INDEX

0. ABSTRACT 4

1. INTRODUCTION 4

2. I-AIRPORT 4

2.1 GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF THE AIRPORT. 4

2.2 OPERATING AIRCRAFT 5

2.2.1 AIRCRAFT SELECTION 5

2.2.2 A319neo DIMENSIONS 6

2.3 RUNWAY’S DESIGN 7

2.3.1 RUNWAY LENGTH CORRECTIONS 7

2.3.2 RUNWAY’S ORIENTATION 8

2.3.2.1 METEOROLOGICAL STUDY 8

2.3.2.2 OPTIMAL RUNWAY ORIENTATION 9

2.3.3 OBSTACLE LIMITATION SURFACES (OSL) 11

2.3.3.1 INNER HORIZONTAL 13

2.3.3.2 CONICAL 13

2.3.3.3 APPROACH 13

2.3.3.4 TAKE OFF CLIMB 14

2.3.3.5 TRANSITIONAL 15

2.3.3.6 INNER APPROACH 16

2.3.3.7 INTERRUPTED LANDING 17

2.3.3.8 INNER TRANSITIONAL 17

2.4. AIRPORT CONFIGURATION 25

2.4.1 RUNWAYS SLOPES 25

3. iAip 29

4. iNAV 34

4.1 PRECISION APPROACH (PA) 34

4.1.1 LOCALIZER (LOC) 35

4.1.2 GLIDE SLOPE (G/S) 36

4.1.3 MARKER BEACONS 38

4.1.4 FINAL CHOICE 39

1
 4.2 NAVAIDS COVERAGE 42

4.2.1 LOCALIZER ANTENNAS COVERAGE 42

4.2.2 GLIDE SLOPE ANTENNAS COVERAGE 42

4.2.3 DME-P ANTENNAS COVERAGE 42

5. iCOM 43

5.1 VHF PILOT-CONTROLLER VOICE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS. 43

5.1.1 AERONAUTICAL MOBILE SERVICE 43

5.1.1.1 G/A COMMUNICATIONS EN ROUTE: 43

5.1.1.2 G/A APPROACH COMMUNICATIONS: 44

5.1.1.3 G/A AERODROME COMMUNICATIONS: 44

5.1.1.5 G/A COMMUNICATIONS FOR FLIGHT INFORMATION: 44

5.1.2 AERONAUTICAL FIXED SERVICE 44

5.2 COMMUNICATIONS APPLICATIONS 44

5.2.1 CPDLC (CONTROLLER-PILOT DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS) 44

5.2.2 ATIS Y D-ATIS (AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE) 45

5.2.3 VOLMET & D-VOLMET 46

5.2.3 ACC (AIR CONTROL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM) 47

5.3 STUDY OF FREQUENCIES FOR ATC 47

5.4 LOCATION OF TRANSMISSION CENTERS & STUDY OF RADIO COVERAGE FOR THE
CTR. 49

5.5 LOCATION OF RECEPTION CENTERS & STUDY OF RADIO COVERAGE FOR THE CTR. 52

5.6 SELECTION OF TRANSMISSION CENTERS 53

5.7 SELECTION OF RECEPTION CENTERS 54

5.8 INTERMODULATION 54

5.8.1 CONTROL TOWER INTERMODULATIONS 54

5.8.2 REMOTE CENTERS INTERMODULATIONS 56

5.9 POSSIBILITY TO IMPLEMENT RADIO CHANNELS FOR DATA (VDL-2) AND ITS
FUNCTIONALITIES IN ATCO-PILOT COMMUNICATIONS 58

6. iVig 59

6.1.1 PSR 59

6.1.1.1 TYPES OF PSR 60

6.1.2 MSPR 61

6.2.1 SSR MODE A/C 64

2
 6.2.2 SSR MODE S 64

6.2.2.1 MODE S ELS AND EHS 65

6.2.3 MSSR 65

6.2.4 WAM 66

6.2.5 WAM vs MSSR 67

6.3.1 SMR 68

6.4.1 MLAT 69

6.4.2 ADS-C 71

6.4.3 ADS-B 71

7. iAUT 72

7.1 FLIGHT DATA PROCESSOR SUBSYSTEM 72

7.2 ATM SURVEILLANCE TRACKER AND SERVER 74

7.3 METEO 75

7.3.1 FIELD EQUIPMENT 75

7.3.2 OFFICE EQUIPMENT 79

7.4 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE (AIS) 79

7.5 EUROCONTROL NETWORK MANAGER 82

7.6 AMAN & DMAN 84

7.6.1 AMAN 84

7.6.2 DMAN 84

7.6.3 AMAN & DMAN ANALYSIS 85

7.7 VOIP SYSTEM 86

8. REFERENCES 88

9. ANNEX 90

3
 EETAC Escola d'Enginyeria de Telecomunicació i Aeroespacial de Castelldefels
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya 28/05/2022

as the necessary lighting systems, that is, approach

0. ABSTRACT
lights, runway and rapid exit lighting, etc ...

The main aim of this project is the design of an Depending on the study that will be carried out for the
aerodrome in a mountainous area. The location of
design of the iAirport, the only operating company, iFly,
said airport resides near Vielha, the capital of La Vall
d'Aran Catalonia Spain. An in-depth study will be will have to choose a single aircraft with which it will
carried out on the proper functioning of the operate at the aerodrome, which will have to meet the
aerodrome, analyzing every minute detail and requirements presented in the study carried out by our
ensuring that it complies with all technical, ethical team of engineers.
and economic standards required for its
functionality.
2. I-AIRPORT
2.1 GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION OF THE AIRPORT.
1. INTRODUCTION
The place where the Vall d'aran is located turns out to be
This project is based on a scenario where the Apple a challenge when designing an airport, due to the
company hires our UPC company with the aim of adversity of its land surface. To do this, a study of its
building an aerodrome near Vielha, Vall d'Aran, due to surface is carried out in order to find an area where there
the imminent independence of this territory within 5 are few unevennesses and therefore its height remains
years. constant for at least a sufficiently large perimeter so that
the construction of the airport can be carried out.
As a team of aeronautical engineers from the
Polytechnic University of Catalonia, an agreement has
been reached with the multinational Apple to plan the
design of an aerodrome in the Valle de Aran region, after
the confirmation of the independence of this territory
from both Catalonia and the Spanish territory.

Thanks to the investment of the Apple company, our

team has been hired to develop a 5-year strategic plan.
The main objective is to design an aerodrome, as
Figure 1. Topographic map of the Vall d'Aran
indicated above, that is capable of absorbing an average
of 10 movements per hour from 6 am to 12 pm local
The topography of the Vall d'Aran is represented in
without any interruption, every day of the year and for
figure 1, you can clearly see the adversity of the terrain,
the next 10 years.
however there is an area, which extends about 4km and
where the height remains constant around 1860 m, this
After several meetings with the company, several
area is known as the "Pla de Beret". Therefore, this area
conclusions have been reached regarding the design of
would become a possible candidate for the construction
the aerodrome in terms of runways, taxiways, lighting,
of the airport.
etc...
Using the Google Earth program, which allows a
The iAirport aerodrome must have a single runway with representation of the terrain at a 3D level (Figure 2), the
one or two thresholds, in addition to the taxiways as well suitability of the place is ensured, since it is a flat area.

4
On the other hand, urban buildings such as towns are not
observed, nor are there many constructions of vital
importance such as health industries, research or even
military centers.
Figure 2. 3D rendering of the Pla de Beret
On the other hand, Google Earth also allows you to see
the unevenness of the terrain, a fact that facilitates the
placement of the runway and its orientation. Doing tests,
it has been concluded that the best option is the one
shown in Figure 3, in which the runway is located in
42º43’18.68’’ N, 0º57’43.48’’E.
Figure 3. Unevenness terrain estimation
2.2 OPERATING AIRCRAFT
Once the location of our airport has been decided, a
study will be carried out to determine what types of
aircraft will be able to operate at said airport.
For this, it is necessary to know everything possible
about the physical characteristics and capabilities of the
aircraft and also to estimate possible tourist and
commercial traffic that could exist in Vall d’Aran, due to
its celebrations, culture, tourism, sports, government
affairs...
On the one hand, observing the terrain, it can be
logically deduced that the time, when more passengers
5
would travel to the Vall d'Aran, would be winter,
because being in a mountainous place, many passengers
would travel there to practice sports such as Skiing. On
the other hand, aircraft of considerable size cannot be
chosen, due to the adversity of the terrain, and the
amount of land available to build the runway and the
aerodrome in general. Therefore, based on these
requirements, and depending on the size of the runway,
the ideal aircraft model will be chosen, that is, the most
appropriate and profitable.
2.2.1 AIRCRAFT SELECTION
One of the most important steps of this project is the
selection of the only aircraft that will operate at the
airport depending on the demand. This point is of great
importance since from here we will be able to develop
the aspects related to the design of the airport.
In order to make an optimal selection, it is necessary to
take into account factors related to fuel consumption, the
number of passengers, the performance of the selected
aircraft, as well as its impact on the environment.
Today there is a duopoly between the two largest
companies Boeing and Airbus. However, against these
two giants in the world of commercial aviation
manufacturing, new opponents have appeared, such as
the manufacturer Bombardier, Embraer and ATR.
In this project it has been decided to opt for European
trade and therefore the aircraft that will be selected will
be from the French manufacturer Airbus.
After making a comparison and in-depth study of the
main characteristics both on the ground and in flight of
several different aircraft models, it has been decided to
opt for the A319neo with its LEAP engine.
The A319neo which is an upgraded version of the A319
is part of the A320 family. The main global operators of
the A319 are EasyJet and American Airlines. In Spain,
the main operators are Iberia, Volotea and Vueling.
As said before, the A319neo is an improvement of the
A319 regarding engines, hence the suffix neo (New
Engine Option). We have decided to select this model,
since in addition to incorporating a new engine that is
more powerful, efficient, and with lower fuel
consumption compared to the original version, the
A319neo incorporates aerodynamic and structural
advances such as the "Sharklets" (tip of the wing folded
up), weight reduction thanks to the use of composite
materials in some parts of the plane, a new improved
interior, with larger and lighter luggage compartments,
and an improved air purification system.

In terms of consumption, the A319neo can be summed

up in a lower fuel consumption of 15%, an 8% lower
operating cost of the aircraft, 10% less polluting
emissions of nitrous oxides and an increase in the range
of the aircraft in approximately 900km compared to the
original model.
2.2.2 A319neo DIMENSIONS

In this section of the project the main dimensions of the

A319neo aircraft will be presented.

These dimensions are of great importance when

designing taxiways, runways or airport parking stands.
In addition, based on the dimensions of the A319neo, it
will be possible to decide which will be the reference
code of the aerodrome. Figure 5. Dimensions A319neo Plan View.

This reference code will be formed by a digit and a

letter. The digit will be given by the length of the
reference field of the aircraft that will operate. In our
case, as the airport operations will be carried out by a
single aircraft (A319neo), we will take into account the
reference field length of this aircraft.

In the case in which more than one aircraft operates, this

digit will be given by the most restrictive aircraft and
therefore the one with the longest reference field. As for
the letter of the reference code, this will be given by the
wingspan and the width of the main landing gear of the
aircraft.
Figure 6. Dimensions A319neo Profile View.

Figure 7. Aerodrome Reference Code.

Figure 4. Dimensions A319neo Front View.
To be able to decide on the reference code of the
aerodrome, use must be made of the table presented in
Figure 7 (Annex 14 ICAO). As explained above, to
decide the code number, the minimum length necessary
to take off with the maximum certified take-off mass at
sea level (MTOW), in standard atmosphere, without

6
wind and runway slope must be taken into account. All of them have a MTOW equal to or less than 70000
equal to zero. kg.

Knowing that the reference field length of the A319neo
is 1550 meters, the code number will be 3. Now, to
decide the code letter, it is necessary to look at the
wingspan of the aircraft (Figure 4) and the outer span
between wheels of the main landing gear (Figure 4).
- Reference Field Length A319neo : 1550 meters.
- A319neo wingspan : 35.8 meters
- A319neo outer span between wheels of the main
landing gear : 8.95 meters
From the aircraft mentioned above, the most restrictive
one, that is, the one with the highest MTOW (Maximum
Take-Off Weight) has been selected. With this we can
ensure that all A319neo aircraft with a MTOW lower
than the selected one will be able to operate at the airport
without any problem. The characteristics of the selected
model (A319neo WV053) are the following:

Observing the table in Figure 7 for the values of

wingspan and outer span between wheels of the main
landing gear previously cited, it is obtained that the code
letter will be C. Figure 8. A319neo characteristics.

Finally, the reference code of the aerodrome to be

From Figure 8 it can be seen that the selected aircraft has
designed is 3C.
a MTOW of 70000 kg. This means that the plane will
2.3 RUNWAY’S DESIGN never be able to take off with more than 70000 kg and
2.3.1 RUNWAY LENGTH CORRECTIONS therefore we can obtain from Figure 9 how much
distance it will need to be able to take off.
The objective of this section is to find the runway length
necessary for the A319neo aircraft to operate at the
future Valle de Aran airport. For this, it is necessary to
take into account some physical parameters that affect
the design of the track.

Therefore, the application of some corrections will be of

great importance to obtain the real runway length
necessary for the aircraft in question to be able to
operate safely.

Normally there are some design manuals (ACAP)

depending on the aircraft in question from which it is
easy to obtain the runway length. However, these design
manuals are made taking into account certain physical
parameters in terms of temperature, elevation and slope
that do not correspond to those of the geographical
location of the airport to be designed.
From the A319 design manual ("AIRCRAFT
CHARACTERISTICS AIRPORT AND
MAINTENANCE PLANNING") we can obtain the
necessary runway length for the aircraft to operate under
standard conditions. These runway lengths will vary
depending on the model of the aircraft and its engine.
The aircrafts that will be able to operate if we consider
that the take-off is done with Maximum Take-Off Weight
are the A319neo (WV050, WV051, WV052, WV053).
Figure 9. A319neo Take-Off Weight Limitations at ISA
conditions with LEAP engines.
From Figure 9 we obtain the reference field length of the
A319neo. Therefore we can conclude that for a
temperature of 15°C, an elevation of 0 m and with
101.25 hPa the A319neo needs about 1550 meters to be
able to take off.
Now, knowing that the airport to be designed is at an
elevation of 1844 meters, with a reference temperature
of 19°C and a slope of 2%, the pertinent corrections to
the runway length obtained from the graphs will have to
be made.

