a 6 Attachment Theory Attachment behaviour ish cl sychiatrist, His initial thin} seen Schools Feychoanalysie The mat fas, soe potn, ough, was Bowlby’s determinedly scientific attempe elem early parent child relationships and their impac 7 “development. To this end, and unusually for the time, he Studied the ‘ideas being generated by a wide range f developmental Scienceg including erftionay theory, ethology, biology, cognitive pyr tems theo oe ideas fron his clinical work with his increasing know, edge of what other developmental scientists were saying, Bowlby (1969) gradually fashioned what we now know as Attachment theory has, and continues to have a major influence on child and family work and more recently adult mental health pracice Modern developmental attachment theory is also being heavily influenced by the work of neuroscientists. These scientist ae intr ested in how the brain develops and ‘hard-wires’ itself in the early years, particularly as young children relate with, and are comforted and understood by their primary caregivers (also see Chapter 23 on the brain and its development), Along with the young of most mammals, human babies are bom with a whole range of in-built biological behaviours that increase their chances of survival. One_ol -these is attachment behaviour. fos behaviour gets triggered whenever the baby feels fight ened, distressed, confused or upset. Loud noises, or feeling hungry, Cold tired, unwell or in danger will trigger attachment behaviour. | __The goal of attachment behaviour is to recover closeness to the Paty teaver. This is where safety and comfort lie as the cl Vitus, Separation from, and loss of the primary caregiver itself will rey PEAttachment Theory 4“ also trigger arousal, distress and attachment behaviour. Distance from the source of safety and protection ~ the mother or father — represents potential danger for any very small and vulnerable mammal, including human babies. For example, baby lambs that suddenly sense they are some dis- tance from their mother (and therefore in potential danger from predators) experience arousal and distress, This triggers attachment behaviour. The lamb runs as quickly as possible back to the safety of the mother. Distressed human infants, at least not until they can walk, can't run back to the caregiver at times of need, so they cry and they become behaviourally aroused and distressed. This brings the sensitive care- giver to the baby. Whether lamb or baby, attachment behaviour has achieved its goal of re-uniting infant and caregiver. If the parent is reasonably reliable, sensitive and can be trusted to be there at times of need, the child will develop a secure attachment to the caregiver. Internal working model Over time, the infant gradually builds up a sense of her primary care- givers as the source of protection, comfort and emotional regulation. Directing their attachment behaviour to preferred and selected care- givers develops over the first few months of life and properly speak- ing full-blown attachment behaviour in which the child seeks out selective attachment figures at times of need isn’t fully established until the child reaches the age of 7 or 8 months. As the young child interacts with the significant people in her life, she begins.to build up a sense of who-she-is-from the way _viewed and Treated. If she is loved, she will feel lovable and loving. she is rejected, she will feel unlovable and emotionally alone. If she is, valued, she will experience high self-worth, If attachment figures are reliable and responsive, she will learn to trust. Children who are cons fident that their parents will be there at times of need and have them. in mind grow up to be more independent and autonomous. In these ways, the quality of the relationship becomes internalized” by the child and begins to form part of her psychological make-up. ‘The relationship becomes ‘mentally represented’. An ‘internal work- ing model’ of the self, others and relationships develops. The way the self and others are perceived and experienced are products of early44 ‘A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory ‘lationship experiences with significant others mothers family members. Psychologically speaking, the social outside i er, Son the mental inside. ‘The birth of the psychological self component of attachment theory is to note that a time the distressed and emotionally dysregulated baby re-en, tthe ‘with the caregiver, the child is ina state of physiological and ps és Toga arousal Most parents ae reasonably Sensitive inthe cae they give. Winnicott (1960) famously talked of mothering neg cing only toe good enough for children to thrive. ‘Attuned, sensitive parents attempt to do something about their ) child's various needs, upsets and emotional arousals. This involves /the other key doing practical things such as feeding the baby, changing a nappy or adding an extra blanket. But importantly it also requires the caregiver t with the baby at the sensory, emotional, psychological and interpersonal level. At this key point, the adult mind engages with the young, burgeoning mind of the baby. Psychologists