CHAPTER 4.

MOLE CONCEPT AND CHEMICAL

FORMULAS

OBJECTIVES:
1. To correctly write and interpret chemical formulas
2. To calculate molecular weights from chemical formulas
3. To calculate moles from grams using chemical formulas
4. Calculate formula weights
5. Convert grams to moles and moles to grams using molar masses.
6. Convert number of molecules to moles and moles to number of
molecules using
7. Avogadro’s number
8. Calculate the empirical and molecular formulas of a compound from
percentage
9. composition and molecular weight.
Gram Atomic Mass

The quantity of an element whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its atomic
mass. In simple terms, atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is the gram
atomic mass or gram atom. For example, the atomic mass of oxygen = 16 amu Therefore
gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16 g

Molecular Mass

Molecular mass of a substance is defined as the average relative mass of its

molecule as compared to the mass of an atom of C-12 taken as 12. It expresses as to
how many times the molecule of a substance is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of an
atom of carbon.
For example, a molecule of carbon dioxide is 44 times heavier than 1/12th of
the mass of an atom of carbon. Therefore the molecular mass of CO2 is 44 amu. It is
obtained by adding the atomic masses of all the atoms present in one molecule .
Gram Molecular Mass
A quantity of substance whose mass in grams is numerically equal to its
molecular
mass is called gram molecular mass. In simple terms, molecular mass of a substance
expressed in grams is called gram molecular mass.
e.g., the molecular mass of oxygen = 32 amu
Therefore, gram molecular mass of oxygen = 32 g

Formula Mass-
Sum of atomic masses of the elements present in one formula unit of a
compound. It
is used for the ionic compounds.
Mole Concept.
Mole is defined as the amount of a substance, which contains the same number
of chemical units (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons) as there are atoms in exactly
12 grams of pure carbon-12.A mole represents a collection of 6.022 x1023(
Avogadro's number) chemical units.
.The mass of one mole of a substance in grams is called its molar mass.
Molar Volume
The volume occupied by one mole of any substance is called its molar volume.
It is
denoted by Vm. One mole of all gaseous substances at 273 K and 1 atm pressure
occupies a volume equal to 22.4 litre or 22,400 mL. The unit of molar volume is litre
per mol or millilitre per mol.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION—
The mass percentage of each constituent element present in any compound is
called
its percentage composition
Mass % of the element=Mass of element in 1 molecule of the compound x
100
Molecular mass of the compound
Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula—
An empirical formula represents the simplest whole number ratio of various atoms
present in a compound. E.g. CH is the empirical formula of benzene.
The molecular formula shows the exact number of different types of atoms present
in a molecule of a compound. E.g. C6H6 is the molecular formula of benzene.
Relationship between empirical and molecular formulae
The two formulas are related as Molecular formula = n x empirical formula

Chemical Equation-

Shorthand representation of a chemical change in terms ofsymbols and formulae

of the substances involved in the reaction is called chemical equation.. The substances
that react among themselves to bring about the chemical changes are known as
reactants, whereas the substances that are produced as a result of the chemical change,
are known as products
CALCULATIONS INVOLVING FORMULAS

The Mole

The mass of a single atom is too small to measure on a balance. The mass of
hydrogen atom is 1.673 × 10-24 g. This is an infinitesimal mass. This very small mass
can be expressed in terms of the number of particles present in it which can account
for even a very small atom. The mole is the amount of substance that contains 6.02 ×
1023 particles is called the Avogadro’s number which presents the number of particles
present in 1 mole of any substance. Thus,

1 mole of H = 6.02 × 1023 H atoms

1 mole of CO2 = 6.02 × 1023 molecules of CO2

1 mole of NaCI = 6.02 × 1023 Na+ (ions) and

6.02 × 1023 Cl- (ions)

And therefore:

Elements Atomic Molar mass Number of

Mass atoms

H 1.008 amu 1.008 g 6.022 × 1023

 Mg 24.31 amu 24.31 g 6.022 × 1023

Na 22.99 amu 22.99 g 6.022 × 1023

The mass in grams of one mole of a substance is called its molar mass (MM)
expressed in grams per mole (g/mol).

Computing the Molar Mass for Compounds and Hydrates

BaSO4 2H2O is read as barium sulfate dehydrate.

BaSO4 2H2O = (1x137.33) + (1x32.05) + (4x1) + (6x16)

= 269.38 g/mol.

A mass of a single atom is too small to measure on a balance

H = 1.673 x 10-24 g

Mole -the amt sub. that contains many atoms.

- Always contain the same number of formula units.

Unit in mole 6.022 × 1023

Species H2

Quantity 1 mole

Number of H2 6.022 × 1023

Atom

Species C6H6

Benzene

Quantity 1mole

Number of C6H6 6.022 × 1023

1. How many oxygen atoms are present in 2mo 1 of oxygen molecules.

6.022 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑂2

( )( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2

Conversion sequence

moles 𝑂2 molecules O atoms O

6.022 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑂

(2-00 mol 𝑂2 ) ( ) ( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 2 )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 2

=1.20×1024 atoms O

Molar mass compounds- by adding the molar masses calculate the m.mass C2H6 O

2C= 2 (12.01 g) = 24.02g

6H= 6 (1.01 g ) = 6.06 g

10 = 1 (16.00 g) = 16.00 g

46.089 g

Calculate LiClO4 (Lithium Perchlorate)

1 Li = 1 (6.49 g) = 24.02g

1 Cl = 1 (35.45 g) = 35.45g

4O = 4 (16.00 g) = 64.00g

106.39 g

(NH4)3 (PO4)

3N=3( )= 12 H= 12 ( )=

1P=1( )= 4 O = 4 ( 16.00 g ) =________

BaSO4 2H2O

1 Ba =1 =
1S =1 =

4H =4 =

6O =6 (16.00) =________

369.389

Examples (adopted from Hein, (2004) 6th ed):

1. How many moles of iron does 25.0 g of iron represent?

Solution:

Atomic mass iron = 55.85

Conversion sequence: grams Fe moles Fe

6.022 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝐹𝑒
(grams Fe) ( 55.85 𝑔 𝐹𝑒
)

6.022 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝐹𝑒

(25.0 gFe) ( ) = 2.70 x 1023 atoms Fe
55.85 𝑔 𝐹𝑒

2. What is the mass of 3.01 x 1023 atoms of sodium (Na)?

Molar mass Na = 22.99 g

Conversion Sequence: atoms Na grams Na

Set up the calculation using a conversion factor between grams and atoms.
22.99 𝑔 𝑁𝑎
(𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁𝑎) ( )
6.022 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁𝑎

22.99 𝑔 𝑁𝑎
(3.01 × 1023 atoms Na) ( ) = 11.5 g Na
6.022 × 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁𝑎

3. What is the mass of 0.365 moles of tin? Converting Moles to molar mass

Atomic mass tin = 118.7

Conversion sequence: moles Sn grams Na

Set up the calculation using a conversion factor between grams and

atoms.
 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑛
(moles Sn) ( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑛

118.7 𝑔 𝑆𝑛
(0.365 moles Sn) ( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑛 ) = 43.3 g Sn

1 H = 1 (1.019)

Calculate the molar mass of 1 mole of mole.

