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    Complex Numbers - IB HL Math

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    Setiawan Tanadi

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    Complex numbers and polynomials Syllabus reference: 1.5, Contents: A =monw Real quadratics with A <0 Complex numbers Real polynomials Zeros, roots, and factors Polynomial theorems Graphing real polynomials 174 __ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) (UT eat uaprarcs wr a < 0 In Chapter 1, we determined that: If as? +b +e=0, 40 and a,b,ceR, then the solutions or roots are found using the =ba ve ?—dac is known as the discriminant — P—4ac_ is kx the di it formula 2 where A We also observed that if © A>0 we have two real distinct solutions © A=0 we have two real identical solutions © A<0_ we have no real solutions. However, itis in fact possible to write down two solutions for the ease where A <0, To do this we need imaginary numbers. In 1572, Rafael Bombelli defined the imaginary number i= VT. It is called ‘imaginary’ because we cannot place it on a number line, With { defined, we can write down solutions for quadratic equations with A <0. They are called complex solutions because they include a real and an imaginary part Any number of the form a+ bi where a and 6 are real and i = V=T, is called a complex number. Eon EERSTE (i5tne coctticient of isa square root, we ‘write the & first Solve the quadratic equations: a 27-4 b 2? +242. -4 b 24242 has a=1, b vad tvivT ea 42 In Example 1 above, notice that A <0 in both cases. In each case we have found two complex solutions of the form ai, where @ and ate real Write as a product of linear factors: a atid b +i a +4 bo a+ 2 ai? 2 it = (w+ 2i)(x — 24) = (e+ ivT)(e ~ iv) Solve for P+9= a42r=0 9=0 P+2r=0 2-97 =0 a(2?+2)=0 (© +3i)(@-3i) =0 (2? —2i) =0 r= 43% x(n +iv3)(x—iv2) =0 =0 or Solve for 2: 2 -4r+13=0 atta? =6 2 424138=0 yeaa (w+ ivB(@ — iv8)(x + V(x — VB) =0 rativ3 or tvE EXERCISE 6A Write in terms of & yaar yt vB Write as «product of linear factors wg 247 4a? — 22? +9 og at 16 Solve for: a? —25=0 24+5=0 4x? -9=0 w+d42=0 a'-3r=0 a =81 Solve for: 2? 10r+29=0 4 1dr +50=0 25? 45 = 6r Solve for 2: b 2 = 3 x4 52? = 36 +9? +14 =0 aty1a2? 84207 +1=0 176 _ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) FU Comptex numbers Any number of the form a+ bi where a, 6€R and i= y=T, is called a complex number. Notice that all real numbers are complex numbers in the special case where b = 0. A-complex number of the form bi where 6€R, 6 #0, is called an imaginary number or purely imaginary. THE ‘SUM OF TWO SQUARES’ Notice that a? 40? =a? 67? fas @=—1) = (a +bi)(a—bi) Compare: a? 6? = (a+ 8)(a—b) {the difference of two squares factorisation} a? +6? = (a+bi)(a—bi) {the sum of two squares factorisation} Ifwe write 2=a+bi where a,b¢R, then: ‘© ais the real part of = and we write a = Re(2) ‘+ bis the imaginary part of : and we write _b = Jm (2). Forexample: If 2= 243i, then @e(2)—2 and Jm(z) —3. If 2—-V¥i, then Re(2)—0 and Im(2) ~—V2. OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS Operations with complex numbers are identical to those with radicals, but with @——1 rather than P=2 of (va)*=3. For example: # addition (24 V3) + (44 2V5) = (244) 4 (14 2WF=6 + 3VF Q4+) + GF =24a) 40428 =643i 4 mulipicaion: (24+ V3\(4-+2V3) = 8 + AVI + 4VT-+ 2009) LNW =84 4 AE + 2? So, we can add, subtract, multiply, and divide complex numbers in the same way we perform these operations with radicals (a+ bi) +(c+di) = (att b+ ai addition (a+bi)—(c+di)=(a—c)+(6—d)i__——_ subtraction (a+ bi)(e+ di) = ac-+ adi + bei + bdi? multiplication atbi (arbi) (e~di\ _ ac~adi + bei ~ bai? sta- (4) ¢ i) ere division Notice that in the division process, we use @ multiplication technique to obtain a real number in the denominator COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6)__177 If 2=342i and w=4-i find arty b z-w cw ad arty bo oz-w =@B+2) +(4-1) =(B+2)-(4-) 342-445 =-143i ow a 2-38 8 + 2i)(4— i) S42) (448 = 12-3482 G3) GA) 4si4 8422 16-7 _ tose You can use your calculator to perform operations with complex numbers. ‘After solving the questions in the following exercise by hand, check your . corarnics answers using technology. SPATS INSTRUCTIONS EXERCISE 6B.1 1. Copy and complete = [20 [mO | = [eo [me =344i Ti =n 2 2=5-25 find in simplest form: arty b 2 © iw dew © 2 ~3w {ow sw hz 3 For 2=1+i and w=-2+8%, find in simplest form: art 2w b2 es de eu tw 3 Pw h iw % Simplify i for n=0, 1, 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and also for n= Hence, simplify i+ where n is any integer 5 Write (1-4 )* in simplest form. Hence, find (1 +i)!