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    Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering: PVT Chapter

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    PVT Correlations

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    Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Second Edition B.C. CRAFT and M. F. HAWKINS Louisiana State University Revised by RONALD E. TERRY Brigham Young University Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 6 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering the term improved recovery was introduced and has become popular in re- ferring to, in general, any recovery process that improves the recovery over what the natural reservoir energy would be expected to yield. Inmany reservoirs several recovery mechanisms may be operating simul- taneously, but generally one or two predominate. During the producing life of a reservoir, the predominance may shift from one mechanism to another, either naturally or because of operations planned by engineers. For example, the volumetric reservoir (no aquifer) may produce initially by fluid expansion. ‘When its pressure is largely depleted, it may produce to the wells mainly by gravitational drainage, the fluid being lifted to the surface by pumps. Still later, water may be injected in some wells to drive additional oil to other wells. Jn this case, the cycle of the mechanisms is expansion-gravitational drainage- displacement. There are many alternatives in these cycles, and it is the object ‘of reservoir engineering to plan these cycles for maximum recovery, usually in ‘minimum 3. RESERVOIR TYPES DEFINED WITH REFERENCE TO PHASE DIAGRAMS From a technical point of view, the various types of reservoirs can be defined by the location of the initial reservoir temperature and pressure with respect to the two-phase (gas and liquid) region as commonly shown on pressure- temperature (PT) phase diagrams. Figure 1.1 is the PT phase diagram of a particular reservoir fluid, The area enclosed by the bubble-point and dew- point lines to the lower lefts the region of pressure-temperature combinations in which both gas and liquid phases will exist. The curves within the two-phase region show the percentage of the total hydrocarbon volume that is liquid for any temperature and pressure. Initially each hydrocarbon accumulation will have its own phase diagram, which depends only on the composition of the accumulati Consider a reservoir containing the fluid of Fig. 1.1 initially at 300°F and 3700 psia, point A. Since this point lies outside the two-phase region, it is originally in a one-phase state, commonly called gas as located at point A. Since the fluid remaining in the reservoir during production remains at 300°F, it is evident that it will remain in the single-phase or gaseous state as the pressure declines along path AAy, Furthermore, the composition of the pro- duced well fluid will not change as the reservoir is depleted. This is true for any accumulation of this composition where the reservoir temperature €x- ‘ceeds the cricondentherm, or maximum two-phase temperature (250'F for the present example). Although the fluid left in the reservoir remains in one phase. the fluid produced through the wellbore and into surface separators, although the same composition, may enter the two-phase region owing to the temperature decline, as along line AA;. This accounts for the production of condensate liquid at the surface from a gas in the reservoir. Of course, if the 3. Reservoir Types Defined with Reference to Phase Diagrams 7 go: 8 RESERVOIR PRESSURE, PSIA 3 ‘030 —~“tog, 0300380 ReBenvoin Teupenatune, °F Fig. 1.1. Pressure-temperature phase diagram of a reservoir fluid cticondentherm of a fluid is below say 50°F, then only gas will exist on the surface at usual ambient temperatures, and the production will be called dry gas. Nevertheless, it may contain liquid fractions that can be removed by low-temperature separation or by natural gasoline plants. Next, consider a reservoir containing the same fluid of Fig. 1.1 but at a temperature of 180°F and an initial pressure of 3300 psia, point B. Here the fluid is also initially in the one-phase state, commonly called gas, where the reservoir temperature exceeds the critical temperature. As pressure declines because of production, the composition of the produced fluid will be the same as for reservoir A and will remain constant until the dew-point pressure is reached at 2700 psia, point B,. Below this pressure a liquid condenses out of the reservoir fluid as a fog or dew, and this type of reservoir is commonly called a dew-point reservoir. This condensation leaves the gas phase with a lower liquid content. Because the condensed liquid adheres