2H = 2 (1.019)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏 (𝑔)
n= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏 (𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)

Percent composition

11.19% H by mass 88.79% O by mass

Example Calculate the percentage Hydro sulfuric acid

H2S

1 (36.06) = 32.06
2.02
2 (1) = 34.06

32.06 1
× 100 = 94.13% × 100 = 2.93%
34.06 34.08

2H= 2 x 1.019 = 2.02 g

1S= 1 x 36.06 = 36.06 g

Finding Moles

Atomic mass iron = 55.85

Conversion sequence g Fe mol Fe

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒
grams Fe ( )
55.85

Finding Atom
6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐹𝑒
gram Fe x ( )
55.85 𝑔 𝐹𝑒

= 2.70 ×1023 atoms Fe

Finding equivalent mass

 Atoms Na g Na
22.99 𝑔 𝑁𝑎
grams Na × (6.022 ×1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑁𝑎)

= 11.5 g Na

atoms – How many atom present

moles O2 molecules O atoms O

2.00 𝑚𝐿 6.022×1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂2 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑂

( ) ( ) ( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 )
𝑂2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 2

= 1.20 x 1024 atoms of O

The number of moles (n) of a substance can be computed using the formula:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑔)

𝑛= 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)

Examples:

1. How many moles of benzene, C6H6, are present in 390.0 grams of

benzene?
The molar mass of C6H6 is 78.12 g.
Conversion sequence: grams C6H6 moles C6H6
78.12 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝐶6 𝐻6
Use the conversion factor: 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶6 𝐻6
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶6 𝐻6
(390.0 g 𝐶6 𝐻6 ) (78.12 𝑔 𝐶 ) = 5.000 moles 𝐶6 𝐻6
6 𝐻6

2. How many grams of (NH4)3PO4 are contained in 2.52 moles of

(NH4)3PO4?
The molar mass of (NH4)3PO4 is 149.12 g
Conversion sequence: moles (NH4)3PO4
grams (NH4)3PO4
149.12 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 (𝑁𝐻4 )3𝑃𝑂4
Use the conversion factor: 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 (𝑁𝐻4 )3𝑃𝑂4

149.12 𝑔 (𝑁𝐻4 )3 𝑃𝑂4

(2.52 mol (𝑁𝐻4 )3 𝑃𝑂4 )) ( )
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (𝑁𝐻4 )3 𝑃𝑂4
=376g (𝑁𝐻4 )3 𝑃𝑂4

Number of Moles

Sodium, Na+, in 5.63 g of sodium sulfate,

 Na2SO4

The formula weight of Na2SO4

2(23.0) + 32.1 + 4 (16.0) = 142.19 mo

Therefore, 1 mol Na2SO4 = 142.19 cmo

1
5.63 g Na2SO4 × 2

Subscript -2 of Na2SO4 -2 Na+

4 Na+
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.0396 mol Na2SO4 × ( ) = 0.0792
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Na2SO4

Molecules Present

Given= .360 g of aspirin

C9H8O4
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛
0.360 g of aspirin × = 0.00200
180 𝑎𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑛

3. 56.04 g of N2 contains how many N2 molecules?

The molar mass of N2 is 28.02 g.

Conversion sequence: g N2 moles N2 molecules N2
Atoms N
Use the conversion factors
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁
28.02 𝑔 𝑁2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑁2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2 6.022 𝑥 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁2
(56.04 𝑔 𝑁2 ) ( ) ( )
28.02 𝑔 𝑁 2 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁2
2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁
(1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑁 ) = 1.204 x 1024 molecules N2
2

Empirical and Molecular Formula

The composition of compounds is depicted by its chemical formula. Chemical

formulas are symbolic representations of the different substances present in a given
substance. A molecular formula is sometimes called the true formula of a compound
because it represents the total number of atoms of each element present in one
molecule of a compound. An empirical formula on the other hand is a type of
formula that gives the simplest ratio of the number of atoms in a given compound. If
these two formulas are not given, the formula of a compound can only be determined
through the percentages of the substituent that comprises the compound.
Steps in determining the formula of a compound:

1. Assume a definite starting quantity (usually 100.0 g) of the compound,

if not given, and express the mass of each element in grams.
2. Convert the grams of each element into moles of each element using
each element’s molar mass.
3. Determine the number of moles of each compound and divide the
moles of atoms of each element by the moles of atoms of the element
that had the smallest value.
- If the numbers obtained are whole numbers, use them as
subscripts and write the empirical formula.
- If the numbers obtained are not whole numbers, go on to step
4.
4. For empirical formula, multiply the values obtained in step 3 by the
smallest numbers that will convert them to whole numbers. For
example:

FeO1.5
Fe1 x 2O1.5 x 2 Fe2O3

If molecular formula is asked, proceed to step 5.

5. For molecular formula, determine the actual molar mass of the

empirical formula and divide it with the given molar mass to get the
actual ratio. For example, given molecular formula for compound
above is 160 amu.

FeO1.5
From : its molecular weight is (56x1) + (16x1.5)= 80
g/mol.

To get the actual ratio, divide 160 by 80 which is 2. Then multiply 2 to

the subscripts of the empirical formula which will result to amolecular
formula Fe2O3.

Example (Hein,2000):

1. The analysis of a salt shows that it contains 56.58% potassium (K);

8.68% carbon (C); and 34.73% oxygen (O). Calculate the empirical
formula for this substance.

Solution:

Step 1 Express each element in grams. Assume 100 grams of compound.

 Given:

K = 56.58 g

C = 8.68 g

O = 34.73 g

Step 2 Convert the grams of each element to moles.

1 𝑚ol K atoms
K: (56.58 g K) ( ) = 1.447 mol K atoms
39.10 g K

1 𝑚ol C atoms
C: (8.68 g C) ( )
12.01 g C

1 𝑚ol O atoms
O: (34.73 g O) ( ) = 2.171 mol O atoms
16.00 g O

H2O = O2

2 (1) + 1 (16) = 18

Formula of Percentage

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

× 100 = 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Without knowing the composition of compound.

Step 3 Divide each number of moles by the smallest value.

1.447 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.723 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝐾= = 2.00 𝐶: = 1.00
0.723 𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.723 𝑚𝑜𝑙

2.171 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑂= = 3.00
0.723 𝑚𝑜𝑙

The simplest ratio of K:C:O is 2:1:3

Empirical formula for K2CO3

2. The percent composition of a compound is 25.94% nitrogen (N), and

74.06% oxygen (O). Calculate the empirical formula for this substance.

Solution:

Express each element in grams. Assume 100 grams of compound.

 𝑁 = 25.94 𝑔

𝑂 = 74.06 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑁: (25.94 𝑔 𝑁) ( ) = 1.852 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
14.01 𝑔 𝑁

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑂: (74.06 𝑔 𝑂) ( ) = 4.629 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
16.00 𝑔 𝑂

1.852 𝑚𝑜𝑙 4.629 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑁= = 1.000 𝑂: = 2.500
1.852 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1.852 𝑚𝑜𝑙

This is not a ratio of whole numbers.

Multiply each of the values by 2.

N: (1.000) 2 = 2.000 O: (2.500) 2 = 5.000

Empirical formula N2O5

Empirical formula K2CO3

3. Determine the empirical and molecular formula of a compound with

85.71% C and 14.29% H, its actual molecular formula is 70 g/mol.

Solution:

Basic: 100 g. of compound

C= 85.71 g.

H= 14.29 g.

No. of moles:

C= (85.71 g) / (12 g/mol) = 7.14 mols

H= (14.29g/1 g.mol) = 14.29 mols.

Ratios:
 C= (7.14/7.14) = 1
H= (14.29/14.29) = 2

Therefore:

Empirical formula : CH2

Molecular weight of empirical formula:
(12 g/mol x 1) + (1g/ mol) = 14 g/mol

Actual ratio:
(70 g/mol) / (14g/mol) = 5

Molecular Formula is: (CH2)x5 = C5H10

Practice Test:

1. What is the Empirical Formula of a compound which contains 2.05%

H, 32.65%S, and 65.3% O.
2. What is the Empirical Formula of a compound containing 52.94% Al
and
47.06% O?
3. A compoundis 85.69% C and 14.31% H. If the molar mass is 58 g/mol,
what is its Molecular Formula?
4. Determine the Molecular Formula of the following compounds:

A. EF = HgCl; MM = 472 g/mol

B. EF = C2H5; MM = 58 g/mol

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reactions transforms one or more substances into a set of different

substances. Components of a chemical reaction are known as the:

• Reactants – starting material

• Products – newly formed substance/s

Chemical Reactions uses Chemical Equations to represent the conversion of reactant

to products using symbols of elements and formulas of compounds.

Symbols used in writing Chemical reactions and Chemical Equations.

= separate the reactants from the product

 + separates the formulas of the reactants/ products
(if there are more than one reactants/ product)

written after the formula indicates a gaseous product

written after the formula of a product indicates a

precipitate

(s) (l) (g) are symbols used as a subscript written after the formula,
indicating the state of the reacting substance as solids,
liquids or gas.

