40 Principles of Mathematics (Chap. 1 Illustration 4, The implication, “If a polygon is can be rewritten in the following equivalent ways square, then it is a rectangle”, The fact that a polygon is a square is a sufficient condition that it is a rectangle. ‘The fact that a polygon is a rectangle is a necessary condition that it is a square. A polygon is a square only if it ia rectangle, ‘The first two of these may be rephrased A sufficient condition thnt » polygon is a rectangle is that it is a square, A necessnry condition that a polygon is a square is that it is a rectangle, Remark. rom the definition above it follows that the converse of an implication can be obtained in any of the following ways, depending on how the given implication is phrased: Interchange p- and gr Interchange P and Q. Replace “necessary” by “sufficient”. Replace “sufficient” by “necessary” Replace “if” by “only if”. Replace “only if” by “if”. Ina similar fashion, the equivalence V.(p- ¢ q2) can be expressed in a number of alternative ways Definition: The following six statements all carry the same meaning: V.(Pz © 4). P=Q pz is necessary and sufficient for qs. gz is necessary and sufficient for p.. pe if and only if qe. q. if and only if p.. Illustration 5. The equivalence, “A triangle is equilateral if and only if it is equi- angular’, can be rewritten in the following equivalent ways: A triangle is equiangular if and only if it is equilateral A necessary and sufficient condition that triangle is equilateral is that it is equiangular. A necessary and sufficient condition that a triangle is equiangular is that it is equilateral. Problems 1.14 In Probs. 1 to 10 write the relationship between sets which is derived from the given equivalence. 1. I~ A WI ~P) V (~9)). 2. [~(p Vg) > ~p) A (~a)l. 8. [~(~p)] + p. 4 pV GV rva(pV avr B pA Ar) (pq) Ar. 6 pV a Arer(p Va) A(pY 1). 1. (DY p) erp. 8. (pA p) rrp. & (PAU tp (Lis always true). 10. (pV f)op — (Fis always false).Soo. 1.14] Logic and Seta 39 Note that the quantifier upliod here yo Uinta full atatement of the inplication ig: Ve (real numbers), [If ¢ = 3, then +5 = 8], As wns stated curlie tomary to omit such quantifiers since they ean ensily be supplied by the Exercise A. Rewrite the implications of Mlustration 1 so shut the proper quantifier is stated explicitly. From Fig, 1.8 we can conclude immediately that an implication and its contrapositive are equivalent. In Fig. 1.84 the region outside the circle enclosing P is the sct P’, und the region outside the circle enclosing Q is the set Q!. Hence Q! CP’, which is the configuration represented by Fig. 1.8c. By reversing the argument from Wig. L.8c to Fig. 1.84, we complete the proof of the theorem Theorem 19. An implication of the form V,(p.— 9.) and its contra positive are equivalent propositions Illustration 8 3, then 2* = 9) Implication; If Contrapositive: If 2? # 9, then x #3. Because of this theorem we can prove the truth of a theorem by proving the truth of its contrapositive. We shall proceed in this way whenever the proof of the contrapositive is easier than the proof of the given theorem. Mathematicians frequently express implications in language different from that used above, and consequently you must learn to recognize implications even when they are disguised in a fashion which may scem confusing at first. Definition: The following six statements all carry the same meaning. V.(pz— 42). PcQ. pe is sufficient for qs gz is necessary for ps. If pz, then qs Only if q., then pe. The last four statements can be understood by referring to Fig. 1.8a. From this we see that: For x to be in Q, it is sufficient that it be in P. Por x to be in P, it is necessary that it be in Q. If @ is in P, then xis in Q. Only if 2 is in Q is it in P.Sec. 1.14) Logic and Sets at lustrates the giver In Probs. 11 to 14 draw a diagram like Fig, 1.7 which implication 11, If two triangles are congruent, then they are similar 12. If a triangle is equilateral, then it is isosceles, 18. If a polygon is a square, then it is a rectangle. 14. If an integer is a multiple of 4, then it is even, In Probs. 15 to 20 state the converse and the contrapositive of the given implication. 16. It a is divisible by 4, then 2a is divisible by 8. 16. If the angles of a triangle are all equal, then the triangle is equilateral, 17. If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonals bisect each other. 18. Itz #0, then 2* > 0. 19. Ifa >, thena —c >b —c 20. If r is a solution of a +x = b, then —ris a solution of b + « 21. Using truth tables, show that p — q is not equivalent to q— p. 22. Using truth tables show that (p> q) = [(~g) > (~p)]. 23, Write the contrapositive of the converse of V.(pz— gz). This is called the “inverse”. 24. Write the converse of the contrapositive of V2(p:— dz) “inverse” (see Prob. 23). jow that t is the In Probs. 25 to 30, write the given implication using the “sufficient condition” language. 26, If the base angles of a triangle are equal, the triangle is isosceles. 26, If two triangles are congruent, their corresponding altitudes are equal. 27. If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are parallel. 28, If two spherical triangles have their corresponding angles equal, they are congruent. 29, If 3r +2 =2 +4, then z 30. If z* = 0, then x In Probs. 31 to 36, write the given implication, using the “necessary condition” language. 81. If a triangle is inscribed in a semicircle, then it is a right triangle. 32. If z = 3, then x? = 9. 33. If a body is in static equilibrium, the vector sum of all forces acting on it is zero. 84. If a body is in static equilibrium, the vector sum of the moments of all forces acting on it is zero. 86. If two forces are in equilibrium, they are equal, opposite, and collinear. 86. If three nonparallel forces are in equilibrium, their lines of action are concurrent. In Probs. 37 to 42, write the given implication using the phrase “only if” 87. The implication of Prob. 31 38. The implication of Prob. 32. 89. The implication of Prob. 33. 40. The implication of Prob. 34. 41. The implication of Prob. 35. 42. The implication of Prob. 36. In Probs. 43 to 48 write the converse of the given implication using “necessary” and then “sufficient” language. Give two answers to each problem. 43. The implication of Prob. 25. 44. The implication of Prob. 26. 45. The implication of Prob. 27. 46. The implication of Prob. 28. 41. The implication of Prob. 29. 48. The implication of Prob. 30.