to the walls of the pore spaces of the rock, it is immobile. Thus the gas produced at the surface will have a lower liquid content, and the producing gas-oil ratio therefore rises. This process of retrograde condensation continues until a point of maxi- mum liquid volume is reached, 10% at 2250 psia, point B.. The term retro- 8 Introduction 10 Reservoir Engineering ‘grade is used because generally vaporization, rather than condensation, occurs during isothermal expansion Actually, after the dew point is reached, because the composition of the produced fluid changes, the composition of the remain- ing reservoir fluid also changes, and the phase envelope begins to shift. The phase diagram of Fig. 1.1 represents one and only one hydrocarbon mixture. Unfortunately for maximum liquid recovery, this shift is toward the right, and this further aggravates the retrograde liquid loss within the pores of the reser- voir rock. ‘Neglecting for the moment this shift in the phase diagram, for qualitative purposes vaporization of the retrograde liquid occurs from B, to the abandon- ‘ment pressure Bs. This revaporization aids liquid recovery and may be evi- denced by decreasing gas-oil ratios on the surface. The overall retrograde loss will evidently be greater (a) for lower reservoir temperatures, (b) for higher abandonment pressures, and (c) for greater shift of the phase diagram to the ‘ight—this latter being a property of the hydrocarbum system. The retrograde liquid in the reservoir at any time is composed to « large extent of methane and ethane by volume, and so itis much larger than the volume of stable liquid that could be obtained from it at atmospheric temperature and pressure. The composition of this retrograde liquid is changing as pressure declines so that 4% retrograde liquid volume at, say, 750 psia might contain as much stable surface condensate as, say, 6% retrograde liquid volume at 2250 psia. If the accumulation occurred at 2900 psia and 75°F, point C, the reser~ voir would be in a one-phase state, now called liquid, because the temperature is below the critical temperature. This type is called a bubble-point reservoir; as pressure declines, the bubble point will be reached, in this case at 2550 psia, point C;. Below this point, bubbles, or a free-gas phase, will appear. Even- tually the free gas evolved begins to flow to the well bore, and in ever increas- ing quantities. Conversely, the oil flows in ever decreasing quantities, and at depletion much unrecovered oil remains in the reservoir. Other names for this type of liquid (oil) reservoir are depletion, dissolved gas, solution gas drive, expansion, and internal gas drive. Finally, same hydrocarbon mixture occurred at 2000 psia and 150°F, point D, it would be a two-phase reservoir, consisting of a liquid or oil zone overlain by a gas zone or cap. Because the composition of the gas and cil zones are entirely different from each other, they may be represented separately by individual phase diagrams that bear little relation to each other ‘or to the composite. The liquid or oil zone will be at its bubble point and will be produced as a bubble-point reservoir modified by the presence of the gas cap. The gas cap will be at the dew point and may be either retrograde as shown in Fig. 1.2 (a) or nonretrograde, Fig. 1.2 (b). From this technical point of view, hydrocarbon reservoirs are initially cither in a single-phase state (A, B, and C) or a two-phase state (D), depend- ing on their temperatures and pressures relative to their phase envelopes. On volumetric depletion (no water influx), these various one-phase reservoirs 4, Review of Rock Properties 9 ‘TEMPERATURE Fig. 1.2. Phase diagrams of a cap gas and oil zone fluid showing (a) retrograde cap gas and (b) nonretrograde cap gas may behave as simple, single-phase gas reservoirs (A). in which reservoir temperature exceeds the cricondentherm; or retrograde condensate (dew- point) reservoirs (B), in which reservoir temperature lies between the critical ‘temperature and the cricondentherm; or dissolved gas (bubble-point) reser- voirs (C), in which reservoir temperature is below the critical temperature, When the pressure and temperature lie within the two-phase region, an oil zone with an overlying gas cap exists. The oil zone produces as a bubble-point oil reservoir and the gas cap either as a single-phase gas reservoir (A) or a retrograde gas reservoir (B). 4, REVIEW OF ROCK PROPERTIES Properties discussed in this section include porosity, isothermal compressi- bility, and fluid saturation. Although permeability is a property of a rock matrix, because of its importance in fluid flow calculations, a discussion of permeability is postponed until Chapter 7, in which single phase fluid flow is considered. 