ohm resistor on which & read signal £(4) is applied is defined as Ea [FE dE —, (here fle) cam alto be called an oe energy signal The toll energy cam be expressed interens of the Fourier Yrancform Fw) where f(t) > Fw). Es {fa Lh fs) ow Jat For veal fle), Fu) = Ela) ond — E(w). Me) = LRGoD]? 2 aa 2 =” 2 E: z4 . {wate 4 J Fea)" = f lreilae This relation i: known as Parievals theorem (alse Plancharel’s theorem). Le states that the total energy of a signok fC) is 52 eer &Sy De. equal to the sum of energy of all fequane, compenents of (CL). Here, \F@)| is Me ornplituce spectrum ef fa) ybo) = Few] is defined at the Energy Spectral Density (650) the unit, of €Sd-is Joule /Ha (er Toule /2m rastian /see ) Spectral Energy Densities of the input and output af & linear system with a-trasfer funchon Hw) 3 HQ) f@) — me Glwy Foe) F(w) = H(w) G(w) ‘Pelee = Lewy Yeu) = | Hw) 6(w)]* = |KO)" ]6Q)|* 4e= [HOD Yo) ‘ Energy Spectral Density ts usek for energy signals that is for both deterministic and nonperiodic signals. 53De PoweR SPECTRAL DENSITY ( POWER SPECTRUM) Tha signal fC) exists over the entire Interval (- 00, co), we defing the average power dissipated in a 4 ohm cesister when the signal £CE). - voltage or current. is applied accross it as follower: I Te 2 Re Bow J, Fee for ceod signals ond Tn f= Ree L(“eea[tat for complen signals at/. Since {C4) is a power signal (a perodsa or a cancom signal), it has infinite. energy ‘we Ye entire interval (— co, 0) . Therefore, in order to find its Fourier transform we have 4o consider the truncated signal 1G) defined as follows fa) c kel St $4) = fa = PSRALPR Ft Oo for Rl> td (8, Sao -/n tle AS long as. T is finite, £4) has finite energy and it os Fourier transformable. Let fe) > 6.) The energy of £4) ia given by E “Cede = 4 (7 7 ‘ +e Ste ao [eCan]* dur Porsuvals Taeorern) Since gg qa Ste) he f Fede oe -1/2 Weean express Pr as follow: , 5H De f= bin fae eu) dh « fe hg Lisoot sw ) ee -th feeb (ie Hola, 2 fs i an Tao an s lw) os ca The Power Spectral Density (Psd) Store] £4) ts defined as t S,(o)= Lin | Few) 5 Sploo)= Lin Yel) Tro T The PSD is the Hwe avarage of the ESD inthe limit as Treo. The PSD °Sp(w) of a signah f(t) represents power’ contributed by the frequency components of Ft). Tks anck is watt /H2. Input and output Power Spectral Densities of a linear system having a trantfer function of Hw). o&) How) ft) 5) So) SpOo)= | HG) |* Sq() 55Pe De THE SAMPLING THEOREM “The Sampling theorem is very significant in commanication theory since ik isthe first sep of tronsforming an analog signal tuto digitad form. 1% states that A signal bandlimited do B He Cire, asignak whose Fourier ” fransform is zero for all [f[>B ) is uniquely determined boy its values ot uniform intervals less than 4/28 seconds apart [nother words, a signod bandlimited to B com be reconstructed from its samples taken uniformly at a rate of not less than 2B samples per second. To prove the sampling theorem , consider a signoh £(e) banaliwited to B as shown below {@4 FF) eae —_ ca 3 Sees “Be 8 f Multiplication of fle) by a unit impulre rain s(t) yields the Sampled signal {The impulse tram and its Fourier rans fort are shown below Z s@ 2 SCH) s(4) Te Tyan ne! Te Be hae eee atcot De “The sampled signal: £4) ond its Fourier transform Bf) ore “f= £4). st) RG) = FE) @ S(f) £@ +] I ies ~ BT -20-% Of Te Ay facts 7 ale In order to be able to reconstruct FE) from the sampled signal f(4),we con pass £(L) through a lowpass filler of amplitude charaeteristic H(F) . Tf we considoc the lowpass filler as an idood one, then the output of the lowpass filer is obtained ox follows. £0) 9] LB fe