Call Toll Free: 888.426.

2151

PRODUCTS  RENTAL  NEWS  LEARNING CENTER  FIELD STATION COMPANY  Search Learning Center... 

Section Overview
Solar Radiation & Photosynthetically Active Table of Contents
↑
1. What is Solar Radiation?
Radiation Parameters
Radiation Units
Sediment Transport and Deposition
Electromagnetic spectrum   Algae, Phytoplankton and Chlorophyll
2. Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet Radiation and Phytoplankton
What is Solar Radiation? Chromophoric Dissolved Organic Matter
Conductivity, Salinity & Total Dissolved
3. Infrared light Solar radiation is radiant (electromagnetic) energy from the sun. It provides light and heat for
Solids
4. What is Photosynthetically Active the Earth and energy for photosynthesis. This radiant energy is necessary for the metabolism
Dissolved Oxygen
Radiation? of the environment and its inhabitants 1. The three relevant bands, or ranges, along the solar
radiation spectrum are ultraviolet, visible (PAR), and infrared. Of the light that reaches Earth’s pH of Water
5. Why is Solar Radiation Important?
surface, infrared radiation makes up 49.4% of while visible light provides 42.3% 9. Ultraviolet Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids & Water
6. Solar Irradiance radiation makes up just over 8% of the total solar radiation. Each of these bands has a Clarity
What in uences Solar Irradiance? di erent impact on the environment.
Water Temperature
7. Heat, Temperature and Solar Radiation The amount and Solar Radiation & Photosynthetically Active
Air Temperature intensity of solar Radiation
Water Temperature radiation that a location Measurements
or body of water
8. What is Photosynthesis? Measuring Stream ow
receives depends on a
Photosynthesis and Temperature variety of factors. These Measuring CDOM
Photosynthesis and Turbidity factors include latitude, Measuring Dissolved Oxygen
Why Can’t UV and Infrared Radiation be season, time of day,
Measuring Turbidity, TSS, and Water
Used for Photosynthesis? cloud cover and altitude.
Clarity
Not all radiation emitted
9. Typical Levels Monitoring Equipment
from the sun reaches
Daily Fluctuations Earth’s surface. Much of Buoy Mooring
Monthly Fluctuations it is absorbed, re ected Scour Monitoring Equipment
The Hole in the Ozone Layer or scattered in the
Data Logger
atmosphere. At the
10. Consequences of Unusual Levels Most of the solar radiation that reaches Earth is made up of visible and Online Datacenter
surface, solar energy
11. How Much Light? infrared light. Only a small amount of ultraviolet radiation reaches the
can be absorbed directly Telemetry
surface.
... Reaches Earth's Surface? from the sun, called
Monitoring Applications
... Breaks Surface of Water direct radiation, or from
light that has been scattered as it enters the atmosphere, called indirect radiation 1. Monitoring Turbidity at Dredging Sites
How Deep does Sunlight Reach in the
Monitoring Dissolved Oxygen at
Ocean   Hydropower Facilities
How Deep does Sunlight Reach in
Freshwater
How is Solar Radiation Measured? Monitoring Scour at Bridges and O shore
Structures
Light Transmission Through Ice and Solar radiation is measured in
Temperature Pro ling in Lakes
Snow wavelengths or frequency. As light
travels in a wave, a wavelength is Inland Lake Monitoring
12. Fish and Light
de ned as the distance from peak Stream and River Monitoring
13. Cite This Work
to peak and is measured in Flood Warning Systems
14. Additional Information nanometers (nm). Frequency is
de ned as wavelength cycles per References
second and is expressed in hertz
(Hz). Bands with shorter
wavelengths produce higher
frequencies. Likewise, the longer
the wavelength, the longer it will
take to complete a cycle, which
produces a lower frequency 1.

The energy of the wavelength

increases with the frequency and
decreases with the size of the
wavelength 16. In other words,
shorter wavelengths are more
energetic than longer ones. This
means that ultraviolet radiation is
more energetic than infrared
radiation. Due to this extra energy, Wavelengths cycles are measured in nanometers (nm) from peak
shorter wavelengths tend to cause to peak. The shorter the wavelength, the more energy it has. Blue
more harm than longer light has more energy than red light.
wavelengths 16. The more energy a
wavelength has, the easier it is to
disrupt the molecule that absorbs it. Ultraviolet light (which has the highest energy) can cause
damage to DNA and other important cellular structures 16.

What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?