4A, Porosity The porosity of a porous medium is given the symbol of and is defined as the ratio of void space, or pore volume, to the total bulk volume of the rock. This ratio is expressed either as a fraction or in pecent. When using a value of porosity in an equation it is nearly always expressed as a fraction. The term hydrocarbon porosity refers to that part of the porosity that contains hydro- carbon. It is the total porosity multiplied by the fraction of the pore volume that contains hydrocarbon. “The value of porosity is usually reported as either a total or an effe porosity, depending on the type of measurement used. The total porosity represents the total void space of the medium, The effective porosity is the 10 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering amount of the void space that contributes to the flow of fluids. This is the type of porosity usually measured in the laboratory and used in calculations of fluid flow. ‘The laboratory methods of measuring porosity include Boyle’s law, water-saturation, and, organic-liquid saturation methods. Dotson, Slobod, ‘McCreery, and Spurlock have described a porosity-check program made by five laboratories on 10 samples.” The average deviation of porosity from the average values was +0.5 porosity %. The accuracy of the average porosity of, ‘a reservoir as found from core analysis depends on the quality and quantity of, the data available and on the uniformity of the reservoir. The average porosi is seldom known more precisely than to 1 porosity % e.g., to 5% accuracy at 20% porosity. The porosity is also calculated from electric logs and neutron logs, often with the assistance of some core measurements. Logging tech- niques have the advantage of averaging larger volumes of rock than in core analysis. When calibrated with core data, they should provide average poros- ity figures in the same range of accuracy as core analysis. When there are variations in porosity across the reservoir, the average porosity should be found on a weighted volume basis 4.2. Isothermal Compressibility ‘The isothermal compressibility for a substance is given by the following equation: ay where, ¢ = isothermal compressibility v= volume p= pressure ‘The equation describes the change in volume that a substance undergoes during a change in pressure while the temperature is held constant. The units are in reciprocal pressure units. When the internal fluid pressure within the pore spaces of a rock, which is subjected to a constant external (rock or overburden) pressure, is reduced, the bulk volume of the rock decreases while the volume of the solid rock material (e.g., the sand grains of a sandstone) increases. Both of these volume changes act to reduce the porosity of the rock slightly, of the order of 0.5% for a 1000 psi change in the internal fluid pressure (e.g., at 20% porosity to 19.9%). Studies by van der Knaap indicate that this change in porosity for a given rock depends only on the difference between the internal and external pres- sures, and not on the absolute value of the pressures. As with the volume of 4. Review of Rock Properties 1" rese ls above the bubble point, however, the change in pore volume is nonlinear and the pore volume compressibility is not constant. The por volume compressibility gt any value of external-internal pressure difference may be defined as the erange in pore volume per unit of pore volume per uni change in pressure. The values for limestone and sandstone reservoir rocks le in the range of 2x 10°* to 25 x 10°® psi~', If the compressibility is given i terms of the change in pore volume per t er unit of bulk volume per nit change in pressure, dividing by the fractional porosity places it on a pore volume basis. For example, a compressibility of 1.0 x 10°* pore volume per bul volume per psi for a rock of 20% porosity is 50x 10° pore volume per por volume per psi ‘Newnan measured isothermal compressibility and porosity values in 7 samples of consolidated sandstones under hydrostatic pressure.” When he fi the data to hyperbolic equation, he obtained the following correlation: __97.3200(10)"* T+ 55.87216) = a2 This correlation was developed for consolidated sandstones having a range of porosity values from 0.02<<0.23. The average absolute error of the cor- relation over the entire range of porosity values was found to be 2.60%. Newman also developed a similar correlation for limestone formations under hydrostatic pressure.” The range of porosity values included in the correlation was 0.02 < < (0.33, and the average absolute error was found to be 11.8%. The correlation for limestone formations is as follows: 0.853531 9" GT zara 3) Even though the rock compressibilities are small figures, their effect may ‘be important in some calculations on reservoirs or aquifers that contain fluids of compressibilites in the range of 3 to 25(10)~°psi~'. One application is given in Chapter 5 involving calculations above the bubble point. Geertsma points out that when the reservoir is not subjected to uniform external pressure, as are the samples in the laboratory tests of Newman, the effective value in the reservoir will be less than the measured value.” 