(aq) means aqeous or the substance is l solution with water

Ni a catalyst is used.
A catalyst is a substance added to speed up the rate of
chemical reaction.

means a reactant is heated

3H2O (number before a chemical formula) indicates the coefficient

of the number of moles of the substance involved.

Chemical Reactions
- transformation of one or more substances into set of different
substance. (involve change)

Chemical equation
1. Summarize
2. Display
3. Show
4. Indicate amount

Entering- reactants (left)

Product- reactants (right)

C4H10 + O2 4CO2 + H2O

4 =4
10 = 2
2 =9

C4H10 + O2 4CO2 + 5H2O

4 =4
10 = 10
 26 = 26

C4H10 + O2 8CO2 +10H2O

8 =8
10 = 10
26 = 26

Molecular Formula = n

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛= = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎

Given:
m. mass = 126.29
let n = the number
1 = 1 (12.01g) = 12.01g
2 = 2 (1.01g) = 2.02g
14.03 g

126.2 𝑔
𝑛= = 9 (𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
14.03 𝑔

(CH2)9 = C9H18

Percent composition (Molecular Formula)

Given: assume thci 100 g of the compound is present

11.2% H
× 100 g = 11.2 gH
100 %
88.8% H
× 100 g = 88.8 O
1𝑜𝑜 %

1 mol
H: 11.2 g × = 11.2 mol
1g
1 mol
O: 88.8 g × = 88.8 g
1g

Finding Tf
 11.2 mol 5.6 mol
H: =2 O =1
5.6 mol 5.6 mol

Tf = H2O

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

𝑛= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑓

18
𝑛= =1 mass of H2O : (H = 1; 0 = 16) =18
18

MF = (EF) n MF: (H2O),

MF: (H2O)

Example of a chemical reaction of which heat served as a catalyst.

∆
2Al + Fe2O3 2Fe + Al2O3
coefficient coefficient
**Reactions between 2 moles of aluminum and one mole of ferric oxide produces 2
moles of iron and one mole of aluminum oxide by the presence of heat.

Example of a chemical reaction that specifies the physical state of each substance:

2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s)

**reaction between 2 moles of solid aluminum with 1 mole of solid ferric oxide
produces 2 moles of liquid iron and solid aluminum oxide.

A chemical reaction must always be presented in its balanced form to signify a

valid reaction mechanism. Thus, when a chemical reaction is presented, the first
standard treatment is to inspect if it is balanced, if not, then different methods may be
employed to balance such chemical equation.

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

Chemical reactions are balanced through addition of numerical coefficients to

balance the components in the reactant to that of the product. Coefficients (whole
numbers) are placed in front of substances to balance the equation and to indicate the
number of units (atoms, molecules, moles, ions) of each substance that is reacting.

Example of a balance chemical equation:

 2Al + Fe2O3 2Fe + Al2O3
coefficient coefficient

Steps in writing and balancing chemical equations:

1. Identify the reaction. Write a description or word equation for the

reaction.
For instance, aluminum reacts with ferric oxide forming iron and
aluminum oxide. Separate reactant from products using an arrow.
Aluminum + Ferric oxide Iron + aluminum oxide

2. Write the unbalanced (skeleton) equation.

Al + Fe2O3 Fe + Al2O3

3. Balance the equation by counting and comparing the number of atoms

of each element on both sides of the equation.
Al + Fe2O3 Fe + Al2O3

Al = 1 Al = 2
Fe = 2 Fe = 1
O =3 O =3 *balanced

4. Determine the elements that require balancing and by trial and error,
use coefficients to balance elements in the reactants to that of the
product. Always express coefficients in the lowest possible whole
number ration.

2Al + Fe2O3 2Fe + Al2O3

coefficient coefficient

Al = 1x2 = 2 Al = 2 **balanced
Fe = 2 Fe = 1x2 = 2 **balanced
Oxygen is balanced since the first inspection. Thus, the equation is balanced because
the number of moles of the elements in the reactants is equal to the number of moles
in the product.

Practice Test:

1. N2(g) + H2(g) NH3(g)

2. Cu + NHO3 Cu(NO3)2(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l)
3. AgNO3(s) + BaCl2(s) AgCl(s) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
4. Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
5. H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. COMPOSITIONS/ SYNTHESIS/ DIRECT UNION/ COMBINATION

occurs when two or more substances react to form one compound.

General Form: A + B AB
Examples:

1. 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)

2. CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq)

2. DECOMPOSITION takes place when the compound decomposes (breaks

down) from two or more substances. Heat is usually necessary for the reaction
to take place.

General Form: AB A+B

Types of Decomposition Reaction

a. Decomposition of Hydrates
Hydrates when heated, decompose to yield water and salt (which is anydrous).
Example: BaCl2•2H2O(s) BaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l)
b. Decomposition of Chlorates
Chlorates, when heated, decompose to form chlorides plus oxygen gas.
Example: 2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)

c. Decomposition of Metal Oxides

Few metal oxides when heated, decompose to form the free metal and oxygen.
Example: 2 HgO(s) Hg(l) + O2(g)
 d. Decomposition of Carbonates
Carbonates when heated decompose to form oxides and carbon dioxide.
Example: CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Group 1A Carbonates do not decompose readily.

e. Decomposition of Hydrogen Carbonates (Bicarbonates)

Bicarbonates when heated decompose to form an oxide, water vapor and
carbon dioxide.
Example: Ca(HCO3)2(s) CaO(s) + 2 CO2(g) + H2O(g)

3. SINGLE REPLACEMENT occurs when, in a chemical reaction, a metal

replaces another metal ion from a solution or a nonmetal replaces a less active
nonmetal in a compound. This type of reaction obeys the activity series.

General Form: AX + B BX + A
where A and B are metals
or
AX + Y AY + X
where X and Y are nonmetals

The Activity Series is a list of elements in decreasing activity or reactivity.

This list is used to primarily predict the product of a single replacement reaction.
Thus, the more active metal will be replacing the less active one in a single
replacement reaction.

The Activity Series

Metals Non metals

Li Fe Ag F
K Cd Pt Cl
Ba Ni Au Br
Ca Sh l
Na Pb
Mg H
A Cu
Mn Bi
Zr Sb
Cr Hg

Thus from this activity series we can see that lithium (Li) is the most active
metal while Gold (Au) is the most inactive metal. Also we can say that cadmium is
more active than Nickel (Ni) or Lead (Pb). In terms of nonmetals, we can see that
fluorine is the most active while iodine is the least active.

Examples:
Fe(s) + CuSO(aq) FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq) no reaction

(Cu is less active than Fe)

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2

Cl2(g) + NaI(aq) 2 NaCl(s) + I2(g)

4. DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION occurs when two compounds react to form new

compounds. This involves exchange in ion pairs. This reaction is sometimes called
metathesis.

General Form: AX + BY AY + BX
Examples:
Neutralization reactions: formation of salt and water due to exchange of ion
pairs by an acid and a base.
2 HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(aq) + 2 NaCl(aq)

Practice Test:

I. Complete and balance the following equations. Then indicate the type of
reaction.
1. Al 2O3 (s) + H2O (l)
2. NaClO3 (s)
3. Pb (s) + HCI (aq)
4. MnSO4 (aq) + (NH4)2S (aq)
5. MgCO 3 (s)
6. SO2 (g) + H2O (l)
 7. FeCl2 (aq) + Cu (s)
8. Ba(OH)2 (aq) + HNO3 (aq)
9. NaBr (s) + Cl2 (g)
10. MgO (s) + H2O (l)

II. Write a balance equation for each of the following reactions then indicate the
type of reaction.
1. Heating mercuric oxide powder
2. Adding sulphuric acid solution to potassium hydroxide solution
3. Exposure of hydrogen peroxide to light
4. Mixing fluorine solution with sodium bromide solution
5. Adding powdered Aluminum oxide to water

REDOX REACTIONS
Redox stands for reduction-oxidation reaction, which is a common
phenomenon in terms of a chemical reaction. Usually and almost everyday, majority
of the chemical reactions taking place in the earth’s crust is a redox reaction. The
main difference between oxidation and reduction can be established as:

OXIDATION
- Involves the loss of electrons
- Results in an Increase in the oxidation number of the atom or ion
REDUCTION
- Involves the gain of electrons
- Results in a decrease in the oxidation number of the atom or ion.

