j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4

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journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Review Article

Review on residual stresses in metal additive

manufacturing: formation mechanisms, parameter
dependencies, prediction and control approaches

Shu-guang Chen a,b, Han-jun Gao a,b,*, Yi-du Zhang a,b, Qiong Wu a,b,
Zi-han Gao a,b, Xin Zhou c
a
State Key Laboratory of Virtual Reality Technology and Systems, School of Mechanical Engineering and
Automation, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
b
Jingdezhen Research Institute of Beihang University, Jingdezhen, 333000, China
c
Shenyang Liming Aero-Engine （Group）Ltd., Shenyang, 110046, China

article info abstract

Article history: Metal additive manufacturing (MAM) technology has great application potential in the
Received 7 February 2022 aerospace, medical and energy fields with its high material utilization efficiency to achieve
Accepted 9 February 2022 the manufacturing of metal parts of any shape. However, the extreme thermal, mechan-
Available online 15 February 2022 ical, and metallurgical coupling in MAM process leads to large residual stresses in the
manufactured samples. Residual stress has a significant effect on the dimensional stability,
Keywords: corrosion resistance, crack growth resistance and mechanical properties of MAM samples.
Metal additive manufacturing As a result, residual stress can be regarded as a key factor in controlling costs, enhancing
Residual stress product efficiency and quality. To help researchers and engineers attain up-to-date
Prediction information and knowledge about residual stress in MAM, the current paper provides a
Residual stress control method comprehensive review in this field, especially the formation mechanisms, the influence of
process parameters, prediction and control methods.
© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

of materials, shapes and functions is also one of the advantages

1. Introduction
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a digital manufacturing
method, which is conducive to the realization of automated,
intelligent, and networked manufacturing. Theoretically, AM
can realize the manufacture of metal parts of any shape
and internal structure by converting a three-dimensional
entity into a combination of multiple layers. The integration
of AM. In addition, AM process is simple and efficient with high
material utilization compared to traditional manufacturing
methods which require a process from casting to machining.
Since Pierre Ciraud [1] applied for a patent for
manufacturing using high-energy beams and powder mate-
rials in 1973, with the development of nearly half a century,
the AM technology has derived a variety of methods [2], and
successfully realized the manufacture of steel [3], aluminum

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: hjgao@buaa.edu.cn (H.-j. Gao).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.02.054
2238-7854/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4 2951

Fig. 1 e MAM applications: (a) Electron beam melting processed wave guide brackets applied on Juno spacecraft [39]; (b)
Porous titanium implant fabricated with AM fitted to the skull model [40]; (c) The PowerGripper that mimic bird beak [41]; (d)
Damaged turbine blades restored by laser direct deposition [42]; (e) The MAM heat exchanger [43]; (f) Laser beam melting
produced Ti-6Al-4V bracket for Airbus A350 [44]; (g) Laser beam melting-produced fuel nozzle of the LEAP aero engine [44].
2952 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
alloy [4], titanium alloy [5,6], nickel-based alloy [7], composite
materials [8] and functionally graded materials [9]. In order to
improve the quality of MAM samples, many researches have
been devoted to the density [10e13], defects [14e17], micro-
structure and mechanical properties [18e21] of MAM samples.
At the same time, there are many reviews on MAM, most of
which focus on the relationship between process parameters
and density, microstructure and mechanical properties of
different AM methods [22e28] and materials [29e35]. These
meaningful studies and reviews have promoted the rapid
development of MAM. At present, the mechanical properties
of MAM samples have been significantly better than castings,
basically the same as or even better than forgings [32,36].
The MAM parts, as shown in Fig. 1, has been applied in aero-
space, biomedicine, energy, automotive and other industrial
fields [29,37,38].
MAM still faces some challenges in product quality control,
especially the cracking and undesirable distortion as shown in
Fig. 2, which is caused by the residual stresses [45,46]. In the
MAM process, the material is rapidly heated to the melting
temperature, then cooled and solidified at an extremely fast
cooling rate, and is repeatedly affected by the subsequent
deposition process. Therefore, the MAM process is accompa-
nied by a thermo-mechanical-metallurgical imbalance. This
imbalance results in high residual stress in the manufactured
parts [47,48]. Residual stress also has a significant impact on
the strength, corrosion resistance, crack initiation and prop-
agation, microstructure and mechanical properties of the
material [49,50].
Fig. 2 e Cracking and distortion caused by residual stress in MAM parts: (a)d(d) cracking [51e53]; (e), (f) distortion [54,55].
It should be noted that the residual stress does not always
damage the performance of the material. Shot peening is to
improve the fatigue performance by introducing residual
compressive stress on the surface of the sample [56]. However,
residual stress is regarded as one of the key factors affecting
the further application of MAM technology, due to its signifi-
cant impact on the quality degradation of MAM product and
the potential threat to product performance. Substantial
investigations have been conducted with regards to residual
stress in MAM, which have illuminated a number of important
relationships, yet there are few reviews in this filed. To the
best of our knowledge, Megahed et al. [57] and Srivastava et al.
[58] surveyed and assembled the modeling approach used for
the prediction of residual stress in MAM. Carpenter et al. [59]
comprehensively summarized the residual stress measure-
ment techniques and modeling approaches. Although, these
review papers provide important information on the residual
stress of MAM, a comprehensive and systematic review paper
on the current state of formation mechanism, parameters
dependence, prediction and adjustment approach of residual
stress in MAM is still lacking.
The current review intends to fill this gap by systematically
summarizes the key findings of garnered residual stress
studies in MAM, the content covers the measurement and
characterization methods, formation mechanisms, process
parameter dependencies, prediction and control methods of
residual stresses in MAM. In terms of content arrangement, in
order to help researchers overcome the difficulties caused by
the confusing nomenclature of the MAM process, we start with
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
a brief overview of MAM processes and distinguished a variety
of MAM processes from the perspective of the types of heat
sources, feedstocks, and feeding methods. The residual stress
basics, measurement methods and formation mechanism of
residual stress are provided at the same time to help readers
understand the discussion in process dependencies. Then, the
relationship between the MAM process parameters and
the residual stress is analyzed. Next, we discussed the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the prediction methods of re-
sidual stresses in MAM. Subsequently, we summarized the
commonly used stress control approaches during and after the
MAM process. Finally, the current cumulative understanding
of residual stress in MAM is discussed and a further develop-
ment of residual stress research in MAM is prospected.
2. MAM processes and residual stress
2.1. MAM processes
For researchers who are preparing or just starting research in
the MAM field, one obstacle is the confusing nomenclature of
MAM processes. Even for experienced researchers, this may
hinder comprehensive access to the latest relevant research
reports on the MAM process they are interested in. In fact,
although some MAM technologies have different names, they
have exactly the same technical principles and processes. For
example, the technology of selectively melting a powder bed
with a laser is called Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) by
EOS and Selective Laser Melting (SLM) by Renishaw [2,60]. The
reason for this confusing nomenclature is that during the
rapid development of MAM, there was no naming standard as
a reference, MAM equipment is generally named by the sup-
plier according to the unique characteristics of the product or
due to competition mechanisms between different manufac-
turers. References [61e65] provide schematic diagrams to help
Fig. 3 e MAM processes.
2953
researchers understand different MAM processes, but the
problems caused by diversified nomenclature cannot be well
improved.
This section summarizes the MAM processes from the
perspective of the types of heat sources, feedstocks, and
feeding methods. The entire MAM process can be divided into
four parts: Part design, process parameters setting, build and
post-processing. As shown in Fig. 3, the energy sources
available for part construction include laser, electron beam,
arc, and ultrasonic vibration, the optional feedstock forms
include powder, wire, and lamina [60]. The powder feedstock
can be spread on the powder bed with a scraper then melted
by a moving heat source in the preset trajectory, or spray with
a nozzle through inert gas and melted by a heat source an0d
deposited on the substrate. Due to obvious differences in the
interaction of feedstock and heat source between powder bed
and other methods, MAM processes can be divided into two
categories defined as Directed Energy Deposition (DED) and
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) [37].
According to different combinations of heat sources and
feedstocks, MAM processes can be further differentiated. As
shown in Table 1, at present, there are 6 common MAM pro-
cesses, but with incomplete statistics, there are as many as 20
corresponding names. The confusing nomenclature mainly
focuses on the MAM process using laser as the heat source.
This may be due to the higher molding freedom accuracy of
laser additive manufacturing. When researchers search for
relevant reports on the MAM process they are interested in,
Table 1 provides a reference to the process name to help them
obtain comprehensive information.
2.2. Classifications and measurements of residual stress
Residual stress is defined as the self-balanced stress that
exists inside the part when it is not subjected to external load,
and are usually classified into three types according to the
2954 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4

