Chemistry Assignment:

Manufacture Substances in Industry

FIRST PART
 ALLOY  POLYMERS  GLASS AND CERAMICS  COMPOSITE MATERIALS

ALLOY a) Metals are ductile and malleable. The high malleabilityand ductility of metal of metals can be explained by the arrangement of their atoms.
y

Metals are composed of identical atoms. The atoms in a metal are packed together as close as possible and arranged in an orderly manner.

Metal atoms are arranged orderly from one layer to another to form a threedimensional crystal lattice.

When a force is applied,the layers of atoms start to slide or slip over each other. After slipping,the atoms settle into new positions and the metal structure is restored.

The ability of the layers of atoms to slip easily over each other makes metals malleable and ductile.

b) An alloy is a material that contains a mixture of elements and has metallic properties. c) Alloying improves the qualities of pure metals. The aim of alloying is: i)
y

To improve the appearance of pure metal. Alloying helps to prevent formation of the oxide layar and enables the metal to keep its surface shiny. Pewter is an alloy of thin mixed with antimony and copper. Articles made from pewter can be polished to give a smooth and shiny surface.

ii)
y

To increase the strength and hardness of the pure metal. The atoms a the new element distrupt the orderly arrangement of the elements of the atoms of the lattice of the pure metal. This prevents the layers of atoms from slipping over each other and hence,makes the pure meta stronger and harder. Alloy steels are widely used in the construction industry. These alloys provide the strength and hardness needed to build strong and sturdy structures such as bridges, tall buildings and machinery.

iii)
y

To increase the resistance to corrison of the pure metal. Alloying is a method to prevent corrosion. Alloying helps to prevent the formation of oxide layer on the surface of the metal. Cutlery made from stainless steel does not corrode.

d) The presence of small quantities of a second element in the metal increases it strength. For example,the alloy brass is much stronger than either pure copper or pure zinc. Atoms of the second element can be of a different size to those of the original metal. These differently-sized atoms distrupt the orderly arrangement of atoms in the metal

lattice. This will make it more difficult for the layers of atoms to slide across one another when a force is applied,making alloys stronger and harder than pure metals.

e) Comparing the hardness of an alloy and a pure metal: i) ii) iii) iv) Tape a steel ball bearing onto a copper block. Hang a 1 kg weight at a height of 50 cm above the copper block. Allow the weight to drop onto the ball bearing. Measure the diameter of the dent made by the ball bearing on the copper block. v) Repeat steps 1 to 4 on two other parts of the copper block in order to obtain an average value for the diameter of denrts formed. vi) vii) Repeat steps 1 to 5 using a brass block to replace the copper block. Record all the readings.

f) Comparing rate of rusting between iron,steel and stainless steel: i) ii) Use a piece of sandpaper to remove rust from all the three nails. Place the iron nail in test tube A,the steel nail in test tube B and the sta inless steel nail in test tube C. iii) Prepare a 5% jelly solution by dissolving 5g of jelly in 100cm3 of hot water. Add a few drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) to jelly solution. iv) v) Pour the jelly solution into each test tube to completely immerse the nails. Place the test tubes in a rack and put aside for 4 days. Observe the condition of the nails and any colour changes.

vi)

Record all the observations.

g) Examples of alloys:Alloy Brass Composition

Copper 70% Zinc 30%

Properties
High strength Resistance to corrosion

Uses
Ornaments,doorknobs,bulletcases,electricparts,musical instruments

Bronze

Copper 90% Tin 10%

High strength Resistance to corrosion

Medals, statues, monuments, art objects

Duralumin Aluminium
95% Copper 5%

Low density High strength Resistance to corrosion

Aircraft, electric cable

Pewter

Tin 91% Antimony 7% Copper 2%

High strength Resistance to corrosion Bright shiny surface

Ornaments, souvenirs

Steel

Iron 99% Carbon 1%

High strength

Car bodies, bridges, ships

Stainless steel

Iron 80.6% Carbon 0.4% Chromium 18% Nickel 1%

Great resistance to corrosion

Cutlery, sinks, knives, pipes

POLYMERS a) Polymers are long-chain molecules formed by joiningtogether thousands of small repeating units called monomers.

b) Types of polymers:i)
y y y

Natural polymers: Cellulose Starch Natural rubber Synthetic polymers:

y

ii)

Polypropene Monomer: propene, C3 H6 Used to make: plastic bags, pipes, containers, moulded objects and toys.