4.3. Fluld Saturations The ratio of the volume that a fluid occupies to the pore volume is called the saturation of that fluid. The symbol for oil saturation is S,, where S refers to saturation and the subscript o refers to oil. Saturation is expressed as either a fraction or a percentage, but itis used as a fraction in equations. The satu- rations of all fluids present in a porous medium add to 1. ‘There are, in general, two ways of measuring original fluid saturations: 2 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering either the extraction of the reservoir fluids or the leaching of the fluids from sample of the reservoir rock. The indirect approach relies on a measurement of some other property, such as capillary pressure, and the derivation of a mathematical relationship between the measured property and saturation, Direct methods include retorting the fluids from the rock, distilling the fiuids with a modified ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) procedure, and centrifuging the fluids. Each method relies on some procedure to remove the rock sample from the reservoir. Experience has found that itis difficult to remove the sample without altering the state of the fluids and/or rock. The indirect methods use logging or capillary pressure measurements. With either method, errors are built into the measurement of saturation. However, under favorable circumstances and with careful attention to detail, saturation values can be obtained within useful limits of accuracy. 5, REVIEW OF GAS PROPERTIES ‘5.1 Ideal Gas Law Relationships that describe the pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) behavior ‘of gases are called equations of state. The simplest equation of state is called the ideal gas law and is given by: pV =nR'T a4) where, is absolute pressure Vis total volume nis moles Tis absolute temperature R’ is the gas constant When R’ = 10.73, p must be in pounds per square inch absolute (psia), V in ‘cubic feet, n in pound-moles (Ib-moles), and Tin degrees Rankine, The ideal gas law was developed from Boyle's and Charles's laws, which were formed from experimental observations. ‘The petroleum industry works with a set of standard conditions—usually 14.7 psia and 60°F. When a volume of gas is reported at these conditions, it is given the units of SCF (standard cubic feet). Sometimes the letter M will appear in the units (e.g., MCF or M SCF). This refers to 1000 standard cubic feet. The volume that 1 Ib-mole occupies at standard conditions is 379.4 SCF. ‘A quantity of a pure gas can be expressed as the number of cubic feet at a 6, Review of Gas Properties 1 specified temperature and pressure, the number of moles, the number 0 pounds, or the number of molecules, For practical measurement, the weighing of gases is difficult, so that gases are metered by volume at measured tem peratures and pressures, from which the pounds or moles may be calculated Example 1.1 illustrates the calculations of the contents of a tank of gas in eact of four units. Example 1.1. Calculating the contents of a tank of ethane in moles pounds, molecules, and SCF. Given: A 500 cu ft tank of ethane at 100 psia and 10°F, SoLution: Assuming ideal gas behavior: 100 500 10.73 300 Pounds = 8.32 x 30.07 = 250.2 Molecules = 8.32 x 2.733 x 10* = 22.75 x 10% Moles = =R32 ‘At 14.7 psia and 60°F: SCF = 8.32 x 379.4 = 3157 Alternate solution using Eq. (1.4) RIT _ 8.32% 10.73% 520 Pacer eran aT eeoree = 3158 5.2 Specitic Gravity Because the density of a substance is defined as mass per unit volume, th density of gas, p,, at a given temperature and pressure can be derived a follows: where, M, = molecular weight “4 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Because it is more convenient to measure the specific gravity of gases than the gas density, specific gravity is more commonly used. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a gas at a given temperature and pressure to the density of air at the same temperature and pressure, usually near 60°F and atmospheric pressure. Whereas the density of gases varies with temperature and pressure, the specific gravity is independent of temperature and pressure when the gas obeys the ideal gas law. By the previous equation, the density of air is (15) Equation (1.5) might also have been obtained from the previous state- ment that 379.4 cu ft of any ideal gas at 14.7 psia and 60°F is one mole, and therefore a weight equal to the molecular weight. Thus, by definition of specific gravity: /eight of 379.4 cu ft of gas at 14.7 and 60°F __My Weight of 379.4 cu ft of air at 14.7 and OOF | 28.97 Thus if the specific gravity of a gas is 0.75, its molecular weight is 21.7 pounds per mole, 5.3 Real Gas Law All that has just been said applies to a perfect or ideal gas. Actually there are no perfect gases; however, many gases near atmospheric temperature and pressure approach ideal behavior. All molecules of real gases have two ten- dencies: (1) to fly apart from each other because of their constant kinetic motion, and (2) to come together because of electrical attractive forces be- tween the molecules. Because the molecules are quite far apart, the attractive forces are negligible, and the gas behaves close to ideal. Also at high tem- peratures the kinetic motion, being greater, makes the attractive forces com- paratively negligible. and. again. the gas approaches ideal behavior. seme cf 2 ms Wil Te ‘ee: “han what be deal ms oclume wows cmeresine Tut mumbe Vn = 5 measure ‘ount the gas deviates from periect behavior. is sometimes called the supercompressibilty factor, usually shortened to the compressibility 5, Review of Gas Properties 15 factor. More commonly it is called the gas deviation factor, symbol z. This ‘dimensionless quantity varies usually between 0.70 and 1.20, a value of 1.00 representing ideal behavior. At very high pressures, above about 5000 psia, natural gases pass from « supercompressible condition to one in which compression is more difficult than in the ideal gas. The explanation is that, in addition to the forces men- tioned earlier, when the gas is highly compressed, the volume occupied by the molecules themselves becomes an appreciable portion of the total volume. Since it is really the space between the molecules which is compressed, and there is less compressible space, the gas appears to be more difficult to com- press, In addition, as the molecules get closer together (i.c., at high pressure), repulsive forces begin to develop between the molecules. This is indicated by 4 gas deviation factor greater than unity. ‘The gas deviation factor is by defini- tion the ratio of the volume actually occupied by a gas at a given pressure and temperature to the volume it wonld ocrupy if it behaved ideally, or: \, _ Actual volume of n moles of gas at T and p ¥,~ Ideal volume of n moles at same T and p (16) These theories qualitatively explain the behavior of nonideal or real gases. Equation (1.6) may be substituted in the ideal gas law, Eq. (1.4) to give an equation for use with nonideal gases MR'T or p¥,= 2nR'T a7 where V, is the actual gas volume. The gas deviation factor must be deter- ‘mined for every gas and every combination of gases and at the desired tem- perature and pressure, for itis different for each gas or mixture of gases and for each temperature and pressure of that gas or mixture of gases. The omis- sion of the gas deviation factor in gas reservoir calculations may introduce errors as large as 30%.” Figure 1.3 shows the gas deviation factors of two gases, one of 0.90 specific gravity and the other of 0.665 specific gravity. These ‘curves show that the gas deviation factors drop from unity at low pressures to minimum value near 2500 psia. They rise again to unity near 5000 psia and to values greater than unity at still higher pressures. In the range of 0 to 5000 psia, the deviation factors at the same temperature will be lower for the heavier gas, and for the same gas they will be lower at the lower temperature. ‘The deviation factor of natural gas is commonly measured in the labora- tory on samples of surface gases. If there ig condensate liquid at the point of sampling, the sample must be taken in such a way as to represent the single- phase reservoir gas. This may be accomplished with a special sampling nozzle or by recombining samples of separator gas, stock tank gas, and stock tank liquid in the proportions in which they are produced. The deviation factor of 16 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering r—_| 4 rm | 4 7o90 — s008 6000 0 Too 2205 3008, ‘resenvor Bressune w pst Fig. 1.3. Effect of pressure, temperature, and composition on the gas deviation factor. solution gas is measured on samples evolved from solution in oil during the liberation process. "The gas deviation factor is commonly determined by measuring the volume of a sample at desired pressures and temperatures, and then mea- suring the volume of the same quantity of gas at atmospheric pressure and at ‘a temperature sufficiently high so that all the material remains in the vapor