Table 1 e Summary of MAM processes according to different combinations of heat sources and feedstocks.
heat sources Feedstocks/feeding methods MAM processes Ref.
Laser Powder bed PBF-L [37]
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) [26]
Laser beam melting (LBM) [44,66,67]
Selective laser melting (SLM) [68e71]
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) [72e74]
Direct metal laser melting (DMLM) [75]
Direct metal laser forming (DMLF) [76]
Nozzle DED-L [37]
Laser metal deposition (LMD) [44]
Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) [77]
Direct metal deposition (DMD) [78]
Laser cladding [79]
Electron beam Powder bed Electron beam melting (EBM) [44,66]
PBF-EB [37]
Electron Beam Selective Melting (EBSM) [80]
Selective electron beam melting (SEBM) [81]
Wire DED-EB [37]
Electron beam freeform fabrication (EBF3) [82]
Arc Wire Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) [83]
Ultrasonic Lamina Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) [37,84]

length scale [85]. As shown in Fig. 4, type I residual stress is
also called macro residual stress, and its length scale is larger
than the grain size, generally considered to be larger than
1 mm. Once the self-balanced state of macro residual stress is
destroyed, the macroscopic size of the component may be
changed. Type II residual stress, also called intergranular
residual stress, exists in the range of multiple grains, which is
about 0.01 mme1.0 mm. When the intergranular residual
stress is changed, the macroscopic size of the component may
also change accordingly. Type III residual stress is limited to a
crystal grain range, which is the stress generated in the crystal
by the grain boundary coherence and dislocation stress field
on the atomic scale, and the length range is generally less than
0.01 mm.
According to whether the sample is destroyed, there are
two main categories of residual stress measurements, defined
as destructive method and non-destructive method. The
principle of the destructive measurement methods is to
destroy part of the sample in order to dilapidate the internal
stress balance state of the object, and actuate residual stress
redistribution, the strain in the process is measured and then
utilized to calculate the residual stress on the basis of gener-
alized Hooke's Law. Therefore, the measurement error of the
non-destructive method is determined by the strain mea-
surement accuracy. Commonly used destructive measure-
ment methods include small hole method [89,90], contour
method [91], curvature and peeling method [92]. Non-
destructive residual stress measurement methods, also
known as Physical measurement methods, including X-ray
and neutron diffraction, ultrasonic waves, and magnetic
methods [87]. Some physical properties of the object vary due
to the presence of residual stress, non-destructive measure-
ments determine residual stress according to the difference in
physical properties. Therefore, the accuracy of this method
depends on whether the relationship between the residual
stress and the measured physical property is unique and the
accuracy of quantitative relationship. In addition, what needs
to be mentioned is different residual stress measurement
methods have different requirements for the shape, material,
and surface state of the sample, and not the same at appli-
cable measurement scale range, penetration depth, error,
time, and cost. Fig. 4 shows the resolution and depth of some
common residual stress measurement methods [85e88].
In order to save the cost and time of quantitative residual
stress measurement, Salem et al. [93], Malý et al. [94], and
Mishurova et al. [95] printed bridge-shaped parts through
different MAM processes, and then compared the deflection of
the bridge-shaped parts after separation from the substrate or
deflection angle to qualitatively observe the influence of
process parameters on residual stress. It should be noted that
when this method is used for research, special design of the
sample is required to make the residual stress easily cause
deformation.
2.3. Formation mechanisms of residual stress in MAM
The MAM consolidates feedstock into a designed metallic part
layer by layer with the assistance of heat source. In this pro-
cess, it is easy to result in complicated thermal stress field and
thermal history in the MAM sample under cyclic, intense,
unsteady heating and cooling [96]. Similar to welding, this
complex thermal stress field and thermal history will lead to
high magnitude residual stress in the part [97,98].
Mercelis et al. [99] proposed two mechanism to explain the
origin of residual stress in MAM. The first mechanism is
temperature gradient mechanism. Under the irradiation of
the heat source, the material is rapidly heated to the melting
point and a molten pool is formed. The material expands
when suffer heating, there is an expansion force directed to
the outside of the molten pool boundary, which tends to cause
the part to bulge upward, however, this expansion is restricted
by surrounding material and boundary due to the temperature
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
Fig. 4 e Classification and measurement method of residual stress [85e88].
gradient exist. Since metal is extremely easy to yield at high
temperatures, part of the thermal strain is transformed into
plastic strain. As the heat source moving, the previously
molten pool is rapidly cooled and solidified, the cooling rate
can reach between 103 K/sd107 K/s [99e103], a temperature
gradient of up to 104 K/mm is formed near the molten pool
[104]. The shrinkage of molten pool is restricted by sur-
rounding materials during cooling and solidification. In
addition, since part of the thermal strain is transformed into
plastic strain during the heating process, additional strain is
needed to compensate during the cooling process of the
molten pool. This strain compensation and the mechanical
properties of the material that gradually recover with the
decrease in temperature cause a high magnitude tensile
residual stress near the molten pool [105,106].
The second mechanism is the cool-down phase mecha-
nism. The most prominent feature of MAM is layer-by-layer
manufacturing. In this process, the latter deposited layer
2955
shrinks during the cooling process, and this shrinkage is
limited by the lower layer deposited before. This leads to ten-
sile stress in the latest deposited layer, and additional
compressive stress is introduced into the previous deposited
layer. With the sample is deposited layer by layer, compressive
stress will continue to accumulate in the interior to balance the
tensile stress distributed near the surface [96]. This residual
stress distribution has been confirmed in many research re-
ports [48,107e110]. As shown in Fig. 5(a), WU et al. [48] com-
bined the neutron diffraction method and a destructive surface
residual stress measurement technology to measure the re-
sidual stress distribution of the L-shaped 316L sample, the re-
sults show that the center of the parts is residual compressive
stress and the outer surface is tensile stress. Fig. 5(b) shows the
residual stress distribution of LPB Ti-6Al-4V measured by
Levkulich et al. [107], the residual stress distribution in the x
and y directions obtained by Denlinger et al. [109] is shown in
Fig. 5(c) and Fig. 5(d), these results also confirmed that the
2956 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4