®% in simplest form. © Suppose = = i and w= +31, Write in exact form a+bi where a, b € Bi: «Zz az? az ’ 178_ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 7 Simplify: a » « 8 224i and w=-142%, a Im(42 —3w) b Re(zw) < Im(iz?) a ae (2) EQUALITY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS ‘Two complex numbers are equal when their real parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. atbimetdi & a=c and b=d Proof: Suppose bd. Nowif a+bi=c+di wherea, b,c, andd are real, then bi—di=e—a ibd) =c~a i= SS {as xd} a ‘This is false as the RHS is real but the LHS is imaginary. ‘Thus, the supposition is false. Hence b= d and furthermore a= c. For the complex number a+ bi, where a and b are real, a+ bi=0 a=0 and b=0. EL Dee Find real numbers @ and y such that: a (e+)2Q-i)=-1 b (e+2)1-)=54yi & @+2)1-)=54yi emit 42=54yi (+2) +(2-a)i=5tyi Equating real and imaginary pars, e4+2=5 and 2—2=y z=3 md 9 y=-1 a (e+ yi\(2-7 rtyi Equating real and imaginary parts, EXERCISE 6B.2 1 Find exact real numbers ¢ and y such that: a 2r+3yi = —2-6i b 2 +ai=4-21 © (@+yiQ-)=84i d (8422+ yi) =i 2 Find exact 2, y€R such that: a Aetyi)=a-yi & (e+ 2y- = 4-71 © (@+I(8—iy) =14 138 @ (et y)Q+i) =22- (y+ Di COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter6) 179 3. The complex number z satisfies the equation 32+ 17i = iz+ 11. Write 2 in the form a+ bi where 0, be R and i= VAT. 4s Express 2 in the form a+bi where abe%, if 2=(—1.47 2i) Tm 5. Find the real values of m and n for which S{m-+ ni) = n— 2mi~ (1 ~ 2%). 6 Expres 2— 22 +1 inthe form a+ Bi where 0, BER ate given exay 7 Suppose (a+ bi)? =-16— 301 where a, be R and a>0, Find the possible values of a and b, Pea 18th century mathematicians enjoyed playing with these new “imaginary” numbers, but they were regarded as litle more than interesting curiosities until the work of Gauss (1777 - 1855), the German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. For centuries mathematicians had attempted to find a method of trisecting aan angle using a compass and straight edge. Gauss put an end to this when he used complex numbers to prove the impossibility of such a construction. By his systematic use of complex numbers, he was able to convince mathematicians of their usefulness. ea ae arly last century, the American engineer Steinmetz used complex numbers to solve electrical problems, illustrating that complex numbers did have a practical application. Complex numbers are now used extensively in electronics, engineering, and physics. COMPLEX CONJUGATES Complex numbers a+ bi and a— bi are called complex conjugates, If z=a+bi we vite its conjugate as 2* = a ~ bi. We saw on page 176 that the complex conjugate is important for division: 252 = 22 which makes the denominator real ‘Quadratics with real coefficients are called real quadratics, This docs not necessarily ‘mean that their zeros are real ‘© If @ quadratic equation has rational coefficients and an irrational root of the form c+ dy, then the conjugate ¢~ dy‘ is also a root of the quadratic equation. © Ifa real quadratic equation has A <0 and c+ di is a complex root, then the ‘complex conjugate ¢~ di is also a root, For example: ¢ 2?—2r+5=0 has A=(~2)?—4(1)(5) = -16 and the solutions are z=1+2i and 12% «af 44n0 has A = 0? ~4(1)(4) = -16 and the solutions are z= 2i and —21 Theorem: If e+ di and c~ di are roots of a quadratic equation, then the quadratic equation is a(x? —2er + (c+ 42)) =0 for some constant a #0. Proof: The sum of the roots = 2e and the product = (c+ di}(e—di) = —2P(2) a 3P(2) b ~2P( =3(e! — 225 +42 +7) 224 — 22° + 42 +7) = 80! — 603 + 122+ 21 2a + 2° — 82-14 POLYNOMIAL MULTIPLICATION ‘To multiply two polynomials, we multiply each term of the first polynomial by each term of the second polynomial, and then collect like terms. If P(z)=29-22+4 and Q(z)=227+8r—5, find P(2}Q(2). (2 — 2x + 4)(20? + 32 — 5) (2x? + 3x — 5) — 22(22? + Br — 5) + 4(22” + 32 —5) 2° + Bat — 529 — 42° — 62? + 102 + 82? + 122 — 20 a + Ba" — 925 + 2a? + 22x — 20 P(z}Q(z) SYNTHETIC MULTIPLICATION (OPTIONAL) Polynomial multiplication can be performed using the coetficients only. We call this synthetic ‘multiplication, For example, for (2° + 2r~5)(2x+3) we detach coefficients and multiply. It is different from the ordinary multiplication of large numbers because we sometimes have negative coeflicients, and because wwe do not carry tens into the next column, 1 0 2 8 —— coefficients of 2° 422 —5 X28 ~— coefficients of 22 +3 30 6 15 200 4-10 So (28 +20 ~5)(2r +3) = dat +30" + de? — ar — 15, constants EXERCISE 6€.1 1 if P(e)=22 +2243 and QI 2 3P(2) & P@) 2 it fle)s2®—242 and g(s) a f(z) +9(x) @ o(z) + 2f(e) 3. Expand and simplify a (2? —2e +8)(2r+1) d (Qx?-2 +3)? 4 Find the following products: 2 (2s? —32-+5)(Br —1) © (22? +32 +2)(5—2) © (832 +2)(22? + 4z—1) § (2-243) i @r+5y DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS (COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 185 (2) = 4a? + 5x +6, find in simplest form: +Qz) © Plz) -2Q(2) dd P(2)Q(z) = 25 — 3245, find in simplest form: © olz)— fe) © 2f(x) + 39(x) © fle)ale) # (f@P b (e-1)%(e+32-2) «(w+ 28 © (-1t £ (8x—2)%(22+1)(2-4) b (dx? 2 42)(22 +5) d(x ~2)°(2r +1) f (2? — 2 +2)(60? + 22-3) bh (42-4? | G@+a?