kaene® FCR)= FE) Hf) ) ne) FO) eee = aeit be The amplitude spectrum FCF) of He Sampled signal is shown below for vartous values of sampling cokes FG) Practicodl LPF Q) for f,>28 He In this ease a prockeal lowpass filler can ba used Since there ls aguardbeand . For f5= 28 He Ideod LEE is requirect which ts not ceobizable in practice. For fs 2B He The baseband siqnak con be recanstructed witle distoesion « This kipe of dislosion is called “fold over distorion” or ‘aliasing enor’ (ast dele katlawma yo La ef dérimgeleme yarbgass ) The 7 of the reconstructed signal al He onfpub ideak lowpass filler incase of fold over ciistorsion is shown iw FR) Charactectthe rroyKoe ef an ideal LPFHoge pe 42 OE The transfer function WCE) and the corresponding unik impulie response h(E) of the ileal lowpass filler ore nespectivelyy a1 follows: Ts fee HEB i Heys T(E) = i. je jaye (one =2 sm (2Bt) sin 2BE _ C- 26); Gr Ted h(k)= 258 rer Te = sinc (26) 5 fy Tred The function at the output. of the low past filler ‘s i I 2 (nT) Sie 2BCe-n Ts) fe 2 FOOT Tlssa tay) Mence, fC) cam be reconstructed from its samples” £(nty) . Therefore, the output of the lowpass fer yields the original f(t) as long as 4 >2BWw o BS i : This proves the sampling theorem . The maximum allowable camping interval Tp = 4/28 is known as the Nyquist Interval “and the corresponding minimum Sampling rake (f, = 2B samples per second ) is known as the Nyquist Sampling Rote . 59Practical Sarmpli 0g, De \n pracliee sampling is done by narrow pulses of finite width ©) Natural Sampling Although tn practice the 7 process is carved out elechonteally by gating the signal on and Pak the desired rate , the process can be illustrated, be a rotahng mechanicak switeh - otad 4 SRS Sloe Cee fienes per eeeond, {4 fe) g FC)= fs) os eas T se) mechanical representation mathematica model, of Sampling of sampling {© 4 F(A) ae eeretee —_— 7 ¢ “6 ol B f ) 7 Ss oa ae 9) Ol ee Seane [ l tks bec { Pn an ° 4 OTT <3 <4, fe Ol G, (2G, fs i ¢ eee A ar @) £3) ©) BO. s a & "apart 2B should be satisfied Wworder to reconstuct §(4) from the sampled signal f(t) 60: De “the. switching or grting function s(t) can be expressed in. ferme of trigonometric Four'er series as follows Wed (1422 SHOT os amng.t) Here, oe 1 duty cycle (dolaluk beglak evant) Zs samphig tine Tyt Snap ling period fat Sampling frequency The sampled signal f(t) is obtained as follows feQ) = fe) s@ = fd (1+ 22 Ay costtasit) se aheetAc chet =A [ 0) + 2A, £) cos 2MGe + 2A2 (eos mOEIE te] The Fourier transform of the sampled signal £2 (4) intecms of F(f)is R(t) = A[ FQ) +A, FCG) HALEESE) + ALF(F-2f.)+ ACE +26) “FAS ECL 2B) +A, E(Pra6)4~ | By applying tre samplecl signal to a low pass filter (LPF) Z we reconstruct the onginad signal £4), &@) Ee f¢¢) 'r ifa fw MC Ad fo “po BF at the LPF output BCE) = HCE) FeGe) = EE) and fee) =f@)a pe (b) Flat- top Sampling In practice BMGenerally preferred te employ flat-top Sampling. in order to simplify the electronic cireuit used te perform the sampling opertion, In this method , narrow pulses are used to take samples and the samples are applied to a "holding circuit” in order to ivertase the power of the sompled signal . “TT fo Tt) LO = kw led and held signal Y ts Ue): sampled a iy eat ac Te fer fe 4) fia) > Q neo, se S4-nts) the impulee ) ere le elem ‘ cirewit © <> “ (sex) ope 3 it 4 e ar To reconstruct the eriginak signed fa) we apply fi) toa Low Pass Filter of bandwidth &. KO re f= Laces 62Ab-the output of the holding circuit : De oO BE) 5 (f= 5 Fst) < €CL) 5) R= HABE) SHO LF) @ $)) Bogie. =H) [Ret 2 Se-2)] POSE aN(E) LZ PCE nf le nel LEC-26 04 FUE eae + EPO Leet) es PEG )-] At