The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all types of radiation 5. The part of the spectrum
that reaches Earth from the sun is between 100 nm and 1 mm. This band is broken into three
ranges: ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation. Ultraviolet contains wavelengths between
100-400 nm. Visible light falls within the range of 400-700 nm, and infrared light contains
wavelengths from 700 nm to over 1 mm 1. In the visible light spectrum, the colors are
determined by the length. Longer wavelengths appear red while shorter wavelengths are
blue/violet as they range closer to the ultraviolet spectrum 5.

Sunlight, or the solar radiation spectrum, includes bands between 100 nm and 1 mm, which encompasses
ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation.

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet radiation can be
separated into three wavelength
ranges: UV-A, UV-B and UV-C. All
wavelengths of ultraviolet light can
directly a ect the DNA of water
inhabitants as well as generate
harmful photochemicals 1. The
shorter the wavelength, the more
damage it is capable of causing.

UV-C includes wavelengths between

100 and 280 nm. This radiation
range only makes up 0.5% of all
solar radiation, but it can cause the
most damage to organisms.
However, most of this short-wave Nearly all of UV-C, half of UV-B and some of UV-C radiation is
radiation is absorbed by absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere before it can reach the
stratospheric gases (ozone), and surface.
very little reaches the surface 9.

UV-B (280-320 nm) is an energetic,

photoactivating band of radiation that
is only partially absorbed in the
stratosphere 1. This radiation band is
known for causing skin cancer in
humans, and can impair
photosynthesis in many plants 16. The
depth that UV-B penetrates water is
dependent on turbidity and water
chemistry. UV-B will reach greater
depths in saline water than in
freshwater and can reach as deep as
20m below the surface of the ocean
1,9
.

UV-A (320-400 nm) has less energy

UV-B radiation can reach greater depths in saline waters than than UV-B, and is not absorbed by
in fresher water (Image courtesy Vasilkov et al., JGR-Oceans, ozone in the atmosphere. However, it
2001 via NASA). can be blocked from the surface by
cloud cover 9. UV-A is also called
blacklight, and is known for its ability
to cause uorescence in some materials 37. While it is absorbed less readily by water, it can
penetrate deeper than UV-B or UV-C 1. UV-A is responsible for sunburns in humans. It is also
more inhibiting than UV-B in regards to photosynthesis 1. Studies have shown that UV-A can
signi cantly decrease photosynthesis by more than 70% 6. This is because UV-A decreases the
e ciency of electron transport which in turn decreases photosynthetic production.

Ultraviolet Radiation and Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton are microscopic organisms that reside in water and use photosynthesis to
convert sunlight to energy 16. These organisms use carbon dioxide and produce oxygen as a
photosynthesis byproduct just as plants do 17. Ultraviolet light can stunt this process in
phytoplankton. UV-A and UV-B radiation inhibit photosynthetic production, thus reducing
carbon dioxide intake and oxygen output. Under natural sun-lit conditions, UV-A and UV-B can
diminish photosynthesis by over 8% 41.

Phytoplankton require light for photosynthesis, but UV radiation can reduce their production. Collage adapted
from drawings and micrographs by Sally Bensusen, NASA EOS Project Science O ce.

This e ect can be detrimental to more than just phytoplankton. These one-celled plants are
responsible for much of the carbon transfer that occurs between the atmosphere and the
ocean, a process known as the “biological carbon pump” 17. Much of the ocean life below the
surface depends on phytoplankton, consuming them directly or indirectly 17. Phytoplankton
also contribute to “marine snow” – the dead, organic material that falls to the ocean oor as
fuel for deep sea organisms. When ultraviolet radiation reduces photosynthetic production of
phytoplankton, it negatively a ects the world carbon cycle and the marine food chain 16.

Infrared Light
Infrared light is on the opposite side of the
spectrum from ultraviolet light. This radiation
has a wavelength of >700 nm and provides
49.4% of solar energy 9. Infrared radiation is
readily absorbed by water and carbon
dioxide molecules and converted to heat
energy 10. The longer wavelengths cause heat
by exciting electrons in the substances that
absorb them. Thus infrared radiation is
responsible for warming Earth’s surface.
Infrared light is re ected more than UV or
visible light due to its longer wavelengths 10.
This re ection allows infrared radiation to
transfer heat between the surface, water and
the air.

In a body of water, infrared light can only Infrared radiation is responsible for warming Earth’s
surface and atmosphere.
reach a certain distance below the surface.
90% of infrared radiation is absorbed in the
rst meter of the water’s surface, and only
1% can reach past two meters in pure water 1. This is why the surface of most bodies of water
are warmer than the depths.