-2) ‘The division of polynomials is only useful if we divide a polynomial of degree n by another of degree or less. DIVISION BY LINEARS Consider (22 + 8244)( 42) +7. If we expand this expression we obtain (22? +80 + 4)(e+2) +7 = 209 +72? + 10x + 15, Dividing both sides by (7 +2), we obtain 208 + Ted + 102 +15 ere (et +3 = Oe 45 e+ set 247 eH? ies Ae z zee me =? +e 4+— 2, where 242. is the divisor, ma 20? + 3x +4 is the quotient, and 7 is the remainder, If P(x) is divided by ax+ until a constant remainder R is obtained, then Pa) _ anes R Wt ax +b isthe divisor, D(x), Q(z) is the quotient, and Ris the remainder. Z where Notice that P(x) = Q(x) x (az +b) +R. 186 _ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) DIVISION ALGORITHM We can divide a polynomial by another polynomial using an algorithm similar to that used for division of whole numbers: Step 1: What do we multiply « by to get 227 ‘The answer is 2x”, at Bt and 2r* + 42”. xr+2 Qn? +72? +102 +15 Tart arty | Step 2: Subtract 22° +42? from 22° +722. Ste ‘The answer is 322, (a2 + €3) Step 3: Bring down the 102 to obtain 32? + 10. es Return to Step 1 with the question: - (40 +8) “What must we multiply 2 by to get 8222" —_ The answer is 37, and 3x(x+2) = 32? + 6x We continue the procas util we ae lef with 2 constant The division algorithm can also be prfomed by leaving 23 4 out th viable shown lonaide Lopate at 4 7224 Ie + 15 ze Either way, 2? +32+4+ + 2 310 Find the quotient and remainder for Hence write 2% — 2? 3e—5 inthe form Q(x) x (x—3) +R. P4243 Fo Far 5 (28-324) 2 82 (22*— 62) 3-5 The quotient is 2? +22 +3 and the remainder is 4. ? 32-5 = (2? +204 3)(2—3) +4. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6)__187 kia ¢°}=°=m Perform the division 2422 —2 =F Hence write 24 +22?—1 inthe form Q(z) x (2 +3) +R. 2-32? + r~83 243 [ pOs tm OF (et +308) | ae 2s? 32° — 92") Tie? + Oe (112? +332) —Sie— 1 (332 ~ 99) 98 seBol sat gis 8 af 42x? —1 = (29 82? + Ux ~ 83)(2+8) +98 EXERCISE 6€.2 1 Find the quotient and remainder for the following, and hence write the division in the form P(z) = Q(z) D(z) +R, where D(z) is the divisor. Perform the following divisions, and hence write the division in the form Plz) = Q(z) Diz) +R. star 46 tae aut te +2 pei » Bien « = zr zo? ae! 4322 —ae—2 See? 48 a a 3x23 hte? e047 ‘ ets ae eT as 3 Perform the divisions: a BES p 2tise rr aT Heetite SYNTHETIC DIVISION (OPTIONAL) Click on the icon for an exercise involving a synthetic division process for the division pguraBte of a polynomial by a linear. SECTION - 188_ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) DIVISION BY QUADRATICS As with division by linears we can use the division algorithm (o divide polynomials by quadraties. The division process stops when the remainder has degree less than that of the divisor, so If P(a) is divided by az*+br-+e then P(e) ext 2 er Ue) + SAS where vee ee) (2) is the quotient, ex+f +bete ‘The remainder will be linear if e #0, and constant if ¢ 403-241 zoetl Hence write c+ da—2-+1 in the form Q(z) x (2? -2+1)+R(z), and is the remainder. Find the quotient and remainder for z+5r+4 Parti wee soe etl —(et— 28+ 2%) i we = (Sa* — 52? + 5x) ‘The quotient is 2? +52 +4 and the remainder i —22—3, at44o%— 241 = (22 +52 +4)(2? — 241) —22-3 EXERCISE 6C.3 4) Find the quotient and remainder for: Partha 8 b ane ¢ Sebel 4 eoT ST 2 Cary out the following divisions and also write cach in the form P(x) = Q(2) D(x) + R(x): a Both » < tibet Poet ra q fost at ‘ =a aad 3. Suppose P(z) = (x —2)(2? + 2r+3) +7. Find the quotient and remainder when P(2) is divided by 2 —2 4 Suppose f(x) = (@-1)(e+2)(z®—82+5)+15— 102, Find the quotient and remainder when Sa) is divided by 22 +2 —2 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6)__189) C) BERS GG, AND racro A zero of a polynomial is a value of the variable which makes the polynomial equal to zero. ais a zer0 of polynomial P(x) + P(a) =O. The roots of a polynomial equation are the solutions to the equation is a root (or solution) of P(x) =0 <> Pla) = ‘The roots of P(z)=0 are the zeros of P(x) and the z-intercepts of the graph of y= P(x). Consider P(x) =" +22? — 3x —10 P(2) =2° + 2(2)? 32) —10 =848-6-10 =0 This tells us: © Disa zero of 2° 4227-32-10 © Qisarootof 2°+2r?—3r—19-0 the graph of y= 29 + 2x? — 32 ~ 10 has the x-intercept 2. If P(a)=(2+1)(2r—1)(+2), then (2 +1), (2-1), and (x +2) are its linear factors. Likewise P(x) = (r+3)?(2+3) has been factorised into 3 linear factors, one of which is repeated (ca) isa factor of the polynomial P(x) ¢ there exists « polynomial Q(z) such that P(x) = (z—a)Q(2). Find the zeros of} 2 a? — dx +53 b A432 We wish to find 2 such that © We wish to find = such that dr +58 44 Vea) = 44 VOWS _ bas z Ti ‘The zeros are ve 0, and iv3. ‘The zoros are 2—7i and 2+. EXERCISE 6D.1 11 Find the zeros of a 22? 52-12 b 2 +6r+10 « 26246 dade e P42 f tt4?—5 2 Find the roots of: a Sa? = 3242 & (r+? +3)=0 « 24+2)=0 d atabr © 8452=0 f 2=3:2 +10 Factorise: 2x3 + ce 44249 2 452? 