the output of the LPF TEE Tene ie not adincnlad hy dhe LPF, Ff) = WiC NG) ot F(f) Tf the transfer function of the LPF is taken as ways : ; LPF with equalizin, W@)- Za. i Wn ee ee 3 <6 then the baseband signok i: reconstructed as fellows F(f)27 AL wee) = F (f) "Fe FCF) (F) Example : Consider a signal {(t) covering the frequency range Boo to 3300 He. ©) Find the Nyquist Sampling rate ond the Nyquist sampling interval (6) Find the sampling rate and the sampling Interval in orderto have 14 kta guard band. Solukion : (@) B= 3300 He = 3.3kHa is given The Nyquist sampling rate= {,= 28 = 2x 3.3266 kHe The Nyquist Sampling intervaR= Te = 1/f, = 4/6. 62108 = 0.00015 1530 : = 454. Spsee (©). The samphag rate with A4dte guard band : f >5e fs= 2B4 hae 66444 Skue Tes [fs = 4/ 8x00 = 0.000125 see = 125 200. 63De sf 7 Pulse AMPLITUDE Mop ULATION “The” sampled, signal is a Pulse Amplitude Modulakat (PAI) signa since the pulse amplitude is varied in proportion with the avaptitucle of te baseband signal - Bandwidth of the PAM signal = 4. He & whre C ts the width ef the sample pulses - 4g Baseband signod To, Single ~Polartby PAM. igre 7 4g ty 4 = a 7 led Double- Polarity PAM signal The pulses in PAM Signal may not necessary tobe flat-tep type. But if they are flat- toe , then they can frequency rood late a carrer fo obtain PAM-~FM , or they can be quankzed fo be coded fo obtam Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) . 64De TIME-DIVI SION MULTIPLEXING A Sampled waveform is off most of the time , leaving the time belween. samples available for other purposes. In particular, sample values of several different signals can be interlaced into a single waveform, Hence, several baseband signals can be simultaneously transmitted on a time - sharing bases. This principle is called “ Time - Division. Multiplexing (Tom)” The concept of TDM can be explained by the following block diagram. Gommutstor _-- Synehrenived —___ Decommutalor ae > $2 fe) aie £0) fx6)e-———4 foes t £0 = nsmission si fe econ eee HO "chew SLES St Rotating sampling switch or commutator at the transmitter extracts one sample from each input per revolution . Hence, its output is a PAM waveform that contains the individual samples periodically interlaced in. time . 82 +A similar cotary switch at the receiver, called a decommutator or a distributer , separates the sample: and distibules them to LPFs for reconstruction of the individual messages . The commutator and decommutator are synchronized in oder to distribute each pulse to the correct output at the appropriate time . Ore Hime slot per frame is used to send a “marker” pulse or nonpulee to erfablish the foome frequency f, at the receiver , 654 4) [ie fa) ‘ 3 fate) Lh, Seed 4 Time -Division Mulliplexed PAM Signal NR (Honcetucn-to-2er0) format 24 Bare Bs + =A, He where f, is the sampling cate Mack ee Marker TDM PAM Signal (| with "marker "pulse | : | 22 (Relurn-to-2e00 )formad. ay tel fel fel Let lat At fl My g (with %50 dutyeycle) Ts k C Frame ) id In this case the requiced Jransmission bandwidth is Hee. ; bu qt te RE; 4: daly epee : ‘4 7 ae a Paumber of channels ete kh. fh Sh. MEd 4% A ie = Of, 66Hf oe The block diagram of an electronic commutator is shown below Pulse modulation gates fe pasa Ae + 5 | Busse fw 4 fay a Clock, nfs [>] Flip-flop chain Clock, A Ying ® Deeg cca he eee LE Timing diagram @ & Qn The Use of Submulbiplexers in TDM the Use of Sulsmultiglesers_in TDM In order to opply TDM 4o signals whose bandwidths or pulse rales are considerably different , TDM or FOM submulliplexers can be used for efficient usage of channels. Focexample, bandwidth of a telex