Fig. 5 e Residual stress distribution in MAM samples: (a) L-shaped 316L specimen [48]; (b) Ti-6Al-4V [107]; (c) and (d) Inconel
718 [109]; (e) H13 tool steel [116].

interior of the sample is distributed with residual compressive generation of residual stress in MAM. This residual stress
stress, and the exterior, especially the upper surface, is resid- distribution pose potential treats to mechanical properties and
ual tensile stress. Therefore, these two mechanisms have been reliability [114,115], which may be one of the reasons why re-
adopted by many references [111e113] to explain the sidual stress in MAM has received widespread attention.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
However, as shown in Fig. 5(e), Cottam and Wang [116]
found that the stress distributions for H13 wedge is opposite,
the compressive stress is around 250 MPa in magnitude in
both the top and bottom regions and there is a thin band of
tensile stress just above the central region of the sample that
is around 150 MPa in magnitude. This opposite residual stress
distribution can be attributed to the low martensitic trans-
formation temperature of this steel [117]. This solid-state
phase transition introduces additional strain, which relaxes
the stress of the deposited sample, and even presents an
opposite distribution [118]. Therefore, the solid-state phase
transition is also one of the important mechanisms for the
formation of MAM residual stress. The schematic diagrams of
the three formation mechanisms of MAM residual stress are
shown in Fig. 6.
3. MAM process dependencies
As described in the formation mechanisms in MAM processes
in Section 2.3, residual stress is introduced by the temperature
gradient mechanism, cool-down mechanism and solid-state
phase transition, and affected by material performance pa-
rameters. Therefore, in the MAM process, all the parameters
that affect these behaviors will cause the residual stress in the
final part to be different. As shown in Fig. 7, in the part design
stage, we need to determine the shape and size of the sample
Fig. 6 e Mechanisms of residual stress formation in MAM.
2957
and the material used. The thermodynamic and metallurgical
properties of the selected material (such as thermal conduc-
tivity, phase transition temperature and yield temperature
ratio, elastic modulus) determined the temperature gradient
and deformation of the designed part during MAM, the shape
and size of the part affect the deformation resistance ability
and the distribution of residual stress. The factors involved in
MAM process include powder characteristics (such as particle
size and shape, heat source energy absorption efficiency),
support structure, scanning strategy, interlayer dwell time,
preheating, power of heat source, layer thickness, hatch
space, scanning speed, etc.
The attention to part size mainly focuses on part height
[107,119e121], which reflects the cumulative effect of resid-
ual stress. Levkulich et al. [107] measured the residual stress
on the top surface of the LPBF Ti-6Al-4V samples with
different heights by XRD and drilling method. They found
that the residual stress on the top surface of the sample de-
creases with the increase of the height of the part. However,
Mercelis and Kruth [120] reported an increase residual stress
with increasing number of layers, the result consistent with
Ina et al. [121]. Similar work could be found in the investi-
gation of the residual stress of SLM AISI 18 Maraging steel by
Casavola et al. [119]. When the height dimensions of the
sample are 3 mm, 5 mm, and 7 mm, the residual stress at a
depth of 0.1 mm corresponds to 370 MPa, 507 MPa, and
472 MPa, respectively. The difference in results may be
2958 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
Fig. 7 e Process parameter dependencies of residual stress in MAM.
caused by the difference in the height range of the sample
and can be rationalized from the competition mechanism
between temperature and structural stiffness. The sample
with small height, due to its low rigidity, is more prone to
deformation under thermal load, so that the residual stress
can be released in the process [122,123]. When the height of
the sample continues to increase, although the stiffness of
the part increases, more deposited layers allow heat to
accumulate in the part, so that the thermal gradient was
reduced. This phenomenon may be the cause of the relaxa-
tion of residual stress. When the height of the sample is
further increased, the temperature of the substrate and the
deposited sample tends to be stable, and the residual stress
may not be significantly affected by the height. From the
stress measurement results of Levkulich et al. [107] and Ina
et al. [121], it can be seen that when the height of the sample
increases to a certain extent, the change of the residual
stress becomes insignificant. Of course, this requires further
detailed research to confirm.
In view of the fact that materials have a direct effect on
temperature gradients, stiffness, and solid phase transi-
tions, it is intuitive to guess the correlation between residual
stress and material properties. Mukherjee et al. [124] pre-
dicted the stress distribution of the MAM sample, which was
calculated by a three-dimensional transient heat transfer
and fluid flow model. Fig. 8 shows the simulation results of
the molten pool dimensions and temperature of IN718 and
Ti-6Al-4V when the laser power is 250W and the scanning
speed is 15 mm/s, and the residual stress distribution along
the x, y, and z directions after the second layer is cooled. It
can be found that under the same laser power and scanning
speed, the size of the molten pool of Ti-6Al-4V is slightly
larger than IN718, the peak residual stress and high residual
stress distribution areas in the Ti-6Al-4V deposited layer are
also significantly more than IN718. Denlinger et al. [125]
deposited Inconel625 and Ti-6Al-4V samples with the same
size by DED, the results show that the residual stress of
Inconel625 decreases as the interlayer dwell time increases
from 0 to 40 s, which is consistent with the results of Yang
et al. [126]. For Ti-6Al-4V, the result is the opposite.
Inconel625 is a solid solution strengthened nickel-based
alloy that does not undergo any solid-state allotropic
transformation and maintains a face-centered cubic (FCC)
crystal structure throughout its solid-state temperature
range. While Ti-6Al-4V is a two-phase (aþb) titanium alloy.
During the cooling process, the b phase with a body-centered
cubic (BCC) crystal structure is transformed into a phase
with hexagonal close-packed structure (HCP) or martensite
phase [127,128]. The unit cell volume of b phase is different
from a or martensite phase, the volume of Ti-6Al-4V swells
during the solid phase transition [129], the stress is relaxed
accordingly. Cottam and Wang [116] deposited a wedge H13
tool steel component, attributed to the low temperature
martensitic phase transformation, the residual stress dis-
tribution was found to be opposite to that reported in the
literature [48,107].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4 2959