3 Eee are re a = 2(22? + 52-3) 44 V=0 = 202) +9) = 4 2iv5 44249 = (2—[-2+ V5) (2 — [-2— v5) = (e+2-iVi e+ 24+ 6V5) Find the linear factors of F-62416 a +22? — 42 A645 a2 20? — te — e822 If P(2) =a(z—a)(x—8)(z—>) then a, 8, and 7 are its zeros Verify this statement by finding P(a), P(B), and (>) Find all cubic polynomials with zeros } and —3 +2 ‘The zeros 342i have sum=-3+2i-3-2i—-6 and product = (—3 + 2i)(—3 ~ 24) = 13, they come from the quadratic factor 2?+6r+ 13 comes from the linear factor 22 ~ 1 P(x) = a(2r—1)(2? +62+13), a #0. Eo Ey Find all quartic polynomials with zeros 2, —1, and —14 V5. ‘The zeros, —-14V5 have sum=~-14+V5-1—V5=~-2 and product = (1+ ¥5)(-1- V5) = 4 they come from the quadratic factor 2?+ 2r —4. ‘The zeros 2 and 4 come from the linear factors (x—2) and (82 +1). P(x) = ale F(et+2r-4), a FO. ind all cubic polynomials with zeros: 22,3 3, -14i =, 2b v2 Find all quartic polynomials with zeros of: £1, tv2 2% -1 tV3, 1 bi 24 V5, -2431 POLYNOMIAL EQUALITY ‘Two polynomials are equal if and only if they have the same degree (order) and corresponding. terms have equal coefficients. If we know that two polynomials are equal then we can equate coefficients to find unknown coefficients. For example, if 2r*432?—42+6—az*+be?+er+d, where a,b,c,deR, then a=2 6 , b= 3, c= —4, and d= 6, iu Dy Find constants a, 6, and c given that: 623 +72? — 192 +7 = (22 —1)las? + be +e) forall x 62? + 72? — 192 +7 = (22 1)(az? + be+6) 62? +72? — 192 +7 = 2a2° + Bbx? + 2ex — ax? — be —e 62° +72? — 192 4 T= Das? + (2b—a}z? + (2c — Bre Since this is true forall x, we equate coefficients: Zo=6§ B-a=J Ye-b= 25s 1g and J=~¢ eet wee Gs =3 and c=~T andconsequently 2)—-3=7 and —14— =19 b= in bh equations So, a=3, 8 Find constants a and b if z*+9= (2? +az+3)(2?+b2+3) forall z Ay9=(2 +az+3)(2?-+62+3) forall z es +9= 244625 + 2 a tart babe! + saz sea 37 4 be +9 heck that any soluons 49= 244 (a+b)2" + (ab+6)2" + (Sa+3H)2+9 for all z | fit all equations. they do not, thee are no at+b=0 2.) {25} solutions. Equating coefficients gives ab+6=0 .... (2) {2*s} 8a+3b=0 ... 3) {es} From (1) and (3) we see that =a in), a(-a)+6=0 @e=6 a=2V6 andso b=7Vv6 a=V%, b=-V6 or a=-VvB, b= VE (+3) ise factor of P(2)=2*+ax*—7e+6. Find @€R and the other factors Since (c+) isa factor, The cocficicnt of This must he 2so the ais 1x1=1 —constanttemis 3x2 a taz*—7r+6=(2+3)(2"+be+2 for some constant 6 =a 02?+ Qe +32" + 3hr +6 = 25+ (b43)e7+ (842) +6 7 and a 3 and @ Exquating coefficients gives 3b-+2 b43 6 P(z) = (x + 3)(2? ~30+2) (w+ 3)(x—1)(x-2) ‘The other factors are (x —1) and (22) (2-43) and (e~1) are factors of 204 + ax* ~ 3x? + ber +3. Find constants « and 6 and all zeros of the polynomial Since (2x43) and (x1) are factors, The coefficient of This must be —1 50 the constant fe 2x1x1=2 — temis $x-1x-1=8 2e* + ar’ — 32" + be +. (22 +3)(e-1)(2? + ex = (22? +4-3)(2? +er—1) 20 + 2ex® — 22? + Pter- 2 82? Ser +3 Pat + (20+ 1)a* + (¢—5)2?-+(-1—3e)n+3 3, and Equating coefficients gives 2c+1 3e=b Pa) = (22 + 3)(—1){2? + 2-1) Now 22422-1 tas zee —2¢ VME _ 24 V9 ya yg P(2) has zeros —3, 1, and —14 V3. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 193 EXERCISE 6D.2 11 Find constants a,b, and c given that 2 27 +4245 = a2" +[2b-6lzte forall b deta? +6=(2-1)%2e+a) +br+e forall x 2 Find constants @ and b if: a Adda (+0422? +b2+2) forall s b Qet 529 442? +72 +6 = (2? tax +2)(227 +5243) forall z Show that 24 -+64 can be factorised into two real quadratic factors of the form 2®--az+8 and 2 +bz+8, but cannot be factorised into two real quadratic factors of the form 2? + az +16 and 2? +0244. 4 Find real numbers a and 6 such that — 42? 4+ 8 — Hence solve the equation 24+ 8x — 4? +4. (2? + ax +2)(2? + be — 58 (22-8) isa factorof 22°—2?+az—3. Find @€R and all zeros of the cubic. b (B2+2) isa factorof 324—2+(a+1)z+a. Find a €R and all the zeros of the cubic. 6 a (e+) and (—2) are factors of P(x) = 2x4 +az* + ba? — 122-8. Find constants a and b, and all zeros of (2), b (+3) and (2—1) are factors of 224 + ax* + ba? +-ax +3. Find constants « and b, and hence determine all zeros of the quartic 7 & 294327—92+e, ¢€ R, has two identical linear factors, Prove that cis either 5 or ~27, and factorise the cubic into linear factors in each case. b ax? +42?—2+m, me, has two identical linear factors, Find the possible values of m, and find the zeros of the polynomial in each case. ‘There are many theorems about polynomials, some of which we look at now. Some of the theorems are true for all polynomials, while others are true only for real polynomials, THE REMAINDER THEOREM Consider the cubic polynomial P(r) = 2" ‘Areal polynomial is @ polynomial with real Itwe divide P(e) by 7-2, we find that coefcients. S543 eae za2 z= So, when P(x) is divided by x—2, the remainder is 9. 