COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM DIAGRAM @ Message Transmitted Received Output i/p Message Signal Signal Signal Signal 0/p Message = ee Distorsion & Noise Figure 1: Communication System.COMMUNICATIONS CHANNELS @ — Wireline Twisted Pair e Cable e Waveguide e Fiber Optics Increase Bandwidth — Wireless (radio): Transmission of electromagnetic waves from antenna to antennaCOMMUNICATIONS CHANNELS (contd.) g — Signal attenuation increases with length of the channel. — Reason for distortion: 1 e Physical phenomena: Frequency dependent gain, multipath effects, & Doppler shift — Type of distortion e Linear distortion - Square pulse is rounded or "spread out” during transmission over lowpass channel - It can partly corrected at receiver by an equalizer and phase characteristic com- plementary to those channel e Non-linear distortion - Attenuation varies with signal amplitude - It can also partly corrected by a complementary equalizer at receiver.How TRANSMISSIONS FLOW OVER MEDIA? & e Simplex — only in one direction e Half-Duplex — Travels in either direction, but not both directions at the same time e Full-Duplex — can travel in either direction simultaneouslyTRANSMISSIONS MEDIA: TWISTED PaIR eo Advantages: — Inexpensive — Easy to terminate — Widely used, tested — Supports many network types Shielded twisted pair (STP) e Disadvantages: — Very high electromagnetic interfer- Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)OEE con TRANSMISSIONS MEDIA: COAXIAL CABLE B plastic jacket dielectric insulator metallic shield centre core © Used within a frequency range of about 30 MHz ~ 3 GHz. Low EMI & moderate loss, bandwidth is low, & data rates are only upto a few Mbps Used as LAN cables, TV channel distribution cable, microwave experiments, etc. Available in different types (RG6-Cable TV, RG8-Thick Ethernet.TRANSMISSION MEDIA: MICROWAVE LINK e Long distance BW LLine-of-sight High free-space loss @ It has large bandwidths of about a few hundred Megahertz and can be used for long distance communication. © Only drawback of this system is that communication takes place almost along a straight line because for a directional antenna the radiation is almost along a straight line.FIBEE ey Core of silica, extruded glass or plastic jum ‘Strength ‘Member e Single-mode is 0.06 of a micron in dia- oe meter Multimode = 0.5 microns Cladding e Cladding can be Kevlar, fibreglass or even . steel (Sep t . . _ dacket mua e Outer coating made from fire-proof plastic lee be) e Advantages‘TRANSMISSION MEDIA: WIRELESS B aye “S@iu i =TRANSMISSION MEDIA: WIRELESS (contd.) @ e Radio transmits at 10KHz to iiBAaN Vay e Microwaves transmit at 1GHz to 500GHz e Infrared transmits at 500GHz to 1THz e Radio transmission may include: — Narrow band — High-powered — Frequency hopping spread spectrum (the hop is controlled by ac-NEL 8 e Shannon Theory - It establishes that given a noisy channel with information capacity C and inform- ation transmitted at a rate R, then if R < C, there exists a coding technique which allows the probability of error at the receiver to be made arbitrarily small This means that theoretically, it is possible to transmit information without error up to a limit, C. — The converse is also important. If R > C, the probability of error at the receiver increases without bound as the rate is increased. So no useful information can be prepa ited beyond the canoe apc, The theorem does not address theFREQUENCY SPECTRUM/CHART SATELLITE FREQUENCYFREQUENCY SPECTRUM € e Most precious resource in communications is "Frequency Spectrum” e Spectrum has to be shared by large number of users & applications. o AM Radio, FM Radio, TV, cellular telephony, wireless local-area-networks satellite, air traffic control e It has to be managed for a particular physical medium e The spectrum for “over-the-air” communications is allocated by inter- national communications organizationFREQUENCY SPECTRUM EXAMPLE ‘ A AM Radio 0.54-1.6 MHz TV (Channels 2-6) 54-88 MHz FM Radio 88-108 MHzSIGNAL & SYSTEMS & e Signal: It is a set of information or data. e System: Signals may be processed further by systems, which may modify them or extract additional information from them. - Inputs - OutputsSIZE OF A SIGNAL e Signal Energy — The size of any entity is a quantity that indicates its strength. — Energy E, for a real signal g(t) is — Energy Eg for a complex-valued signal g(t) is » Eg [le()) at 7 V Figure 1: Examples of signals. (a) Signal with finite energy. (b) Signal-with-finite- power.SIZE OF A SIGNAL (contd.) B e Signal Power — Average