A reducing agent is the substance that is oxidized while an oxidizing agent is the
substance that is reduced in a chemical reaction.

Example of a REDOX reaction:

Inorganic Redox:
4 Fe (s) + 3 02(g) 2 Fe2O3(5)

Organic Redox:
C6H12O6(s) + O2(g) 6 CO2(g) + 6
H2O(l)

Remember:
 • An atom is a neutral particle, thus, the charge of a substance in its
atomic/elemental state is always zero.
• The total charge of a compound is always equal to zero.
• Increase or decrease in oxidation number is caused by the migration of
electrons.

Steps in recognizing REDOX reaction mechanism:

1. Assign oxidation numbers to each element found in the reaction.
• Elements are assigned with an oxidation number of 0.

Positive Oxidation
- fewer electrons
Negative Oxidation
- more electrons
Covalently bonded substances
- oxidation number assigned to an arbitary system.

Stable Condition
e.g. diatomic molecules- share electron
e.g. H : H

0 0
Unstable Condition
e.g. unequally shared

O# Oxidation #
+1 -1
2.1 3.0
* partial transfer of electron
* giving net charge

Rules in Assigning oxidation number

1. Free state
2. H always + 1 (redox reaction) metal hydrates
3. O-2 peroxide -1
4. Metallic element in ionic compound has +oxidation
5. In covalent compound in negative

Determining Polyatomic
Step 1 H2SO4
Step 2 H-2
2(+) = 2 4(-) = 8
Step 3 + 2 + S + (-2) = 0
Step 4 S= +6

znO
Step 1 ? -2
1(-2) = 2
Step 2 zn+ (-2) = 0
Step 3 zn = 2

kMnO4
Step 1 -1 -2
Step 2 1(+1)= +1 4(-2)= n
Step 3 +1 + Mn+ (-8) = 0
Step 4 Mn = +7

Oxalate ion (Polyatomic)

C2O42-
Step 1 -2
Step 2 4 (-2) - -8
Step 3 2C + (-8) = -2
Step 4 2C = +6
C = +3

C = +3

Bromate ion
Br O3-
-2
Step 1 3(-2) = -6
Step 2 Br (-6) = -1
Step 3 Br = +5

Na2SO4 = sulfur
Step 1 +1 -2
Step 2 2 (+1) =2 4(-2) = 8
2 + S + -8 = +6
S=6
K3 AsO4 As = +5 Na2SO4
+1 cr = +6 K3AsO4
P= +5 PO43-
N=+5 HNO3
N=+5 Hg (NO3)2
 Application of Redox
1. Combustion
2. Respiration
3. Breath alcohol analyses
4. Batteries
5. Antiseptic effects

•
Compounds have a total charge of zero. For binary compounds, the
charge of the metallic element is positive and negative for the non
metallic elements can be found in references such as periodic tables
and text books.
• For multi-valent element, the oxidation number of each substances in
the compound is determined algebraically.
2. Noted which substances changes its oxidation state. Apply the following rules:
• If there is a lost of election/s, the element is oxidized and the substance
is the reducing agent.
• If there is a gain of electron/s, the element is reduced and the substance
is the oxidizing agent,

This is simply remembered as LEORA and GEROA:

LEORA– Lost of Electrons; Oxidized: Reducing Agent
GEROA–Gain of Electrons; Reduced; Oxidizing Agent

The reducing and oxidizing agents are those that are in the reactant side.

Example:

Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents in the reaction;

Lost 2e-; Zn is oxidized; Reducing Agent iZ;

0 +1 +5 -2 -2 -5 -2 0
Zn (s) + AgNO3 (aq) Zn (NO3)2 (aq) – Ag (s)

Since the oxidation number of Zn increases from 0 to +2,; Zn is oxidized;

zn lost 2 electrons

The oxidation number of Ag decrease from +1 to 0, Ag is reduced, AgNO3 is

the oxidizing agent.

Zn is oxidized, it is the reducing agent while Ag is reduced, AgNO 3 is

the oxidizing agent.
EXERCISE

For each of the redox reactions that follow, determine which

substance is oxidized and which substance is reduced.
Identify also the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.

1. H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) HCI

2. Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) MgSO 4 (aq) + H2 (g)
3. Al (s) + Fe2O3 (s) Al2 O3(s) + Fe (s)
4. FeCl2(aq) + kMnO4 (aq) + HCl(aq) FeCl3(aq) + kCl(aq) + MnCl2(aq) +H2O(l)
5. Cr(OH)3 + NaOH + H2O2 Na2CrO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Stoichiometry

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the chapter, students will be able to

➢ Balance chemical equations

➢ Predict the products of simple combination, decomposition, and combustion
reactions.
➢ Calculate formula weights
➢ Convert grams to moles and moles to grams using molar masses.
➢ Convert number of molecules to moles and moles to number of molecules
using
➢ Avogadro’s number
➢ Calculate the empirical and molecular formulas of a compound from
percentage
➢ composition and molecular weight.
➢ Identify limiting reactants and calculate amounts, in grams or moles, or
reactants
➢ consumed and products formed for a reaction.
➢ Calculate the percent yield of a reaction

➢ Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships in substances and

their reactions.Stoichiometry is the field of chemistry that is concerned with
the relative quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. For any
balanced chemical reaction, whole numbers (coefficients) are used to show the
quantities (generally in moles) of both the reactants and products.
Chemical equations
o –The mole and molar mass
o –Chemical formulas
 o –Mass relationships in equations
o –Limiting reactant

Definitions

• Reactants are the substances consumed

• Products are the substances formed
• Coefficients are numbers before the formula of a substance in an equation
• A balanced equation has the same number of atoms of each element on both
sides of the equation
Chemical Equations
• A chemical equation is a shorthand notation to describe a chemical reaction
• Just like a chemical formula, a chemical equation expresses quantitative
relations
• Subscripts tell the number of atoms of each element in a molecule
• Coefficients tell the number of molecules
 Balancing Equations

Balancing Equations

Steps of Balancing a Chemical Equation

Identify each element found in the equation. The number of atoms of each type of
atom must be the same on each side of the equation once it has been balanced.
What is the net charge on each side of the equation? The net charge must be the same
on each side of the equation once it has been balanced.
If possible, start with an element found in one compound on each side of the equation.
Change the coefficients (the numbers in front of the compound or molecule) so that
the number of atoms of the element is the same on each side of the equation.
Remember, to balance an equation, you change the coefficients, not the subscripts in
the formulas.
Once you have balanced one element, do the same thing with another element.
Proceed until all elements have been balanced. It's easiest to leave elements found in
pure form for last.
Check your work to make certain the charge on both sides of the equation is also
balanced.

Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation

? CH4 + ? O2 → ? CO2 + ? H2O

Identify the elements in the equation: C, H, O

Identify the net charge: no net charge, which makes this one easy!