7
I- CORRECTION FOR ELEVATION : The length of
the runway in standard conditions should be increased at Since the effects of the elevation and temperature
a rate of 7% for every 300 meters of elevation. corrections are bigger than 35% a specific study must be
carried.
0.07·ℎ(𝑚)
𝐿ℎ(𝑚) = 𝐿(𝑚) · (1 + 300
)
𝐿𝑝(𝑚) = 2571. 31 · (1 + 0. 1 · 2) = 2622. 8 𝑚

II- CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE: The

length of the runway precalculated increases by 1% for
every 1°C above the temperature of the ISA atmosphere.
In the ISA atmosphere the temperature drops 6.5°C for
every 1000 m of elevation.
𝐿𝑡(𝑚) = 𝐿ℎ(𝑚) · (1 + 0. 01 · (𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓(°𝐶) − 𝑇𝑠ℎ(°𝐶) ))
6.5·ℎ(𝑚)
𝑇𝑠ℎ(°𝐶) = 15°𝐶 − 1000
Once the pertinent corrections have been made, the
distance necessary for the A319neo to take off from the
Valle de Aran airport is 2622.8 meters.
Regarding landing corrections, only elevation
corrections must be taken into account. With this we can
ensure that the length of the runway obtained to land will
always be less than that necessary to take off.

0.07·1844
Note.— If the effect of the two previous corrections 𝐿ℎ(𝑚) 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 1550 · (1 + ) = 2216. 9 𝑚
300
combined is greater than 35%, it is necessary to carry
out a specific study.
The runway that has been decided to build has a length
III- CORRECTION FOR SLOPE: When the length of of 2965 meters and therefore the A319neo can operate
the runway in standard conditions is greater than 900 without any problem even with a take off weight equal to
meters, the previous length should be increased at a rate the MTOW.
of 10% for each 1% slope of the runway.

2.3.2 RUNWAY’S ORIENTATION

𝐿𝑝(𝑚) = 𝐿𝑡(𝑚) · (1 + 0. 1 · 𝑝(%))
2.3.2.1 METEOROLOGICAL STUDY
Now the runway corrections will be made with the
characteristics of the geographical area in which the Once the place where the aerodrome is to be designed
has been found, it will be necessary to carry out an
airport is to be designed.
in-depth meteorological study of the area and its
surroundings in order to determine the most optimal
- Elevation : ℎ(𝑚) = 1844 m runway orientation, the type of approach necessary to be
- Reference temperature (see Section IV able to operate in such aerodrome as well as the runway
“Meteorological Study”) : 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓(°𝐶) = 19°C corrections that will be taken into account when
designing the runway.
- Runway Length ISA conditions:
𝐿(𝑚) = 1550 𝑚 This study will be carried out by Meteoblue, which will
- Slope : 𝑝(%) = 2% provide us with climatic diagrams based on 30 years of
meteorological model simulations.
0.07·1844
𝐿ℎ(𝑚) = 1550 · (1 + 300
) = 2216. 9 𝑚

6.5·1844
𝑇𝑠ℎ(°𝐶) = 15°𝐶 − 1000
= 3. 014 °𝐶

𝐿𝑡(𝑚) = 2216. 9 · (1 + 0. 01 · (19 − 3. 014 ))

𝐿𝑡(𝑚) = 2571. 31 𝑚
2571.31 𝑚 Figure 10. Diagram of maximum and minimum temperatures
( 1550 𝑚
− 1) · 100 = 65. 9% > 35% and relative humidity of the Pla de Beret (2021).

8

The diagram presented in Figure 10 shows us the
average temperatures and relative humidity in the Pla de
Beret. From there, the aerodrome reference temperature
can be obtained. This is defined as the monthly mean of
the daily maximum temperatures of the hottest month of
the year obtained by averaging observations made over a
minimum of five years. With this, from Figure 11 it can
be seen that the hottest months are July and August with
an average temperature of 19° Celsius, which will be the
reference temperature of the aerodrome.
Figure 11. Diagram of cloudiness and precipitation of the Pla
de Beret (2021).
From Figure 11 we can see that the most critical month
in terms of rainfall is the month of May. This will force
us to do a deeper study in terms of security to be able to
operate during that time. On the other hand, the rainfall
in the Pla de Beret persists throughout the year, which
will make the aerodrome runway wet and therefore it is
very likely that the performance of the aircraft will be
affected.
We can also observe that throughout the year the
presence of clouds is important. We will have overcast
weather, meaning that the sky will be covered with
clouds obscuring at least 95% of the sky, as well as days
in which the weather will be partly cloudy. This will
have to be taken into account to establish security
measures since those days the visibility will be reduced.
On the other hand, we can also see that the coldest
months are December and January. We can see that
temperatures can be below 0° Celsius, which is normal
in an area located at 1844 m above sea level and very
close to the Pyrenees. Therefore, during these months
where the temperature can be below 0° Celsius, it is
9
possible to have precipitation in the form of snow. This
could cause some aerodrome equipment to freeze or
could even cause the icing effect on the aircraft, which
will affect the performance of the aircraft in question.
For this, the aerodrome must have all the necessary
equipment to be able to operate in such conditions.
Figure 12. Compass Rose of the Pla de Beret (2021).
Figure 12 shows the direction of the different wind
events and their speed. This Figure will be of great
importance when deciding which will be the best
possible runway orientation.
The most optimal runway orientation has to be able to
minimize the shear winds that reach the aircraft during
operations such as landing and takeoff. In our case, the
most important winds come from the SSW, S and WNW,
as can be seen in Figure X. The strongest winds are from
the SSW with a speed between 30 km/h - 35 km/h. In the
optimal runway orientation part, we will try to explain
what will be the best runway orientation so that those
important winds that we have become tail or head winds
and thus minimize shear winds.
2.3.2.2 OPTIMAL RUNWAY ORIENTATION
In this entry, an in-depth study will be carried out to
determine the best track orientation. The runway to be
designed must be oriented in the direction of the
prevailing wind, trying to avoid crosswinds at all times,
which will make takeoff and landing maneuvers difficult
since it takes the aircraft out of alignment on the runway
axis.
In conclusion, crosswinds must be avoided as much as
possible since they are capable of generating abrupt and
sudden changes both in takeoff and landing maneuvers,
and therefore, in order to maintain safety, it is necessary
to minimize the time in which the aircraft is facing the
Crosswind.

On the other hand, it must be taken into account that

depending on factors such as the weight of the aircraft,
its aerodynamics as well as the thrust force of its
engines, it will need a certain speed to be able to take
off. This causes the speed of the aircraft with respect to Figure 14. Wind direction and intensity Pla de Beret in
the ground to vary according to the direction of the wind. percentages.
When taking off or landing, for example with a Then a third table will be created (Figure 15), in which
headwind, this component is added to the component of the compass rose will be divided among the 16 existing
the air with respect to the surfaces of the aircraft and directions, the crosswind components will be broken
therefore less runway length will be needed both to take down into horizontal components, and finally, with a
off and to land. In the case in which we have a favorable search, an attempt will be made to find for each direction
wind, the opposite will happen, since the wind which one will be the most optimal runway orientation.
component will add to the speed of the aircraft and
therefore a longer runway length will be needed both to
land and to take off.

To determine the best runway orientation, the compass

rose has been used. A very precise study has been
carried out, downloading an Excel file from MeteoBlue
that contains a table with the number of winds coming
from each of the 16 possible directions and organizing
them according to their arrival intensity, as can be seen Figure 15. Divisions of the compass rose and horizontal
crosswind component.
in Figure 13.

Finally, in the last table (Figure 17) we present the two

possible aircraft that could operate taking into account
only the length of the terrain. For the A318, as it has a
reference field length of 1400 meters, Annex 14 of the
ICAO says that all winds greater than 13 knots will have
to be considered. In the case of the A319neo, having a
reference field length equal to 1550 meters, all winds
greater than 20 knots will have to be taken into account.
Figure 13. Wind direction and intensity Pla de Beret. Excel
File downloaded from MeteoBlue

Once we have the table in Figure 13, to facilitate the

study, another table has been made (Figure 14) that
presents each of the 16 wind directions and their
corresponding intensity as a function of percentages. To
go from Figure 13 to Figure 14, the only thing that has
been done is to divide each of the existing directions for Figure 16. Wind speed to consider depending on the reference
all intensities by the total number of winds that reach us. field length of the aircraft (Annex 14 ICAO)

According to Annex 14 of the ICAO, for an aircraft to be

able to operate without any problem at an aerodrome, the

10
percentage of time in which landing is possible must
exceed 95%.
Figure 17. Runway Orientation.
After trying all possible directions, the A318 is discarded
since it does not meet the condition of ANNEX 14
mentioned just before and therefore, the only aircraft that
can operate will be the A319neo with a NNE runway
orientation (see Figure 17). The landing will be possible
in 100% of the cases since there is no wind that exceeds
20 kts.
Figure 17. Runway Orientation located on the Compass Rose.
2.3.3 OBSTACLE LIMITATION SURFACES (OSL)
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
defines a series of surfaces around aerodromes and
airports that must be kept free of violations or
obstructions to ensure that aircraft can take off, land and
circulate safely.
11
Figure 18. OLS representation
Due to the considerable population growth, the approach
of the cities to the areas near the airports is more
frequent, causing conflicts between these two
intervening elements. The expansion of urban centers
sometimes causes the safety of air operations and airport
activities to be compromised. In this environment of
continuous evolution, it is essential that government
authorities adopt measures capable of ensuring
coexistence and normal development of the activities of
both actors: city and airport.
It is important and necessary to provide adequate
information on obstructions around airports, so that air
traffic controllers and pilots can comply with the
procedures and limitations of their use.
To guarantee safety in aircraft maneuvers, it is necessary
to establish a series of restrictions on the land located
around airports, in order to avoid the placement of
elements that could constitute obstacles, such as:
buildings, earthworks, communication antennas , wind
turbines, etc
The obstacle limitation surfaces are fictitious surfaces
that are drawn around the airport above which there can
be no obstacle, in order to protect aircraft maneuvers.

Figure 19. OLS ICAO scheme
Figure 20. OLS ICAO scheme
- Inner horizontal and Conical → protect the
airspace used in a visual pattern for flying
before landing.
- Approach and transitional → protect the aircraft
during the last phase of the approach to land
- Inner approach, Inner transitional and landing,
balked landing → define an OFZ (Obstacle Free
Zone) in the airspace next to the precision
runway.
- Take-off → protects the aircraft during take-off.
12
An adverse scenario is presented, due to the fact that the
airport is located in a very mountainous area, for which
it is essential to make a representation of the obstacle
limitation surfaces (OLS), with the aim of detecting the
greatest number of obstacles that could compromise
aircraft maneuvers.
To find out if these obstacles are a problem for the Vall
d'Aran airport located in the Pla de Beret, an in-depth
study is carried out following the rules and regulations
established by the ICAO document Annex 14.
Figure 20. OLS Measures & Regulations according to ICAO
Due to the fact that the Vall d'Aran airport is a category
3C airport, the following limited obstacle surfaces (OLS)
must be drawn, which will be represented below with the
help of the Google Earth program.
This program does not only make it easier for us to
locate possible obstacles, but it also gives a fairly
detailed estimate of the terrain and, on top of that, it
provides us with a fairly accurate general idea of the
space and shape that each obstacle limitation surface
occupies
2.3.3.1 INNER HORIZONTAL
4.1.4 Description.— Internal horizontal surface. Surface
situated in a horizontal plane above an aerodrome and
its surroundings.
4.1.5 Characteristics.— The radius or external limits of
the internal horizontal surface will be measured from the
reference point or points established for this purpose.
Note.— The internal horizontal surface need not
necessarily be circular. Guidance on determining the
extent of the internal horizontal surface is given in the
Airport Services Manual (Doc 9137), Part 6.
4.1.6 The height of the internal horizontal surface shall
be measured above the reference point for the elevation
established for this purpose.
Figure 22. Inner Surface profile.
Figure 23. Inner Surface of Pla de Beret Airport
13
2.3.3.2 CONICAL
4.1.1 Description.— Conical surface. An upward and
outward sloping surface extending from the periphery of
the inner horizontal surface.
4.1.2 Characteristics.— The limits of the conical surface
will include:
a) a lower edge that coincides with the periphery
of the internal horizontal surface; Y
b) an upper edge located at a certain height above
the internal horizontal surface.
4.1.3 The slope of the conical surface shall be measured
in a vertical plane perpendicular to the periphery of the
corresponding internal horizontal surface.
Figure 24. Conical Surface Profile
Figure 25. Conical Surface of Pla de Beret Airport
2.3.3.3 APPROACH
4.1.7 Description.— Approach surface. Inclined plane or
combination of planes before the threshold.
4.1.8 Characteristics.— The limits of the approach
surface will be:
 a) an inner edge of specified length, horizontal Figure 27. Approach surface of the Runway 20
and perpendicular to the extended runway
centerline and located a specified distance
before the threshold;

b) two sides that start from the ends of the inner

edge and diverge uniformly at a certain angle
with respect to the extension of the runway
centerline;

c) an outer edge parallel to the inner edge; Y

d) The above surfaces will vary when sidestepping,

offsetting or curved approaches are flown.
Specifically, the two sides that start from the
ends of the inner edge and diverge uniformly at
a certain angle from the extended axis of the
offset, offset, or curved track.

4.1.9 The elevation of the inner edge shall be equal to

that of the midpoint of the sill.

4.1.10 The slope or slopes of the approach surface shall

be measured in the vertical plane that contains the
center line of the runway and will continue to contain
the center line of any curved or lateral offset track.