power P, for a real signal g(t) is _ 1 /sTR 5 Pee jn? | eee 0) — Average power Pz for a complex signal g(t) is, 1 T/2 9 Fe fin [it a ® — Observe that signal power P, is the time average (mean) of the signal amplitude square, that is, the mean square value of g(t). Indeed, square root of Pz is the familiar rms (root mean square) value of g(t) e Units of Signal Energy and Power — Standard units of signal energy and power are the joule and the watt. — Practically, it is describe in logarithmic scales. [10 logyo P]dBw or [30 + 10- logyy P]dBmCLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS @ Continuous time and discrete time signals @ Analog and digital signals @ Periodic and aperiodic signals @ Energy and power signals @ Deterministic and probabilistic signalsCLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 8 Continuous time and discrete time signals 4 e A signal that is specified for every value of time t is a continuous time signal. A signal that is specified only at discrete points of t= nT is a discrete time signal. a(t) a(t) -—T—™ 4 NN » oA : ~ MITT (a) Continuous time signal (6) Discrete time signal Figure 2: Continuous & Discrete time signalCLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS g Analog and digital signals e A signal whose amplitude can take on —|—____ any value in a continuous range is an analog signal. 7 7 e A digital signal is one whose amp- nl Ay litude can take on only finite number 14 co co LW T= of values. Figure 3: Examples of signals. (a) analog & continuous time, (b) digital & continuous time, (c) analog & discrete time, (b) digital & discrete time.CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS Periodic and aperiodic signals eA signal g(t) is said to be periodic if there exists a positive constant To such that ga(t)=e(t+To) forallt (5) e Asignal is aperiodic if it not periodic. Amplitude ‘periodic Analog signal Time » Petiode signal Figure 4: Periodic & aperiodic signalCLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS Energy and power signals e A signal with finite energy is an energy signal. oo 2 [le(t)P dt < 00 e A signal with finite power is a power signal. 0< lim lg(t)/? dt < 00 nate 7/2/8 (6) (7)CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS Energy and power signals e A signal with finite energ ~ ye e A signal, with finite power is a ie signal. 2 70< Jim nal jg(t)|? dt 4CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 8 Deterministic and probabilistic signals ¢ A signal whose physical description is known completely, either in a mathematical form or a graphical form is a deterministic signal. e A signal that is known only in terms of probabilistic description, such as mean value, mean square value, and distributions, rather than its full mathematical or graphical description is a random signal.Siena 2: Stems UNIT IMPULSE SIGNAL y, ® ue [aes R44 4 0) Multiplication of a Function by an Impulse (t)4(t) = 0(0)5(t) (10) @(t)o(t — T) = o( T)6(t— T) The Sampling Property of the Unit Impulse Function f oeoe—1) dt =9(T) [oer dt =0(T) (11) 00COMPONENT OF A VECTOR. e Orthogonal projection: scalar product b g-x=|g || x| cos(0) & se cx x Figure 7: Component (projection) of a vector along another vector e Norm |x Pax +x e Orthogonality g:x=0ORTHOGONAL PROJECTION € e The orthogonal projection of a vector g over a vector x approximates & with its component along x with minimum & g& 6a, nO ax x Ox Xx (a) (b) Figure 8: Approximations of a vector in terms of another vectorDECOMPOSITION OF A SIGNAL AND SIGNAL COMPONENTS eS — How a real function g(t) is to be approximated by another real function x(t). g(t) ex(t) sts (14) — Error e(t) in this approximation is g(t)-ox(t) t {few at] - 7 Pe fete at| + a [ef at| =0 bh (14) (15) (16)DECOMPOSITION OF A SIGNAL AND SIGNAL COMPONENTS ! — How a real function g(t) is to be approximated by another real function x(t). g(t)~ x(t) t -2[ e(e)x(2) at-+2¢,/ x°(¢) dt=0 (16) th t weDECOMPOSITION OF A SIGNAL AND SIGNAL COMPONENTS — How a real function g(t) is to be approximated by another real function x(t) g(t)~ a(t) t p=cos0 = Tele (17) ~ Independent of the length of g and x. — pis known as correlation coefficient. -1 maximum dissimilarity; & =0 = orthogonal. = For signals: To establish a similarity index independent of energies (sizes) of g(t) and x(t), signals need to be considered over the entire time interval from —oo to oo. =e |e e(t)x(t) dt (19)Cross-CORRELATION FUNCTION @ — Let the transmitted and reflected pulses are g(t) and z(t), respectively. — Correlation coefficient p p= vez! 2(t)g"(¢) dt=0 (20) — Zero as pulses are disjoint (non-overlapping in time). — To avoid this difficulty, we compare the received pulse z(t) with the transmitted pulse g(t) shifted by r. — If for some value of r, there is a strong correlation, we not only detect the present of the pulse but we also detect the relative time shift of z(t) with respect to g(t) — We use to modify integral wg2(7). — Cross-correlation function of two complex signals g(t) and z(t), defined by [ ere-7) dt= Jf aeeneo dt (21) 00 00 WeelAUTOCORRELATION FUNCTION & — The correlation of a signal with itself is called autocorrelation. — Autocorrelation functionyg(7) of a real signal g(t) is defined as oo vet) = [~ e(t)e(t+7) at (22) + (@) spe 9 1 :— “en (b) EO) —— a bi T+! [Saat Figure 10: Physical explanation of the autocorrelation function, e Example: Delta. Box. Sinusoid. White noise. etc.CORRELATION VS CONVOLUTION Convolution (zero—state response of LTIS) feorase Laon Correlation (signal similarity) — Correlation °° os g(t)2(-t)=a(t)+w(t)= f ee)m(t—r) dr =f w(r)e(r~t) dr = vee(t)ORTHOGONAL SIGNAL SET — Representing signal as sum of orthogonal set of signals — Approximate a 3-D vector g in terms of two orthogonal vectors xy & x2 BX im + Coxe — Error e in this approximation e=g- (cm +2x2) B= aX + xg +e — Determine the best approximation to g in terms of all three mutually orthogonal vectors x1, x2, & x3. B= AM + Cox. + 3x3, (23) 1X1 + x2 = ig. 27. From Fig. ?? g=antomt+on (24) where the constant cj are Figure 11: Representation of a <6,%> 1 vector in 3-D space a= se <@.xi>, 1=1,2,3 (25) Wx I?ORTHOGONAL SIGNAL SET & Orthogonal signal spaces — Orthogonality of a signal set x1(t), xo(t), ---, x(t) over a time interval [ty, t2] re J sme) dt= {e, Sa (26) — if E, =1, the set is normalized & is called an orthonormal set. = Now, approximating of a signal g(t) over [t1, t2] by set of MV mutually orthogonal signals N B(t) = crxi(t) + e%(t) +--+ ewxu(t)= Yoenra(t) te [tt] (27) n=1 ~ Eg, energy of error signal e(t) in minimized if Jie xm(t)xq(t) dt 1 je Pe = nN dt, n=12-.N (28 Ffediem xp(t) dim? dt En fy role ae, 92, oe nORTHOGONAL SIGNAL SET B Orthogonal signal spaces — Orthogonality of a signal setxa(t), x2(t), w(t) over a time interval [t1, ta] [etooa-{2 rt a ~ if E, =1, the set is normalized & is called an orthonormal set. — Now, approximating of a signal g(t) over (tu, ta] by set of MV mutually orthogonal signals N &(t) = crxa(t) + e2xo(t) +--+ ewan(t) = Yo enxn(t) n=1 ~CEe, enerey of error signal e(t) in minimized if bcs sacle a = B | nltdea lt) a, T=12-,N (28) tyORTHOGONAL SIGNAL SET gS Orthogonal signal spaces (contd.) — The error decreases as the number of basis elements increases — N-term approximation error be defined over t € [t1, ta] by © N en(t) = g(t) — [erxa(t) + e2x2(t) +--+ ewxn(t)] = 8(t) — 30 cnxn(t) (29) n=l If Ee + 0, then the orthogonal set is complete alin, [ lene) P a=0 (30) © Ee goes to zero as N -+c0, the equality Eq. (27) can be loosely written as a(t) =crxi(t) + eaxa(0) +b enna(t) t= x crXe(t) CE [tista] (31) RHS of Eq. (31) is called the generalized Fourier series of g(t)8 EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES (FS) — Earlier that orthogonal signal representation is NOT unique. — Traditional trigonometric Fourier series allows a good representation of all periodic signals. — We provide an orthogonal representation of periodic signals that is equi- valent but has a simpler form. — It is clear that the o set of exponential eof (n = 0,-+1,+2,---) is orthogonal over any interval of duration To = 27/wo 0 mn 32 To m=n (82) imwot ( ,inwot)* = j(m—n)wot oy — ie ot (Ql ty de = fel a= { MMT sic & Syste for Communication Sytem 12! December, 2020 26/2EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES (contd.) gy ~ Asignal g(t) can be cone over an interval of duration To second(s) as an exponential Fourier = ye Seti (33) — n= n=—00 where [see Eq. (28)] Dn= z [alte tre e_~ (34) emtEXAMPLE OF FS Find the exponential Fourier series for the signal in Fig, 22. Solution: In this case Ty = 7, 2rf =27/To = and olt)= ¥5 Dye where, 1 a. f Dn= z/ the?" dt= f ete Pat at To rofl ) T Jo = L [rertrame dt aa en CS t2me ig wJo 3 +j2n) ow ° . Figure 12: A periodic signalFind the exponential Fourier series for the signal in Fig. 22. Solution: In this case Ty = 1, 2nfy =21/To =2 and (= Yo Due — where, 0.504 "(14 j4n) , a Dw Figure 12: A periodic signal GD ani 1 1 j2nt j2t at j6t y(t) = 0.504 Py ae el =0s0alt tg ieee Tiapee 1 i 1 1 i —j2t 4 _ eg i4t ty yx typ*” tiR* ti=*” * ] Dn are complexed. Moreover D, & D_, are conjugates. ? 2