H is found in CH4 and H2O, so it's a good starting element. You have 4 H in
CH4 yet only 2 H in H2O, so you need to double the coefficient of H2O to balance H.
1 CH4 + ? O2 → ? CO2 + 2 H2O
Looking at carbon, you can see that CH4 and CO2 must have the same coefficient.
1 CH4 + ? O2 → 1 CO2 + 2 H2O
Finally, determine the O coefficient. You can see you need to double the O2
coefficient in order to get 4 O seen on the product side of the reaction.
1 CH4 + 2 O2 → 1 CO2 + 2 H2O
Check your work. It's standard to drop a coefficient of 1, so the final balanced
equation would be written: CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O

WORKED EXAMPLE 1: BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 1

Balance the following equation:

Mg+HCl→MgCl2+H2Mg+HCl→MgCl2+H2

Identify the reactants and products

Write the equation for the reaction

Count the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and products
Reactants: Mg=1 atomMg=1 atom, H=1 atomH=1 atom, Cl=1 atomCl=1 atom
Products: Mg=1 atomMg=1 atom, H=2 atomsH=2 atoms, Cl=2 atomsCl=2 atoms
Balance the equation

The equation is not balanced since there are two chlorine atoms in the product and
only one in the reactants. If we add a coefficient of two to the HClHCl to increase the
number of HH and ClCl atoms in the reactants, the equation will look like this:

Mg+2HCl→MgCl2+H2

Check that the atoms are balanced

If we count the atoms on each side of the equation, we find the following:

Reactants: Mg=1 atomMg=1 atom, H=2 atomsH=2 atoms, Cl=2 atomsCl=2 atoms
Products: Mg=1 atomMg=1 atom, H=2 atomsH=2 atoms, Cl=2 atomsCl=2 atoms
The equation is balanced. The final equation is:

Mg+2HCl→MgCl2+H2

WORKED EXAMPLE 2: BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 2

Balance the following equation:

CH4+O2→CO2+H2O
Count the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and products
Reactants: C=1, H=4, O=2
Products: C=1, H=2, O=3
Balance the equation
If we add a coefficient of 2 to H2O, then the number of hydrogen atoms in the
products will be 4, which is the same as for the reactants. The equation will be:

CH4+O2→CO2+2H2O
Check that the atoms balance
Reactants: C=1, H=4, O=2
Products: C=1, H=4, O=4
You will see that, although the number of hydrogen atoms now balances, there are
more oxygen atoms in the products. You now need to repeat the previous step. If we
put a coefficient of 2 in front of O2, then we will increase the number of oxygen
atoms in the reactants by 2. The new equation is:

CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O
When we check the number of atoms again, we find that the number of atoms of each
element in the reactants is the same as the number in the products. The equation is
now balanced.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3: BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 3

In our bodies, sugar (C6H12O6) reacts with the oxygen we breathe in to produce
carbon dioxide, water and energy. Write the balanced equation for this reaction.

Identify the reactants and products in the reaction.

Reactants: sugar (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2)
Products: carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
Write the equation
C6H12O6 + O2→ CO2 + H2O
Count the number of atoms of each element in the reactants and in the products
Reactants: C=6, H=12, O=8
Products: C=1, H=2, O=3
Balance the equation
It is easier to start with carbon as it only appears once on each side. If we add a 6 in
front of CO2, the equation looks like this:

C6H12O6 + O2 → 6CO2 + H2 O
Reactants: C=6, H=12, O=8
Products: C=6, H=2, O=13
Change the coefficients again to try to balance the equation.
Let us try to get the number of hydrogens the same this time.

C6H12O6 + O2 → 6CO2 +
6H2O
Reactants: C=6, H=12, O=8
Products: C=6, H=12, O=18
Now we just need to balance the oxygen atoms.

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 +

6H2O
Reactants: C=6, H=12, O=18
Products: C=6, H=12, O=18

WORKED EXAMPLE 4: BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS 4

Solid zinc metal reacts with aqueous hydrochloric acid to form an aqueous solution of
zinc chloride (ZnCl2and hydrogen gas. Write a balanced equation for this reaction.

Identify the reactants and products

The reactants are zinc (Zn) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). The products are zinc
chloride (ZnCl2) and hydrogen (H2).

Write the equation

Zn+HCl→ZnCl2+H2

Balance the equation

You will notice that the zinc atoms balance but the chlorine and hydrogen atoms do
not. Since there are two chlorine atoms on the right and only one on the left, we will
give HCll a coefficient of 2 so that there will be two chlorine atoms on each side of
the equation.

Zn+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2

Check that all the atoms balance

When you look at the equation again, you will see that all the atoms are now
balanced.

Ensure all details (e.g. state symbols) are added

In the initial description, you were told that zinc was a metal, hydrochloric acid and
zinc chloride were in aqueous solutions and hydrogen was a gas.

Zn (s)+2HCl (aq)→ZnCl2(aq)+H2(g)

Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + CaSiO3

Looking at calcium, we see that there are three on the left and one on the
right, so we can add a coefficient of three on the right to balance them out.

Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + 3CaSiO3

Then, for phosphorus, we see that there are two on the left and four on the
right. To balance these, add a coefficient of two on the left.

2Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + 3CaSiO3

Notice that by doing so, we changed the number of calcium atoms on the left.
Every time you add a coefficient, double check to see if the step affects any
elements you have already balanced. In this case, the number of calcium
atoms on the left has increased to six while it is still three on the right, so we
can change the coefficient on the right to reflect this change.

2Ca3(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + 6CaSiO3

Since oxygen occurs in every molecule in the equation, we will skip it for now.
Focusing on silicon, we see that there is one on the left, but six on the right,
so we can add a coefficient to the left.

2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2 → P4O10 + 6CaSiO3

Now, we will check the number of oxygen atoms on each side. The left has 28
atoms and the right also has 28. So, after checking that all the other atoms
are the same on both sides as well, we get a final answer of

2Ca3(PO4)2 + 6SiO2 → P4O10 + 6CaSiO3

EXERCISE 14.2
Balance the following equations:

1. Mg+O2→MgOMg+O2→MgO

2. Ca+H2O→Ca(OH)2+ H2

3. CuCO3+H2SO4→CuSO4+H2O+CO2
4. CaCl2+Na2CO3→CaCO3+NaCl

5. C12H22O11+O2→CO2+H2O

1. Barium chloride reacts with sulfuric acid to produce barium sulfate and
hydrochloric acid.

2. Ethane (C2H6)(C2H6) reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and steam.
3. Ammonium carbonate is often used as a smelling salt. Balance the following
reaction for the decomposition of ammonium carbonate:
(NH4)2CO3(s)→NH3(aq)CO2(g)+H2O
4. Hydrogen fuel cells are extremely important in the development of alternative
energy sources. Many of these cells work by reacting hydrogen and oxygen gases
together to form water, a reaction which also produces electricity. Balance the
following equation:
H2(g)+O2(g)→H2O (l)
5. The synthesis of ammonia (NH3)(NH3), made famous by the German chemist
Fritz Haber in the early 20th century, is one of the most important reactions in the
chemical industry. Balance the following equation used to produce ammonia:
N2(g)+H2(g)→NH3(g)

How to Balance a Chemical Equation for a Redox

Reaction
Once you understand how to balance an equation in terms of mass,
you're ready to learn how to balance an equation for both mass and
charge. Reduction/oxidation or redox reactions and acid-base reactions
often involve charged species. Balancing for charge means you have the
same net charge on both the reactant and product side of the equation.
This isn't always zero!

Here's an example of how to balance the reaction between potassium

permanganate and iodide ion in aqueous sulfuric acid to form
potassium iodide and manganese(II) sulfate. This is a typical acid
reaction.

1. First, write the unbalanced chemical equation:

KMnO4 + KI + H2SO4 → I2 + MnSO4
 2. Write down the oxidation numbers for each type of atom on both
sides of the equation:
Left hand side: K = +1; Mn = +7; O = -2; I = 0; H = +1; S =
+6Right hand side: I = 0; Mn = +2, S = +6; O = -2
3. Find the atoms that experience a change in oxidation
number:Mn: +7 → +2; I: +1 → 0
4. Write a skeleton ionic equation that only covers the atoms that
change oxidation number:
MnO4- → Mn2+
I- → I2
5. Balance all of the atoms besides the oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H)
in the half-reactions:
MnO4- → Mn2+
2I- → I2
6. Now add O and H2O as needed to balance oxygen:
MnO4- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
2I- → I2
7. Balance the hydrogen by adding H+ as needed:
MnO4- + 8H+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O
2I- → I2
8. Now, balance charge by adding electrons as needed. In this
example, the first half-reaction has a charge of 7+ on the left and
2+ on the right. Add 5 electrons to the left to balance the charge.
The second half-reaction has 2- on the left and 0 on the right. Add
2 electrons to the right.
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O
2I- → I2 + 2e-
9. Multiply the two half-reactions by the number that yields the
lowest common number of electrons in each half-reaction. For
this example, the lowest multiple of 2 and 5 is 10, so multiply the
first equation by 2 and the second equation by 5:
2 x [MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- → Mn2+ + 4H2O]
5 x [2I- → I2 + 2e-]
10. Add together the two half-reactions and cancel out species that
appear on each side of the equation:
2MnO4- + 10I- + 16H+ → 2Mn2+ + 5I2 + 8H2O

Now, it's a good idea to check your work by making sure the atoms and
charge are balanced:

Left hand side: 2 Mn; 8 O; 10 I; 16 H

Right hand side: 2 Mn; 10 I; 16 H; 8 O

Left hand side: −2 – 10 +16 = +4

Right hand side: +4
Limiting Reagents

When there is not enough of one reactant in a chemical reaction, the reaction stops
abruptly. To figure out the amount of product produced, it must be determined
reactant will limit the chemical reaction (the limiting reagent) and which reactant is in
excess (the excess reagent). One way of finding the limiting reagent is by calculating
the amount of product that can be formed by each reactant; the one that produces less
product is the limiting reagent.