What is Photosynthetically Active Radiation?

Photosynthetically Active Radiation (PAR) is the light wavelength range that is best t for
photosynthesis to occur. Photosynthesis is a process that requires light energy and optimally
occurs in the 400 to 700 nanometer (nm) range 1. This range is also known as visible light.

Photosynthetically active radiation is the range of visible light that plants can use for photosynthesis.

Visible light encompasses the electromagnetic spectrum from visible blue/violet to red. Blue
light has a higher energy and shorter wavelength than green or red light. Red light has the
lowest energy in the visible spectrum 12. As visible light reaches Earth, a surface will absorb or
re ect di erent wavelengths, producing a visible color. The wavelength re ected by a surface
is the color that it appears to be 12. If the surface re ects all of the visible wavelengths, it will
appear white 12.

Most plants appear green as the chlorophyll in their cells re ects green light 8. Water often
appears blue as this color travels the deepest before being absorbed 1. While on land, plants
use nearly all of the visible range for photosynthesis. However, even underwater when only
blue light is available, photosynthesis can still occur.

Why are Solar and Photosynthetically Active Radiation

Important?
Solar radiation provides heat, light, and energy necessary for all living organisms. Infrared
radiation supplies heat to all habitats, on land and in the water 24. Without solar radiation,
Earth’s surface would be about 32°C colder 25.

Light is also provided by solar

radiation. Predators would not be
able to e ciently hunt prey without
light from the sun and prey would
not be able to take advantage of
dark areas if predators were
adapted to dark habitats 1. Human
eyes are adapted to the visible
spectrum, though some other
species can see ultraviolet light in
addition to colors 26.

In particular, the level of

photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR) that an area receives is
important. This is because di erent
plants respond to di erent Solar radiation provides the necessary heat and light for life on
Earth. Photosynthetically active radiation is the band that
wavelengths of PAR 1. Most plants
provides energy for photosynthesis.
re ect green wavelengths while
absorbing the rest of the visible light
spectrum. In addition, shade plants respond to lower levels of PAR while sun plants harvest
PAR more e ciently at higher light levels 7. In other words, as solar irradiance (intensity)
increases, sun plants experience higher rates of photosynthesis. The leaves of sun plants are
small and thick, with special cells allowing for these higher rates 20. Shade plants conduct
photosynthesis at a lower radiation intensity level. Their leaves are thinner, longer and contain
fewer chlorophyll cells. This makes it easier for photosynthesis to occur in low light conditions
20
.

Although the main bene t of photosynthesis is energy for the plant, it has other important
results. Oxygen is a byproduct of photosynthesis 1. The process ensures that more oxygen is
produced than is used up by organisms in the surrounding environment. If photosynthesis
does not produce enough dissolved oxygen underwater, it can create anoxic conditions where
sh and other organisms cannot live 1. Photosynthesis also consumes carbon dioxide, thus
lowering carbon dioxide levels in air and water 1.

Solar Irradiance
Solar irradiance is the intensity with
which radiation enters Earth’s
atmosphere. An relatable way to
think about solar irradiance is by
looking at the di erence between a
20-watt light bulb and a 100-watt
light bulb. Both produce visible light
in the same wavelengths, but the
brightness and intensity are very
di erent. The 100-watt bulb has a
higher intensity, or irradiance. Solar
irradiance is the amount of radiant
ux on an area, and is measured in Annual surface solar irradiance received in 2008. The equator
receives solar radiation at a higher intensity (irradiance) than
watts per meter squared (W/m²) 9.
the norther and southern hemispheres. Data compiled by P.
Wang, P. Stammes, R. van der A, G. Pinardi, M. van Roozendael
(2008), FRESCO+

What In uences Solar Irradiance?

The solar irradiance received by a particular location or body of water depends on the
elevation above sea level, the angle of the sun (due to latitude, season and time of day) and
scattering elements such as clouds 9. The higher the elevation, the shorter the path from the
atmosphere. This can mean a higher irradiance, though not warmer temperatures. This
intense radiation contributes to the arid climates, and the thinner air means more UV radiation
reaches the surface at these altitudes.

The lower the angle of the sun, the larger amount

of ozone the light has to pass through 9. This is also
factor in ultraviolet irradiance. Ozone absorbs UV
light and can reduce radiation intensity.