5} Notice that P(2) =8-+20~22 +3 =9, which is the remainder: ¢ By considering other examples like the one above, we formulate the Remainder theorem, ‘The Remainder Theorem ‘When a polynomial P(x) is divided by r—k until a constant remainder R is obtained, then R= P(t) Proof: By the division algorithm, P(x) = Q(z)(x—h) +R Letting 7=h, P(k) =Q(k) x0+R PR=R ‘When using the Remainder theorem, itis important to realise thatthe following statements are equivalent: # PQ) =(e-HQa)+R + PAR # P(x) divided by x —X leaves a remainder of R. 3e% 42-4 is divided by 2+ Use the Remainder theorem to find the remainder when If P(e)=at— 32" 42—4, then P(-2) = (-2)* — 3(-2)* + (-2) -4 =16+24-2-4 =34 when 2*—3z* When P(2) is divided by 2?—32+7, the quotient is 2?+2—1 and the remainder R(x) is unknown. When P(z) is divided by 2-2 the remainder is 29. When P(x) is divided by x+1 the remainder is —16 is divided by +2, the remainder is 34, {Remainder theorem) Find R(x) in the form az +b, When the divisor is Now P(2)=29 {Remainder theorem} (2 +2-1(2 -6+7)+20+5=29 (6)(5) +20 +5 =29 Zo+b=4 .... (I) Also, P(-1)=—16 {Remainder theorem} (AP + (2) =)? ~ 3-1) +7) + (0 + 8) = -16 (-1(l) -a+b=-16 a+b=-5 .. Q) Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously gives a=3 and 6=—2 Ra) = 32-2 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 195 EXERCISE 6E.1 1. For P(x) a real polynomial, write two equivalent statements for each of a If PQ)=7, then b If P(x) =Q(a)(e+3)— © If P(e) divided by © —5 has a remainder of 11 then then 2 Without performing division, find the remainder when: 2 2t+20?— 7245 is divided by 2-1 b xt—2e743r—1 is divided by 242. 3. Find a €R given that: 2 when 2°—2r-ta_ is divided by ¢—2, the remainder is 7 b when 22% 42% 4ax—5- is divided by ¢+1, the remainder is 8 4 When 42x? -ax-+b_ is divided by 2 —1 the remainder is 4, and when divided by +2 the remainder is 16, Find constants a and 6 5 22" }.a2?—6 leaves a remainder of ~7 when divided by 1, and 129 when divided by +3. Find a and n given that n € Z 6 When P(2) is divided by #3242 the remainder is 42 ~7. Find the remainder when P(z) is divided by: 2 2-1 2-2 7 When P(2) is divided by +1 the remainder is —8, and when divided by 2—3 the remainder is 4, Find the remainder when P(2) is divided by (2 —3)(2 +1) 8 If P(x) is divided by (x—a)(x—5), where a6, a, 6€R, prove that the remainder is: (sara DAP) 5 (e—0) + Pla) THE FACTOR THEOREM For any polynomial P(x), k isa zero of P(x) © (x—k) isa factor of P(2). Proof: kis a zero of P(x) + P(k) {definition of a zero} @R=0 {Remainder theorem} (2)(e— k) {division algorithm} a factor of P(x) {definition of a factor} ‘The Factor theorem says that if is a zero of P(z) then (22) isa factor of P(x), and vice versa, | Example 26 | Eee Find k given that (x2) is a factor of 2° + kx? ~ 32 +6. Heenee, fully factorise 2? + ke” — 32 +6. Let P(x) =a? +ke?— 32 +6 Since (2-2) is. factor, P(2)=0 {Factor theorem) (2)° + (2)? 302) +6=0 844k =0 ka-2 We now use either the division algorithm or symthetic division to find the other factors of P(2) Division algorithm or Synthetic division (-32 +6) 0 Using either method we find that P(x) = (x — 2)(2? — 3) = (2 -2)(2 + V3\(x - v3) EXERCISE 6E.2 Find the constant k and hence faetorise the polynomial if 22° +22 + kx —4 has the factor (x +2) x32 — ka? + 6x has the factor (x — 3) Find constants a and b given that 2° +as?+br+5 has factors (e—1) and (e +5), Suppose 3 is a zero of P(2) = 29-2? + (k— Find the possible values of € Rand all the corresponding zeros of P(z) Show that (2—2) isa factor of P(2) = 2*+ m2? + (3m—2)z—10m—4_ forall values of mER. For what value(s) of m is (2~ 2)? a factor of P(2)? Je + (7), Consider P(x) = 2" where a is real Find P(a). What is the significance of this result? Factorise 2? — aS as the product of a real linear and a quadratic factor. Now consider P(2) 2+, where ais real Find P(—a). What is the significance of this result? Factorise 2" +a as the product of @ real linear and @ quadratic factor. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6)__197 5a Provethat “e+1 isa factorof 241, neZ @ nisod 1 Find the real number a such that (= ~ 0) isafactorof P(x) =2*—Sar—9, THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA The theorems we have just seen for real polynomials can be generalised in the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: ‘2 Every polynomial of degree n > 1 has at least one zero which can be written in the form a+ bi where 0, bER. © If P(2) isa polynomial of degree n, then P(r) has exactly n zeros, some of which may be either irrational numbers or complex rmumbers. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, the following propertics of real polynomials can be ‘established: ‘© Every real polynomial of degree n can be factorised into n complex linear factors, some of which may be repeated. ‘* Every real polynomial can be expressed as a product of real linear and real irreducible quadratic factors (where A <0), ‘« Every real polynomial of degree n has exactly n zeros, some of which may be repeated. ‘© If p+ ai @#0) isa zer0 of a real polynomial then its complex conjugate p— qi is also a zer0. ‘© Every real polynomial of odd degree has at least one real zero, Suppose -3-+i is a zero of P(z) = ar +9:?