Fig. 8 e The simulation results of the weld pool dimensions and the stress distribution along the x, y and z directions: (a)e(d)
IN718; (e)e(h) Ti-6Al-4V [124].

The scanning strategy is the path of the heat source in the
MAM process, which includes the scanning method in a single
layer and relationship between adjacent layers. Fig. 9 shows
common scanning strategies, where Fig. 9(a) dFig. 9(f) are the
scanning strategies within a single layer, Fig. 9(g) and Fig. 9(h)
represent the relationships between adjacent layers.
Although Fig. 9(f) only shows the rotation b angle of the par-
allel line (Fig. 9(a)) in the layer, Fig. 9(b)-Fig. 9(e) can also be
rotated by a certain angle. Moreover, when adopting the island
strategy (Fig. 9(f)), different scanning methods can also be
selected within a single island and between adjacent islands.
As for the relationship between adjacent layers, they can be
exactly the same as shown in Fig. 9(g), or they can be rotated
by a certain angle q. The scanning strategy of adjacent depo-
sition layers can also be completely different, but this has not
been seen in existing reports. Therefore, there are many op-
tions for scanning strategies.
Wang et al. [112] found that the residual stress of the
AlSi10Mg sample deposited with the scanning strategy shown
in Fig. 9(g) was smaller than that of the scanning strategy
shown in Fig. 9(f). Zaeh et al. [130] obtained different results by
comparing the residual stress of the T-shaped cantilever beam
deposited with x-scanning, y-scanning, xy-scanning, island-
scanning. They found in the manufacture of parts with low
stress levels, the island scanning strategy has obvious
advantages. Parry et al. [131] compared the effects of parallel
2960 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
Fig. 9 e Scanning strategy for MAM: (a)e(f) scanning
strategy in a single layer; (g) and (h) relationship between
layers.
line and zigzag scanning strategies on the magnitude and
distribution of residual stress, and the results show that there
is no obvious difference in stress magnitude between the two
scanning strategies, but in terms of distribution, zigzag
scanning strategy effectively reduced the temperature
gradient at the end of each scanning path, and the stress
decreases accordingly. By comparing the residual stress of the
scanning area of 1 mm  1 mm, 2 mm  2 mm and
3 mm  3 mm, it is found that the stress will increase with the
increase of the scanning area. WU et al. [48] tested the residual
stress of 316L stainless steel with different scanning
strategies through experiments, and obtained similar con-
clusions. The residual tensile stress on the sample adopted
the 3 mm  3 mm island scanning strategy was less than
5 mm  5 mm island scanning strategy. Ali et al. [132] found
that when the size of the checkerboard is 2 mm  2 mm, the
residual stress is 173 MPa, and when the size is 3 mm  3 mm,
the residual stress increased by 6.9%, and when the size was
further increased to 5 mm  5 mm, the residual stress further
increased by 50.3%. From the research report of scanning
strategy [48,130e132], it can be found that the island scanning
strategy has obvious advantages in reducing residual stress,
and smaller islands are more conducive to the reduction of
residual stress. Compared with other scanning strategies, the
island scanning strategy has a shorter scanning vector length,
and the research results of Salem et al. [93] and Liu et al. [133]
show that a shorter scanning vector length is beneficial to
reduce the residual stress.
As far as a single scan track is concerned, the longitudinal
stress along the direction of the scan vector is much higher
than the transverse stress. Ina et al. [121] measured the
residual stress on the surface of SLM Ti6Al4V by X-ray, and the
results showed that the maximum stress parallel to the scan-
ning direction was almost twice that of perpendicular to the
scanning direction, which is in line with the experimental re-
sults of Liu et al. [133]. Yadroitsev et al. [52] also observed larger
residual stress along the scanning direction in stainless steel
316L and Ti6Al4V samples manufactured by SLM. Therefore,
when all layers are deposited in the parallel line strategy, the
residual stress exhibits anisotropy. This has been confirmed in
numerous studies [109,118,131]. The anisotropy of one layer is
compensated by the next layer through rotation between
layers, resulting in a more uniform stress distribution [91].
The influence of the heat source power, layer thickness,
hatch distance, and scanning speed can be described by the
volume energy density EV ¼ P=ðv $h $dÞ, where P is heat
source power, d is layer thickness, h is hatch distance, and v
is scanning speed. This equation is not a true measurement
of the energy density of the material. The energy absorption
rate of the heat source, the diameter of the heat source
beam (electron beam and laser beam, etc.) and the pene-
tration of the heat source are not been considered. It can
only be regarded as an estimate of the heat source energy
under the given process conditions [134]. Mishurov et al.
[95,135] reported lower tensile residual stresses in Ti-6Al-4V
samples when the volumetric energy input was increased.
However, Simson et al. [111] found that the residual stress
value determined for the 316 L samples with an energy
density of 43 J/mm3 is slightly lower than for samples with
an energy density 71 J/mm3, from an energy density of
71 J/mm3, the residual stress values are similar. From the
perspective of a single factor related to volume energy
density, Wang et al. [112] found that the increase of laser
power and scanning speed lead to the increase of residual
stress. Mugwagwa et al. [136] reported that with the increase
of laser power and scanning speed, the greater the defor-
mation of the cantilever. Lai et al. [51] reported that the
greater the laser power, the lower the scanning speed, and
the greater the residual stress. Liu et al. [133] determined
that residual stress was expected to increase with
decreasing scanning speed. The simulation study of Ali et al.
[137] shows that with the increase of power and decrease
layer thickness, the residual stress has an increasing trend.
The hatch distance is limited by the diameter of the heat
source beam and typically equals approximately 0.7 times
the beam diameter [138,139].
From these reports, it can be found that higher heat source
power will lead to greater residual stress. Increasing the
power leads to an increase in the maximum temperature and
cooling rate of the molten pool, and a corresponding increase
in the temperature gradient [137]. However, the relationship
between scanning speed and residual stress is puzzling,