The angle of the sun is dependent on latitude, time

of year, and time of day. The distance that
radiation has to travel will be at its lowest when the
sun is directly overhead. This is why the annual net
solar irradiance is greater over the equator than
over the northern and southern latitudes. Solar
irradiance will decrease as a hemisphere is tilted
away from the sun.

During the day, the sun’s angle to any given The angle of the sun determines solar
location will decrease from sunrise until noon, and irradiance. The greater the angle, the lower
then increase until sunset. At greater angles the solar intensity.
(morning and evening) solar radiation has to pass
through more of the atmosphere, which reduces its
irradiance. This is why sunlight feels less intense in the evening than at noon.

Cloud coverage and air pollution can also reduce the amount of radiation that reaches Earth’s
surface. Clouds and aerosols in the atmosphere can scatter and absorb all radiation bands 9.
As cloud cover increases, the angle of the sun becomes less important when measuring
irradiance. This is due to the increase of radiation di usion (scattering) 10. Increased cloud
cover decreases irradiance, causing sunlight to feel less intense. On these days solar radiation
still reaches Earth’s surface, simply with a lower irradiance. Under these conditions, humans
can become sunburned without realizing the e ects until it is too late.

Heat, Temperature and Solar Radiation

Sunlight is responsible for warming the Earth, oceans and atmosphere through infrared
radiation. Both water and land re ect back some of that radiation to warm the atmosphere or
other objects in contact with the surface. The darker the object or surface, the faster it will
absorb light and heat 31.

Air Temperature
Air temperature is indirectly dependent on solar radiation. While air itself does not absorb
infrared radiation, it receives heat from Earth’s surface. This e ect occurs through heat
transfer by conduction and convection 31.

Infrared radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface warms the surrounding air.

Earth absorbs infrared radiation and converts it to thermal energy. As the surface absorbs heat
from the sun, it becomes warmer than the surrounding atmosphere. The heat is then
transferred by conduction (contact) from the warmer Earth to the cooler atmosphere 24. Air
itself is a poor conductor of heat, so convection, or the rise and fall of warm and cool air,
warms the rest of the atmosphere not in contact with the surface 31. The rising warm air is
often referred to as a thermal. As the warmed air rises, cooler air sinks to the surface, where it
continues in the convection process.

Earth’s surface also re ects some infrared radiation back into the air. This re ected radiation
can be trapped and absorbed by gases in the atmosphere, or re-radiated back to the Earth 25.
This process is called the greenhouse e ect. Without the greenhouse e ect, the Earth’s
average surface temperature would be about-18°C instead of the current +18°C 25.

Water Temperature
Infrared light from the sun is
absorbed by bodies of water and
converted to heat energy. This low
energy radiation excites electrons
and warms the top layer of water.
Nearly all infrared radiation is
absorbed within one meter of the
surface 1. This heat is then
transferred to greater depths
through movement from wind and
convection 1. While heat is slowly
transferred throughout the water
column, it often does not reach all
the way to the bottom. This is due
to water column strati cation.

In the ocean and many lakes, water 90% of infrared radiation is absorbed in the rst meter of the
water’s surface. Heat is then transferred throughout the water
can stratify, or form distinct layers
by wind and convection.
of water. These layers are
distinguished by their temperatures,
densities and often di erent concentrations of dissolved substances (such as salt or oxygen).
The di erent water strata are separated by steep temperature gradients known as
thermoclines 1. Even with convection and wind, it is di cult for most of the sun’s heat to cross
these barriers. Instead, the lowest strata of water will remain near 4°C, while the surface water
temperature will uctuate both diurnally (daily) and seasonally 1.

What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other organisms, also known as
photoautotrophs, use energy from sunlight to produce glucose. This process can occur both
on land and underwater 18.

Glucose is a kind of sugar that is later converted into Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) via cellular
respiration 3. ATP is an energy-bearing molecule that is used in the metabolic reactions of living
organisms. This molecule is a necessity in almost all organisms 4. Photoautotrophs use
sunlight, six carbon dioxide molecules, and twelve water molecules to produce one molecule
of glucose, six oxygen molecules, and six water molecules. This reaction reduces carbon
dioxide levels in the air or water while producing glucose for ATP.

Photosynthesis can occur underwater as long as enough light is available. In the ocean,
signi cant amounts of photosynthetically active radiation can be detected as deep as 200 m
below the surface 29. Within this euphotic zone (sunlight zone), photosynthesis can occur. This
process only requires light, carbon dioxide, and water 18. As long as a photosynthesizing
organism, on land or underwater, has enough of these molecules, it can produce glucose and
oxygen.