Figure 28. Approach surface of the Runway 02

2.3.3.4 TAKE OFF CLIMB

4.1.25 Description.— Takeoff climb surface. Inclined

plane or other specified surface located beyond the end
of a runway or clearway.
Figure 26. Approach surface Profile
4.1.26 Characteristics.— The limits of the take-off climb
surface will be:

a) an inner edge, horizontal and perpendicular to

the runway centerline, located a specified
distance beyond the end of the runway or the
end of the clearway, if any, and its length
exceeds the specified distance;

b) two sides extending from the ends of the inner

edge and diverging uniformly, at a specified
angle from the take-off track, to a specified final
width, then maintaining that width along the rest
of the climb surface in the takeoff; Y

14
 c) an outer edge horizontal and perpendicular to
the specified take-off track.
4.1.27 The elevation of the inner edge shall be equal to
that of the highest point of the extension of the runway
centerline between the end of the runway and the inner
edge; or to that of the highest point above the ground in
the axis of the obstacle-free zone, when it exists.
4.1.28 In the case of a straight take-off path, the slope of
the take-off climb surface shall be measured in the
vertical plane containing the runway centerline.
4.1.29 In the case of a take-off flight path involving a
turn, the take-off climb surface shall be a complex
surface containing the horizontal normals to its axis; the
slope of the axis will be the same as that of the
rectilinear take-off flight path.
Figure 29. Take-Off climb surface Profile
Figure 30. Take-Off climb surface Profile of the Runway 20
15
Figure 31. Take-Off climb surface Profile of the Runway 02.
2.3.3.5 TRANSITIONAL
4.1.13 Description.— Transition surface. Complex
surface extends along the edge of the strip and part of
the edge of the approach surface, sloping upwards and
outwards to the inner horizontal surface.
4.1.14 Characteristics.— The limits of a transition
surface will be:
a) a lower edge beginning at the intersection of the
edge of the approach surface with the inner
horizontal surface and extending along the edge
of the approach surface to the inner edge of the
approach surface and thence for the entire
length of the strip, parallel to the runway axis; Y
b) an upper edge located in the plane of the
internal horizontal surface.
4.1.15 The elevation of a point on the lower edge will be:
a) along the edge of the approach surface — equal
to the elevation of the approach surface at that
point; Y
b) along the strip — equal to the elevation of the
nearest point on the centerline of the runway or
its extension.
Note.— As a consequence of b), the transitional surface
along the strip must be curved if the runway profile is
curved or must be flat if the runway profile is straight.
The intersection of the transitional surface with the
internal horizontal surface must also be a curved or
straight line depending on the track profile.
4.1.16 The slope of the transition surface shall be
measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the
centerline of the runway.
 Figure 32. Transitional surface of the Runway 20

Figure 34. Schematic profile of OLS

2.3.3.6 INNER APPROACH

4.1.11 Description.— Internal approach surface.

Rectangular portion of the approach surface
immediately before the threshold.

4.1.12 Characteristics.— The limits of the internal

approach surface will be:

a) an inner edge that coincides with the location of

Figure 33. Transitional surface of the Runway 02
Regarding the rest of the OLS, these depend on the
previous ones, that is to say that their limits and their
forms are determined by the measurements of the OLS
defined above. To determine the shape and the measures
of these ones, the following schemes represented in the
figure are followed.
the inner edge of the approach surface but has a
given length of its own;
b) two sides starting from the ends of the inner
edge and extending parallel to the vertical plane
containing the centerline of the runway; y
c) an outer edge parallel to the inner edge.

Figure 35. Inner approach of the runway 20

16
 Figure 36. Inner approach of the runway 02
Figure 37. Interrupted landing surface of the Runway 20
2.3.3.7 INTERRUPTED LANDING

4.1.21 Description.— Balked landing surface. Inclined

plane is located a specified distance after the threshold,
extending between the internal transition surfaces.

4.1.22 Characteristics.— The limits of the rejected

landing surface will be:

a) an inner edge horizontal and perpendicular to

the runway centerline, located a specified
distance after the threshold;

b) two sides extending from the ends of the inner

edge and diverging uniformly at a given angle
from the vertical plane containing the center line Figure 38. Interrupted landing surface of the Runway 02
of the runway; Y

c) an outer edge parallel to the inner edge and
located in the plane of the inner horizontal
surface.
4.1.23 The elevation of the inner edge shall be equal to
that of the runway centerline at the location of the inner
edge.
4.1.24 The slope of the balked landing surface shall be
measured in the vertical plane containing the center line
of the runway.
2.3.3.8 INNER TRANSITIONAL
Note.— The purpose of the inner transitional surface is
to serve as an obstacle limitation surface for navigation
aids, aircraft and other vehicles that must be in the
vicinity of the runway. Only frangible objects should
protrude from this surface. The function of the transition
surface defined in 4.1.13 is to serve in all cases as an
obstacle limitation surface for buildings, etc.
4.1.17 Description.— Internal transition surface.
Surface similar to the transition surface but closer to the
runway.

4.1.18 Characteristics.— The limits of the internal

transition surface will be:

a) a lower edge beginning at the end of the inner

approach surface and extending along the side
of the inner approach surface to the inner edge

17
 of this surface; thence along the strip parallel to
the runway centerline to the inner edge of the
interrupted landing surface and thence up along
the side of the interrupted landing surface to the
point where the side intersects the inner
horizontal surface ; Y

b) an upper edge located in the plane of the

internal horizontal surface.

4.1.19 The elevation of a point on the lower edge will be:

a) along the side of the inner approach surface

and the balked landing surface: equal to the
elevation of the surface considered at that point;
Y

b) along the strip — equal to the elevation of the

nearest point on the runway centerline or its
extension.

Note.— As a consequence of b), the inner transitional

surface along the strip must be curved if the runway
profile is curved or must be flat if the runway profile is
straight. The intersection of the inner transitional
surface with the inner horizontal surface must also be a
curved or straight line depending on the track profile.

4.1.20 The slope of the inner transition surface shall be

measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the Figure 40. Inner transitional of surface of the Runway 02
runway centerline.
As a final result, the aspect that the different obstacle
limitation surfaces (OLS) should have for the two
configurations of the runway is represented by the
figures 41 and 42.

These representations facilitate the detection of obstacles

because only the search for possible obstacles within the
perimeter that constitutes each surface is carried out.

Figure 39. Inner transitional surface of the Runway 20

18
 Figure 41. Airport’s OLS using Runway 20

Figure 43. Measurement lineses for Runway 20

Figure 42. Airport’s OLS using Runway 02

Once all the limitations that make up the different

obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS) have been
determined, the detection of possible obstacles capable
of crossing said surfaces begins.
To do this, we will use the Google earth program, with
which we will draw yellow lines, separated every 500 m
from each other. These yellow lines represent the y-axis
of the Runway to y as seen in the figures 43 and 44.
Figure 44. Measurement lines for Runway 02
The figure 45 represents the origin of coordinates on the
track, from which the x and y coordinates of the
obstacles with the potential to cross the obstacle
limitation surfaces (OLS) have been determined.

As seen in the previous study on the terrain where our

runway would be located, each sight line had been
followed in order to detect the highest point, depending
on which surface it is on, since google earth allows us to
see the unevenness of the terrain regarding the sea. Figure 45. Coordinate points

19
Based on this reference point, the obstacles that cross the 3.500, -2.620
obstacle limitation surfaces (OLS) are indicated in the 21 Peak 00 ,00 2.445,00 601 YES
following Tables with their x and y coordinates, their 4.000, -1.810
elevation and their height with respect to the runway. 22 Peak 00 ,00 2.502,00 658 YES
4.500, -1.650
INNER HORIZONTAL 23 Peak 00 ,00 2.370,00 526 YES
Radi -2.880
us 4000 m 24 Peak 0 ,00 2.169,00 325 YES
Heig -2.960
ht 45 m 25 Peak -500 ,00 2.236,00 392 YES
Obst Elevation Height -1.000 -3.000
acle Type X (m) Y (m) (m) (m) Pierces 26 Peak ,00 ,00 2.484,00 640 YES
1.410, -1.500 -2.020
1 Peak 0 00 2.210,00 366 YES 27 Peak ,00 ,00 2.316,00 472 YES
1.500, -2.000 -1.500
2 Peak 500 00 2.239,00 395 YES 28 Peak ,00 ,00 2.119,00 275 YES
1.000, 2.150, -1.000 -3.400
3 Peak 00 00 2.175,00 331 YES 29 Peak ,00 ,00 2.600,00 756 YES
1.500, 2.540,
4 Peak 00 00 2.294,00 450 YES CONICAL
2.000, 2.721, Slop
5 Peak 00 00 2.309,00 465 YES e 5%
2.500, 3.400, Heig 100
6 Peak 00 00 2.394,00 550 YES ht m
3.000, 3.020, Obst Elevation Height
7 Peak 00 00 2.388,00 544 YES acle Type X (m) Y (m) (m) MAX (m) Pierces
3.500, 2.270,
5.040,
8 Peak 00 00 2.280,00 436 YES
30 Peak 0,00 00 1.902,00 297,00 YES
4.000, 1.250,
500,0 5.730,
9 Peak 00 00 2.064,00 220 YES
31 Peak 0 00 1.955,00 331,50 YES
4.500, 2.000,
10 Peak 00 00 2.079,00 235 YES 1.000, 5.890,
32 Peak 00 00 1.869,00 339,50 NO
5.000, 1.300,
11 Peak 00 00 2.074,00 230 YES 1.500, 5.900,
1.500, 33 Peak 00 00 1.882,00 340,00 NO
12 Peak -500 00 2.117,00 273 YES 2.000, 5.730,
-1.000 2.000, 34 Peak 00 00 2.006,00 331,50 YES
13 Peak ,00 00 1.947,00 103 YES 2.500, 4.180,
-3.200 35 Peak 00 00 2.198,00 254,00 YES
14 Peak 0 ,00 2.208,00 364 YES 3.000, 4.400,
-1.700 36 Peak 00 00 2.270,00 265,00 YES
15 Peak 500 ,00 2.271,00 427 YES 3.500, 4.490,
1.000, -2.240 37 Peak 00 00 2.490,00 269,50 YES
16 Peak 00 ,00 2.498,00 654 YES 4.000, 4.600,
1.500, -2.790 38 Peak 00 00 2.615,00 275,00 YES
17 Peak 00 ,00 2.581,00 737 YES
4.500, 4.400,
2.000, -3.780
39 Peak 00 00 2.612,00 265,00 YES
18 Peak 00 ,00 2.546,00 702 YES
5.000, 4.590,
2.500, -3.540
40 Peak 00 00 2.653,00 274,50 YES
19 Peak 00 ,00 2.568,00 724 YES
5.500, 2.050,
3.000, -3.140
41 Peak 00 00 2.268,00 147,50 YES
20 Peak 00 ,00 2.508,00 664 YES

20
 4.350, leng
42 Peak 00 0,00 2.116,00 62,50 YES th
-4.302 10
43 Peak ,00 0,00 2.021,00 60,10 YES Divergence % Divergence 15% Divergence 15%
-500,0 5.460, 2,50
44 Peak 0 00 2.107,00 318,00 YES Slope 5% Slope % Slope 0%
Length 1st 160 Length 2st 3600 Length 3rt 8400
-1.000 5.120,
section 0 m section m section m
45 Peak ,00 00 2.215,00 301,00 YES
Obs Elevat Heig Height
-1.500 4.980,
tacl X Y ion ht MAX Pier
46 Peak ,00 00 1.863,00 294,00 NO
e Type (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) ces
-2.000 4.630,
-500 78,8 1.871, 27,0
47 Peak ,00 00 1.596,00 276,50 NO
90 Peak ,00 0 00 0 8,80 YES
500,0 -5.06
10.0
48 Peak 0 0,00 2.577,00 298,00 YES
-500 -182 11.870 26,0
1.000, -4.87 91 Peak ,00 ,00 ,00 0 8,80 YES
49 Peak 00 0,00 2.497,00 288,50 YES
-1.0
1.500, -4.85 00,0 -282 1.868, 24,0
50 Peak 00 0,00 2.529,00 287,50 YES 92 Peak 0 ,00 00 0 18,80 YES
2.000, -4.66 -3.5
51 Peak 00 0,00 2.630,00 278,00 YES 00,0 2.014, 170,
2.500, -5.00 93 Peak 0 0,00 00 00 72,50 YES
52 Peak 00 0,00 2.633,00 295,00 YES -4.0
3.000, -5.03 00,0 2.017, 173,
53 Peak 00 0,00 2.510,00 296,50 YES 94 Peak 0 0,00 00 00 85,00 YES
3.500, -4.73 -4.5
54 Peak 00 0,00 2.415,00 281,50 YES 00,0 182, 1.986, 142,
4.000, -5.67 95 Peak 0 00 00 00 97,50 YES
55 Peak 00 0,00 2.628,00 328,50 YES -4.0
4.500, -5.47 00,0 -337 1.991, 147,
56 Peak 00 0,00 2.452,00 318,50 YES 96 Peak 0 ,00 00 00 85,00 YES
5.000, -3.110 -6.5
57 Peak 00 ,00 2.300,00 200,50 YES 00,0 950, 2.050, 206,
-500,0 -4.97 97 Peak 0 00 00 00 147,50 YES
58 Peak 0 0,00 2.428,00 293,50 YES -7.0
-1.000 -5.40 00,0 574, 2.019, 175,
59 Peak ,00 0,00 2.560,00 315,00 YES 98 Peak 0 00 00 00 150,00 YES
-1.500 -4.10 -8.5
60 Peak ,00 0,00 2.550,00 250,00 YES 00,0 2.217, 373,
99 Peak 0 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES
-2.000 -3.98
61 Peak ,00 0,00 2.362,00 244,00 YES -10.
500, 1.29 2.694, 850,
100 Peak 00 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES
APPROACH 20
-11.
Distance
000, 1.35 2.755, 911,
DIstance Distance from
101 Peak 00 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES
from 30 from 3060 threshol 6660
threshold m threshold m d m -12.
500, 1.80 2.656, 812,
Inne
102 Peak 00 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES
r 30 Inner edge 2280 Inner edge 4800
edge m length m length m 103 Peak -13. 2.15 2.805, 961, 150,00 YES