phase. For example, a sample of the Bell Field gas has a measured volume of, 364.6 cu cm at 213°F and 3250 psia. At 14.80 psia and 82°F it has a volume of 70,860 cu em. Then by Eq, (1.7), assuming a gas deviation factor of unity at the lower pressure, the deviation factor at 3250 psia and 213°F is: 3250 x 364.6 2" 4604 213, If the gas deviation factor is not measured, it may be estimated from its specific gravity. Example 1.2 shows the method for estimating the gas devi- ation factor from its specific gravity. The method uses a correlation to estimate pseudocritical temperature and pressure values for a gas with a given specific ‘gravity. The correlation was developed by Sutton on the basis of 264 different ‘gas samples and is shown in Fig. 1.4.” Sutton also conducted a regression ‘analysis on the raw data and obtained the following equations over the range of specific gas gravities with which he worked—0.57 <+, < 1.68: Po = 156.8 ~ 131.04, — 3.63 (18) 7 Re NL oy Hiaving obtained the pseudocritical values, the pseucoreduced pressure ano ‘temperature are calculated. The gas deviation factor is then found by using the correlation chart of Fig. 1.5. 5, Review of Gas Properties : a iN 8 PSEUDOCAITICAL TEMPERATURE R AND PSEUDOCRITICAL PRESSURE—PSIA & | cod OS 06 o7 08 08 19 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 1 ‘y» GAS SPECIFIC GRAVITY Fig. 1.4. Pscudocritcal propeties of natural gases. (After Sutton.™) Example 1.2. Calculating the gas deviation factor of the B from its specific gravity. caetnene Given Specific gravity = 0.665 Reservoir temperature = 213°F Reservoir pressure = 3250 psia 7 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE 1 2 3 4 5 6 r is wor . 5 is 3 M, 7 ‘ a o 8. Fair 7 ° 3 10 w 12 is is PSEUDO REDUCED PRESSURE Fig. 1.5. Compressibility factors for natural gases. (After Standing and Katz, Trans. AIM) 5, Review of Gas Properties 1 Sowumion: From Fig. 1.4 the pseudocritical pressure and temperatur are Pre = 668 psia and Te= 369°R Using Eq. (1.8) and (1.9), the pseudocritical values are Pre = 756.8 — 131.0(.665) ~ 3.6(.665)? = 668 psia Ty. = 169.2 + 349.5(.665) — 74.0(.665)" = 369°R For 3250 psia and 213°F, the pseudoreduced pressure and temperature ar T= 460+ 213 3g = 182 Enter Fig. 1.5 with these values. Find z = 0.918. In many reservoir engineering calculations, it is necessary to use th assistance of a computer, and the chart of Standing and Katz then become difficult to use. Dranchuk and Abou-Kassem fitted an equation of state to th data of Standing and Katz in order to estimate the gas deviation factor i ‘computer routines.™ Dranchuk and Abou-Kassem used 1500 data points an: found an average absolute error of 0.486% over ranges of pseudoreduce: pressure and temperature of: 0.2< ppp <30 10<%,<3.0 and for Ppe<1.0 with 0.7<7;,<1.0 The Dranchuk and Abou-Kassem equation of state gives poor results fo = 1.0 and pp,> 1.0. The form of the Dranchuis and Abou-Kassem equatior of state is as follows: + €1 (Tor)Pr + €2 (TyedB2 — 5 (Tor)95 + 4 (rs Tyr) (1.10 where, 0-= 0.27 ppl(z Te) (1.10a 61 (Ty) = Ay + Ar! Ty, + Ay Tj, + AdT3, + ATS (1.10b €2(Ty) = Ae + Aal Tw + AdTp (1.106 €3(Tp) = AAs/Tye + AvlTZ) (aod €4(Pr Ty) Au(l + Anpi\(oH/Tp) exp (-. (1.10€ 20 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering where the constants A, ~ Ast are as follows A, = 0.3265 A,= ~1.0700 As= ~0.5339 As=0.01569 A= 0.05165 Ag = 0.5475, Ar=-0.7361—-As=0.1844 Ay= 0.1056 Ap=0.6134 An 0.7210 Because the z-factor is on both sides of the equation, a trial-and-error solution is necessary to solve the Dranchuk and Abou-Kassem equation of, state, Any one of the number of iteration techniques can be used to assist in the trial-and-error procedure. One that is frequently used is the secant method” which has the following iteration formula: Bat | au To apply the secant method to the foregoing procedure, Eq. (1.10) is rearranged to the form: 5 F(2)= 2 ~ (1+ ex(Typ, + co(To)p2 — 03CTy)02 + 620, Te)) =O (1-12) ‘The left-hand side of Eq. (1.12) becomes the function, f, and the z-factor becomes x. The iteration procedure is initiated by choosing two values of the z-factor and calculating the corresponding values of the function, f. The secant method provides the new guess for z, and the calculation is repeated until the function, f, is zero or within a specified tolerance (i.e., * 10°). This solution procedure is fairly easy to program on a computer. Another popular iteration technique is the Newton-Raphson method, which has the following iteration formula: Knot = Kn & 4.13) ‘Ascan be seen in Eq, (1.13), the derivative, f(z), is required for the Newton- Raphson technique. The derivative of Eq. (1.12) with respect to z is as follows: (@F(z)/02)T,,= 1+ cx(Ty)pilz + eal Ty stl — Ses Type! +A (1+ Ayo Aupl)) exp (~Aus?) (1.14) 5. Review of Gas Properties a ‘A more accurate estimation of the deviation factor can be made when the analysis of the gas is available. This calculation assumes that each com- ponent contributes to the pscudocritical pressure and temperature in propor- sion to its volume percentage in the analysis and to the critical pressure and temperature, respectively, of that component. Table 1.1 gives the critical Pressures and temperatures of the hydrocarbon compounds and others com- ‘monly found in natural gases. It also gives some additional physical proper- ties of these compounds. Example 1.3 shows the method of calculating the gas deviation factor from the composition of the gas. TABLE 1.1. Physical properties of the paraffin hydrocarbons and other compounds {After Blierts*?) Boiling Creal Constants 147 psia 14.7 Point at G psi, 144 Molec. 187 (Grams) Lb “Gal psia, tar sia Pressure, Temperature per per per M_ Gal per Compound Weight °F pes pia Te, "R ec Gal SCF _Lbmole Methane 16.04 258.7 673.1—M2.— OMB 290«1G «5D Ethane «30.07 12757083. 549.9 “O4BS Ok G78 Propane 44.09 =43.7 617.4 666.0 “USOT 4233 27.46 10.417 Tsobutne 5812109 SOL 346 OS6B] 4.695 32.64 12.360 Butane 58.12 SOL 765.7 "OS0M 4872 3144 11.909 Tiopentane 72.15 483.5 819.6 0.6248 5.209 365013851 mPentane 72.15 96:9 «489.8 8462 ©—OGSI2 5.262 3618 13.710 nHerane 86.17 1557 4019142 0.6681 5.536 41.03 15.565 nHeptane 100.2 2002 395.9 9724 OKRA. «5.738 4503 17.463, Octane 1142 2582 362.2 1049 C8 5.892 51.09 19.285 83 34 LOTS Ho GOT 56.19 21.318 W230 -MS4 32 IS vos 612n 612728 97-37 S79 M401 -103 10025475 Helium 403-4521 32 95 Hydrogen 2106-4230 189.0598 Hydrogen sulfide 3408 76.6 1306.5 672.4 Niogen 28.02 =3004 4922-2270 Onygen 32.0 =207.4 «73692786 water 1022120 32005 1165.2 ‘Basis partial volume in solution. At bubble-point pressure and 60°F. 0.9990 8.337 2 Introduetion to Reservoir Engineering ‘Example 1.3. Calculating the gas deviation factor of the Bell Field gas from its composition. Given: The composition Col. (2), and the physical data Cols. (3) to (5) taken from Table 1.1. BEREEEEEeEe PEEP Ee ee Ree b eee bb eee eee eee Seer tee eere eee eee @Q) Comp, (3) a) Mole Mo. (4) oS) 6) 6 Component - Frac. Wee) XY A)X) Component Frac. Wt pei XG) A O)*O) Methane 08612-16046 343_—«B8L_—«ST9.SD 295.39, Ethane 0.0591 3007 708550 «1:78—= 41.84 32.81 Propane 0.0358 44.09 617665 «S82 8.8 Butane 0.0172 $8.12 550 7661.00 9.46 13.18, Pentanes 0.0050 72.15 490 «8460.36 2.45 423 Oo; 0.0010 44.01 1070 5480.04 1.07 oss N 0.0207 28.02 492-227 088 _10.18 4.70 1.0000 11s 666.68 374.40 SoLUTION: The specific gravity may be obtained from the sum of Col (6), which is the average molecular weight of the gas, = 0.661 ‘The sums of Cols. (7) and (8) are the pseudocritical pressure and temperature, respectively. Then at 3250 psia and 213°F, the pseudoreduced pressure and temperature are 3250 673 Pn 66.688 To ig gO ‘The gas deviation factor using Fig. 1.5 is z= 0.91. : ‘Wichert and Aziz have developed a correlation to account for inaccu- racies in the Standing and Katz chart when the gas contains significant frac- tions of carbon dioxide (CO;) and hydrogen sulfide (HS). The Wichert and ‘Aziz correlation modifies the values of the pseudocritical constants of the natural gas, Once the modified constants are obtained, they are used to calcu- late pseudoreduced properties as described in Ex. 1.2 and the 2-factor is deter mined from Fig. 1.5 or Eq. (1.10). The Wichert and Aziz correlation equation is as follows: (1s) 20(4°° — A") + 15(B°S — B where, A= sum of the mole fractions of CO, and H,$ in the gas mixture B= mole fraction of H.S in the gas mixture 5. Review of Gas Properties 23 ‘The modified pseudocritical properties are given by: The = Tre © (15a) 7 ea RD (1.150) Wichert and Aziz found their correlation to have an average absolute error of 0.97% over the following ranges of data: 154

    | eS “| oa 1573800 PsiA Tels esia Asia? PBA wear ‘eur ner Fig, 1.13, Visual conception of the change in single-phase and in two-phase formation volume factors for the Big Sandy reservoir fluid. 6 Review of Crude Oil Properties a Figure 1.13 (C) shows these separate and total volumes at 1200 psia. At 14.7 Fria and 160°F (D), the gas volume has increased to 676 cu ft and the oil ‘volume has decreased to 1,040 bbl. The total liberated gas volume, 676 cu ft, at 16°F and 14.7 psia, is converted to standard cubic feet at 60°F and 14.7 psia ‘sing the ideal gas law to give 567 SCF/STB as shown in (E). Correspondingly, 1.040 bbl at 160°F is converted to stock tank conditions of 60°F as shown by Eq, (1.27) to give 1.000 STB, also shown in (E). ‘The single-phase formation volume factor may be estimated from the solution gas, the gravity of the solution gas, the API gravity of the tank oil, and reservoir temperature using a correlation prepared by Standing, Beggs presents Standing’s correlation for the oil formation volume factor in equation form as: For p spy: B= 0.972.