whether increasing [112,136] or decreasing [133,140] the
scanning speed may result in an increase in residual stress.
The results of Xiao et al. [47] showed that with the increase of
laser power, scanning speed or hatch space, the residual
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
stress does not increase or decrease monotonously due to the
cumulative behavior of residual stress is different in different
ranges of process parameters. Reducing the scanning speed is
similar to increasing the power of the heat source, more en-
ergy input easily leads to a larger molten pool, increasing the
maximum temperature and cooling rate, and the volume
shrinkage of the molten pool during cooling is also larger,
which results in a greater residual stress [133,141]. When the
scanning speed is increased, the size of the molten pool is
smaller, and the cooling rate of the molten pool is greater,
which is likely to form a greater residual stress, and at the
same time, it will also cause a significant decrease in the
density of the sample, and the porosity may relax the residual
stress [111,112]. Therefore, under the premise of ensuring the
compactness of the sample, lower heat source power and
moderate scanning speed are conducive to the reduction of
residual stress.
4. Prediction models of residual stress in
MAM
A reliable and proven deformation and residual stress pre-
diction model is of great value for improving the process
optimization of MAM. Compared to experimental techniques,
not only can it reduce consumption in time and cost, but also
be helpful to researchers for better understand the evolution
and parameter dependence of residual stress in the MAM
process [47,131,142]. This section examines the efforts on the
MAM residual stress prediction model. In Section 4.1, the
numerical simulation model developed on the basis of weld-
ing residual stress prediction technology [143e145] for
predicting the residual stress in the MAM process is discussed.
Strong nonlinearity in multi-physics, smaller diameter of the
heat source and more heat source trajectories, bring great
obstacles to the prediction of residual stress of larger MAM
parts in terms of computational efficiency. Section 4.2
discusses the strategies, calculation frameworks and models
proposed to improve calculation efficiency, which are very
helpful to improve the practical application value of simula-
tion models.
4.1. Numerical simulation
Based on the technology of welding residual stress simulation
model establishment [143e145], some simulation models
suitable for residual stress in MAM prediction have been
developed. These models are mainly divided into two cate-
gories: Thermal-Mechanical and Thermal-Metallurgical-
Mechanical. Thermal-Mechanical analysis can be performed
in a fully coupled or sequential coupled. The full coupling refers
thermal analysis and mechanical analysis are carried out at the
same time, and the calculation of the temperature field takes
into account the heat generated by friction or due to plastic
deformation [146,147]. The convergence conditions of the
temperature field and the stress field are met at the same time
at each load step, which leads to the difficulty of model
convergence and the increase of the solution time. Therefore,
the sequential coupling Thermal-Mechanical model, first heat
2961
transfer analysis performed to obtain the temperature field and
then use the solved temperature history as the load to solve the
stress field, is more common in reports [141,148e153].
When the Thermo-Mechanical coupling model is applied
to predict residual stress of titanium alloy and carbon steel,
since the model does not include the analysis of the solid-
state transformation process, the suitability of the model
needs further inspection. Cottam et al. [116] measured the
residual stress of the wedge-shaped H13 tool steel through
neutron diffraction method. Compressive residual stresses
were detected near the top and bottom surfaces of the wedge,
while the inside was tensile stress, which was contrary to the
results measured by Moat et al. [108] and Wang et al. [148] on
nickel-based alloy materials. This shows that the solid-state
phase transition has an important influence on the residual
stress of MAM. Lundba € ck et al. [154] measured the residual
stress in Ti-6Al-4V sample prepared by laser metal deposition,
the result shown that the predicted residual stress of simu-
lation is larger than the experimental measurements. Den-
linger et al. [155] found that when predicting the residual
stress and deformation of Inconel625, ignoring the solid phase
transformation has little effect, while for Ti-6Al-4V, ignoring
the effect of phase transformation strain will result in more
than 500% error. The simulation and experimental results of
SLM Ti-6Al-4V by Chen et al. [118] also confirmed this effect.
The solid-state phase transition has a stress relaxation effect
during SLM Ti6Al4V. When the solid-state phase transition is
ignored, the predicted longitudinal residual stress is up to
80.7% higher than the experimental measured value, and the
influence of the solid-state phase transition of SLM Ti6Al4V on
the residual stress mainly depends on the volume change
between the solid phases.
The workflow of the Thermal-Metallurgical-Mechanical
finite element method is shown in Fig. 10 First of all, the geo-
metric model needs to be discrete, and the material parame-
ters need to be defined, then complete the definition of
boundary conditions and loads. Finally, the finite element
model can be solved. For thermal analysis, the boundary con-
ditions refer to the initial temperature, heat convection and
heat radiation, and the load is the heat input, which is gener-
ally defined by the heat source model. In metallurgical anal-
ysis, it is necessary to define the number, distribution of initial
phase and type of phase transition. Thermal analysis and
metallurgical analysis are fully coupled, temperature and
phase distribution of any load step can be obtained, which
provides a basis for the calculation of thermal strain and phase
transition strain in mechanical analysis. The detailed analysis
process and control equations of thermal-metallurgical-
mechanical can be found in Reference [118,127,129,156e159].
4.2. Methods to improve computational efficiency
What is most urgently needed for AM practitioners is the
ability to quickly predict the stress and deformation of printed
parts. However, when trying to simulate large-size industrial-
grade parts using the numerical methods introduced in Sec-
tion 4.1, these methods show great limitations, mainly in
terms of computational efficiency. Chen et al. [118] discussed
2962 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4