+az~30 where a is real Find a and hence find all zeros of the cubic. Since P(x) is real, both —3 +i and —3—i are zeros. ‘These have sum = —6 and product = (3 +i)(-3— i) = 10. the zeros 344 come from the quadratic 2” + 6x + 10. Thecnitots sige emit 10% (-8) | 7 (a? + 6 + 10)(ax ~ 3) =az* + (6a —3)z? + (10a — 18)x — 30 Consequently, ax’ +92? + ax ~ 30 a2 Equating coefficients of 2 gives: 6a —3= Equating coefficients of « gives: 10a ~18 @=2 and the linear factor is (2 —3) the other two zeros are -3-i and #. One zero of az* + (a+ 1)z?+102+15, aR, is purely imaginary, Find a and the zeros of the polynomial, Let the purely imaginary zero be bi, b £0. Since P(2) is real, both bi and —bi are zeros. ‘These have sum = 0 and product = —62i? = 5? the zeros bi come from the quadratic 2? + 0? The coeficient of 2° is a. The constant erm is 0? x Consequently, az* + (a+ 1)z?+10r +15 = (2? + #*)laz + @) aa (2) Paes Equang cooficens of? gies: ati= 18...) Equating coefficients of x gives: ab? = 10 Q) ab? 4? =15 {using ()} 10+ =15 {using (2)} Pas bavi In Q),sinee ?=5, 5a=10 - a=2. The linear factor az4+2% becomes 2x43 ‘The linear fact ba be +3 @=2 and the zeros are 4iV5, -2 EXERCISE 6E.3 Find all real polynomials of degree 3 with zeros —} and. I~ 3. p(2) is a real eubie polynomial for which p(1) = p(2+i)=0 and p(0) = 20. Find p(z) in expanded form, 2-31 isa zero of Plz) = 294 pztq_ where p and q are rel Using conjugate pairs, find p and q and the other two zeros. Check your answer by solving for p and q using P(2~3i) = 0. B+i isarootof 24— 225 a2? 4+bz+10=0, where a and b are real. Find a and b and the other roots of the equation. One zero of P(z) = 2 +a2"+32+9, aR, is purely imaginary. Find a and hence factorise P(z) into the product of linear factors. At least one zero of P(x) = 32+ hx? +15r+10, ke R, is purely imaginary. Find & and hence factorise P(x) into the product of linear factors COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter6) 199 SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS THEOREM We have seen that for the quadratic equation ax? + br 0, @£0, the sum of the roots is —* and the product of the roots is £, For the polynomial equation aya” + ayy") +... age? -+ayr+09=0, an £0 which can also be written as S>a,2" = 0, the sum of the roots js —*=4, and the product of the roots js "ee ‘We can explain this result as follows Consider the polynomial equation ag( ~ a1)(2 ~ a2)(e ~ 5)-.( ~ aq) =0 with 0018 a4, 29, 95 vn Expanding the LHS we have «15)(a ~ a3)(1 ~ 05) (2 ~ a4)(2 ~ 9) (ay + ag} + (—1)Pare2)(ee — as)(2 ~ 04). on) [a +g + ag)? + ...+ (—1)%ayazas) (2 ~ a4). — an) {the term of order z is no longer important as it will not contribute to either the 2” term or the constant term} n(x" = [an + a2 bag + + 0 + (-1)"ara205...a9) aye" —aylay +9 +03 +2. Oy]2" + (-1)Mara209..- any juating coefficients, dyn = -dg[e +23 + n+aq) amd ag = (—I)ara209.. Ande Hay tap tas tin tay and YO eyagag..a Find the sum and product of the roots of 229 — 7x? + 8 The sum of the roots = 9 =f. The polynomial equation has degree 3. the product of the roots = 200 _ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) IL ou Eee A real polynomial has the form P(x) = 8-122" + ex +dr-+e. The graphof y= P(x) has y-intercept 180, It cuts the z-axis at 2 and 6, and does not mect the z-axis anywhere else. ‘Suppose the other two zeros are m-tni, n> 0, Use the sum and product formulae to find rm and n, If the other two zeros are mini, the sum of the zeros is. 246+ (m+ni) + (m—ni) = 2m+8= ‘The constant term ¢ is the y-intercept. = 180 ‘The product of the zeros is 2x 6 x (—2+ni)(-2—ni) = So, m=-2 and n=1, EXERCISE 6E.4 41 Find the sum and product of the roots of a 2? 3r44=0 b 328 482-5 =0 ¢ ota at 420? +3r—4=0 4 22% +2?-8=0 © at-a542r-9=0 ft af-1=0 2 Areal cubic polynomial P(x) has zeros 3-biVE and 2. Ithasa leading coefficient of 6, Find: | the sum and product of its zeros the coefficient of 2? ‘© the constant term. 3 Areal polynomial of degree 5 has leading coefficient ~1 and zeros of ~2, The y-intercept is 18, Find: , B44, and VEEL ak the coefficient of x‘. 4 A real polynomial of degree 5 has leading coefficient 2 and the coefficient of x* is 3. When the polynomial is graphed, the y-intercept is 5, and it cus the z-axis at $ and 1+ v2 only Suppose the other two zeros are m ni, n>. Use the sum and product formulae to find m and n. 5 A real quartic polynomial has leading coefficient 1 and zeros of the form ati and GER. Its constant term is 25. What are the possible values that a may take? ka, where 6 2px? 4qr—r=0 has non-zero roots p, q, andr, where p,q, 7 ER. ® Show that g=—r and p= —2. Hence find p, q, and r. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6)__201 TT ceapain reas pomomiats ‘Any polynomial with real coefficients can be graphed on the Cartesian plane. Use of a graphics calculator or the graphing package provided will help in this section. CUBIC POLYNOMIALS IMS Every real cubic polynomial can be categorised into one of four types. In each case a €R, a #0, and the zeros area, 8,1. Type 1: Three rea, distinct zeros: P(z) = a(x ~ a)(z ~ )(x~ 7) Type 2: Two real zeros, one repeated: P(x) = a(x —a)*(x— 8) Type 3: One real zero repeated three times: P(r) = a(x ~a)* Type 4: One real and two complex conjugate zeros: P(e) =(2-a)(ar? +r +0), A=6* — dae <0. What to do: 1. Experiment with the graphs of Type I cubics, State the effect of changing both the size and sign of a. What is the geometrical significance of a, §, and 7? 2 Experiment with the graphs of Type 2 cubies. What is the geometrical significance of the squared factor? 3 Experiment with the graphs of Tipe 3 cubies. What is the geometrical significance ofa? GRAPHING. PACKAGE. ‘4 Experiment with the graphs of Type 4 cubies. What is the geometrical significance of @ and the quadratic factor which has complex zeros? FF From Investigation 2 you should have discovered that: + ira>o, seemtimeatoe AS oe J waco we ya ‘© All cubics are continuous smooth curves. ‘© Every cubic polynomial must cut the z-axis at least once, and so has at least one real zero, © For a cubic of the form P(x) = a(x ~a)(z ~ )(z~ 7), a, 8, 7 © R, the graph has three distinct «intercepts corresponding to the three distinct zeros a, §, and. The BOT E graph crosses over or cuts the z-axis at these points, as shown, For a cubic of the form P(z) = a(r—a)*(x- 8), a GER, the graph touches the x-axis at the repeated zero a ‘and cuts it at the other z-intercept 3, as shown, f, ~~ —s © Fora cubic of the form P(r) =a(r—a)’, eR, the graph has only one z-intercept, a. The graph is horizontal at this point, and the z-axis is a tangent to the curve even = = though the curve crosses over it ‘© For a cubic of the form P(x) = (x — a)(ar* + br +0) where A <0, there is only one 2-intercept, a. The graph ccus the z-axis at this point. The other two zeros are complex £ + and so do not appear on the graph. Find the equation of the cubic with graph: The a-intereepts are —1, 2, 4 y=a(z + 1)(e-2)(e—4) But when 2=0, y=—8 a(1)(-2)(-4) = -8 The graph touches the z-axis at 2, indicating a squared factor (32 — 2)? The other 2-intercept is —3 soy =a(8z—2)%(x+3). a=-1 But when 2=0, y=6 So, (e+ 1)(a—2)(2—4) a(-2)°(3) =6 a=} 22 +3) ‘When determining a polynomial function from a given graph, if we are not given all the zeros, or if some of the zeros are complex, we write a factor in general form. For example: «If an zvintercept is not given, use P(a) = (x—k)8 (az +0) nr) uot geal om of ace > Using Pls) = ale — Ka +0) is 7 more complicated + If there is clearly only one <-inereept and that is given, use PCa) = (wh) (az? + bo +0) {exit he +9) mot general fon of quartic aco ¥ ‘ther graph is possible COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 203 [cll Ey ‘ind the equation of the cubie which cuts the z-axis at 2 and —3, cuts the y-axis at ~48, and which passes through the point (1, —40). The zeros are 2 and -3,s0 y= (2-2)(e+3)(az+b), af0. When 2=0, y=~48 (-2)()0 = -48 .b=8 When x=1, y=—40 2. (1a +8) = 40 a4+8=10 a=2 So, the equation is y= (2 —2)( + 3)(2e +8) Ax Ylz+3)e+4) EXERCISE 6F.1 1 Fora cubic polynomial P(x), state the geometrical significance of: R ‘2a single real linear factor such as (xa), a € a squared real linear factor such as (r— a), aE R © a cubed real linear factor such as (r—a)*, @ ER. 2 Find the equation of the cubie with graph: a 3. Find the equation of the eubie whose graph ‘2 cuts the z-axis at 3, 1, and —2, and passes through (2, —4) cuts the a-axis at —2, 0, and §, and passes through (—8, 21) © touches the z-axis at 1, euts the x-axis at —2, and passes through (4, 54) touches the x-axis at ~2, cuts the x-axis at 4, and passes through (—1, 204 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 4 Match the given graphs to the corresponding cubic function: a y= 2x 1le+2(e44) b y=-(e+ Y(e-2)(e-4) © y=(e-1le-2)e+4) y= Me 1)(e4 2(e+4) © ya—(e- (e+e +4) f y=2e-1le-Yer+4) a 5 Find the equation of a real eubie polynomial which: cuts the z-axis at } and ~3, cus the y-axis at 30, and passes through (1, ~20) 1 cuts the a-axis at 1, touches the x-axis at ~2, and cuts the yoais at (0, 8) , and passes through (1, -1) and (1, ~21), © cuts the z-axis at 2, cuts the yeaxis at — QUARTIC POLYNOMIALS NIN) ‘There are considerably more possible factor types to consider for quartic fun ‘quattics containing certain types of factors. What to do: 1. Experiment with the graphs of quarties which have: GRAPHING four distinet real linear factors paces) 1 squared real linear factor and two distinet real linear factors = ’ € two squared real linear factors da cubed real linear factor and one distinct real linear factor ‘© areal linear factor raised to the fourth power # one real quadratic factor with A <0 and two real linear factors two real quadratic factors each with A <0. 