+ 0.000147F (1.29) here, +1257 F=R,| il specific gravity = 4-5 _ Teel specific BEAVY = 31.5 + Paar T =temperature, °F ‘The average error determined from this correlation with the same database ‘sed by Standing and Beggs in the solution gas-ratio correlation was 1.17% For p > pus B,= Bas exp [col ps ~)] (1.30) here, formation volume factor at the bubble-point pressure = oil compressibility, psi! Col (2) of Table 1.2 shows the variation in the volume of a reservoir fluid relative to the volume at the bubble point of 2695 psig, as mei«ured in the laboratory. These relative volume factors (RVF) may be converted to for- mation volume factors if the formation volume factor at the bubble point is known. For example, if Ba, = 1.391 bbV/STB, then the formation volume fac- tor at 4100 psig is B, at 4100 psig = 1.391(0.9829) = 1.367 bb/STB 38 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering asus 12 Fela votre data wm (2) 5000 0.9739 i osree 4400 0.9799 fon 9s 3800 0.9862 3600 0.9886 3400 0.9909 3200 0.9934 3000 0.9960 2900 0.9972 0 toes oss 1300 "y= volume relative to the volume at the bubble-point pressure Vo, laboratory daa. 6.3. Isothermal Compressibility ‘Sometimes it is desirable to work with values of the liquid compres rather than the formation or relative volume factors. The compressit the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, is defined by: 1a Vdp Because dVidp is a negative slope, the negative sign converts the compres- sibility c, into a positive number. Because the values of the volume V and the slope of dV/dp are different at each pressure, the compressibility is different at each pressure, being higher at the lower pressure. Average compressibilities may be used by writing Eq. (1.1) in the difference form as: (1.31) ‘The reference volume V in Eq. (1.31) may be Vi, Vi, or an average of V; and ¥,, Its commonly reported for reference to the smaller volume—that is, the volume at the higher pressure. Then the average compressibility of the fluid of Table 1.2 between 5000 psig and 4100 psig is. 0.9829 - 0.9739 (0.9739 (5000 — 4100) 10.27 x 10°§ psiv? 6. Review of Crude Oil Properties Between 4100 psig and 3400 psig, c= 9909 = 0.9829 9.9829 (4100 — 3400) 1.63 x 10°* psi ‘And between 3400 psig and 2695 psig, A compressibility of 13.03 x 10°¢ psi“ means that the volume of | million barrels of reservoir fluid will increase by 13.03 bbls for a reduction o 1 psiin pressure. The compressibility of undersaturated oils ranges from 5 t 100 x 10°* psi-!, being higher for the higher API gravities, for the greater ‘quantity of solution yas, and for higher temperatures. Villena-Lanzi developed a correlation to estimate c, for black oils.** The gonetation is good for pressures below the bubble-point pressure and is giver In(c.) = ~ 0.664 — 1.430 1n(p) — 0.395 1n(p4) + 0.390 1n(7) +0455 In (Roe) + 0.262 In(p,an) (1.32 where, T F ‘The correlation was developed from a database containing the followin ranges: 31.0(10)"*< c, (psia) < 6600(19)~* 500 <> (psig) < 5300 763 < px (psig) < 5300 B< T(F)<330 1.5 pe) For pressures greater than the bubble-point pressure, R= Ris, therefore from Eq. (1.26): e P Ra Remade Y, = 0.000917 ~ 0.0125p..an = 2500_} Res= R, = 080 gate ).00091(180) — 0.0125(40) = - 0.336 * _172 SCFISTB P = 2000 psia (p ps) From Eq. (1.33): (SR + 17.2T ~ 1180, + 12.61 ps. aer— 1433)"(p(10)') (5(772) + 17.2(180) — 1180(0.80) + 12.61(40) — 1433 /(4000(10)") 6 psi From Eq, (1.32): In cg= 0.664 — 1.430 1n(p) — 0.3951n (po) + 0.390 1n(T) +0.455 In (Rus) + 0.262 17 (bp.an) In cy = ~ 0.664 ~ 1.430 In (2000) — 0.395 1n(2500) + 0.390 1n (180) + :0.455 In (772) + 0.262 1n(40) ¢_= 183 (10)* psi~* Formation volume factor, By: P = 4000 psia (p > ps) From Eq, (1.30): Bo = Bos exp (ep —P)) Bay is calculated from Eq. (1.29) Bas = 0.972 + 0.000147F'"* where, = nel) nasr 0.80 \es erro 282)" «1.258 = 985 Bas = 0.972 + 0.000147(985)!" = 1.456 bbUSTB. B,= 1.456 exp [12.7(10)-*(2500 — 4000)] = 1.429 bbvSTB P =2000 psia (p ps) From Eq. (1.36): Ho = Hes (Dips) m =2.6p'"" exp{- 11.513 ~ 8.98(10)-%p] 1m = 2.6(4000)!"" exp[- 11.513 ~ 8.98(10)"*(4000)} = 0.342 From Eq, (1.34): Togulogse( tase + 1)] = 1.8653 ~ 0.025086p..a01~ 0.5644l0g(T) ogullogie(Hssa + 1)] = 1.8653 — 0.025086(40) ~ 0.56410g(180) Howe = 1.444 ep From Eq. (1.35): Bos = A ple A=30-715 (Rp + 100)°°5 = 10.715 (772 + 100)" = 0.328 B= 5.44 (Rigs + 150)"°* = 5.44 (772 + 150)"° = 0.541 Hos = 0.328(1.444)°5" = 0.400 cp 4. = 0.400(4000/2500)°* = 0.470 cp P= 2000 psia (p

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