21
 000, 0,00 00 00 section 0 m section m section m
00 Obs Elevat Heig Height
-14. tacl X Y ion ht MAX Pier
000, 2.42 2.616, 772, e Type (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) ces
104 Peak 00 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES 4.50 -343 1.934, 90,0
-14. 62 Peak 0,00 ,00 00 0 29,50 YES
500, 2.58 2.763, 919, 6.00 522, 1.951, 107,
105 Peak 00 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES 63 Peak 0,00 00 00 00 59,50 YES
-8.0 6.50 641, 2.135, 291,
00,0 -250 2.426, 582, 64 Peak 0,00 00 00 00 71,88 YES
106 Peak 0 ,00 00 00 150,00 YES 7.00 645, 2.176, 332,
-10. 65 Peak 0,00 00 00 00 84,38 YES
000, -578 2.506, 662, 7.50 763, 2.281, 437,
107 Peak 00 ,00 00 00 150,00 YES 66 Peak 0,00 00 00 00 96,88 YES
-10. 8.00 902, 2.381, 537,
500, -510 2.560, 716, 67 Peak 0,00 00 00 00 109,38 YES
108 Peak 00 ,00 00 00 150,00 YES 8.50 1.03 2.311, 467,
-11. -1.1 68 Peak 0,00 0,00 00 00 121,88 YES
500, 00,0 2.715, 871, 9.00 1.04 2.450, 606,
109 Peak 00 0 00 00 150,00 YES 69 Peak 0,00 0,00 00 00 134,38 YES
-12. -1.9 9.50 94,0 2.014, 170,
000, 70,0 2.769, 925, 70 Peak 0,00 0 00 00 146,88 YES
110 Peak 00 0 00 00 150,00 YES
8.50 -770 2.030, 186,
-12. 71 Peak 0,00 ,00 00 00 121,88 YES
500, -997 2.632, 788,
9.00 -307 2.302, 458,
111 Peak 00 ,00 00 00 150,00 YES
72 Peak 0,00 ,00 00 00 134,38 YES
-14. -1.5
9.50 -376 2.032, 188,
000, 00,0 2.507, 663,
73 Peak 0,00 ,00 00 00 146,88 YES
112 Peak 00 0 00 00 150,00 YES
10.0
-14. -1.2
00,0 291, 2.657, 813,
500, 00,0 2.812, 968,
74 Peak 0 00 00 00 150,00 YES
113 Peak 00 0 00 00 150,00 YES
10.5
-15. -2.0
00,0 382, 2.490, 646,
000, 40,0 2.887, 1.04
75 Peak 0 00 00 00 150,00 YES
114 Peak 00 0 00 3,00 150,00 YES
11.0
-15. -2.0
00,0 907, 2.348, 504,
000, 40,0 2.887, 1.04
76 Peak 0 00 00 00 150,00 YES
115 Peak 00 0 00 3,00 150,00 YES
11.5
00,0 1.32 2.107, 263,
APPROACH 02 77 Peak 0 0,00 00 00 150,00 YES
DIstance Distance Distance 12.0
from 30 from 3060 from 6660 00,0 966, 2.271, 427,
threshold m threshold m threshold m 78 Peak 0 00 00 00 150,00 YES
Inner edge 30 Inner edge 2280 Inner edge 4800
12.5
length m length m length m
00,0 827, 2.104, 260,
10
79 Peak 0 00 00 00 150,00 YES
Divergence % Divergence 15% Divergence 15%
10.0
2,50
00,0 -847 2.649, 805,
Slope 5% Slope % Slope 0%
80 Peak 0 ,00 00 00 150,00 YES
Length 1st 160 Length 2st 3600 Length 3rt 8400

22
 10.5 8.000 805,0 2.259,0 415,0
00,0 -750 2.408, 564, 119 Peak ,00 0 0 0 99,50 YES
81 Peak 0 ,00 00 00 150,00 YES 8.500 900,0 2.363,0 519,0
11.0 -1.2 120 Peak ,00 0 0 0 109,50 YES
00,0 00,0 2.253, 409, 9.000 2.613,0 769,0
82 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES 121 Peak ,00 93,80 0 0 119,50 YES
11.5 -1.3 9.500 286,0 2.658,0 814,0
00,0 40,0 2.475, 631, 122 Peak ,00 0 0 0 129,50 YES
83 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES 10.00 375,0 2.491,0 647,0
12.0 -1.2 123 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 139,50 YES
00,0 50,0 2.193, 349, 10.50 918,0 2.346,0 502,0
84 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES 124 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 149,50 YES
12.5 -1.0 11.00 1.000 2.295,0 451,0
00,0 80,0 2.155, 311, 125 Peak 0,00 ,00 0 0 159,50 YES
85 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES
11.50 963,0 2.271,0 427,0
16.0 -1.9 126 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 169,50 YES
00,0 40,0 2.072, 228,
12.00 819,0 2.104,0 260,0
86 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES
127 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 179,50 YES
16.5 -2.2
12.50 2.051,0 207,0
00,0 30,0 2.258, 414,
128 Peak 0,00 0,00 0 0 189,50 YES
87 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES
4.000 2.125,0 281,0
17.0 -1.9
129 Peak ,00 0,00 0 0 19,50 YES
00,0 80,0 2.189, 345,
88 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES 4.500 2.126,0 282,0
130 Peak ,00 0,00 0 0 29,50 YES
17.5 -1.8
00,0 30,0 2.079, 235, 5.000 2.017,0 173,0
89 Peak 0 0 00 00 150,00 YES 131 Peak ,00 0,00 0 0 39,50 YES
5.500 -316, 2.302,0 458,0
132 Peak ,00 00 0 0 49,50 YES
TAKE-OFF 20 6.000 -380, 2.631,0 787,0 YES
133 Peak ,00 00 0 0 59,50
Length of 180
Inner edge m 6.500 -847, 2.699,0 855,0
Distance from 134 Peak ,00 00 0 0 69,50 YES
RWY end 60 m 7.000 -750, 2.408,0 564,0
Divergence 135 Peak ,00 00 0 0 79,50 YES
(each side) 13% 7.500 -800, 2.200,0 356,0
180 136 Peak ,00 00 0 0 89,50 YES
Final width m 8.000 -900, 2.296,0 452,0
1500 137 Peak ,00 00 0 0 99,50 YES
Length 0m 8.500 -1.00 2.138,0 294,0
Slope 2% 138 Peak ,00 0,00 0 0 109,50 YES
Heig Height
Obst X Y Elevati ht MAX Pierc
acle Type (m) (m) on (m) (m) (m) es TAKE_OFF 02
6.500 502,0 2.089,0 245,0 Length of 180
116 Peak ,00 0 0 0 69,50 YES Inner edge m
7.000 597,0 2.154,0 310,0 Distance from
117 Peak ,00 0 0 0 79,50 YES RWY end 60 m
7.500 730,0 2.314,0 470,0 Divergence
118 Peak ,00 0 0 0 89,50 YES (each side) 13%

23
 180 -10.0 -578, 2.506,0 662,0
Final width m 159 Peak 00,00 00 0 0 198,80 YES
1500 -10.5 -504, 2.592,0 748,0
Length 0m 160 Peak 00,00 00 0 0 208,80 YES
Slope 2% -11.5 -1.09 2.715,0 871,0
Heig Height 161 Peak 00,00 0,00 0 0 228,80 YES
Obst X Y Elevati ht MAX Pierc -12.0 -858, 2.607,0 763,0
acle Type (m) (m) on (m) (m) (m) es 162 Peak 00,00 00 0 0 238,80 YES
-3.50 252,0 1.999,0 155,0 -12.5 -995, 2.633,0 789,0
139 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 68,80 YES 163 Peak 00,00 00 0 0 248,80 YES
-4.00 2.021,0 177,0 -13.5 -1.07 2.633,0 789,0
140 Peak 0,00 94,20 0 0 78,80 YES 164 Peak 00,00 0,00 0 0 268,80 YES
-4.50 160,0 1.984,0 140,0 -14.0 -1.20 2.812,0 968,0
141 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 88,80 YES 165 Peak 00,00 0,00 0 0 278,80 YES
-6.50 793,0 2.022,0 178,0
142 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 128,80 YES
TRANSITION 20
-7.00 569,0 2.019,0 175,0
143 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 138,80 YES Strip
Leng
-7.50 2.173,0 329,0
th 60 m
144 Peak 0,00 77,50 0 0 148,80 YES
Slop 14,30
-8.00 2.280,0 436,0 e %
145 Peak 0,00 38,80 0 0 158,80 YES
Strip
-8.50 2.280,0 436,0 Widt
146 Peak 0,00 0,00 0 0 168,80 YES h 140 m
-9.00 2.037,0 193,0 Heig Height
147 Peak 0,00 0,00 0 0 178,80 YES Obst X Y Elevati ht MAX Pierc
-9.50 951,0 2.194,0 350,0 acle Type (m) (m) on (m) (m) (m) es
148 Peak 0,00 0 0 0 188,80 YES -1.50 405,0 1.876,0
-10.0 865,0 2.410,0 566,0 186 Peak 0,00 0 0 32,00 57,915 NO
149 Peak 00,00 0 0 0 198,80 YES 389,0 1.856,0
-11.0 411,0 2.647,0 803,0 187 Peak 0,00 0 0 12,00 55,627 NO
150 Peak 00,00 0 0 0 218,80 YES 500,0 424,0 1.906,0
-11.5 488,0 2.503,0 659,0 188 Peak 0 0 0 62,00 60,632 NO
151 Peak 00,00 0 0 0 228,80 YES 1.500 433,0 1.904,0
-14.5 2.345,0 501,0 189 Peak ,00 0 0 60,00 61,919 NO
152 Peak 00,00 0,00 0 0 288,80 YES 2.000 437,0 1.895,0
-3.50 2.015,0 171,0 190 Peak ,00 0 0 51,00 62,491 NO
153 Peak 0,00 0,00 0 0 68,80 YES 2.500 445,0 1.869,0
-4.00 2.018,0 174,0 191 Peak ,00 0 0 25,00 63,491 NO
154 Peak 0,00 0,00 0 0 78,80 YES 3.000 415,0 1.861,0
-7.00 -416, 2.077,0 233,0 192 Peak ,00 0 0 17,00 59,345 NO
155 Peak 0,00 00 0 0 138,80 YES -415, 1.901,0
-7.50 -167, 2.279,0 435,0 193 Peak 0,00 00 0 57,00 59,345 NO
156 Peak 0,00 00 0 0 148,80 YES -500, -341, 1.872,0
-8.00 -250, 2.426,0 582,0 194 Peak 00 00 0 28,00 48,763 NO
157 Peak 0,00 00 0 0 158,80 YES -1.00 -446, 1.909,0
-8.50 -650, 2.352,0 508,0 195 Peak 0,00 00 0 65,00 63,778 YES
158 Peak 0,00 00 0 0 168,80 YES -1.50 -418, 1.891,0
196 Peak 0,00 00 0 47,00 59,774 NO

24
 500,0 -446, 1.899,0 ,00 00 0
197 Peak 0 00 0 55,00 63,778 NO 2.000 -444, 1.886,0
1.000 -437, 1.902,0 215 Peak ,00 00 0 42,00 63,49 NO
198 Peak ,00 00 0 58,00 62,491 NO 2.500 -444, 1.875,0
1.500 -455, 1.885,0 216 Peak ,00 00 0 31,00 63,49 NO
199 Peak ,00 00 0 41,00 65,065 NO 3.000 -443, 1.914,0
2.000 -442, 1.886,0 217 Peak ,00 00 0 70,00 63,35 YES
200 Peak ,00 00 0 42,00 63,206 NO 3.500 -463, 1.894,0
3.000 -447, 1.914,0 218 Peak ,00 00 0 50,00 66,21 NO
201 Peak ,00 00 0 70,00 63,921 YES 4.000 -484, 1.945,0 101,0
219 Peak ,00 00 0 0 69,21 YES
4.500 -471, 1.992,0 148,0
TRANSITION 02 220 Peak ,00 00 0 0 67,35 YES
Strip
Leng
th 60 m 2.4. AIRPORT CONFIGURATION
Slop 14,30
e % One of the most important parts of our project, and what
Strip will affect us the most are the ground-based architecture.
Widt We took into account information such as the type of
h 140 m airplane that will perform in our runways, the location of
Heig Height our airport, the weather, among other vital information.
Obst X Y Elevati ht MAX Pierc
acle Type (m) (m) on (m) (m) (m) es
Our scenarios will never be crowded on ground since we
419,0 1.893,0
have 5 departures and 5 arrivals every hour. When it
202 Peak 0,00 0 0 49,00 59,92 NO
comes to safety it is important to guarantee that the wake
500,0 426,0 1.907,0
vortex turbulence that every airplane leaves behind will
203 Peak 0 0 0 63,00 60,92 YES
not affect in a notorious way to the planes behind. Since
1.000 425,0 1.902,0
we have a wide period of time between departing and
204 Peak ,00 0 0 58,00 60,78 NO
arriving aircrafts, it will not be a problem, and that is one
1.500 423,0 1.891,0
of the main reasons we implemented a single runway,
205 Peak ,00 0 0 47,00 60,49 NO
there is no need to add one or more.
2.000 414,0 1.859,0
206 Peak ,00 0 0 15,00 59,20 NO
2.500 434,0 1.864,0 2.4.1 RUNWAYS SLOPES
207 Peak ,00 0 0 20,00 62,06 NO
3.000 394,0 1.857,0 When it comes to the slopes, there exist three different
208 Peak ,00 0 0 13,00 56,34 NO types. To choose its parameters we took into account the
3.500 423,0 1.871,0 key number of our airport. Recalling that we have a type
209 Peak ,00 0 0 27,00 60,49 NO
3:
4.000 437,0 1.855,0
210 Peak ,00 0 0 11,00 62,49 NO
2.4.2 LONGITUDINAL SLOPES
-393, 1.901,0
211 Peak 0,00 00 0 57,00 56,20 YES
Found by dividing the difference between the maximum
500,0 -432, 1.896,0
and minimum elevation along the runway axis, its length
212 Peak 0 00 0 52,00 61,78 NO
should not exceed 1.0%. Looking at the first and last
1.000 -402, 1.896,0
quarter is totally forbidden to exceed 0.8%, whereas
213 Peak ,00 00 0 52,00 57,49 NO
nowhere on the whole runway the 1.5%.
214 Peak 1.500 -451, 1.883,0 39,00 64,49 NO