Introduction

The following scenario illustrates the significance of limiting reagents. In order to

assemble a car, 4 tires and 2 headlights are needed (among other things). In this
example, imagine that the tires and headlights are reactants while the car is the
product formed from the reaction of 4 tires and 2 headlights. If you have 20 tires and
14 headlights, how many cars can be made? With 20 tires, 5 cars can be produced
because there are 4 tires to a car. With 14 headlights, 7 cars can be built (each car
needs 2 headlights). Although more cars can be made from the headlights available,
only 5 full cars are possible because of the limited number of tires available. In this
case, the headlights are in excess. Because the number of cars formed by 20 tires is
less than number of cars produced by 14 headlights, the tires are the limiting reagent
(they limit the full completion of the reaction, in which all of the reactants are used

up). This scenario is illustrated below:

 4 Tires + 2 Headlights = 1 Car + =

Figure 1: The synthesis

reaction of making a car. Images used from Wikipedia with permission.

The initial condition is that there must be 4 tires to 2 headlights. The reactants must
thus occur in that ratio; otherwise, one will limit the reaction. There are 20 tires and
14 headlights, so there are two ways of looking at this problem. For 20 tires, 10
headlights are required, whereas for 14 headlights, 28 tires are required. Because there
are not enough tires (20 tires is less than the 28 required), tires are the limiting
"reactant."

The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely used up in a reaction, and thus
determines when the reaction stops. From the reaction stoichiometry, the exact
amount of reactant needed to react with another element can be calculated. If the
reactants are not mixed in the correct stoichiometric proportions (as indicated by the
balanced chemical equation), then one of the reactants will be entirely consumed
while another will be left over. The limiting reagent is the one that is totally
consumed; it limits the reaction from continuing because there is none left to react
with the in-excess reactant.

There are two ways to determine the limiting reagent. One method is to find and
compare the mole ratio of the reactants used in the reaction (approach 1). Another
way is to calculate the grams of products produced from the given quantities of
reactants; the reactant that produces the smallest amount of product is the limiting
reagent (approach 2).

How to Find the Limiting Reagent: Approach 1

Find the limiting reagent by looking at the number of moles of each reactant.

1. Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

2. Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use of
molar mass as a conversion factor).
 3. Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the calculated
ratio to the actual ratio.
4. Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of product
produced.
5. If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess of the non-limiting reagent.

How to Find the Limiting Reagent: Approach 2

Find the limiting reagent by calculating and comparing the amount of product
each reactant will produce.

1. Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

2. Convert the given information into moles.
3. Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product
produced.
4. The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent.
5. The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess reagent.
6. To find the amount of remaining excess reactant, subtract the mass of excess
reagent consumed from the total mass of excess reagent given.

Example 11: Photosynthesis

Consider respiration, one of the most common chemical reactions on earth.

C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+energy(1)(1)C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2
O+energy

What mass of carbon dioxide forms in the reaction of 25 grams of glucose

with 40 grams of oxygen?

SOLUTION

When approaching this problem, observe that every 1 mole

of glucose (C6H12O6C6H12O6) requires 6 moles of oxygen to obtain 6 moles
of carbon dioxide and 6 moles of water.

Step 1: Determine the balanced chemical equation for the chemical reaction.

The balanced chemical equation is already given.

Step 2: Convert all given information into moles (most likely, through the use
of molar mass as a conversion factor).

25g×1mol180.06g=0.1388molC6H12O625g×1mol180.06g=0.1388
molC6H12O6
 40g×1mol32g=1.25molO240g×1mol32g=1.25molO2

Step 3: Calculate the mole ratio from the given information. Compare the
calculated ratio to the actual ratio.

a. If all of the 1.25 moles of oxygen were to be used up, there would
need to be 1.25×161.25×16 or 0.208 moles of glucose. There is only
0.1388 moles of glucose available which makes it the limiting reactant.

1.25molO2×1molC6H12O66molO2=0.208molC6H12O61.25molO2×1molC
6H12O66molO2=0.208molC6H12O6

b. If all of the 0.1388 moles of glucose were used up, there would need to be 0.1388
x 6 or 0.8328 moles of oxygen. Because there is an excess of oxygen, the glucose
amount is used to calculate the amount of the products in the reaction.

0.1388molC6H12O6×6molO21molC6H12O6=0.8328molO20.1388molC6H1
2O6×6molO21molC6H12O6=0.8328molO2

If more than 6 moles of O2 are available per mole of C6H12O6, the oxygen
is in excess and glucose is the limiting reactant. If less than 6 moles of
oxygen are available per mole of glucose, oxygen is the limiting
reactant. The ratio is 6 mole oxygen per 1 mole glucose, OR 1 mole
oxygen per 1/6 mole glucose. This means: 6 mol O2 / 1 mol C6H12O6 .

Therefore, the mole ratio is: (0.8328 mol O2)/(0.208 mol C6H12O6)

This gives a 4.004 ratio of O2 to C6H12O6.

Step 4: Use the amount of limiting reactant to calculate the amount of CO 2 or

H2O produced.

For carbon dioxide

produced: 0.1388molesglucose×61=0.8328molescarbondioxide0.13
88molesglucose×61=0.8328molescarbondioxide.

Step 5: If necessary, calculate how much is left in excess.

1.25 mol - 0.8328 mol = 0.4172 moles of oxygen left over

Example 22: Oxidation of Magnesium

Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide possible if 2.40 g MgMg reacts with
10.0 g O2O2
Mg+O2→MgOMg+O2→MgO
SOLUTION
 Step 1: Balance equation

2Mg+O2→2MgO2Mg+O2→2MgO

Step 2 and Step 3: Converting mass to moles and stoichiometry

2.40gMg×1.00molMg24.31gMg×2.00molMgO2.00molMg×40.31g
MgO1.00molMgO=3.98gMgO2.40gMg×1.00molMg24.31gMg×2.0
0molMgO2.00molMg×40.31gMgO1.00molMgO=3.98gMgO

10.0gO2×1molO232.0gO2×2molMgO1molO2×40.31gMgO1molMg
O=25.2gMgO10.0gO2×1molO232.0gO2×2molMgO1molO2×40.31
gMgO1molMgO=25.2gMgO

Step 4: The reactant that produces a smaller amount of product is the limiting
reagent
Mg produces less MgO than does O2 (3.98 g MgO vs. 25.2 g MgO), therefore
Mg is the limiting reagent in this reaction.
Step 5: The reactant that produces a larger amount of product is the excess
reagent
O2 produces more amount of MgO than Mg (25.2g MgO vs. 3.98 MgO),
therefore O2 is the excess reagent in this reaction.
Step 6: Find the amount of remaining excess reactant by subtracting the
mass of the excess reagent consumed from the total mass of excess reagent
given.
Mass of excess reagent calculated using the limiting reagent:
2.40gMg×1.00molMg24.31gMg×1.00molO22.00molMg×32.0gO21.00molO2=1.58
gO22.40gMg×1.00molMg24.31gMg×1.00molO22.00molMg×32.0gO21.00mol
O2=1.58gO2
OR Mass of excess reagent calculated using the mass of the product:
3.98gMgO×1.00molMgO40.31gMgO×1.00molO22.00molMgO×32.0gO21.00mol
O2=1.58gO23.98gMgO×1.00molMgO40.31gMgO×1.00molO22.00molMgO×32.
0gO21.00molO2=1.58gO2
Mass of total excess reagent given – mass of excess reagent consumed in the
reaction

10.0g – 1.58g = 8.42g O2 is in excess.