cal this mind-o- \ mind encounter intersubjectivity. ‘The quality of this intersubjective relationship is critical for psychological and emotional development. It is where the childs pevetions not only get regulated but also recognized and understood, Iris where parent and chil play and have fun. Its where parent and child wonder about, and try to make sense of the world of thought, feeling and behaviour, both in the self and in the minds of others. In effect, parents are helping their children become, good psychologists and competent social players. Children who have ‘good enough’, sensitive and emotionally attuned caregivers develop secure attachments. Knowing that at times of need their parents would wish to be available, they enjoy high levels of confidence, independence and autonomy. Perhaps even more important, they also develop good social under- standing, Children who have experienced secure attachment’ and psy Chologically attuned parenting tend to enjoy high self-esteem a develop good social skills and emotional intelligence ‘These qualities stand them in good stead throughout childhood: These 1S ences continue throughout childhood and into adulthood. Children who have shown secure attachment behaviour are less likely © develop to interactAttachment Theory 45 behaviour problems. Their developments often d lescribed as ‘optimal’ and their mental health is generally sound, Insecure attachment patterns and styles if care which is loving, emotionally attuned, responsive, predictable and consistent leads to secure attachments and optimal psychosocial development, what happens when the caregiving isn't ‘good enough’? Attachment researchers recognize a number of insecure attachment patterns. We shall describe two of them: ambivalent and avoidant (Ainsworth et al 1978, Goldberg 1999, Howe et al 1999). Ambivalent attachments predictable, children begin to experience increasing levels of anxiety. These parents are caught up with their own needs and anxieties. As a result their ability to be emo- tionally attuned and sensitive to theneeds oftheir young child tends to be erratic and poor. Emotional neglect rather than hostility is how the child experiences them. Parents often fail to empathize with their children’s moods, needs and feelings. The child is never quite certain where he or she stands. Asa result, he or she can become increasingly confused and frustrated. Distress and anxiety ead toa clingy depend- ence, To this extent, children feel that the world of other peoples hard / to fathom, difficult to predict and often unreliable. The child thereforg feels a degree of frustration, anger and helplessness, From the child's point of view, love and attention seem to come and go in entirely arbitrary ways. This generates fretful anxiety. In order to increase the likelihood of an otherwise emotionally under-involved parent reacting, children unconsciously develop a range of demanding and attention-seeking, provocative and needful behaviours. They create drama and trouble in an attempt to keep other people involved and interested. Feelings are acted out. Insensitive and inconsistent care is interpreted by children (and adults who have experienced such care when they were children) to mean that they are ineffective in securing love and sustaining com- forting relationships. Children and adults alike conclude that they are not only unworthy of love, but also might be unlovable. This is deeply painful. It undermines self-esteem. It saps self-confidence.46 A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory Asa result, there is an anxious need for closeness with others by a constant worry that the relationship might not last: ‘I need fi but [ am not sure I can trust you. You may leave me and cause me pain, so feel anger as well as fear. Such thoughts provoke feelings, insecurity, jealousy, conflict and possessiveness in relationships, Intimacy is at the expense of autonomy. There is a reluctance to let go of others, yet resentment and fear that they may be lost at any time. The result is that people cling to relationships (including those with social workers), yet conduct them with a high level of tension and conflict. Lives, particular for aduls who show this pattern, tend to be full of drama, chaos and crisis, many of which will land on the social worker's doorstep. Avoidant attachments Children who develop avoidant patterns of attachment have parents who are cither indifferent, emotionally rigid or rejecting of their child’s needs. Although these parents may respond reasonably well when their child appears content and occupied, they withdraw emo- tionally or react with irritation when faced with distress and the need for comfort and attention. The clinging, complaining behaviour of children seen in ambivalent attachment relationships serve no put- pose in these cooler styles of parenting. Attempts at intimacy only seem to increase parental distance, even rebuff. Carers of these children encourage independence and de-emphasize dependency. When separated from their parents, avoidant children show few signs of distress. It seems better to become emotionally