25

2.4.3 CROSS SLOPES
Must be a constant 1.5% for our code letter C. As an
only exception at intersections, it should not be less than
1%.
2.4.4 RUNWAY SLOPE
Declared to be the distance between change on slope
followed by the equation:
slope = K*[|x-y|+|y-z|], in our scenario with K=15000
since our key number is 3.
The formula could be applied or use directly 45 meters
being x,y,z the partial slopes as shown in the figure
below:
Figure 46.Minimum distance between slope change
sections. Surce: ETSIA
2.4.5 SHOULDERS
Symmetrically at each side of our runway, since our
width is less than 60m, exactly 30m, our shoulders’
width of the whole set is 60 m.
For the shoulders' slopes as already mentioned with the
runway and transversal slope, not larger than 2.5%.
Figure 47. Shoulders
2.4.6 STRIP
Area where any object on it will be considered
dangerous and a priority to be eliminated immediately.
One of its aims, as stated in Doc.9157. Part 1, is to
26
protect ILS/MLS critical areas. Due to jet blast, it has a
distance of 30m in the strip and next to be threshold to
avoid the erosion produced. The length will extend
before the threshold and after the opposite trip of the
SWY a distance of 60m, and its width will extend to
each side of the centreline and tip extensions about
140m.
Another part of the strip it's the graded part, prepared to
avoid the sinking of the nose gear in case of runway run
off. Our instrumental runway at each side of the runway
will be 75m. However, as ICAO Annex 14 recommends,
for precision approaches, it would be convenient to
adopt greater width. The part to be leveled extends
laterally to a distance of 105m from the centerline,
decreasing its distance to 75m at both strip’s ends along
a distance of 150m from the end of our RWY, as shown
in Figure X.
Figure 48.
We should also consider the following strip’s slopes:
➢ Longitudinal = 1.75%
➢ Cross = 2.5%
Anywhere will exceed a 5% upward slope.
Moreover, part of the strip to be leveled is able to
minimize the problems arising from the allowable load
difference in the event of an aircraft leaving the runway.
2.4.7 RUNWAY EXTREME SAFETY AREA (RESA)
Mandatory for our code number, reducing the risk of
damaging the plane performing a short landing or a
runway excursion. Also provide help for the firefighting
and rescue vehicles enable the breaking down.
From the strip limit to 90m, although we amplified it to
240 m for our code number. Its width, by definition,
must at least double the runway width, so in our case
60m.
 Threshold signals are more flexible, we could find
airports with white or yellow colors. Recalling black is
Figure 49. RESA always the opposite color that is used in any case. There
are two scenarios, designed threshold for less than 6
months, or for more, commonly they are permanent.
2.4.8 CLEARWAY (CWY)

The free-obstacle area whose length should not exceed

the half of the take-off distance available. Its width
should be at least 75m at each side of the extension of
the runway centreline. Its length will be less or equal to
half of the TODA.

2.4.9 STOPWAY (SWY)

Stop area with enough strength to support the weight of

the intended user aircrafts without producing structural
damage to them. Width equal to the our RWY, 30m.
Figure 52. Displaced threshold (more than 6 months)

Figure 50 . RESA, CWY, SWY

2.4.10 HORIZONTAL MARKING RUNWAY

For numbers and generally signals, white color is

imposed, whereas for the background or the silhouettes,
black paint is used. These opposite colors will help pilots
to easily identify the markings. In our case, it would look Figure 53. Displaced threshold (less than 6 months)
like Figure 51.
However, our runway will not have a displaced
threshold, so in the future, if needed, a displaced
threshold for less than 6 month could be implemented.

Touchdown areas are designed to guide the flight crew

where the airplane should be landing. Lines located side
to side the centerline of the runway, will decrease once
the runway ends.

Figure 51. Horizontal marking

For the design of the numbers, ICA. Annex 14 specifies

the shape and dimensions of the numbers and characters
for every type of runway.

27

Figure 54. Touchdown areas
On the runway we can also find cross signals meaning it
is no longer operative the part of the runway.
Holding points markings are those where pilots should
wait till new information arrives. In other words, it will
be similar to stop signals for cars, but only detected on
ground and yellow colored. Also we could implement a
red square with withe letters that say “NO ENTRY”.
They can give the message also with a line of red lights,
meaning they must stop, and they can go on when it
turns off.
Other yellow and black marks are the one to guide the
pilots, with black border, to distinguish them from the
yellow ones that delimit the pavement. Also some
messages can be found to give different directions with
letters and arrows in yellow or if they are in red, to
express obligation.
2.4.11 LIGHTS
Firstly, the edge lights are located along two parallel
rows equidistant from the edge and along the whole of it.
Mandatory for night flights and precision approaches.
Evenly spaced in rows at intervals no greater than 60m
in instrumental runways and 100m in visual flight
runways. Visible from all azimuth angles that are needed
to guide the pilot landing or taking off in any of the
directions. White unless the threshold is offset, in which
case the lights from start to threshold will be red in the
approach direction.
Figure 55. Edge lights
28
Secondly, the centerline lights are located along the axis
of the runway, but when this is not feasible they can
move uniformly to the same side of the axis of the
runway at a maximum distance of 60 cm. They are
located from the threshold to the end, with an
approximate longitudinal spacing of 15m. From the
threshold to the point located 900m from the end of the
runway they will be white. Between 900m and 300m
from the end of the runway there will be alternating red
and white lights. In the last 300m of the runway they
will be red. (NOTE: if the runway is less than 1800m,
the alternating lights will extend from the middle of the
runway to 300m from the end).
Moreover, we should not forget, to guide pilots to arrive
at the main runway, lights will alternate from yellow and
green colors. On the other hand, centered green lights
separated by less than 30 m, are meant to express the
airplane is in the taxiway.
Furthermore, taxiways can have its boundary surrounded
by blue lights every less than 60 m, delimiting its area.
Centerline guidance for take-off from the start of the
runway to an displaced threshold should be provided by
one of the following methods:
➢ An approach lighting system
➢ Runway Axle Lights
➢ 3m long bars spaced at even 30m
intervals.
Figure 56. Centerline guidance lights
2.4.12 RUNWAY THRESHOLD LIGHTS AND WING
BAR
Runway threshold lights should be spaced between rows
of runway edge lights or symmetrically with respect to
the axis of the runway in two groups. Wing bar lights
shall be installed when a more visible indication of the
threshold is deemed desirable, and for precision
approach runways. Both the runway threshold lights and
wing bar lights are solid green and one-way.
 This section of the project describes arrival and
departing procedures pilots should follow in order to
accomplish legal and safety requirements.
Approximation charts are attached as annexes to have a
clear vision of the final result, taking into account
possible flights will have origin/destination Barcelona,
Madrid and Ireland.

The main parameters and limitations used are the ones

Figure 57. Displaced threshold lights
already mentioned in the previous section iAirport.
Although visual flights could be mentioned to study to
take place, many beneficial factors should take place at
the same time. That is the reason we generalized and
determined that all the procedures must be instrumental
ones due to the elevated altitude, irregular terrain and
treacherous weather. Focusing on the terrain and winds’
directions, we determined that landing procedures will
take action from RWY 02 and RWY 20 will be used
exclusively for departures.

3.1 DIVISIONS OF AIR TRAFFIC

2.4.13 RUNWAY END LIGHTS
They will be located forming a line perpendicular to the
axis of the runway, as close to the end as possible. Six
lights at least. Spaced between the rows of runway edge
lights or symmetrically about the runway axis in two
groups. Fixed unidirectional red.
Firstly, we must determine and have knowledge of what
sectors will affect our airport. Airspace has regions with
divisions and subdivisions in order to avoid collisions
and have a fluent management of flights. We are going
to determine them from the most general and then get
closer to our location.

ICAO divided the globe in 9 different regions of FIR

(Flight Information Region).

FIR Location
PAC Pacific
ASIA Asia
MID Middle East
Figure 58. Runway end lights EUR Europe
AFI África
2.4.14 STOPWAY LIGHTS SAM South America
NAT North Atlantic
Fixed, one-way red visible in the direction of the CAR Central America
runway. NAM North America

Easily we identify our FIR as EUR. European regions, as

3. IAIP the other ones, have subdivisions, too. Spain has three of
them colliding to organize its airspace.

29
 FIR Location accommodate as many aircraft categories as possible, in
GCCC Canary Islands our project we can make it more specific since we are
LECM Madrid only considering one type of aircraft. The SID terminates
LECB Barcelona at the first fix, waypoint, or facility of the en-route that
follows the departure procedure. Following the
document 8168 of PANS-OPS, from ICAO, we should
Madrid’s FIR also has an internal division in Seville. In
consider some requirements.
any case, it does not affect our airport, which is inside
FIR LECB, Barcelona area. These portions also are split
There are two types of SID, which are based on track
vertically, distinguishing between a lower region referred
guidance acquired;
to as FIR, starting from SFC up to FL195, and an upper
- Straight departure: Initial departure track that is
region as UIR (Upper Information Region), starting at
under 15% of the runway’s center line. Track
the end of the FIR FL195 up to FL660.
guidance within 20 km (10.8 NM) from DER
(Departure End of the Runway).
Getting closer, we defined our CTA (Controlled Traffic
- Turning departures: Initial departure track needs
Area). In Spain this space is always bigger than 300 m
more than a 15% misalignment of the runwyas’s
(984 ft), it never begins from the ground since it is
center line. Track guidance within 10 km (5.4
assigned exclusively to VFR, and there coexists 8 of
NM) after doing necessary turns.
them. This space is designed to manage IFR entries and
exits. For the TMA (Terminal Maneuvering Area), we
We studied three possible SIDs.
have the Barcelona one, too. Which is established at the
confluence of different routes in the vicinity of our
3.2.1 SID - ANETO
airport.

Intercept radial 263º of theDVOR/DME VDA direct to

The CTR (Controlled Traffic Region), airspace that goes
ANETO, it has a distance from our airport of 18 NM.
from the surface to a specified upper limit. This limit
might be designed taking into account factors such as
our arirport’s elevation, the terrain, procedures taking
place in the surroundings. The cylinder has a radius of
9.23 km (5 NM), and its height must be greater than 300
meters, so we settled 310 m. This elected choice takes
into account the ATZ height.

The last parameter is the ATZ (Aerodrome Traffic Zone),

a delimited zone aimed to cover aircraft movements near
an aerodrome. In other words, it is associated with a
specified aerodrome where controllers can manage the Figure 59. SID ANETO
area. Despite it may vary, in Spain these sectors are
delimited with it having a configuration of a cylinder 3.2.2 SID - MOPAS
volume with a radius of 8 km and a height of 900 m.
Intercept radial 349º direct to MOPAS, it has a distance
from our airport of 18 NM, too.

3.2 SIDS

Firstly, for this part of the project we are going to

determine SIDs (Standard Instrument Departure)
necessary for our airport. This procedure is developed to

30
 3.3 STARS

First procedure for pilots to follow are the STARs

(Standard Instrument Arrival), to finally end with an
approximation for the runway. We studied three different
STARS.

3.3.1 STAR - GIROM

Intercept the 024º Radial with a distance of 3NM.

This particular case is too close to our runway, so we did
not choose it.

Figure 60. SID MOPAS

3.2.3 SID - TURUV

Intercept radial 224º direct to TURUV, it has a distance

from our airport of 31 NM.
Figure 62. STAR GIROM

3.3.2 STAR - NAPTI

Follow a 089º radial, far 12 NM.

Figure 63. SID NAPTI

Figure 61. SID TURUV

31
3.3.3 STAR - OKABI
Follow a 105º radial far 24 NM.
Figure 64. SID OKABI
3.4 IAC APPROXIMATION
When it comes to the IAC approximations, we choose a
conventional one. It has different phases which pilots
must follow to achieve and ensure a safe performance.
This segments have defined fixed points to delimit when
and where the procedure must be performed. A visual
representation is attached in Figure 65.
Figure 65. Segments of instrument approach
The approach IAC chart is attached at the end of this
report, on the Annexes.
3.4.1 INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT
First step to be followed by the air crew. Begins at a fix
or point, called IAF (see Figure 65). Sets the end of the
arrival route, being an awareness for the pilots to start
the maneuver.
Separate procedures are published when different
minimum altitudes, timings or outbound tracks are
32
specified for different types of aircraft. We have two
Initial Approach Segments and both holdings are at FL
115.
The IAF located at the left, called DAVAL, is located at
43º13’59”N, 1º0’16”E. Far 30 NM from the DME VDA.
When pilots finish to do the holding, they must follow
168º radial form the VOR to intersect with an ARC
DME of 11 NM from the VOR/DME VDA.
The holding with coordinates 42º49’13”N 1º35’7”E, at
the right, is called VALLAN. The procedure specifies
that once finished the holding, pilots must follow a 251º
radial to end crossing with the DME ARC of 9 NM from
the same VOR/DME as in the other case.
Figure 66. Initial Approach Segment
3.4.2 INTERMEDIATE APPROACH SEGMENT
Segment that starts in the Intermediate Fix and lasts till
the Fixed Approach Point/Fix. The flight crew starts to
reduce velocity, and altitude in order to have a safe
landing. Its obstacle separation is reduced from the 300
m at the beginning, to its half, 150 m. Again, we have
two intermediate approach segments, which start in
different Initial Fixes but end up in the same Final
Approach Point. Moreover, both of them do not have to
reduce their flight level.
The left located in the Intermediate Segment, starts at the
fix of the DME VDA of 11 NM. It follows a DME ARC
of 11 NM till it arrives at the one of 9 NM.