Example 33: Limiting Reagent

What is the limiting reagent if 76.4 grams of C2H3Br3C2H3Br3 were reacted
with 49.1 grams of O2O2?
4C2H3Br3+11O2→8CO2+6H2O+6Br24C2H3Br3+11O2→8CO2+6H2O+6
Br2

SOLUTION

Using Approach 1:

A. 76.4g×1mole266.72g=0.286molesofC2H3Br376.4g×1mole266.72g=0.
286molesofC2H3Br3

49.1g×1mole32g=1.53molesofO249.1g×1mole32g=1.53molesofO2

B. Assuming that all of the oxygen is used up, 1.53×4111.53×411 or 0.556

moles of C2H3Br3 are required. Because there are only 0.286 moles of
C2H3Br3 available, C2H3Br3 is the limiting reagent.

Using Approach 2:

76.4gC2H3Br3×1molC2H3Br3266.72gC2H3Br3×8molCO24molC2H3Br3×4
4.01gCO21molCO2=25.2gCO276.4gC2H3Br3×1molC2H3Br3266.72gC2H
3Br3×8molCO24molC2H3Br3×44.01gCO21molCO2=25.2gCO2

49.1gO2×1molO232gO2×8molCO211molO2×44.01gCO21molCO2=49.1gCO24
9.1gO2×1molO232gO2×8molCO211molO2×44.01gCO21molCO2=49.1gCO2

Therefore, by either method, C2H3Br3is the limiting reagent.

Example 44: Limiting Reagent

What is the limiting reagent if 78 grams of Na 2O2 were reacted with 29.4
grams of H2O?

SOLUTION

Using Approach 1:

A. 78g×1mol77.96g=1.001molesofNa2O278g×1mol77.96g=1.001moleso
fNa2O2

29.4g×1mol18g=1.633molesofH2O29.4g×1mol18g=1.633molesofH2O

B. Assume that all of the water is consumed, 1.633×221.633×22 or 1.633

moles of Na2O2 are required. Because there are only 1.001 moles of Na 2O2, it is
the limiting reactant.

Using Approach 2:
78gNa2O2×1molNa2O277.96gNa2O2×4molNaOH2molNa2O2×40gNaOH
1molNaOH=80.04gNaOH78gNa2O2×1molNa2O277.96gNa2O2×4molN
aOH2molNa2O2×40gNaOH1molNaOH=80.04gNaOH

Using either approach gives Na2O2 as the limiting reagent.

Example 55: Excess Reagent

How much the excess reagent remains if 24.5 grams of CoO is reacted with
2.58 grams of O2?

4CoO+O2→2Co2O3(2)(2)4CoO+O2→2Co2O3

SOLUTION

A. 24.5g×1mole74.9g=0.327molesofCoO24.5g×1mole74.9g=0.327mole
sofCoO

2.58g×1mole32g=0.0806molesofO22.58g×1mole32g=0.0806molesofO2

B. Assuming that all of the oxygen is used up, 0.0806×410.0806×41 or

0.3225 moles of CoOCoO are required. Because there are 0.327 moles of
CoO, CoO is in excess and thus O2 is the limiting reactant.

C. 0.327mol - 0.3224mol = 0.0046 moles left in excess.

Example 66: Identifying the Limiting Reagent

Will 28.7 grams of SiO2SiO2 react completely with 22.6 grams of H2F2H2F2?
If not, identify the limiting reagent.

SiO2+2H2F2→SiF4+2H2O(3)(3)SiO2+2H2F2→SiF4+2H2O

SOLUTION

A. 28.7g×1mole60.08g=0.478molesofSiO228.7g×1mole60.08g=0.478mo
lesofSiO2

22.6g×1mole39.8g=0.568molesofH2F222.6g×1mole39.8g=0.568molesof
H2F2

B. There must be 1 mole of SiO2 for every 2 moles of H2F2 consumed. Because
the ratio is 0.478 to 0.568, 28.7 grams of SiO2 do not react with the H2F2.
C. Assuming that all of the silicon dioxide is used up, 0.478×210.478×21 or
0.956 moles of H2F2 are required. Because there are only 0.568 moles of
H2F2, it is the limiting reagent.

Limiting Reagents and Percentage Yield

"If one reactant is entirely used up before any of the other reactants,
then that reactant limits the maximum yield of the product."

Problems of this type are done in exactly the same way as the previous
examples, except that a decision is made before the ratio comparison is
done. The decision that is made is "What reactant is there the least of?"
Example Problem #1
Methane, CH4, burns in oxygen to give carbon dioxide and water
according to the following equation:
CH4 + 2 O2 ------> CO2 + 2 H2O

In one experiment, a mixture of 0.250 mol of methane was burned in

1.25 mol of oxygen in a sealed steel vessel. Find the limiting reactant, if
any, and calculate the theoretical yield, (in moles) of water.

Solution:
In any limiting reactant question, the decision can be stated in two
ways. Do it once to get an answer, then do it again the second way to get
a confirmation.

According to the equation: 1 mol CH4 = 2 mol O2

If we use up all the methane then:

1 mol CH4 = 2 mol O2
0.25 mol x x = 0.50 mol of O2 would
be needed.

We have 1.25 mol of O2 on hand. Therefore we have 0.75 mol of O2 in

excess of what we need.
If the oxygen in is excess, then the methane is the limiting reactant.

Confirmation: If we use up all the oxygen then

1 mol CH4 = 2 mol O2

x 1.25 mol x = 0.625 mol of methane.

We don't have 0.625 moles of methane. We have only 0.25

moles. Therefore the methane will be used up before all the oxygen
is. Again the methane is the limiting reactant.

We now use the limiting reactant to make the mole comparison across
the bridge to find the amount of water produced.

1 mol CH4 = 2 H2O

0.25 mol x x = 0.50 mol of H2O would be
produced.

Finish off with a statement: When 0.25 mole of methane and 1.25 mole
of oxygen are mixed and reacted according to the equation, the methane
is the limiting reactant and the maximum yield of water will be 0.50
moles.
Example Problem #2
Chloroform, CHCl3, reacts with chlorine, Cl2, to form carbon
tetrachloride, CCl4, and hydrogen chloride, HCl. In an experiment 25
grams of chloroform and 25 grams of chlorine were mixed. Which is the
limiting reactant? What is the maximum yield of CCl4 in moles and in
grams?

Solution:
Start with the equation: CHCl3 + Cl2 -------> CCl4 + HCl
Did you check to see if it was balanced?

Calculate the molecular masses of the species needed in the problem.

CHCl3 = 1 C = 1(12.01) = 12.01 Cl2 = 2 (35.45) = 70.90
g/mol
1 H = 1(1.01) = 1.01 H2O = 2 H =
2 (1.01) = 2.02
3 Cl = 3(35.45) = 106.35 1 O = 1 (16.00)
= 16.00
119.37
g/mol 18.02 g/mol

Then calculate the moles of each of the reactants to be used.

moles of CHCl3 = g = 25.00 g = 0.21 moles of CHCl3 are present.
mm 119.37 g/mol

moles of Cl2 = g = 25.00 g = 0.35 moles of chlorine are present.

mm 70.90 g/mol

Decision time. Which of the two reactants do you have the least of?
From the balanced equation you can see that the chloroform and
chlorine reactant in a one to one ratio. If we use all the chloroform then
we get the following equation.

1 CHCl3 = 1 Cl2
0.21 mol x x = 0.21 moles of chlorine are
needed.

We need 0.21 moles of chlorine. We have 0.35 moles of

chlorine. Therefore chlorine is in excess. The chloroform must be the
limiting reactant.