Photosynthesis and Temperature

Photosynthesis is a series of
chemical reactions that occur with
the help of enzymes. Enzymes are
catalysts in biological processes and
help speed up chemical reactions 11.
Photosynthesis also requires heat to
activate the process. As heat
increases kinetic energy (causing
reactants to bump into one another
more often), a higher temperature
can speed up chemical reactions in
addition to initiating the process 11.

Although increased temperatures Temperature a ects the photosynthetic rates of di erent algae.
can speed up photosynthesis, too
much heat can be detrimental 11. At
a certain temperature, enzymes become denatured and lose their shapes. Denatured enzymes
no longer speed up chemical reactions and instead slow down photosynthesis. Thus
temperature is an important factor in photosynthetic production, both in activating and
maintaining the process. This is why there are di erent optimal temperatures for
photosynthesis for di erent organisms 1.

How is Underwater Photosynthesis A ected by Turbidity?

Turbidity is a lack of water clarity caused by the presence of suspended particles 1. These
particles absorb sunlight and can cause light to be re ected o the particles in water. The
more particles present in the water, the less photosynthetically active radiation that will be
received by plants and phytoplankton. This loss of sunlight decreases the rate of
photosynthesis. If the photosynthetic production is limited, the dissolved oxygen level in the
water will decrease 13. In addition, turbidity can cause signi cant damage to water habitats by
absorbing infrared radiation and increasing water temperature above normal levels.

Why can’t Photosynthesis use UV or Infrared Light?

Visible light is the only band of
light on the spectrum to be
considered photosynthetically
active. It has the perfect amount
of energy to excite the electrons
needed to start photosynthesis
and not damage DNA or break
bonds.

Ultraviolet can not be used for

photosynthesis because it has
too much energy. This energy
breaks the bonds in molecules
and can destroy DNA and other
important structures in
organisms 8. When plants and
other photoautotrophs attempt Optimal photosynthetically active radiation is the band from 400-700
to use UV-A (320-400 nm) for nm, which encompasses the visible light spectrum.
photosynthesis, electron
transport e ciency is
decreased, which in turn decreases the rate of photosynthesis 6. On the other side of the
spectrum, infrared light does not contain much energy. The insu cient energy does not excite
electrons in molecules enough to be used for photosynthesis. Infrared light is converted to
thermal energy instead 8.

Typical Solar Radiation Levels

Solar radiation levels are dependent on the time of day and on the sun’s angle toward Earth.
This angle will vary by latitude and season. The greater the angle of the sun, the more ozone
that sunlight must pass through to reach the surface 9. In addition to the sun’s angle,
atmospheric conditions can a ect radiation levels. Cloud cover, air pollution and the hole in
the ozone layer all alter the amount of solar radiation that can reach the surface. These factors
all cause typical radiation levels to di er.

Daily Fluctuations
Over most of Earth’s surface, the
solar radiation received is
measured by the solar
irradiance. The irradiance will
increase from sunrise until noon,
and then decrease until sunset
36. Peak solar energy levels

received will vary by latitude and

season 15.

As seen on the graph to the left,

the equator has the steepest
solar radiation curve, giving it
the shortest sunrise and sunset
periods. In addition, the length
of day does not vary greatly
throughout the year. This occurs In the summer, solar radiation (measured by irradiance) will be
because the angle of the sun greatest over the equator and the hemisphere tilted toward the sun.
does not signi cantly uctuate
over the equator.

A hemisphere tilted toward the sun would reach a similar peak radiation level as the equator,
but with more gradual curves, meaning longer sunrises and sunsets. This hemisphere would
also have longer days overall. The opposing hemisphere (tilted away from the sun) would have
shorter sunrises and sunsets, as well as shorter periods of daylight 15.

At the geographic North and South Poles (90° latitude), solar irradiance seems to stay constant
throughout a single day 15. This is because the poles are the Earth’s rotating point. Although
the daily values do not appear to change, the level of solar radiation received at the poles will
slowly shift throughout the year.

Monthly Fluctuations
Solar radiation levels
depend on proximity to
the sun and the sun’s
angle. Thus di erent
areas of the globe have
di erent typical radiation
levels in each season. At
the equator, the typical
solar radiation is fairly
constant year round 15.
There are slight
uctuations but no
drastic spikes or drops.
In the Northern
The further a city is from the equator, the more the solar radiation received
Hemisphere, the will uctuate throughout the year.
radiation increases as
the year progresses until
it peaks around June or July. The radiation levels then slowly decrease throughout the rest of
the year 14. In the Southern Hemisphere, the radiation levels are opposite. At the beginning of
the year, levels are high and then slowly drop to their lowest point around June. After June,
they begin to rise again for the rest of the year 14.

