‘+ The simplified structures of frames allow for easy analogical reasoning, a much prized feature in any intelligent agent. The procedural attachments provided by frames also allow a degree of flexibility that makes for a more realistic representation and gives a natural affordance for programming applications. 4.6 ADVANCED KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION TECHNIQUES: CONCEPTUAL DEPENDENCY THEORY Conceptual Dependency originally developed to represent knowledge acquired from natural language input. The goals of this theory are ‘+ To help in the drawing of inference from sentences + To be independent of the words used in the original input. ‘+ That Is to say: For any 2 (or more) sentences that are identical in meaning there should be only one representation of that meaning. It has been used by many programs that portend to understand English (MARGIE, SAM, PAM). CD developed by Schank et al. as were the previous examples. CD provides: + a structure into which nodes representing information can be placed + a specific set of primitives + ata given level of granularity. Sentences are represented as a series of diagrams depicting actions using both abstract and real physical situations. + The agent and the objects are represented ‘+ The actions are built up from a set of primitive acts which can be modified by tense. Examples of Primitive Acts are: ATRANS: -- Transfer of an abstract relationship. e.g. give.PTRANS - Transfer of the physical location of an object. e.g. go PROPEL -- Application of a physical force to an object. e.g. push. MTRANS -- Transfer of mental information. e.g. tell. MBUILD -- Construct new information from old, e.g. decide. SPEAK -- Utter a sound, e.g. say. ATTEND -- Focus a sense on a stimulus. e.g. listen, watch. Move -- Movement of a body part by owner. e.g. punch, kick. GRASP - Actor grasping an object. e.g. clutch. INGEST -- Actor ingesting an object. e.g. eat. EXPEL -- Actor getting rid of an object from body. e.g. 7772. Six primitive conceptual categories provide building blocks which are the set of allowable dependencies in the concepts in a sentence: PP -- Real world objects, ACT - Real world actions. PA -- Attributes of objects. AA -- Attributes of actions. T -- Times. Loc -- Locations.4.7 FRAME & SCRIPT STRUCTURE A structured representation of background world knowledge. This structure contains knowledge about objects, actions, and situations that are described in the input text. If we consider the Knowledge about Shooping or Entering into the Restraunt. This kind of stored Knowledge about stereotypical events is called a Script. ‘+ Accollection of semantic network nodes or s/ots that together describe a stereotyped object, act or event. ‘+ Representing knowledge about the objects and events typical to specific situations. * Organization facilitates expectation driven processing, (looking for things that are expected based on the context one thinks one is in). + Use of slots @ places where knowledge fits within the larger context created by the frame. Example CHAIR frame ‘Ackind-of: furniture number-of-legs an integer (default=4) style-of-back: straight, cushioned, ... number-of-arm: 01,2 John’s-chair frame arkind-of: furniture number-of-legs 4 style-of-back cushioned number-of-arm: 0 Knowledge represented by frame 1. properties inheritance hierarchies e.g. a-kind-of slot (similar to is-a link in semantic net)2. expectation, e.g. a special "range" slot which specifies what you expect the value of the slot be. 3. attached procedure: a procedure knowledge which will fill-in the slot if needed, or perform other tasks. Example Generic Restaurant Frame a-kind-of: Business Establishment Range: (Cafeteria, Seat-Yourself, Wait-to-be-seated, Fastfood) Default: IF plastic-orange-counter THEN fastfood IF stack-of-trays THEN cafeteria IF wait-for-waitress-sign OR reservation-made THEN wait-to-be-seated OTHERWISE seat_yourself Location Range: an ADDRESS if-needed: (Look at the menu) Name: if needed: (Look at the menu) Food-style: Range: (Burgers, Chinese, American, Seafood, French) Default: Chinese if-added: (Update Alternative of Restaurant) ‘Time-of-Operation: Range: a time-of-day Default: open evenings except Mondays Payment form Range: (Cash, CreditCard, Check, Washing-Dishes Script) Event-Sequence: Default: Eat-at-Restaurant Script Alternatives: Ranges: all restaurant with some foodstyleGeneric Restaurant Frame if-needed: (find all restaurants with the same foodstyle) ‘+The range slot is an expectation about what kinds of things slot may contain. ‘+The if-needed slot is an attached procedure that can be used to determine the slot's value if necessary 4.8 CYC THEORY Cyc (from ‘encyclopedia’) is a large AI project started and run by Douglas Lenat. It consists of a Knowledge Base of hand-coded "common sense" facts and an inference engine to deduce further facts. Lenat started the Cyc project in 1984 after being frustrated by the difficulty of hand coding domain-specific knowledge for his previous Al project, EURISKO, Originally a project under the Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation, Cyc was split off in 1994 to form Cycorp, Inc. In 2002, a subset of the Knowledge Base and functionality was released to the public under the OpenCye project. OpenCyc has around 240,000 concepts and 2,000,000 assertions as of 2012. Access to the Cyc database is also available in the form of a research license, released in 2006 under the ResearchCyc project. The full Cyc Knowledge Base contains around 500,000 concepts and 5,000,000 assertions as of 2012 Cyc uses a declarative language called CycL based on first-order logic. CycL was written in Lisp and has a similar syntactical appearance. The main lexical component is a set of concepts, also called constants, which begin with #$. These constants can be specific objects, collections of objects, or relations between objects. For example, (#$isa #$DouglasLenat #$AIResearcher) means "Douglas Lenat is an AI researcher. This is an example of a fact in the Knowledge Base. Some sentences contain variables, and are called ‘rules’. Variables begin with ?. For example, a rule about the #$isa predicate is(#simplies (sand (#Sisa 208) ?SUBSET) (#$genls SUBSET ?SUPERSET)) (#Sisa 20B) ?SUPERSET)) The Cycl. syntax uses prefix notation and nested parentheses, unlike English. An English translation might read, "If a [object] is a [subset], and a [subset] is a subcollection of a [superset], then a [object] is a [superset].” Or, more concretely, if we let 70B) be “sandeat", SUBSET be “feline”, and SUPERSET be "mammal", then the sentence reads, “If a sandcat is a feline, and a feline is a subcollection of mammals, then a sandcat is a mammal." In first-order logic (with set theory), this would be written. The inference engine would verify the truth of the parenthetical statements, and then the implication, Cyc can also provide a translation of these structures into a natural English sentence. CYC is an example of a frame-based representational system of knowledge, which is, in a way, the opposite of an expert system. Whereas an expert system has detailed knowledge of a very narrow domain, the developers of CYC have fed it information on over 100,000 different concepts from all fields of human knowledge. CYC also has information of over 1,000,000 different pieces of “common sense” knowledge about those concepts.The system has over 4000 different types of links that can exist between concepts, such as inheritance, and the “is-a” relationship that we have already looked at.The idea behind CYC was that humans function in the world mainly on the basis of a large base of knowledge built up over our lifetimes and our ancestors’ lifetimes. By giving CYC access to this knowledge, and the ability to reason about it, they felt they would be able to come up with a system with common sense. Ultimately, they predict, the system will be built into word processors.Then word processors will not just correct your spelling and grammar, but will also point out inconsistencies in your decument.For example, if you promise to discuss a particular subject later in your document, and then forget to do so, the system will point this out to you. They also predict that search engines and other information retrieval systems will be able to find documents even though they do not contain any of the words you entered as your query.CYC’s knowledge is segmented into hundreds of different contexts to avoid the problem of many pieces of knowledge in the system contradicting each other.n this way, CYC is able to know facts about Dracula and toreason about him, while also knowing that Dracula does not really exist.CYC is able to understand analogies, and even to discover new analogies for itself, by examining the similarities in structure and content between different frames and groups of frames. CYC’s developers claim, for example, that it discovered an analogy between the concept of “family” and the concept of “country.” References 1. Schalkoff, R. J. (1990). Artificial intelligence: an engineering approach (pp. 529-533). New York: MeGraw-Hil 2. Tanimoto, S. L. (1987). The elements of artificial intelligence: an introduction using LISP (pp. 10-70). New York, NY, USA: Computer Science Press. 3. Rolston, D. W. (1988). Principles of artificial intelligence and expert systems development (pp. 169-178). New York: McGraw-Hill 4, Singh, M. P. (1994). Multiagent Systems: A Theoretical Framework for Intention as Know-How and Communications Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence. vol, 799. 5. Barrat, J, (2013). Our final invention: Artificial intelligence and the end of the human era. Macmillan, 6. Jackson, P. C. (2019). Introduction to artificial intelligence. Courier Dover Publications. UNIT-IV Videos Approaches to knowledge representation 1. httos://www.youtube.com/watch’\ 2. httos://www.voutube,com/watch’\ 3. _httos://www.youtube.com/watch’\ c Knowledge representation using semantic network, extended semantic networks for KR 1. httos://www.voutube,com/watch2v=efew95 2. httos://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcV2IL6yNZ8