signal is approximately 400 He 33 delex signals can be applied 4 an FDM submultiplener using $88 GSingle~ Sicleband modulation). The oukput ofthe FDM submliplexer ie signal of bandwidth 3.3kH2, wlich can be applied toa TDM system with voice, signals 4 Londwidt 3.2kH2. oFut pe As another example , consider a TDM telemetry system. Suppose we need 5 data channels with minimum sampling rates of 3000 , 300, 600, 360 and 260 Ha. Thue use a S-channel multiplecer with {,= 3000 He for all channels » the TDM signalling rale would be r= 5x 3000 = AS kH2. (not including synchronization markers). A more efficient scheme involves an B-channel main multiplexer with f,= 750 Hrjond « 2-channel submulhiplexer with f5= 375 Hz connected as shown below. OT TH Mm Ge Boake Mon oAlnaladeol ———4 Signal Minimum Actual Mackor fa 3000 4" 750 ———____-+—4] Teena oa 0) ae iad fsa = #50 He Frame ode a}. 750 Gckusd sosmpling me) 56) 600 wo J} | nas | TOM ouput fx) 300. bx 0 Lisa 4x 150 —] 9=2 fc) 200” ; fee raft 6kHe f,(e) aad f,(4) are combined by the submultiglerer to create a pulse rate of 2x 375 = 750 Ha for insertion into one channel of the maw wulkplexer. Hence, the samples of f(t) and {5(L) will appear in alternate feames. On the other hand, £(4) is applied to 4 inputs of the mom multiplexer. Consequenty , its Samples appear in 4 equispaced slots within each frame , fr an equivalent sampling vate of 4x 750 = 3000 He. The total output signal rate, including a marker , is r=8x750He= 6kHe. Baseband filtering the mom output gives a smoothed signal whose, bandwidth Bz 3 kite” Ets nicely info a voice telephone channel. 63t be Transmission of TOM signals Analog or digital modulation. can be used to transmit TDM signals . In analog case, a baseband filler and a CW. modulator is employed . Jn analog case ploy Baseband Modulated Signal Signal £0 Lenmar Baseband |_fo | modulation fe fatd——oL_* onan fd eam feta Banka He FM,AMor SSB PAM/SSB ForilaalLPF Pom /Am 4 Benes Ha for puetieal filter PPm/ AM Baseband signal fr TDM-PAM t Yoks TOM/SSB is used for bandwidth conservation . TDM /FM is used for wideband noise reduction. In diytel Tom transmission, the pulse amplitudes are quantized and codeot to obtain PCM (Pulse Code Modulation). Delta modulation ot other digital medubodion techniques can alto be applied Cross Talk and Guord Times in TDM In the transmission channel, if the tail: of pulses overlap with the next Hime slot of the frame ,"cross tabk” resus . This Phenomenon is given the descriptive name “ Intersyen bol interference (ISL). A tet pulse [7 t ee To keep the cosstalk below 3048, { i he Ty oé& must be satisfied. T kK Were, Bis the 3-dB bandwidth Guard Time :Ty Oiicetassst ee Misimum palse spacing ) ‘ mission channel, acting 7 Palse spacing 69 Whe a 4°¥ onder LPF.set De Frequency Division Multiplextag CFDM) Ik FDO, severL signals share dre bandwith of Hee same channel . gach baseband signal is modulated bey.a different carer frequ » These corners whieh are called “subcarriers” are sufficiently separated to avoid overlap (or interference ) ebuenn the frequency spectra of these signals. Different medulation types moy be used for each bateboud signal, suckas , « Amplitude Modulation CAM) « Double Sideband Modulation (DSR) + Single Sideband Modulation (S82) + Vestigial Sidehond Modulation (VSB) + Frequenay Modulation (FM) + Phase Modulation (PM) The comporite signak oblamed by adding all of the spectra of the modulated signals, is considered as a baseband signal to further modulate a high-frequency carrier for the purpose of transmission This is colled “RF (Radio Frequency) modulation Ad the ceceiver- , first