The Hole in the Ozone Layer

Ozone is a molecular gas composed
of three oxygen atoms (O3). This gas
helps protect Earth because it
absorbs most of the sun’s ultraviolet
radiation. The majority of UV-C, most
of UV-B and about half of UV-A are
absorbed by oxygen and ozone in the
ozone layer. This layer is primarily
found in the stratosphere, between
10 and 50 km above Earth’s surface.

The “hole in the ozone layer” is found

in the atmosphere over the Antarctic. The hole in the ozone layer is a patch of atmosphere with
This area is not completely void of signi cantly less ozone than the rest of the stratosphere
ozone, but is instead a patch of (Image courtesy NASA GSFC Scienti c Visualization Studio).
atmosphere that possesses a
signi cantly lower level of ozone than
normal 27. While the cause of gap is sometimes a subject of debate, studies have shown that
ozone is destroyed when it reacts with chlorine, nitrogen, hydrogen, or bromine 27. When
these chemicals enter the atmosphere, they can remove the ozone present. Regardless of its
cause, the hole in the ozone layer allows more UV radiation to reach Earth. If the increase in
UV radiation becomes excessive, it can be harmful to both terrestrial and aqueous habitats 27.

Consequences of Unusual Levels

Unusually high or low levels of
sunlight can cause problems for
both land and water habitats. Too
much ultraviolet light can cause
irreversible damage to DNA and
important photosynthetic
structures, while too much
infrared light can cause
overheating 1. DNA damage is
caused by UV-B radiation. While
most living cells have adapted and
can repair simple damage,
increased exposure to UV
radiation can cause cells to mutate
beyond repair, or to die 16.

On cloudy days, or if a previously UV-B radiation can damage DNA strands.

sunny location becomes shaded,
photosynthetic production can be
halted. Not only does this stop oxygen production, but it increases oxygen consumption
through plant respiration 1. The decrease in infrared light will also cool the shaded surface or
body of water, which in turns cools the surrounding air.

Water
When water is exposed to excessive amounts
of sunlight, the infrared radiation will heat
the water. The warmer a body water is, the
faster the rate of evaporation will be. This can
reduce water levels and water ow. In
addition, warm water can not hold as much
dissolved oxygen as cold water. This means
that in warmer water, less dissolved oxygen
is available for aquatic organisms 21. Too
much infrared light can also cause the
enzymes used in photosynthesis to denature,
which can slow or halt the photosynthetic
Removing shade trees from an urban stream
process 11.
increases the temperature of the water, making it
On the other side of the spectrum, radiation unsuitable for coldwater sh like trout. (Photo credit:
Kristan Cockerill via the Environmental Monitor).
can be limited by cloudy days, shade sources
or low sun angles. If radiation from the sun is
lower than usual for an extended period of
time, photosynthetic production can decrease or be stopped completely. Without sunlight,
phytoplankton and plants will consume oxygen instead of producing it. These conditions can
cause dissolved oxygen levels in the water to plummet, potentially causing a sh kill 20.

Land
As in water, terrestrial radiation levels can be
limited by cloudy weather 20. This is
particularly important to plants, as the
photosynthetic process and plant physiology
in general are dependent on sunlight.

Stomata are pores found on the outer layer

of plant leaves. They open in the presence of
sunlight and allow water, carbon dioxide, and
oxygen to enter the plant 22. These molecules
are then used to produce glucose through
photosynthesis. On cold, sunless days,
stomata close because not enough energy Shade plants like hostas can be damaged by
from the sun is being received to continue excessive heat and sunlight.
photosynthesis 23. Too much intense sunlight
can also halt the production of
photosynthesis, as stomata will close on sunny, hot and dry days to prevent water loss 23.

Sunlight can a ect more than the opening and closing of plant stomata. While some plants
have specialized proteins that protect them from sunburn, others do not, and intense solar
radiation can damage their leaves 32. Plants that are not adapted to full or intense sunlight,
such as hostas or rhododendrons, can develop heat stress. Many plants, including shade
plants, are susceptible to leaf scorch, where parts of the plant die due to excessive water loss
through transpiration 33. In addition to slowing or halting photosynthesis, heat stress and leaf
scorch can make plants more susceptible to disease or insect infestations.

How Much Light?