For the right segment, it starts and follows the same

9NM DMA, till it intersects the magnetic radial of 201º,
the one is centerlined on the runway.

Figure 68. Final Approach Segment

Figure 67.Intermediate Approach Segment

3.4.4 MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT

3.4.3 FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT

Also a compulsory segment for all types of
approximations. When pilots realize or consider the
As its name implies, it is the last phase to have a safe
maneuver could not be safely performed, they follow the
landing. The airplane is aligned with the runway
missed approach segment. This configuration must be as
centerline. It begins at the FAF or FAP, and ends at the
easy to follow as it can, since the pilots have a limited
runway. Undoubtedly, a compulsory segment for all
time of reaction. It provides safety when it comes to
types of approximations. Necessary to consider that FAF
ensuring an obstacle clearance.
(Fixed Approach Fix) is not the same as FAP (Fixed
Approach Point), which is used in precision approaches.
Starts at the MAPt, point located at only 0,5 NM from
In our scenario then, we will implement a FAP, due to
the VOR/DME called VDA.
our approach being based on precision.
Pilots will follow a magnetic heading of 201º, then
moving to the left with a 112º one, to end up crossing a
Starts at the intersection of the DME ARC of 9 NM and
DME ARC of 7 NM. The last step will be to go to the
the magnetic heading of 201º of the VOR/DME VDA.
holding to try the maneuver again or wait for new
Reducing the altitude till arrives at the MAPt, explained
information in it wth a flight level of 115 in both cases.
next, or to a safe and successful landing.

33

Figure 69. Missed Approach Segment
To sum up, the final AIP chart looks like the following
one, with two designed vertical profiles for each holding,
also attached at the Annexes.
Figure 70. AIP chart
Figure 71. Vertical Profile for IAF DAVAL
34
Figure 72. Vertical Profile for IAF VALLAN
4. INAV
4.1 PRECISION APPROACH (PA)
In this project, the use of conventional approaches and
therefore precision approaches (PA) has been chosen
because the runway is located in a mountainous area and
therefore safety is compromised during landing.
Therefore, the Valle de Aran airport runway will be
equipped with an Instrument Landing System, also
known as ILS, as a radio assistance system for
navigation (Figure 73), since to guarantee the safety of
all flights arriving at the airport, it is necessary to opt for
both horizontal and vertical guidance..
Figure 73. ILS System
This radio aid system was designed during the Second
World War by British Air Force technicians with the aim
of allowing aircraft to operate even in low visibility
conditions. Although there are now more modern aids
such as RNAV approaches, ILS remains the most
popular approach procedure at airports around the world.
The ILS provides both descent and enroute path
guidance to the pilot. This precision approach system
consists of a descent path transmitter and a route finder
with additional accessories such as marker beacons,
compass locators, and in some locations, the DME. The
function of each of these instruments will be explained
in more detail in section X. The ILS are classified by
categories taking into account both the performance
capacity of the equipment on board and the ground.
These categories vary among themselves depending on
the decision height and visibility (Figure 74).
Figure 74. ILS Minimums
The basic idea of ​this aid instrument is the emission of
radio signals from the runway that can be captured and
processed by the aircraft in question, in order to give an
exact indication of the relative position of both. From the
cockpit , the ILS approach is made by following two
bars (one vertical and one horizontal) located on the ILS
screen of the instrument panel (Figure 75). The vertical
bar tells the pilot if the runway is to the right or to the
left. If we have the vertical bar on the left it means that
the runway is on the left and therefore we will have to
turn to that side until it is centered. The horizontal bar
indicates the vertical distance with respect to the angle of
descent. If we have it down, it means that we are going
high and therefore the rate of descent will have to be
increased until it is centered.
Figure 75. Cockpit ILS
Once the pilot intercepts the ILS, he has to descend to
decision height (DH), a point at which he must be able to
35
decide whether to abort or continue the descent
depending on the weather conditions and the aircraft's
performance.
As in our case it has been decided to use an ILS located
at header 02, which will be the landing header, we will
have a Category II approach. Landings will be allowed
only in the case in which the minimum visibility is 1,150
feet (350 meters) and a minimum cloud ceiling of 100
feet (30 meters), as can be seen in Figure 74.
4.1.1 LOCALIZER (LOC)
The ILS is made up of two signals. One of these signals
will provide us with a lateral guide while the other signal
will provide us with a vertical help. The equipment on
the ground will be composed of a group of antennas that
give the localizer signal (LOC). The objective of the
localizer is to provide continuous deviation information
in a horizontal plane (azimuth), by emitting radio signals
through a set of antennas on the axis of the runway. The
localizer transmitter is normally located about 300
meters from the exit end of the ILS runway.
The locator antennas transmit at frequencies located in
the VHF band (Very High Frequency) between 108 MHz
and 111.95 MHz with steps of 50 KHz and 150 KHz, the
first decimal always being odd. The equipment on the
ground transmits a VHF carrier frequency that is
modulated at 20% by a signal resulting from the sum of
two tones. The left tone receives an amplitude
modulation of 90 Hz (yellow sector) and the right one is
modulated at 150 Hz (blue sector), providing a double
irradiation pattern. The relative difference between both
AM modulations is what is known as Difference in
Depth Modulation (DDM). This helps the pilot to be
correctly aligned with the runway, since it makes the
vertical indicator needle in one position or another and
thus the pilot can make the optimal corrections to be
perfectly aligned. The centerline of the track is the one
that corresponds to a DDM of 0 (see Figure 77).
In most locator systems, there is a third signal called
Clearance (CLR), which serves as a 'padding' to prevent
aircraft from intercepting false impulses and thus
avoiding the creation of intercepting the runway
centerline when in fact it is not. is doing. Said signal is
transmitted with a difference of 8 kHz with respect to the
locator's working frequency.
 Figure 77. Horizontal Localizer Coverage.

Signals sent by the localizer antenna will be received at

the previously declared distances in the horizontal plane
Figure 76. Emission Pattern of the Localizer.
(Figure 77). Regarding the vertical plane, these will be
captured at a height equal to or greater than 600 meters
As we can see from the double irradiation pattern, an
aircraft that is approaching in the direction in which the above the elevation of the runway threshold to the
antenna is located, will receive the signals referring to surface with an inclination of 7° with respect to the
the blue and yellow sectors at equal intensity. However, localizer antenna, as can be seen in Figure 78 .
if the aircraft is approaching from the right or left, there
will be a predominance of one of the signals. This serves
to indicate just whether or not the aircraft is in the
correct direction of approach to the runway.

The coverage of the localizer will extend in a distance

angle relationship measured with respect to the localizer
antenna as can be seen in Figure 77. It will have a Figure 78. Vertical Localizer Coverage.
maximum coverage of 25 NM with respect to the
localizer antenna that extends up to 10 ° to each side of
the centerline of the runway. On the other hand, there
will be a coverage of 17 NM with respect to the localizer
antenna for angles between 10° and 35° with respect to
the centerline of the runway on both sides of it. Finally,
there will also be coverage of 10 NM with respect to the
localizer antenna at angles greater than 35° with respect
to the central line of the runway.

Figure 79. Transmitting antennas of the ILS localizer at

Tenerife North Airport.

4.1.2 GLIDE SLOPE (G/S)

The second component of the ILS is the glide slope

(G/S), which is located on one side of the runway at the
height of the contact zone. It is usually placed about 300
meters (1000 feet) upwind from the threshold and
around 120 meters from the runway centerline as it can
be seen in Figure 80.

36

Figure 80. Emission Pattern of the Glide Slope.
As previously mentioned, the objective of the glide slope
is to be able to guide the aircraft to the touchdown zone,
giving it assistance in the vertical plane. This element of
the ILS provides the optimum descent that should follow
the aircraft.
The azimuth coverage of the glide path transmitter
extends up to 8º on each side of the centerline of the
localizer and up to a distance of 10 NM. Coverage in the
horizontal plane extends from 0.45 times the nominal
angle of the glide path above the runway surface to a
maximum angle of 1.75 times the nominal angle of the
glide path above the runway surface. This means that the
signals that reach the aircraft from areas that are not
within this coverage area can never be trusted.

So that the signal is not confused with the signal sent by

the localizer, the operating frequency of the glide slope
must be different.

The glide slope antenna transmits at frequencies located

in the UHF (Ultra High Frequencies) band between
328.6 MHz and 335.4 MHz with 300 kHz channel
spacing. The UHF band is used since it produces more
accurate and narrow beams.

In the same way as the Localizer, this system works by

emitting a radio frequency signal to which two
amplitude modulations (AM) are applied, one of 90 Hz
(higher) and another of 150 Hz (lower), as can be seen in
Figure X. The intersection between both pitches creates Figure 82. Vertical & Horizontal Coverage of the Glide Slope
a 2.5° to 3.5° inclined approach path on the runway (see
Transmitter.
Figure X).
It should be noted that according to the ANNEX 10 of
If the airport is located in an area where it is very
the ICAO, both the transmitting antenna of the localizer
difficult to obtain a standard minimum obstacle
and that of the glide slope have an area that must be
clearance at the normal maximum glide slope angle
restricted (Critical Area). The dimensions of the critical
presented above, the glide slope team will have to move
area of the localizer and the glide slope are defined by
further away from the approach end of the approach. the
the ICAO and can be seen respectively in Figures X and
track if it allows it. Therefore, in some cases it is
X.
possible to have plane path angles that reach 4°.

Figure 83. Critical Area around the Localizer.

This area surrounding the antennas does not allow the

entry or circulation of vehicles during the use of the ILS
system, since these could cause disturbances in the
Figure 81. Glide Path Angle. signals transmitted by both the localizer antenna and the
glide slope antenna.

37
In addition to this critical area, it is also worth noting the
existence of a sensitive area, in which any vehicle
movement must be controlled to avoid possible
interference in the signals sent during the operation of
the ILS system.

The dimensions of the sensitive area (X and Y) depend

on the category of the aircraft in circulation and the type
of localizer antennas.

As in the Valle de Aran aerodrome the only aircraft that

will operate is the A319neo and the category is
CATEGORY II , the dimensions of the sensitive area of
the localizer and the glide slope are the following:

SENSITIVE AREA OF THE LOCALIZER (LOC):

- X = 300 meters.
- Y = 60 meters.

SENSITIVE AREA OF THE GLIDE SLOPE (G/S):

Figure 85. Critical & Sensible Areas around the Glide Slope.
- X = 250 meters.
- Y = 30 meters.

Figure 86. Transmitting antennas of the ILS G/S.

4.1.3 MARKER BEACONS

Marker beacons are a particular type of marker beacon

Figure 84. Sensitive Area around the Localizer.
used to give approach indications to the pilot. These
transmitters operate in the VHF band at a frequency of
75 MHz and their objective is to indicate to the pilot the
height at which the plane passes over them. Almost all
ILS installations have two marker beacons except when
the competent authority considers that a single marker
beacon is sufficient.

Marker beacons radiate a vertical signal that is received

only while the aircraft is passing over them. This signal

38
becomes useful up to a height of approximately 1000
meters.

The transmitter, known as an outer (“O”) marker (see

Figure 89), is usually aligned with the locator center line
at a distance that varies between 3.5 and 6 nautical
miles (6.5 km - 11.2 km) from the runway. It transmits a
modulated signal with a 400 Hz tone and is coded to
transmit two pulses per second. When the aircraft passes
over it, the pulses sent cause the blue marker to light up
on the cockpit panel (Figure 87) with winks at the same
frequency (Figure 88).
Figure 89. Marker Beacons
After this outer marker, there is an intermediate or center
(“M”) marker (see Figure 89) that is also aligned with These marker beacons can be replaced by a DME system
the centerline of the locator. It is usually installed 1000 associated with the ILS.
meters from the point of contact and emits a series of
alternating dots and lines (Figure 88) at a frequency of 4.1.4 FINAL CHOICE
1300 Hz that turn on an amber light on the display
(Figure 87). It is used in times of low visibility as it
As commented in section 4.1 ("Precision Approach"), it
offers guidance for the approach. has been decided to opt for Instrument Landing
Approach due to the location of the runway.
Finally there is a third marker known as an internal (“I”)
marker (see Figure 89) that is placed at the head of the As in our airport the landing will be made by header 02,
track. It is also aligned with the centerline of the the ILS localizer will have to be located at the opposite
localizer and transmits at a frequency of 3000 Hz. It is header and therefore at 22, taking into account all the
distances presented in section 4.1.1 ("Localizer") .
coded to transmit six tone points per second and
Taking into account the range of frequencies to which
illuminate a white light on the aircraft panel (Figure 87). the localizer has to work, a frequency must be selected
that does not coincide with the frequency of the ILS
systems to which the closest airports work, which are
those presented in Table 1.

Airport Runway Localizer

Figure 87. Marker Beacons Receiver. Frequency (MHz)

02 108.75
As previously mentioned, all marker beacons transmit at
Josep Tarradellas
the same carrier frequency (75 MHz) and therefore the Barcelona–El Prat 07L 110.30
pilot does not need to select frequencies. Airport
(LEBL) 07R 110.75

25L 111.50

25R 109.50
Figure 88. Marker Passage Indications.
Lleida–Alguaire
Airport 31 110.9
(LEDA)

39
 airport facilities. In this project we have opted for this
Pau Pyrénées
Airport 31 110.1 system since the distance information is received
(LFBP) continuously by the aircraft, which facilitates the
approach procedures and does not require installations
outside the airport, thus lowering costs.
14L 108.90
The DME-P works in conjunction with a system
Toulouse–Blagnac 14R 110.70
Airport implemented on board the aircraft and is designed to
(LFBO) 32L 109.30 measure the slant distance of an aircraft from the ground
station. The DME radio beacon uses the operating
32R 108.35 principles and signaling format of DME/N equipment in
accordance with Appendix 10 of the "Convention on
International
International Civil Aviation (ICAO)".
Tarbes-Lourdes 20 109.5
Pyrénées
(LFBT) The marker beacon can be used in conjunction with the
Table 1. Nearest Airports and their LOC/ILS frequencies.
VOR (DVOR) and instrument landing system (ILS) or
independently in the DME-DME network. In this case,
Taking into account the frequencies at which the nearest the data on the relative position of the aircraft at the
LOS/ILS work, we have decided that our localizer place of installation of the radio beacon is provided on
operates at a frequency of 110.5 MHz and therefore board in a two-distance measurement system, which
looking at Figure 90 we can also obtain the glide slope makes it possible to solve air navigation problems en
frequency that is already determined and in our case will route, as well as in the airfield area.
be 329.6 MHz.
As discussed above, the DME provides a measurement
of the distance to the glide slope (G/S). The working
frequency is between 978 and 1213 Mhz from 200 to
400 channels, which is automatically selected when
tuning the LOC (Locator). Its operation consists of the
plane interrogating with a sequence of pairs of pulses
separated by 12 microseconds. The ground equipment
receives this signal and retransmits it again with a delay
of 50 microseconds.