Polythene Monomer:ethene, C2H4 Used to make: plastic bags, pipes, containers, moulded objects and toys.

Polyvinyl chloride(PVC) Monomer: chloroethene, C2 H3Cl Used to make: pipes and pipes fittings, upholstery, wire and cables, records and apparels such as footwear and rain coats.

Perspex Monomer: methyl 2-methylpropenoate Used to make: replacement for glass,fibreoptics and illuminated signs.

Nylon Monomer:diamine and diacid Used to make: textile fibres, threads, ropes, toothbrushes and electric insulators.

Terylene Monomer:diacid and diol Used to make: textile fibres, parachutes, stockings, fishing nets and tapes.

c) Synthetic polymers vary widely in physical properties such as strength, flexibility, resistance to chemical attacks and softening temperature that result in environmental pollution.
y

Ways to solve disposal problem: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Burying them Burning them Pyrolysis Recycling them Using biodegradable plastics

GLASS AND CERAMICS a) The main compenent of glass and ceramics is silica. b) Similarities and difference glass and ceramics:SIMILARITIES
 

Hard Brittle

DIFFERENCE GLASS Optical transparency Opaque CERAMIC

Highly transparent

Moulding Can be melted and Cannot be melted and remoulded Melting point Very high melting point remoulded

Lower melting point

c)

Mirrors

Window

Uses of glass

Light bulbs

Laboratory glass wares

d) Construction materials

Semiconductors Uses of ceramic Electrical insulators

Medical field

Ornamentalar ticle

e)
Type of glass
Fused glass High transparency Silicon dioxide High melting point Mirrors Soda-lime glass Silicon dioxide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide Borosilicate glass Silicon dioxide Sodium oxide Calcium oxide Boron oxide Lead crystal glass Silicon dioxide High density Sodium oxide High refractive index Lead(II) oxide Decorative glasswares High reflective lenses Low melting point Easily moulded High thermal expansion High melting point Low thermal expansion Resistant to heat Resistant to chemical attack Prism Cooking wares Laboratory glass wares Window glass Bottles Light bulbs Quartz lenses

Composition

Properties

Uses
Glass rod

COMPOSITE MATERIALS a) A composite material is a mixture of two or more materials. b) Examples of composite materials:y

Reinforced concrete  Bridges  Airport runways  Highways

Superconductor  Smaller and faster computer chips  Large electric motors

Fibre glass  Water storage tanks  Car bodies  Badminton rackets

Photochromic glass  Optical lenses  Car wind shield

Carbon fibre

 Fishing rods  Golf clubs c) Glass is hard, strong and high in density but relatively brittle. While fibres glass can be easily coloured, moulded and shaped, and it is low in density. d) The advantage of using photochronic glass in the making of spectacles is it changes colour in response to sunlight(ultra violet ray). It darkens when exposed to sunlight and reverts to transparency when the light is blocked or dimmed.

SECOND PART
 SULPHURIC ACID  AMMONIA

SULPHURIC ACID a) Uses of sulphuric acid in our daily life:-

FERTILISERS

DYES

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID PAINTS AND PIGMENTS

DETERGENTS

b) Contact process:-

Stage 1:formation of sulphur dioxide a) Sulphur is burn in air: S + O2 SO2 b) Sulphur dioxide is also produced by roasting sulphide ores in air: 2PbS + 3O2 2PbO + 2SO2 c) Sulphur dioxide is mixed with excess air d) The mixture is purified and dried. e) Dust and impuritiesare removed to

Stage 2: formation of sulphur trioxide a) Sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide via a reversible and exothermic reaction: 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 b) Optimum conditions used are as follows: o i)temperature:450 C ii)pressure:1 atmosphere iii)catalyst:Vanadium(V) oxide c) About 97% conversion occurs under Stage 3: formation of sulphuric acid these conditions. a) Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum: SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 b) Sulphur trioxide is not dissolved in water as the heat evolved vapourises the sulphuric acid. The vapour condenses to form a mist of sulphuric acid which is hard to collect. c) The oleum is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, 98% H2SO4. H2S2O7 + H2 O 2H2SO4 c)