Fig. 10 e Thermal-metallurgical-mechanical coupling finite element method workflow.

the influence of element size on calculation accuracy and time
consumption in the study of residual stress in MAM. The re-
sults show that the time required for calculation increases
exponentially for each level of mesh refinement, in order to
ensure calculation accuracy, the mesh size should be kept
below half of the laser radius. If modeling is strictly based on
the physical phenomena of MAM, the smaller molten pool size
and the larger temperature gradient require that the element
must be fine enough, then the finite element model of large-
size parts includes a huge element. With the nonlinear
phenomenon of multi-field coupling, the final solution
process is bound to be very difficult and time-consuming.
Therefore, due to computational efficiency, this method is
unacceptable for predicting residual stress and deformation of
larger parts, especially for PBF with a single layer thickness of
only tens of um [160].
In order to achieve accurate and rapid prediction of re-
sidual stress and deformation in MAM, researchers have
made great efforts in the element discrete strategy and
optimization from the calculation process. In addition, some
purely mechanical calculation methods have even been
proposed.
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4.2.1. Element discrete strategy
When the finite element method is used for MAM research,
the mesh adaptive methods is adopted by almost all simula-
tion models. The elements are refined in all the heat source
paths and heat affected zone, and the other areas are coars-
ened. And the mesh of the computational domain is in a fixed
state (when the birth and death element technology is used,
inactive elements are also included) at all load steps. This
strategy can be called a static discrete strategy, and the degree
of freedom required to be solved is proportional to the length
of the heat source path. However, in the MAM process, the
high gradient area is only near the current location of heat
source and molten pool, rather than distributed in all its
paths. Therefore, if the discrete finite element can adapt to
each transient process, only refine the element near the heat
source and the molten pool at any load step, the degree of
freedom of the finite element model will not be related to the
entire length of the heat source path [81], and the calculation
speed will be greatly improved.
This dynamic adaptive discretization strategy was initially
used in the calculation of temperature field and phase field
[81,161,162]. Kollmannsberger et al. [81] analyzed the temper-
ature field and phase field in SEBM processes. Fig. 11 shows
temperature field and its discretization at time step 220, time
step 1000, time step 1670, and number of degrees of freedom for
all time steps. It can be found that when the dynamic adaptive
discretization strategy is adopted, the degree of freedom of all
load steps hardly changes. Zeng et al. [162] and Khan et al. [161]
adopted a similar element discretization strategy in their
model, and the computational efficiency was reduced by 5
times and 18 times, respectively. Riedlbauer et al. [163] estab-
lished a finite element model of SEBM using dynamic adaptive
mesh refinement, and discussed the monolithic and the adia-
batic split approach based on time and space discretization.
Denlinger et al. [164] developed a finite element modeling
Fig. 11 e Temperature field and its discretization with emerging solidified structure (gray region in the figure) at different
time steps(a)-(c), and (d)number of degrees of freedom for all time steps [81].
2963
strategy to allow for thermo-elastoplastic modeling of multi-
layer LPBF builds, an dynamic adaptive meshing strategy was
applied to allow for elements to be coarsened on a layer by layer
basis, the model was successfully used to predict the temper-
ature field and stress field of a sample with a volume of 91 mm3.
Jayanath et al. [165] validated the method by comparing the
predicted residual elastic strain of the thin-walled rectangular
part with that measured experimentally by neutron diffraction.
When a dynamic adaptive mesh is adopted, due to the
element model difference between load steps, it will inevi-
tably involve the transfer of node temperature, strain, stress
and other information. The solution information transfer is
generally solved by mapping or interpolation methods [162].
In this process, there will inevitably be the problems of in-
formation loss. This loss of accuracy can spoil the original
efforts in dynamic adaptive mesh strategy. Therefore a
strategy to compensate for information loss in the dynamic
adaptive refinement simulation of additive manufacturing
processes is developed by Baiges et al. [160], two correction
terms are introduced to correct the errors introduced in the
stress field and loss of information in the displacement field.
The simulation results of displacement field and stress field of
fixed coarse mesh, fixed fine mesh, adaptive mesh without
correction terms and with correction terms are shown in Fig.
12. The results of adaptive mesh with correction terms have
an accuracy very similar to the one of a uniformly refined
mesh simulation and only half solution time consumption.
4.2.2. Calculation process optimization
In order to solve the problem of low solution efficiency caused
by the small diameter of the heat source and the large number
of layers, Hodge et al. [166] proposed an equivalent method to
merge 20 physical layers into a finite element mesh layer, the
ratio of laser size to powder layer height was kept constant. The
method has also been adopted by Zaeh et al. [130] to modeling
2964 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
Fig. 12 e Comparison of gear displacement and stress prediction for the fixed and dynamic adaptive meshes [160].
the SLM process. This simplification my cause the overall heat
input received by the sample to be underestimated.
Inherent strain method, which was first used to improve
the efficiency of predicting deformation in weld [167,168], was
applied to predict residual stress in MAM process in reference
[55,169e174]. First, a small-scale thermo-mechanical coupling
model was established and solved based on actual process
conditions, and then the inherent strain was calibrated ac-
cording to the results of small-scale model, finally the
inherent strain was added to the large-scale model layer by
layer to predict the residual stress and deformation. However,
there are difference in the calibration method of inherent
strain. Bugatti and Semeraro [169] extracted an equivalent,
mean inherent strain tensor from the scanned region. Pro-
moppatum et al. [170] determined the normal components of
inherent strain from the average residual stress at the meso-
scale. Liang et al. [173,174] compared the difference between
MAM process and welding, and proposed a modified inherent
strain method, besides the plastic strain, the accumulative
contribution from the evolving elastic strain due to the shrunk
upper layers in the cooling process is also taken into accounts
in computing the inherent strains. The application process of
the complete modified inherent strain method is shown in
Fig. 13. The modified inherent strain method was further
utilized to investigate the influence of scanning strategy [172]
and the relationship between layering, precision and calcu-
lation efficiency [171]. Among the MAM residual stress pre-
diction methods currently reviewed, the inherent strain
method has the most potential in realizing the rapid predic-
tion of the residual stress of large-size parts, but the trust-
worthiness of this method needs further confirmation. Based
on the fact that with the layer-by-layer deposition of parts, the
temperature of the substrate and parts will continue to rise
until reaching a stable temperature [123,125,151], which has
an important influence on the residual stress of MAM, and this
influence is not considered inherent strain method.
4.2.3. Analytical model
Several analytical models have been proposed to estimate
residual stress and deformation of large MAM samples. Fer-
gani et al. [175] presented a physics-based analytical model
to assess residual stresses in SLM 316L Stainless Steel, good
agreement is obtained between the analytical prediction and
X-ray measurements. First, the temperature and tempera-
ture gradient of the process is assessed by the temperature
equation of the semi-infinite medium of the moving point
heat source. Then the thermally induced stresses is calcu-
lated based on plane strain equation. Taking the thermal
stresses as input, the residual stresses are calculated
analytically to obtain the distribution across the depth.
Mirkoohi et al. further considered the conservation of vol-
ume in plastic deformation [176] and the boundary condi-
tions of the part [177] in this analytical model, and studied
the effect of preheating [178]. Sun et al. [179] proposed a
semi-analytical method to estimate the residual stresses in
additive manufacturing characterized by point heat source.
Xie et al. [180] proposed a constraining force method to es-
timate the residual stress based on the mechanism of
distortion in MAM.
In terms of computational efficiency, analytical models
have the greatest advantage because they do not involve
complex physical processes. However, the derivation of the
analytical model is based on a large number of assumptions.
And the analytical model usually necessary to ignore certain
boundary conditions and only suitable for samples with
special shapes. Therefore, how to solve the application of
analytical models in the prediction of residual stress of com-
plex MAM samples requires further research.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4 2965