How much light does the sun
produce? This is a complex question
to answer as there are di erent ways
to consider and measure light. There
is radiance (projected power) and
visible light, which can be measured
as luminance (brightness) or
illuminance (incident light).
Luminance and illuminance apply
only to the wavelengths in the visible
light band37. Sunlight is usually
de ned in radiance units, as only half
of the solar radiation that reaches The amount of radiation received by the Earth varies, and
Earth is visible light, but all of the much of it is re ected back into the atmosphere. This map
radiation provides energy. shows net absorbed solar radiation. (Image courtesy Dennis
Hartmann, University of Washington via NASA).
Radiant energy can be measured in
joules, though it is more commonly
measured as radiant ux, or radiant power, which is expressed as energy over time. The basic
unit of power is the watt (joules/second). The sun emits 384,600,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
watts (3.846 x 1026 W) 38. For comparison, the average incandescent light bulb consumes 40-
100 watts. This energy is projected out from the sun in a sphere, where some will fall on Earth.
The energy that reaches Earth is measured as solar irradiance (energy per second over a
square meter). Given the estimated radiant power of the sun, the intensity of solar energy that
reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere (directly facing the sun) is 1,360 W/m² 39.

The amount of irradiance that reaches the

surface can vary due to Earth’s elliptical
orbit, solar ares and the amount of
atmosphere the radiation must pass
through (due to the sun’s angle to the
surface or cloud cover present).

What does that mean in terms of visible

light? Luminance and illuminance attempt
to de ne the brightness and the light
How much solar energy reaches Earth? Divide the
projected from a given source. A lumen is
power of the sun by the surface area of a sphere (with a
the standard measure of visible
radius equal to the distance between Earth and the
37
“brightness” as seen by the human eye . sun). At any given point on that hypothetical sphere’s
Lumens can only be measured over the surface (Earth being one such point) the irradiance
photosynthetically active radiation band, or recieved is approximately 1,360 W/m².
the range of visible light. One lumen of
light over one square meter is one lux
(lm/m^2), which is the the SI unit for illuminance. In direct sunlight, when the sun is at its
zenith (directly overhead), measured lux could be as high as 130,000 40. On most sunny days
(out of direct light), illuminance is usually 10,000-25,000 lux. On an overcast day, incident light
may only reach 1000 lux, and at twilight it may be 10 lux 40. The greater the angle of the sun,
the lower the lux will be, as the lumens are spread out over a greater area. Illuminance is
important to consider when evaluating photosynthetically active radiation.

How much light actually reaches the Earth’s surface?

The sun’s radiation must make it through
multiple barriers before it reaches Earth’s
surface. The rst barrier is the atmosphere.
About 26% of the sun’s energy is re ected or
scattered back into space by clouds and
particulates in the atmosphere 34. Another
18% of solar energy is absorbed in the
atmosphere. Ozone absorbs ultraviolet
radiation, while carbon dioxide and water
vapor can absorb infrared radiation 34. The
remaining 56% of solar radiation is able to
reach the surface. However, some of this light
is re ected o of snow or other bright ground
surfaces, so only 48% is available to be
absorbed by land or water 36. Of the radiation
that reaches the surface, approximately half is
Only 56% of the solar radiation that reaches the
1
visible light and half is infrared light . These atmosphere makes it through to earths surface.
re ection and absorption percentages can
vary due to cloud cover and sun angle. In
cloudy weather, up to 70% of solar radiation can be absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere
35
.

How much light breaks the surface of the water?

Once the light reaches the surface of the
water, re ection and scattering can occur.
Re ection occurs when solar radiation simply
bounces o the water 1. This re ection is due
to water’s albedo, or re ectivity. The amount
of sunlight re ected depends on the sun’s
angle, wavelength, and weather conditions.
Of the light that reaches the water’s surface,
approximately 5-10% is re ected 1. Longer
wavelengths are re ected slightly more than
shorter wavelengths 10.

Scattering is the de ection of light by 5-10% of the light that reaches the water’s surface is
molecules in the water. Di erent materials, re ected or scattered. Photo credit: “Light and Water”
including dissolved and suspended solids, as by A bloke called Jerm via Flickr

well as organisms in the water, cause light to

scatter in di erent directions 1. The amount
of light that scatters is dependent on the clarity of the water.

How deep does sunlight reach in the ocean?

The ocean is split into three zones based on
light. The rst zone, the euphotic or sunlight
zone, is where sunlight penetrates.
Phytoplankton live in the euphotic zone
because there is enough light for
photosynthesis. This zone extends to about
660 ft below the ocean surface. 2

The next zone is called the dysphotic (twilight)

zone. Some light is able to reach this depth, but
it is not enough for photosynthesis to occur 29.