self-reliant, Negative feelings are contained and rarely expressed. Parental acceptance is achieved by not displaying need and by not being fussy. Lack of emotional involvement and mutuality children and avoidant adults find it hard to understand and deal with their own feelings. They may find it difficult to form intimate, em?” tionally reciprocal relationships. Getting too close to people bre the fear of rejection and pain. So although there is a desité 1 intimacy, close relationships can cause avoidant people a extreme cases this might be dealt with defensively by tying (0 "V the effects of loneliness and the pain of feeling unlovable by arin excessively or taking drugs. Avoidant service users a hard mean that bothAttachment Theory 47 engage. They keep their distance and underplay need. Autonomy appears at the expense of intimacy. Child abuse, neglect and trauma Sadly, some children suffer caregiving that neither protects at times of need, nor regulates them at times of distress. Children who suffer parental rejection, abuse, neglect and trauma are at increased risk of poor psychosocial development. Never having enjoyed emotional attunement, they are less likely to be able to understand and regulate their emotions and their arousal (Howe 2005). If their psychological needs have not been the subject of much interest or curiosity by harsh or disinterested parents, children find it difficult to monitor and make sense not just of their own thoughts and feelings, but also those of other people. This increases the risk / of behavioural, relationship and mental health problems across the lifecourse. 7. Attachment theory and the psychology of intersubjectivity are generating a range of assessment frameworks and intervention prac- tices that are of great relevance for social workers (Howe et al 1999). In particular, attachment theory values the idea that parents should try to connect with their children’s emotional needs, mental states ~and social understanding. Like the good social worker, if parents are to be effective they must learn to be curious as well as caring. It has to be remembered that children are biologically pro- grammed to relate and be social. Itis critical in cases of abuse, neglect and maltreatment that parents are helped to understand this. They need support, guidance and behavioural training in recognizing and enjoying the psychological complexity and amazingness of their child. This can often be difficult for parents who themselves have suf fered abuse and neglect, pain and hurt in their own childhoods. This means that social workers also have to help parents develop their own reflective capacities. First of all, mothers and father are helped to recognize that their young children are busy psychological and emotional beings. Moreover, children love to talk and play with their parents, particu- larly when it involves being recognized and enjoyed as someone with ideas, thoughts and feelings. Parents who are emotionally attuned and can engage with their children at these various psychological48 A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory levels are not only less likely 10 harm their children, they area more likely to promote good psychosocial development, a For the parent to be understood by the social worker helps the parent to understand her child. Attachment theory and evidence. based research has been very influential in promoting range ofeny interventions and prevention programmes. As well as child and fam. ily work, many of these relationship-based supports and attachment. informed treatments are also being developed and applied in the fields of mental health and the adult care services (eg Allen and Fonagy 2006, Berlin et al 2005, Crittenden 2008, Howe 2005, Jutfer et al 2007, Lieberman and van Horn 2008, Oppenheim and Goldsmith 2007, Schofield and Beek 2006). Uniting the developmental sciences Modern attachment theory has been researched and developed by a wide range of committed disciplines. These include psychology, evo- lutionary theory and the neurosciences. Attachment theory has left many, though by no means all of its psychodynamic roots behind, It now exists as an independent and influential theory in its own right with strong conceptual links with most branches of the developmen- tal sciences including the neurosciences and cognitive-behavioural approaches. Based on an analysis of the importance of early parent child relationships, attachment theory is also playing a major role in the resurgence of relationship-based social work. However, this popularity was not always the case. Back in the 1970s neither attachment theory nor psychoanalysis were faring so well. Behavioural psychologists, convinced of their own scientific credentials, were growing more and more bold in their criticisms of psychoanalytic-based practices. They wanted psychoanalysts to pro- vide scientific evidence to back their claims but felt it was unforth- coming. In contrast, they were happy to supply any would-be critic with the strongest of scientific support for their theories and practice: Its time, therefore, to consider what behavioural social workers have to say,