Fig. 13 e Modified inherent strain method for efficient prediction of residual deformation in direct metal laser sintered
components [173].
2966 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
5. Residual stress control approaches
According to MAM process dependence of the residual stress
discussed in section 3, once the sample material and shape
are determined, the island scanning strategy, the shorter
scanning vector length, and smaller heat source power under
the premise of ensuring compactness can be adopted to
reduce the influence of residual stress, the prediction model
mentioned in Section 4 can also be used to optimize the
process parameters. Besides, there are several additional
processes have been proven to effectively reduce the residual
stress of MAM samples.
5.1. Preheating
Residual stress is proportional to the temperature gradient
[113,142,181], and preheating the substrate is the most direct
method to reduce the temperature gradient in MAM process,
so preheating can effectively inhibit the generation and
accumulation of residual stress [182]. There is an inverse
relationship between preheating temperature and residual
stress [113,183,184].
The report of Ali et al. [113] showed that when the pre-
heating temperature is 100  C, the measured residual stress of
SLM TI-6AL-4V is 214 MPa. When the temperature is increased
to 370 C, the residual stress is only 61 MPa, which is a 71%
reduction. When the preheating temperature is 470 C, the
residual stress is 25 MPa, which is reduced by 88.3%. When the
preheating temperature is higher than 570 C, the residual
stress is almost zero. The report of Vastola et al. [183] showed
that the residual stress is reduced by about 20% for every 50 C
increase in the preheating temperature. Lu et al. [184] found
Fig. 14 e Hybrid Additive Manufacturing process: (a) Hybrid-AM by re-melting; (b) Hybrid-AM by rolling; (c) Hybrid-AM by
shot peening; (d) Hybrid-AM by ultrasonic peening; (e) Hybrid-AM by laser shot peening; (f) Hybrid-AM using pulsed laser
deposition [187].
that the peak residual tensile stress in deposition layer and
the substrate gradually decreased with increased the pre-
heating temperature. When the preheating temperature
reached 700 C, the deformation and residual stress decreased
by 67.2% and 85.1%, respectively. Guo et al. [185] reported a
higher preheating temperature can induce less residual stress.
It is difficult to achieve uniform preheating of larger MAM
samples. To solve the problem, Aggarangsi et al. [186] proposed
two local preheating schemes. One scheme is to use a low-
power heat source for heating before or after the heat source,
and the other is to preheat the top surface of the sample to a
certain temperature. Numerical simulation results show that
when the upper surface is preheated to 673K, the maximum
residual stress is reduced by about 1/3. Considering from the
perspective of residual stress alone, preheating can be regarded
as the best way to reduce residual stress at present.
5.2. Hybrid Additive Manufacturing
The purpose of Hybrid Additive Manufacturing (Hybrid AM) is to
improve the function, quality or production efficiency of AM
prototypes through the combination of multiple processes.
Common Hybrid-AM processes include Hybrid-AM by
Machining, hybrid-AM by Ablation, Hybrid-AM by Re-Melting,
Hybrid-AM by Laser Assisted Plasma Deposition, Hybrid-AM by
Peening [187]. Hybrid-AM by Re-Melting, Hybrid-AM by Rolling,
Hybrid-AM by Peening have been proven to significantly influ-
ence and optimize the residual stress distribution of MAM
samples [187,188]. Their schematic diagrams are shown in Fig. 14.
The purpose of Hybrid-AM by Re-Melting is to improve the
surface quality [189,190] and density [191] of MAM part, at the
same time, it has been found to have the effect of reducing
residual stress [188]. Similarly, Hybrid-AM by Rolling is to
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
Fig. 15 e Residual stress profiles along the depth(a) and residual stress distribution contour (b) comparison of Hybrid-AM by LSP.
As-built means no laser peening, surface peened represent laser peening on the surface only, hybrid L10 means laser
peening on every 10 layers, hybrid L5 means laser peening on every 5 layers, hybrid L1 means laser peening on every layer [197].
improve the dimensional accuracy of MAM workpieces, and it
can also reduce the tensile residual stress in the sample [187].
As described in Section 2.3, the exterior surface of the sample,
especially the upper surface, generally has a residual tensile
stress distribution, which is very detrimental to the dimen-
sional stability and crack growth resistance of the sample
[48,107e110]. Shot peening can introduce compressive stress
on the surface of the sample, so the composite technology of
shot peening and MAM has great potential for development.
There are many kinds of shot peening techniques available,
including Laser Shock Peening (LSP) [192,193]，Ultrasonic
Peening (USP) [194]，Shot Peening (SP) [195] etc., and they have
been successfully coupled with MAM [196]. As shown in Fig. 15,
compared with the original MAM process, Hybrid-AM by LSP
introduces a certain magnitude of residual compressive stress
on the subsurface, and the effect is affected by the frequency of
LSP [197]. Kalentics et al. [198] research results show that
Hybrid-AM by LSP can introduce deeper residual compressive
stress in SLM 316L sample compared to LSP treatment after the
sample is deposited. Based on the surface residual compres-
sive stress is conducive to the fatigue performance of parts, it
can be inferred that these Hybrid AM technologies are benefi-
cial to the fatigue performance of MAM parts, but no relevant
reports have been seen. In addition, it should be noted that as
more layers are deposited and the temperature of the sample
increases, the introduced compressive stress may be partially
released, and these Hybrid AM technologies will increase the
time of the MAM process.
5.3. Post heat treatment
In addition to heat treatment and Hybrid AM, post heat
treatment is also a commonly used technique to eliminate
residual stress. Song et al. [199] reported that the residual