The last zone starts about 3,300 ft below the

ocean’s surface and is called the aphotic
(midnight) zone. Sunlight cannot reach this
zone, and its only light comes from
bioluminescent organisms 2.

The water column of the ocean can be divided into

zones based on how much light reaches certain
depths.

How deep does sunlight reach in freshwater?

The depth that light penetrates in freshwater is
dependent on water clarity. In waters with a
high level of turbidity, or suspended solids,
light will not reach as far as clear bodies of
water. These suspended particles can both
absorb and scatter light 1. In most rivers and
streams, light will reach the riverbed, and
photosynthesis can occur throughout the
water column. However, in particularly deep,
algae-covered or turbid lakes, light may not be
able to reach certain depths.
Photosynthesis can occur in the littoral and
limnetic zone, as enough light is available for
Like the ocean, deep lakes are split into three
photosynthesis.
zones. The rst zone is called the littoral zone.
This zone is close to the shore and sunlight
reaches all the way to the bottom. Aquatic plants in the littoral zone can grow on the lake bed
and still receive enough light for photosynthesis 19. The next zone is known as the limnetic
zone and is the surface layer of open water. Photosynthesis can occur in this zone as it is
penetrated by light. The depth of the limnetic zone depends on the turbidity of the water. In
more turbid water, the limnetic zone will be shallower 19. Below the limnetic zone is the
profundal zone. This is the benthic (bottom) layer of a deep lake. Sunlight cannot reach this
zone, so photosynthesis will not occur. Instead, organisms that permanently reside in the
profundal zone (such as bacteria) rely on falling organic matter from higher zones 19.

Light Transmission Through Ice and Snow

The amount of light absorbed in a body of
water can be greatly a ected by ice and snow
cover. Clear, colorless ice has the same
percentage of light transmission as liquid
water, which is about 72% 1. However, if the
ice is stained or cloudy, the percentage can
drop dramatically. Opaque ice and heavy
snow can drop the percentage of light
transmission to nearly zero. If a body of
water is covered in ice and snow for a long
period of time, its entire metabolism can be
stunted.
An ice-covered lake may not receive enough light for
Photosynthesis, which requires light, aquatic plants to continue photosynthesis.
produces oxygen as a byproduct and helps
maintain dissolved oxygen levels in a body of
water. Dissolved oxygen is continuously consumed in metabolic reactions by living organisms
in the water, regardless of snow and ice cover. If snow and ice prevent photosynthesis, plant
respiration will contribute to the oxygen depletion instead of restoring dissolved oxygen levels.
When this occurs, oxygen reduction, or anoxia, can result and many organisms can die. This
often occurs in shallow, productive lakes and ponds and is known as a winterkill 1.

Aquatic Organisms and Visible Light

Sunlight can only reach certain
depths in water 29. Beyond 200
m, there is not enough light for
photosynthesis to occur. The
human eye is not sensitive
enough to detect sunlight under
850 m of water 26. Even the most
visually-adapted sh can not see
light from the sun at depths
below 1000 m. However, many of
the organisms that live at or
below this depth still have
functioning eyes. Instead of
relying on sunlight, they use their The depth that light penetrates depends on the quality of the
own bioluminescence for light 26. water. Warm colors are absorbed faster than cool colors(Image
courtesy of Kyle Carothers, NOAA-OE).
Fish that live near the surface
have similar visual abilities to
those of organisms on land. They possess color vision because the visible light spectrum
penetrates the surface of water26. Many sh are also equipped with UV vision, giving them an
opportunity to see animals that are transparent in visible light 26.

Species like shrimp and squid can see the polarization of underwater light in addition
possessing color and UV vision. With this ability, they can e ciently locate prey as the
polarization of light is altered when it bounces o scales 26. Mantis shrimp may also use this
ability for mating, as the male’s paddles change color with a di erent polarized orientation 30.

Cite This Work

Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Solar Radiation and Photosynethically Active Radiation.”
Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. 21 Mar. 2014. Web. <
https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/weather/solar-
radiation/ >.

Additional Information
Measurement Methods

PAR Sensors

Underwater PAR Sensors

Applications

References

Products  |  Rental  |  News  |  Learning Center  |  Field Station  |  Company

© 2023 Fondriest Environmental, Inc. | Questions? Call 888.426.2151 or email customercare@fondriest.com
 Sitemap