Finally, the plane's team calculates the time elapsed since

the first signal arrived, subtracts the 50 ms delay, divides
it by two and multiplies it by the speed of light. With this
data, the distance to the ground equipment is calculated.
In this project it has been decided to implement a DME
of the DME/DVOR system.

The main objective of this is to be able to provide the

aircraft with a continuous tracking of its position relative
Figure 90. LOC/ILS frequency and its corresponding GS/ILS to the runway threshold until it reaches the glideslope.
frequency obtained from Annex 10 ICAO.
This is done due to the difficulty presented by the terrain
in the Aran Valley and therefore we will be able to
Currently, as mentioned above, the use of the three types
increase the safety of the operations carried out at said
of radio beacons is decreasing. The latter are
airport. The DME does not require facilities outside the
increasingly being replaced by DME-P ("Distance
airport, lowering costs.
Measuring Equipment") telemetric equipment in most

40
The DME/DVOR system combines the Doppler VOR
with the DME.

DVOR radio navigation is an improved system

developed from VOR. This radio aid provides us with
greater precision, which will be quite useful in
mountainous terrain. It is composed of a minimum of 32
non-directional dipole antennas that are located around
an omnidirectional antenna forming a radius between 6.5
m and 7.5 m. It is necessary to comply with this radio
range in order to be in the VOR frequency range.

The operation of the DVOR station consists of the

transmission of a reference signal, modulated in AM to a
carrier frequency of 9.96 KHz, by the omnidirectional
antenna at a frequency of 30 Hz. The variable signal is
transmitted successively in each of the 360 magnetic
​directions. The aircraft determines the position by
comparing the two signals that have a different phase.

Figure 92. DME frequencies.

As the previously selected localizer working frequency

is 110.5 MHz, looking at the table in Figure 92 we can
see that the DME channel will be 42x. The frequency of
Figure 91. VOR signal Spectrum. said subsystem is equivalent to 1066 MHz for the
interrogation mode and 1003 MHz for the answer mode.
According to Annex 10 of the ICAO, the DME antenna
must be located at the threshold of the runway in order to LATITUDE LONGITUDE FREQUENCY
let the pilot know at all times the distance to the point
LOC 42°42'30.27"N 0°57'1.75"E 110.5 MHz
where the runway begins.
G/S 42°43'56.20"N 0°58'11.98"E 329.6 MHz

Interrogation
Mode : 1066
DME 42°44'4.71"N 0°58'12.15"E MHz
DVOR
Answer Mode:
1003 MHz

41

Figure 93. Location of the ILS components.
4.2 NAVAIDS COVERAGE
4.2.1 LOCALIZER ANTENNAS COVERAGE
According to the document referring to the
radiofrequency data of the CNS facilities, considering
that the locator has a maximum coverage of 25 NM (see
Figure 77) , an antenna gain of 30 dB and a transmitted
power of 20 W, in Figure 94 we can obtain the coverage
of said system.
Figure 94. Localizer Coverage.
4.2.2 GLIDE SLOPE ANTENNAS COVERAGE
According to the document referring to the
radiofrequency data of the CNS facilities, knowing that
the G/S has a maximum range of 10 NM (see Figure 82)
42
as well as an antenna gain of 3 dB and a transmission
power of 20 W , the coverage will be as follows:
Figure 95. G/S Coverage.
4.2.3 DME-P ANTENNAS COVERAGE
According to the document referring to the
radiofrequency data of the CNS facilities, knowing that
the DME has a maximum range of 25 NM when
associated with an ILS as well as an antenna gain
equivalent to 2 dB and a transmission power of the value
of 1 kW, the approximate coverage for this navaid will
be as follows:
Figure 96. DME-P Coverage.
All the figures of the coverages that we obtained are not
exactly the ones that will be obtained since the
frequencies have had to be adjusted with respect to the
range in which the program allows us to do the
simulation.

5. iCOM
5.1 VHF pilot-controller voice communication
systems.
The need for aeronautical communications has been
changing as air traffic has grown. Currently, advanced
technology is used so that crews are able to exchange
information with their airline, as well as interact with the
air traffic management system.
This communications sector is of great importance in the
world of aviation, since it is the one that maintains the
safety of flights since it is used from the time the aircraft
begins the approach phase to the runway until it is
parked on the apron.
This sector covers different types of communications,
such as data communications, voice communications and
communications related to surveillance and navigation.
Said communications service is capable of guaranteeing
the pertinent telecommunications and radio aids that
provide safety, regularity and efficiency of air
navigation.
In this section great importance will be given to the
design of communications for the aerodrome in question.
We will focus on those voice communications produced
between G/A (Ground/Air), in addition to the
communications established between G/G
(Ground/Ground).
The aeronautical communications to be treated will be
those mentioned below:
- Aeronautical Mobile Service, referring to the
G/A communications service.
- Aeronautical Fixed Service, referring to the
G/G communications service.
5.1.1 Aeronautical Mobile Service
The Aeronautical Mobile Service, also known as AMS,
is an essential part of G/A communications. This service
provides the technical means to guarantee the
communications of the Air Traffic Control Services
(ATC) with the aircraft that operate within the airspace.
Provides communications between air traffic controllers
and aircraft pilots in the different phases of flights:
- Control in Terminal Areas (TMA) by approach
services.
43
- En-Route Control in the upper (ACC/U) and
lower (ACC/L) airspaces.
- Tower Control (TWR).
- Control of Movements on the Aerodrome
Surface.
AMS is carried out in the Very High Frequency (VHF)
band, which covers frequencies between 118 MHz and
136 MHz. It can also make use of other frequency bands
such as HF (2.8 MHz to 22 MHz) and UHF (225 MHz to
400MHz). The latter is exclusively for military use.
The advantage that HF communications have over the
others is that it enables long-range communications and,
therefore, allows coverage in very large areas with the
implementation of a single ground station. As a
disadvantage, it should be noted that this type of
communications is affected by disturbances produced by
the sun, by the earth's magnetic field and by changes in
atmospheric conditions that affect the ionosphere and,
consequently, its propagation properties.
Currently, the AMS makes use of voice communications
(analog communications) which are slowly becoming
data communications (digital communications).
The aeronautical mobile service provides the en-route,
approach, aerodrome and flight information G/A
communications services.
5.1.1.1 G/A communications en route:
The en-route G/A communications is the service
provided by the En Route Control Centers (ACC). This
service consists of the use of a network of remote
communication centers, which provide radio coverage of
the corresponding airspace.
Aircraft controlled by the same air traffic controller are
usually tuned to the same frequency. Due to this, an
increase in the flights that the same controller has to
manage causes an increase in the number of aircraft
synchronized to the same frequency and therefore an
overload of work is produced and a saturation of the
communication frequency in use.
This problem has been solved thanks to the division of
the saturated air traffic control sector into several smaller
sectors. Each of these small sectors have their own
controller and working frequency.
Each route control sector must have a certain
redundancy of the communication stations and of the
equipment that make up the station, in order to maintain
security.

5.1.1.2 G/A approach communications:
This G/A communications service is provided by the
Approach Control Centers (APP) within each TMA. It
makes use of the different local communications centers
or communications facilities of the airports that are
within the corresponding TMA.
5.1.1.3 G/A aerodrome communications:
VHF frequencies used at aerodromes are assigned to the
following local services:
- Approach: Dedicated to approaches to the
aerodrome, from the moment that the transfer
takes place between an APP control center and
the Control Tower.
- Taxiing: Dedicated to taxiing on the runway and
along the taxiways.
- Emergency: Dedicated to emergency situations.
- Authorizations: Dedicated to the granting of
permits such as start-up of engines.
- Others: Dedicated to pilot schools, flying clubs,
etc.
5.1.1.5 G/A communications for flight information:
This last G/A communications service is provided by the
units that provide the in-flight information service. Its
main objective is to provide useful information to
aircraft in order to maintain flight safety and efficiency.
The information provided is usually meteorological,
operational, etc.
5.1.2 Aeronautical Fixed Service
The Aeronautical Fixed Service (AFS) is divided into
two large groups:
- G/G Data Communications: This first group
covers communications, through different data
networks, of all vital aeronautical information
for air navigation. This can be flight plans, AIS
information, aeronautical meteorological data
(MET), ATC instructions, messages from the
Aeronautical Administration, etc.
44
Data networks can be international (Red AFTN,
CIDIN, AMHS) or national (REDAN in Spain,
RINAL in Portugal, RENAR in France).
- Communications G/G Voice: This second group
covers voice communications (analog
communications), which can be by telephone
between the different ATS units (Route,
Approach and Tower) or via radio through
Tx/Rx centers.
5.2 COMMUNICATIONS APPLICATIONS
In this part of the memory some of the communications
applications designed for aeronautical environments are
presented.
5.2.1 CPDLC (CONTROLLER-PILOT DATA LINK
COMMUNICATIONS)
The CPDLC is a data link application that allows
communication between pilot and controller to be
established through the exchange of text messages.
These messages are usually made up of one or more
elements selected from a set of internationally agreed
pre-formatted messages (these are coherent messages
standardized by the ICAO) and are usually displayed on
a screen both on the ground and on board of the aircraft.
The main objective of the CPDLC is to provide the pilot
with the ability to respond to messages received from
ATC, to be able to request clearances and information
when necessary, and to declare or cancel emergencies.
With the CPDLC, an attempt is being made to eliminate
voice communications, leaving them only for specific
cases, and thus eliminate the main problems that derive
from radio communications. Thanks to the use of
CPDLC, the need to repeat and duplicate the information
is avoided, since it is the ATC that decides to which
aircraft the information is directed. On the other hand,
being text messages, the communication can be
shortened so that the order is sent concisely, and while
confirmation is awaited, the ATC can be attending to
other aircraft in its air sector. With this, the
communication time is greatly reduced and therefore the
capacity of flights that the controller can handle
increases.
The CPDLC must be able to maintain the integrity of the
information. This means that it must be able to deliver
all the information to the recipient without modifying it.
On the other hand, security-related information should
not be delayed by non-essential messages.
The implementation of the CPDLC presents the
following advantages:
- Avoid possible communication problems due to
the nature of the language or accent of the
interlocutors.
- Avoid the possibility of making errors in the
transmission or understanding of the message.
- Reduces ATC workload.
- Avoids the possibility of executing erroneous
actions by receiving ATC messages destined for
other flights.
- It allows the automatic loading of data from the
navigation equipment. This reduces considerably
human transcription errors in the preparation of
messages.
- It allows the crew to request the authorization of
a route, which can be directly forwarded and
approved by ATC.
- It allows the sending of specific messages that
inform about some important event.
Despite the numerous advantages of CPDLC, it also has
limitations. Among the main disadvantages of CPDLC
we have:
- Due to its slowness in the process of exchanging
operational information, it has not completely
replaced voice communications.
- It loses immediacy when reading and
interpreting the clearances received by ATC.
- Preparing and sending a request via the CDU
("Control Display Unit") takes more time
compared to a request sent via voice message.
- The pilot cannot hear the transmissions with the
aircraft wreckage in the nearby airspace.
5.2.2 ATIS Y D-ATIS (AUTOMATIC TERMINAL
INFORMATION SERVICE)
ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service) is a data
transmission service for voice messages. These messages
are usually previously recorded or generated by a speech
synthesis program from text. It is usually used in airports
with a significant volume of traffic. The transmission is
45
made at a known frequency published on the navigation
charts of each airport. Its purpose is to inform pilots of
the general conditions of the airport at the present time.
ATIS messages contain operational and meteorological
information from the airport. This information is usually
updated periodically. These messages must be heard by
the pilot before leaving the origin airport and before
beginning the approach to the destination airport.
Therefore, the pilot has to listen to the frequency and
copy on a piece of paper the data received from the
airport in question, whose information is repeatedly
broadcast at that frequency, until all the data is
understood. One drawback of this is that the pilot has to
listen to the entire message before it is repeated. This
means that ATIS messages cannot exceed 30 seconds, as
indicated in Annex 11 of the ICAO.
The main objective of ATIS messages is to considerably
reduce the burden on ATC and the congestion of control
frequencies. To achieve this, ATIS messages transfer
information of interest to aircraft in flight in the terminal
area using VHF frequency broadcasting. This means that
ATC is not constantly aware of transmitting the same
information to all the aircraft that are leaving or
approaching a given airport.
The generation of a new ATIS message will involve
updating the meteorological and operational information,
recording it on a digital storage medium, checking that
the recorded information is correct and finally
transmitting it by broadcasting on the corresponding
frequency.
The problem with the messages is that the constant
changes in weather conditions make the work of ATC
increase considerably since it must update the
information. On the other hand, since ATIS messages are
voice messages, it is possible to have problems of
understanding the pilot. Finally, because ATIS messages
are transmitted on VHF frequencies, coverage problems
are possible.
The content of ATIS messages usually follows the
following format (see Figure 97):
- Aerodrome to which the information refers.
- Transmission Code.
- Time (GMT) at which the recording was
generated.
 - Information about the runway(s) in use at that
time.
- Meteorological information related to wind,
visibility and atmospheric pressure.
-
- More information related to the obstacles near
the aerodrome, the state of the runway, warnings
about birds in the vicinity, etc.
- Location and time of recording of observations
in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).
- Information about wind and visibility.
- Temperature and dew point.
- Atmospheric pressure measured at sea level (in
hPa) used to determine altitude.