the composit baseband signal is retrieved by using an RE dewodulelon. Then, by using approprate andpas: fillers each wodulaled signal is separated from the composite baseband ciguad , which is them individ demodulated by an appropriate subcarrier 40 obtain al the basic baseband signals . bong-hauk telephone channel are multiplexed by using FDM- SSB signals. According to ITU ( Internotional Telecommunicotion Union) stoadkards : FO: filet ay 5 12 delephona chawals jcoch of banduidth’ form: a" baste group LSB (60 40 108 kHe) or USB (A4B~I9EKH2) con be used for a basic group : ~ 5 baste groups are wubb duet fo obtain « “supergroup”. — 5 sper groups are multiplexed fo obtuin a “master qroue” = 3 mastergouprare covabinel inte a” Supermaster group”. ' eomaster groups are combined into a, “TJambe group * = 3 jumbo groups are combined obbain’ “Tumbe group maltiplenad 2 £@) SSB | f( 3, [ee | —aucsaldor fia S38 | fa) : LPP alice pasate Baseband signal Aneana £@t hw S38 Th), Ca) Li... i Bad Modulator f SS : + 6oF al FM Thane 1 Fue tk Guardband | Baseband FDM spectrum ok. tha Phat f fatBr ferrBa Ly rBy aoe ; | 4 chet channels 1 | ]Ficst—] Basic Gouge Be ea oy Tag FMA) Ty tevel| fee 42—s| Mux eeth court Gioues a 3 seca] ras 7 Py Leet £ ie 4 Fete) 5 Mux ‘wt Master 60 | Master Group vrYe . be Te achieve carrier syenhronization a'pilet corre" is sent for each SSB modulation | = SSB BPE demodulato. Lee >i) ] te Th, 5 Cartier(or Ar SSB ce f Demodulator [<7 Demodulater| alk) fe) F fw) tea Ti Be fe ssB ert [2¢¢ | >| Denndsulaarf LPF [> fat) fea rf Be ie Typicok FDM Receiver “The major practical problem of FDM is cross talk”, the unwanted coupling of one message inte another . = Indelligible crose talk Ceross modulation’) “arrises primerily diie to the norlineadities in the tyslem,s wihieln causes one yersage. signed appear as modulation on another subcarrier . Negelive feedback is wed lo minimize amplifier nonlinearities « = Unintelligible ceoss talle may come from nonlinear effects or imperfect spectral separation ly the filles, To reduce Huis effecks “quacd bands’ are used Inflligitle crosfath, + amlowlabilir agra, Karena Uniatelli gible evoss fale: anlasilamaz eaprar kon senaDe Comparison of TDM and FDM te pm cirewitry ts much simpler than the FOM ciceu! ~ FDM equipment consists of analog circuits for modulators, carrier generators , bandpass filters and demodulator for each channel ~ TOM circuitry is digstad consishiog of a commutator and distributor . The digital ctrcudtry is highly modular In nature and provider rellable and efficient operation The Ninearity requirements of the TDM circuitry isnot as stringent (or tight) as the FDM dleeuitry « - TOM is invulnerable to the usual causes of cross talle im FOM, namely , imperfect bandpass Filtering and nonlinearities . These nonlineariHes produce cross tall (cross modulahon or intermedulation) and harmonic distorsion that effect both high - and Low~ frequency chonnel: ia FDM systems. In contrast , there is no cross tall, due te cireuit nonlinearities if the pulses ace completely isolated and ronoveelapping, since. signals ffom different channels are not handled simultaneously but are alloted (assigned to) different time intervals. ~ However, if the bandwidth of te communication system is Jess then the TDM signal bandwidth, then the plies are spread and superimposed en each other causing cross talk in TOM systems « The wse of submulhiplexers allows a TDM system to accomodate different signals whose bandwidths or pulse rales moy differ by more then an. order of magnehde . This flevibility has partiuular Value for maltiplering atigital signals 7