The burning of sulphur (Contanct process)

Main sources of sulphur dioxide

The burning of high-sulphur coals or fueloils (power stations)

The extraction of certain metals from their sulphide pores ii) Sulphur dioxide causes its irritant effects by stimulating nerves in the lining of the nose and throat and the lungs airways. This causes a reflex cough, irritation, and a feeling of chest tightness, which may lead to narrowing of the airways. This latter effect is particularly likely to occur in people suffering from asthma and chronic lung disease, whose airways are often inflamed and easily irritated. iii) Formation of acid rain from sulphur dioxide:-

i.

Sulphur diocide can be rapidly oxidised to sulphur trioxide when the reaction is catalysed on the surface of airborne particles such a dust particles or water droplets. 2SO2 + O2 2SO3

ii.

Sulphur dioxide can also be oxidised to sulphur trioxide when it reacts with nitrogen dioxide. SO2 + NO2 SO3 + NO

iii. iv.

It is the sulphur trioxide that causes acid rain. Sulphuric trioxide dissolves in rainwater to form sulphuric acid, a component of acid rain. SO3 + H2 O H2SO4

iv) Effects of acid rain:-

Increases the acidity of water in lakes and rivers. Fish cannot live and breed in lakes or rivers where the water is very acidic.

Effects of acid rain

Increases the acidity of soil. Plants do not grow well in very acidic soil. High acidity can destroy the roots of plants.

Corrodes metallic structures.

AMMONIA a) FERTILISER

USES OF
TO MAKE NYLONS EXPLOSIVES

DRY CELL BATTERIES

AMMONIA

b) Properties of ammonia:-

Physical properties  Colourless gass  Pungent smell  Very soluble in water  Alkaline

Chemical properties  Reacting as a base  Reacting with aqueous metal ions

c) Haber process:-

y Nitrogen gas is obtained from fractionaldistillation of liquid air

y Hydrogen gas is obtained from natural gas. y The methane in natural gas reacts with steam according to the following equation: CH4 + 2H2O CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + H2 O CO + 3H2 CO + H2 O CO2 + H2

y In the compressor, the gas mixture is heated to 450oC and 200 atm before it enters the reactor chamber.

y Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed according to the following ratio 1 mole N2 : 3 moles H2.

y In the reactor chamber, an iron catalyst helps to speed up the reaction. N2 + 3H2 2NH3

y The gases emerging from the reactor is cooled. Ammonia liquelifies. The liquid ammonia is separated. y The unreacter nitrogen and hydrogen are returned to the reactor via the compressor.

d) i) examples of ammonium fertiliser: Ammonium sulphate Ammonium nitrate Ammonium phosphate

y y y

ii) the effectiveness of ammonium fertiliser could be measured through determining its percentage of nitrogen content. Plants needsnitrogens to grow. Usually nitrogen is absorbed by plants in soluble nitrate ions from soils. Ammonium fertilisers consist of ammonium ions. Bacteria in the soils convert ammonium ions into nitrate ions which absorbed by plants together with water. Fertiliser with higher percentage of nitrogen content is more effective.

To determine nitrogen content in ammonium fertilizer,

As an example, urea, CO(NH2)2

Molar mass of urea = 12+ 16 + 2[14+ 2(1)]

= 60

Percentage of nitrogen in 1 mol of urea

= 2(14)/60 x 100%

= 46.67%

You should calculate the percentage of nitrogen content in each fertiliser and compare which one has higher percentage of nitrogen content. You'll know which fertiliser from the list is more effective.

iii)preparing ammonium nitrate by using ammonia and nitric acid:-

SOURCE OF INFORMATION

Book  Lim Yean Ching, Chemistry form 4, Bandar BaruBangi:PenerbitanPelangiSdn.Bhd, 2006, page 244-265.

Website  Newzealand.gov.nz, Health effects of sulphur dioxide ,http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/air/air-quality-tech-report43/html/page7.html, 10/6/2011.  Chem4U moderator, How to measure the effectiveness of ammonium fertilisers?,http://groups.yahoo.com/group/chem4u/message/55, 12/6/2011.