Confirmation: IF we use all the chlorine then:

1 CHCl3 = 1 Cl2
x 0.35 mol x = 0.35 moles of chloroform
are needed.

If we use all the chlorine then we need 0.35 moles of chloroform. We

have only 0.21 moles of chloroform. It is the reactant that we will run
out of first. Therefore it is the limiting reactant.

Use the limiting reactant to cross the ratio bridge and find the number of
moles of water made.

1 CHCl3 = 2 H2O
0.21 mol x x = 0.42 moles of H2O will be
made.

Calculate the grams of water produced. grams = moles * molecular

mass
= 0.42 mol * 18.02 g/mol
= 7.57 grams of water

Finish off with a statement: When 25 grams of each reactant are mixed
according to the equation, the chloroform is the limiting reagent and the
maximum yield of water will be 0.42 moles or 7.57 grams.

Example Problem #3
Aluminum chloride, AlCl3, can be made by the reaction of aluminum
with chlorine according to the following equation:
2 Al + 3 Cl2 ------> 2 AlCl3

What is the limiting reactant if 20.0 grams of Al and 30.0 grams of

Cl2 are used, and how much AlCl3 can theoretically form?

Have you checked to make sure the equation is balanced correctly?

Find the molecular masses of all species involved.

Al = 26.98 g/mol Cl2 = 70.90 g/mol AlCl3 = 133.33 g/mol

Convert the grams into moles.

moles of Al = g/mm = 20.00 g/26.98 g/mol = 0.74 moles of aluminum on
hand.

moles of Cl2 = g/mm = 30.00 g/70.90 g/mol = 0.42 moles of chlorine on

hand.

Decision time: Which is the limiting reagent?

IF we use all aluminum then:

2 Al = 3 Cl2
0.74 mol x x = 1.11 moles of chlorine are
needed.
We don't have 1.11 moles of chlorine. We have 0.42 moles of chlorine.
Therefore we will run out of chlorine first. It is the limiting reactant.

Confirmation:
If we use all the chlorine then:

2 Al = 3 Cl2
x 0.42 mol x = 0.28 moles of aluminum
are needed.

We have 0.74 moles of aluminum, therefore it is in excess. If it is in

excess then the chlorine is the limiting reactant.

Use the limiting reactant to cross the ratio bridge and find the moles of
AlCl3 that will be produced.
3 Cl2 = 2 AlCl3
0.42 mol x x = 0.28 moles of
AlCl3 are produced

Grams of aluminum chloride are found with g = n * mm = 0.28 mol *

133.33 g/mol = 37.33 g

Finishing statement: When 20.0 grams of aluminum and 30.0 grams of

chlorine are reacted according to the above equation, the chlorine is the
limiting reactant and the maximum yield of aluminum chloride is 0.28
moles or 37.33 grams.

Limiting Reagents and Percentage Yield Worksheet

1. Consider the reaction
I2O5(g) + 5 CO(g) -------> 5 CO2(g) + I2(g)
a) 80.0 grams of iodine(V) oxide, I2O5, reacts with 28.0 grams of
 carbon monoxide, CO.
Determine the mass of iodine I2, which could be produced?
b) If, in the above situation, only 0.160 moles, of iodine, I2 was
produced.
i) what mass of iodine was produced?
ii) what percentage yield of iodine was produced.
Zinc and sulphur react to form zinc sulphide according to the
2.
equation.
Zn + S ---------> ZnS
If 25.0 g of zinc and 30.0 g of sulphur are mixed,
a) Which chemical is the limiting reactant?
b) How many grams of ZnS will be formed?
c) How many grams of the excess reactant will remain after the
reaction is over?
3. Which element is in excess when 3.00 grams of Mg is ignited in 2.20
grams of pure oxygen?
What mass is in excess? What mass of MgO is formed?
How many grams of Al2S3 are formed when 5.00 grams of Al is
4.
heated with 10.0 grams S?
5. When MoO3 and Zn are heated together they react
3 Zn(s) + 2 MoO3(s) ----------> Mo2O3(s) + 3 ZnO(s)
What mass of ZnO is formed when 20.0 grams of MoO3 is reacted
with 10.0 grams of Zn?
6. Silver nitrate, AgNO3, reacts with ferric chloride, FeCl3, to give
silver chloride, AgCl, and ferric nitrate, Fe(NO 3)3. In a particular
experiment, it was plannned to mix a solution containing 25.0 g of
AgNO3 with another solution containing 45.0 grams of FeCl3.
a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction.
b) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?
c) What is the maximum number of moles of AgCl that could be
obtained from this mixture?
d) What is the maximum number of grams of AgCl that could be
obtained?
e) How many grams of the reactant in excess will remain after the
reaction is over?
Solid calcium carbonate, CaCO3, is able to remove sulphur dioxide
7.
from waste gases by the reaction:
CaCO3 + SO2 + other reactants ------> CaSO3 +
other products
In a particular experiment, 255 g of CaCO3 was exposed to 135 g of
SO2 in the presence of an excess amount of the other chemicals
required for the reaction.
a) What is the theoretical yield of CaSO3?
b) If only 198 g of CaSO3 was isolated from the products, what was
the precentage yield of CaSO3 in this experiment?
8. A research supervisor told a chemist to make 100 g of
chlorobenzene from the reaction of benzene with chlorine and to
expect a yield no higher that 65%. What is the minimum quantity
of benzene that can give 100 g of chlorobenzene if the yield is
65%? The equation for the reaction is:
C6H6 + Cl2 -----------> C6H5Cl + HCl
benzene chlorobenzene
9. Certain salts of benzoic acid have been used as food additives for
decades. The potassium salt of benzoic acid, potassium benzoate,
can be made by the action of potassium permanganate on toluene.
C7H8 + 2 KMnO4 -------> KC7H5O2 + 2
MnO2 + KOH + H2O
toluene potassium
benzoate
If the yield of potassium benzoate cannot realistically be expected
to be more than 68%, what is the minimum number of grams of
toluene needed to achieve this yield while producing 10.0 g of
KC7H5O2?
Aluminum dissolves in an aqueous solution of NaOH according to
10.
the following reaction:
2 NaOH + 2 Al + 2 H2O -----> 2 NaAlO2 + 3 H2
If 84.1 g of NaOH and 51.0 g of Al react:
i) Which is the limiting reagent?
ii) How much of the other reagent remains?
iii) What mass of hydrogen is produced?
11. Dimethylhydrazine, (CH3)2NNH2, was used as a fuel for the Apollo
Lunar Descent Module, with N2O4 being used as the oxidant. The
products of the reaction are H2O, N2, and CO2.
i) Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion reaction.
ii) If 150 kg of (CH3)2NNH2 react with 460 kg of N2O4, what is the
theoretical yield of N2?
iii) If a 30 kg yield of N2 gas represents a 68% yield, what mass of
N2O4 would have been used up in the reaction?
12. Magnesium metal reacts quantitatively with oxygen to give
magnesium oxide, MgO. If 5.00 g of Mg and 5.00 g of O2 are
allowed to react, what weight of MgO is formed, and what weight
of which reactant is left in excess?
13. Adipic acid, C6H10O4, is a raw material for the making of nylon and
it can be prepared in the laboratory by the following reaction
between cyclohexene, C6H10, and sodium dichromate, Na2Cr2O7 in
sulphuric acid.
3 C6H10(l) + 4 Na2Cr2O7(aq) + 16 H2SO4(aq) --------->
3 C6H10O4(aq) + 4 Cr2(SO4)3(aq) + 4
Na2SO4(aq) + 16 H2O
There are side reactions. These plus losses of product during its
purification reduce the overall yield. A typical yield of purified
adipic acid is 68.6%.
(a) To prepare 12.5 grams of adipic acid in 68.6% yield requires
how many grams of cyclohexene?
(b) The only available supply of sodium dichromate is its dihydrate,
Na2Cr2O7.2H2O. (Since the reaction occurs in an aqueous medium,
the water in the dihydrate causes no problems, but it does
contribute to the mass of what is taken of this reactant). How many
grams of this dihydrate are also required in the preparation of 12.5
grams of adipic acid in a yield of 68.6%?