stress of SLM-fabricated iron parts was almost completely
eliminated after 640 C/2.5h vacuum heat treatment. Leuders
et al. [200] found that the large tensile stress on top surface of
SLM Ti-6Al-4V was almost completely eliminated after 800 C/
2h post heat treatment. Lai et al. [201] performed post heat
treatment at 900 C and held for 2 h on 316L stainless steel
produced by LPB, and the residual stress was almost
completely released. Syed et al. [114] found that post heat
2967
treatment can effectively eliminate about 90% of residual
stress generated in the SLM process.
Tong et al. [202] found that the residual stress elimination
rate of FeCrCoMnNi high-entropy alloy is related to the initial
state of the sample. Williams et al. [203] has a similar findings in
the post heat treatment of 316L samples, they reported that the
peak residual stress of the vertical sample was reduced by only
about 10% at 700 C post heat treatment, however, the peak re-
sidual stress of the horizontal sample was reduced by about 40%.
Tonelli et al. [204] evaluated the residual stress elimination rate
of PBF A357 (AlSi7Mg0.6) Alloy under different heat treatment
regimes. After stress relief heat treatment, the residual stress is
not completely eliminated, while after solution treatment and
complete T6 (Solution Treatment þ Quenching þ Artificial
Aging) treatment, all residual tensile stresses are completely
released. These reports show that post heat treatment can
effectively eliminate the residual stress of a variety of materials,
but the heat treatment regime should be carefully selected.
6. Conclusion and perspectives
With advanced manufacturing concepts and ability to realize
the manufacture of any shape and internal structure, AM has
the potential to promote innovation in manufacturing tech-
nology and change the manufacturing landscape. The sus-
tainable development of this technology is restricted by
the realization of high-quality parts manufacturing, which
requires finding reasonable solutions to existing problems.
Residual stress is one of the key factors for metal additive
manufacturing of high-quality parts, which affects the
mechanical properties, dimensional stability and reliability of
metal additive manufacturing parts. A comprehensive inves-
tigation of the formation mechanism and influencing factors
of MAM, accurate prediction and control of residual stress in
metal additive manufacturing is a necessary way to ensure
the advantages of metal additive manufacturing technology.
This review systematically summarizes the key findings of
many residual stress studies in MAM, the content covers the
formation mechanisms, detection and characterization
methods, parameters influence, prediction and control
methods.
2968 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 7 : 2 9 5 0 e2 9 7 4
From the perspective of the formation mechanisms of
residual stress in MAM, the uneven plastic strain caused by
the temperature gradient mechanism, the cool-down phase
mechanism and cooling rate gradient mechanism will inevi-
tably lead to the generation of residual stress. The residual
stress distribution of the MAM sample is related to the ma-
terial properties, the upper surface of the material that does
not undergo solid phase transformation (such as nickel alloy),
is generally tensile residual stress. Once the sample material
and shape are determined, the island scanning strategy, the
shorter scanning vector length, and smaller heat source
power under the premise of ensuring compactness can be
adopted to reduce the influence of residual stress. In addition,
if the equipment has a preheating function, it is highly rec-
ommended to use preheating to carry out the MAM process.
Post heat treatment can effectively eliminate the residual
stress of a variety of materials too, but the heat treatment
regime should be carefully selected.
From our survey of the literature we find that how to
quickly and accurately predict the residual stress and defor-
mation of large-scale MAM parts with complex shape is still
an urgent problem to be solved. One of the advantages of MAM
is that it can break through the constraints of traditional
manufacturing methods (casting, forging, processing, etc.)
and realize the manufacture of samples of any shape. How-
ever, current residual stress prediction methods are more
applicable to the part with regular shapes, and the prediction
accuracy still needs a further verify. At the same time, we find
that no matter what the structure of the sample is, the process
used in all areas of the sample is the same. A more flexible
process strategies can be further studied in the deposition of
MAM parts. In addition, the current MAM process seems to be
open loop. A lot of process research, including experimental
and predictive model research, to determine the influence of
parameters on residual stress or deformation of MAM parts,
and further guide the formulation of the MAM process. This
is time-consuming and expensive. Therefore, if additional
measurement information feedback and process adjustment
strategies are added to form a closed loop, it is very helpful to
reduce the probability of molding failure caused by residual
stress. Of course, this requires the support of online mea-
surement technology for residual stress or deformation.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by National Natural Science Founda-
tion of China [grant numbers 51875024, 52005018]; Defense
Industrial Technology Development Program [grant number
JCKY2019601C003]; Aeronautical Science Foundation of China
[grant number 2019ZE051002]; the authors thank the referees
of this paper for their valuable and very helpful comments.
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Dr. H. Gao is a lecturer of School of Mechanical Engineering and
Automation in Beihang University, Beijing City, China. He has
carried out researches in residual stress control and machining
deformation prediction, stress control equipment design for
almost 10 years. He presided several findings from different
sponsors, including Natural Science Foundation of China, CALT
Foundation and SAST Foundation. He has published more than 30
papers and reviewed more than 20 papers in related fields.