2 Summarise your observations. on 3 you should have discovered that: ‘© For a quartic polynomial in which a is the coefficient of 2 + If @>0 the graph opens upwards. > If @<0 the graph opens downwards, ‘© Ifa quartic with a > 0 is fully factorised into real linear factors, then: » fora single factor (x —a), the graph cuts the z-axis at a > for a cubed factor (x —a)%, the graph cuts the z-axis at a and is “flat” at > If a quartic with a > 0. has one real quadratic factor with A <0 wwe could have: Find the equation of the quartic with graph: for a square factor (x —a)®, the raph touches the 2-axis at a > for a quadruple factor (x — a)*, the graph touches the x-axis and is “flat” at that point y » Ifa quartic with a > 0 has two real quadratic factors both with A <0 we have: The graph does not mect the z-axis atall ‘The graph touches the z-axis at —1 and cuts it at ~3 and 3 y=a(r+1P(r+3)(e-3), af0 But when 2=0, y= 3 =a(1)*(3)(-3) 3 v 9a Je +1%(e+3)(e-3) 206 _ COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) FFind the quartic which touches the z-axis at 2, cuts the e-axis at ~3, and also passes through (1, -12) and (3, 6). ‘The graph touches the z-axis at 2, so (r—2)? is @ factor ‘The graph cuts the a-axis at 3, 80 (+3) is a factor, P(z) = (x—2)%(a + 3)(azx +8) where @ and b are constants, a # 0, Now PU) =-12 and P(3) =6, (AP a(e+s)=-12 1(6)(3a+8) a+b=-3 (0) ~ seed -@ Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously gives @=2, b= —5. Pa) = (2—2)"(@ + 8)(22—5) EXERCISE 6F.2 1) Find the equation of the quartic with graph: a b « y 2 2 2 2 7? + t T+ 1 a y e ' 3 2 Match the given graphs to the corresponding quartic functions: 2x —1)*(x +1)(2+3) Y(e-+1)%(e—3) (@=1)le+ Ne—3)? 8 ys (e-1P%(etIe+3) © y=(e-1le+ es) € y=-He- let Nle+3? COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 207 3. Find the equation of the quartic whose graph: |» cuts the z-axis at ~4 and 4, touches it at 2, and passes through the point (1, 5) 1b touches the axis at 2 and —3, and passes through the point (4, 49) «© cuts the a-axis at 4+} and +2, and passes through the point (1, ~18) touches the s-axis at J, cuts the y-axis at 1, and passes through (—1, —4) and (2, 15) iad Click on the icon to run a card game for graphs of cubic and quartic functions CARD GAME - GENERAL POLYNOMIALS ‘We have already seen that every real cubic polynomial must cut the e-axis at least once, and so has at least one real zero, Ifthe exact value of the zero is difficult to find, we can use technology to help us. We can then factorise the cubic as a linear factor times a quadratic, and if necessary use the quadratic formula to find the other ‘This method is particularly useful if we have one rational zero and two irrational zeros that are radical ‘conjugates, Consider the general polynomial P(2) = an2” + aq 12"! + such are-+ do, Oy #0. ‘Discuss the behaviour ofthe graph as +00 and +00 depending on > the sign of a, > whether n is odd or even, © Under what circumstances is P(z) an: > odd function > even function? Find exactly the zeros of P(x) = 82° — 142? 4 52+ Using the calculator we search for any rational zero, In this case, 0.666667 or OB indicates x= (322) is a factor Bx° — 14a? + 5a-+2= (Bx —2)(2? +ax—1) for some a 3x5 + (8a 2)2? + (—3- 2a)e +2 GRAPHING Equating coefficients; 3a—2——14 and —3-2a~=5 PACKAGE 3a=-12 and ~2a=8 — a=-4 P(x) = (82 —2)(2 — 4x —1) which has zeros 3 and 2+ V5 {quadratic formula} Example 36 ra Find exactly the roots of 6° + 1822 + 202 +3 =0. Using technology, © —0.16666667 = —3 is aroot, so (Gr +1) is a factor of the cubic. (G2 +1)(2? +ax+3)=0 for some constant a. Equating coefficients of x”: 14+6a=13 Sie ae 6a=12 a-2 Equating coefficients of r: a +18=20 ¥ (Ge + 1)(2? +2 +3) =0 2=—} or ~14iv2 {quadratic formula} For a quartic polynomial P(2) we first need to establish if there are any x-intereepts at all. If there are not then the polynomial must have four complex zeros. If there are 2-intercepts then we can try 10 identify linear or quadratic factors. EXERCISE 6F.3 Find exactly all zeros of: 2°39? —3r41 Be? 4 de —2 208 — $x — Ae ~ 35 203 — 22 +200 ~ 10 4e4 — 40° — 2527 +2 +6 28604 +221? — 480 +40 Find exactly the roots of aw 420? +3r+6= 2a? +32? — 92 —2= 2° 6r? 4122-8 =0 2e* + 18 = 5a? +92 ator? 4112 +6=0 2et — 1305 4272? = 132 +15 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS (Chapter 6) 209 3 Factorise into linear factors with exact values: a at ar? 44-2 b rh 4 Be? 4 de +12 < 20) — 92? +62 drt 42? + 92-10 © fe 82? 4243 f Sat 4 de® + 502 + 122 — 12 9 2x4 — 349452? 462 —4 bh 2x8 4 52? + 82-420 4 The following cubies will not factorise neatly, Find their zeros using technology. a at +22?- 62-6 b rt+2?-7r-8 5A scientist is trying to design a crash test barrier with the characteristics shown graphically below. ‘The independent variable ¢ is the time after impact, measured in milliseconds, such that 0 < t < 700. ‘The dependent variable is the distance the barrier is depressed during the impact, measured in millimetres. | The equation for this graph has the form f(¢) = ke(t—a)?, 0

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