- Atmospheric pressure at the level of the runway

of the aerodrome (in hPa) used for landing and
takeoff, to determine the altitude of the aircraft
at the runway,

Figure 97. ATIS message example.

In addition to ATIS transmitted by voice message, there

is also data link ATIS (D-ATIS). This service, known as
Data Link Automatic Terminal Information Service,
provides terminal area information using digital data.
This data is updated by the air traffic dependencies
where the equipment that provides it is installed. D-ATIS
has a few advantages over ATIS as it is more efficient
Figure 98. VOLMET message example.
and safer from the pilot and ATC point of view.
Like any service, VOLMET has some limitations that
Making use of the D-ATIS service, the pilot no longer have led to the development of D-VOLMET.
has to listen to the complete message or copy it as it was
done in the ATIS since it can be requested using the The main limitations of the VOLMET are the following:
CDU. On the other hand, the D-ATIS service is received
upon request from the aircraft during any phase of flight - The fact of transmitting information through oral
and it is not necessary to be within the VHF coverage communication requires special attention from
the crew to be able to transcribe the message and
area to use the D-ATIS. Interpretation errors are
its subsequent understanding.
non-existent since in this case the information is no
longer transmitted by voice. Finally, ATC more - The information is susceptible to errors of
efficiently manages constantly changing weather interpretation, due to an erroneous transcription.
conditions without increasing workload.
- The transmitted signal may have interference
5.2.3 VOLMET & D-VOLMET which will make it difficult to understand.

VOLMET, also known as Meteorological information
for aircraft in flight, is a service that aircraft have to
receive updated meteorological information during
flight. This information, given in METAR, SPECI, TAF
and SIGMET format, is received by aircraft through
continuous and repetitive oral broadcasting. This service
is of great importance to maintain flight safety.
The VOLMET message has the following format (see
Figure 98) and usually contains the following
information:
Given all these limitations, the development of
D-VOLMET has been of great importance since it
improves the reliability of conventional VOLMET.
This new service makes use of text messages which
makes it easier to receive and later interpret. On the
other hand, it considerably reduces the workload of ATC
and pilots and considerably reduces possible
interpretation errors.

46
With the D-VOLMET, meteorological information is
transmitted through a data link network. This
information can be viewed by the crew through the CDU
and may be printed at any time during the flight.
Due to this transmission through a data link network, the
efficiency of the service as well as the safety of the flight
is considerably increased with respect to the efficiency
of the VOLMET by voice message.
5.2.3 ACC (AIR CONTROL COMMUNICATION
SYSTEM)
MHz to 136.MHz, the first assignable being 118 MHz as
can be seen in Figure 99.
The signal emitted will be modulated in amplitude (AM)
in a narrow band with a minimum separation between
channels of 8.33 kHz, to avoid congestion of the band
used.
Before defining the frequencies at which the aeronautical
services of the Valle de Aran airport will work, the
frequencies of the closest aerodromes must be
considered, avoiding an overlapping of frequencies and
subsequent interference that will affect communications.

The ACC system is used by different airlines to Figures 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108 and
determine the position of their aircraft. The objective of 109 show the frequencies at which the aeronautical
making use of this system is to be able to ensure the services of the airports surrounding the Valle de Aran
correct navigation of your aircraft. The operation of this airport operate.
system is based on communications by voice and data
messages using the VHF and HF frequency bands, as
well as via INMARSAT satellite.
5.3 STUDY OF FREQUENCIES FOR ATC

As mentioned above, the communications sector is of

great importance in the world of aviation, since it is the
one that maintains the safety of flights since it is used
from the time the aircraft begins the approach phase to
the runway until it is parked on the apron.

In this project, in order to establish links between

aeronautical stations and aircraft stations, the
Aeronautical Mobile Service, explained above, will be
used.

On the other hand, it is known that voice

Figure 99. Allocation of the frequency group according to
communications mainly make use of the VHF band, due
ICAO
to the advantages it presents with respect to the others in
terms of quality. One drawback of using this band is that
its range is limited compared to the others, due to the
fact that VHF signals propagate through the Line Of
Sight (LOS). This line-of-sight consists of transmitting
the signal using a clean, unobstructed path between the
transmitting and receiving antennas. Due to the
mountainous area in which the aerodrome is intended to
be built, voice communications may be affected by the
presence of mountains.

In this section we will try to strategically locate the

transmitting and receiving stations to achieve optimum
operation of the communications system.
Figure 100. ATS communication facilities and their
Following the regulations established by Annex 10 frequencies for LEBL.
Volume V of the ICAO, the communications system for
aviation must operate between frequencies of 117.975
MHz and 143 MHz. From this range of frequencies,
those that are assigned for civil use range from 117.95

47
 Figure 106. ATS communication facilities and their
Figure 101. ATS communication facilities and their frequencies for LFMP.
frequencies for LEGE.

Figure 102. ATS communication facilities and their Figura 107. ATS communication facilities and their
frequencies for LEDA. frequencies for LFBP.

Figure 108. ATS communication facilities and their

Figure 103. ATS communication facilities and their frequencies for LFMK.
frequencies for LELL.

Figure 109. ATS communication facilities and their

frequencies for LFBT.

Finally, after analyzing the frequencies of the closest

aerodromes, we will proceed to select the frequencies
required for our ATC, as can be seen in Figure 110.

Figure 104. ATS communication facilities and their

frequencies for LEZG. Aeronautical Service Assigned Frequency

Approach (APP) 118.4 MHz

Control Tower (TWR) Arrival: 119.7 MHz

Departure: 119.6 MHz

Ground Movement 121.65 MHz

Control (GMC)
Figure 105. ATS communication facilities and their
BACKUP 121.6 MHz
frequencies for LFBO.
ATIS 118.8 MHz

48
 strategically located and it must be at a really high height
VOLMET 127.6 MHz *
with respect to the runway to be able to cover the area of
Civil Emergency 121.5 MHz * ​the airport of interest.

Military Emergency 243 MHz *
* Fixed Frequencies by the ICAO.
Figure 110. Required frequencies for the ATC in Valle de Aran
Airport.
The frequency values for approach, control tower,
ground movement control and backup presented in the
table in Figure 110, have been selected taking into
account the frequencies used by nearby airports.
Knowing that the Barcelona TMA uses the frequency
range between 122 MHz and 127 MHz, it has been
decided to use a different one and therefore the range
from 118 MHz to 121.975 MHz to avoid any
interference.
As for the frequency assigned to the VOLMET, it is
already fixed for the different cities and in our case the
frequency assigned for the Barcelona VOLMET has
been used. Finally, the emergency frequencies, both
military and civil, are already established in Annex 10 of
the ICAO and are of mandatory compliance.
5.4 LOCATION OF TRANSMISSION CENTERS &
STUDY OF RADIO COVERAGE FOR THE CTR.
The main transmission center present in any airport is
the control tower. The control tower allows air traffic to
be attended to, and is capable of housing the latest
technologies and the most prepared human team in the
best conditions. It has more direct visual access to the
three runways and its design is valid for future airport
expansions.
The transmission system of a control tower is made up
of four omnidirectional antennas that must be capable of
providing services at the previously mentioned
frequencies. These antennas are located on the control
tower and their radiation pattern must be able to provide
coverage to the area that interests us.
For the proper functioning of the airport service, it has
been decided to locate the control tower at coordinates
42° 43' 26.22"N and 00° 57' 02.83"E (see Table 2). This
area is well located since it is elevated from the level of
the runway and therefore will offer a direct view of the
latter. We have decided to place the control tower
antennas 35 meters above the ground to improve the
radiation pattern and therefore obtain better coverage.
This means that the control tower is 35 meters high.
NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE ELEVATION
TWR 42° 43' 00° 57' 1916 m
Tx-1 26.22"N 02.83"E
Table 2. Control Tower coordinates.
The characteristics of the antennas are those presented in
Figure 111.

The control tower must be capable of working at the

approach frequencies for arrivals and departures, ground
operations and emergencies cited in the table in Figure
110. The main objective of the control tower is to
provide coverage for aircraft when they are on the
runway and during taxiing until its subsequent arrival at
the parking positions.

The control tower must have more direct visual access to

the aerodrome runways and its design must be valid for
future airport expansions. This is where the ATC is

49

Figure 111. Characteristics of the control tower antennas.
As mentioned just before, the antennas will be
omnidirectional and will be located on top of the control
tower 35 meters above the ground. The gain will be 10
dB with respect to the isentropic. In Figure 111 it can be
seen that the frequency used is 146 MHz, which is not
true. This frequency should be the frequency at which
each airport service operates (previously defined in
Figure 110), but the program does not allow the study to
be carried out within that frequency range. Therefore,
the chosen frequency is 146 MHz, since it is the closest
to the frequencies at which the airport services operate.
Finally, locating the coordinates of the control tower we
can simulate the coverage offered by its antennas, as it
can be seen in Figure 112. The green areas refer to those
areas in which the signals transmitted by the antennas
arrive with a high power level and the yellow areas the
signal arrives with less power.
50
Figure 112. Coverage of the control tower antennas.
Once coverage has been achieved for the services
needed by the aircraft that are at the airport or nearby,
the same study must be carried out to achieve coverage
for the other services such as approach, flight departures
and ATIS. For this, it is necessary to locate other
transmission centers around the airport in order to
provide coverage throughout the CTR defined above.
These new CTR service transmission centers must be
coordinated with the control tower. This is achieved
through cable links, microwave links or via satellite (see
Figure 114) . Due to the complexity of the terrain, the
connection through cables and even microwaves is
highly complex and, therefore, links via satellite will be
chosen.
In this way, the remote transmission centers of CTR
services have to be strategically located in order to cover
the entire designed CTR. The antennas of the remote
transmission centers must be free of obstacles and
therefore it has been decided to place them in elevated
areas. Locating them in elevated areas will be of great
importance since the attenuation of the transmitted
signals will decrease due to the absence of obstacles and
therefore we will be able to transmit the signal with a
lower power. The coordinates of the CTR service
transmission centers are those presented in Table 3:
 NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE ELEVATION

CER 42° 38' 00° 56' 2500 m

Tx-2 42.72"N 45.91"E

CER 42° 45' 00° 55' 2650 m

Tx-3 45.87"N 27.49"E

CER 42° 41' 01° 03' 2352.9 m

Tx-4 54.88"N 00.64"E
Table 3. Remote Transmission centers coordinates.

Figure 115. Characteristics of the transmitting CER antennas.

As we can see in the image, the different coverages

referring to the transmitting stations are shown. The
Figure 113. Location of the transmission centers of the CTR
green areas refer to those areas in which the signals
service
transmitted by the antennas arrive with a high power
level and the yellow areas the signal arrives with less
power. We can clearly see that the radius of the CTR that
has been designed is perfectly covered.

Figure 114. G/A Com Architecture.

The characteristics of the CER antennas are those

presented in Figure 11.

Figure 116. Coverage of the control tower and CER antennas.

51
5.5 LOCATION OF RECEPTION CENTERS &
STUDY OF RADIO COVERAGE FOR THE CTR.

Once we have located all the transmitting stations, the

next step will be to locate the reception centers. For this,
the same methodology used for the transmitting stations
will be followed.

These reception centers will be necessary to capture the

signals sent by the aircraft and thus transmit them to the
control tower. In this project we will define two
reception centers that are capable of covering the entire
CTR. One of them will be the control tower itself, whose
coordinates have already been previously defined. The
control tower will be in charge of receiving the signals
related to airport operations. The other reception center
will be remote and will be responsible for covering the Figure 117. Coverage of the control tower and CER antennas.
entire CTR, capturing the signals transmitted by the
aircraft that are at a significant distance from the control As we can see in Figure 117, it has been possible to
tower and transmitting them to the latter. cover the entire CTR using two reception centers. The
remote reception center must have the following
As has been done previously with the remote characteristics presented in Figure 118.
transmission centers, these receiving centers have to be
located on land with a significant elevation to avoid any
attenuation of the signal transmitted by the aircraft. One
factor to take into account is that the transmitting and
receiving stations do not have to be very close to each
other due to the problem of cohabitation between them.

In this way, the remote transmission centers will transmit

the signals using two antennas, the reception center will
receive the signals using one antenna and finally the
control tower will transmit with four antennas and
receive using a single antenna.

The receiving antenna of the control tower will have

exactly the same characteristics as the previously defined
transmitting antennas (see Figure 111). As these
characteristics have not changed and the coordinates of
the control tower are the same as for the transmission
section, the coverage of the receiving antenna of the
control tower will be that represented in Figure 117.

Figure 118. Characteristics of the receiving CER antennas.

52
 continuously record voice communications so that no
NAME LATITUDE LONGITUDE ELEVATION
audio communication is lost.
TWR 42° 43' 00° 57' 1916 m
Rx-1 26.22"N 02.83"E These systems are responsible for providing the voice
link with the pilots and between controllers. The SCVs
CER 42°45'34.06 0°55'50.98"E 2580 m are found in the air traffic control centers both en route
Rx-2 "N and in the terminal area and in the control towers of the
airports.
Table 4. Reception centers coordinates.
This means that the regional control center or the control
As the landings at the Valle de Aran airport will be made tower is carried out from transmitting equipment that
via runway 02, it has been decided to install the remote operates on a dedicated frequency in the UHF or VHF
reception center at the aforementioned coordinates, with band.
the aim of providing good coverage to the northeast and
northwest, which is where aircraft approaches will be
made.

Figure 120. Transmitting equipment.

In order to improve flight safety, equipment is usually

duplicated for each frequency for redundancy. This
redundancy is obtained by making use of switching
systems, such as the BNS9008 or the coupling system
such as the CPV900 (see Figure 121).

Figure 119. Location of the reception centers.

In Table 4 and Figure 119 we can see both the
coordinates and the location of the two reception centers
that have been decided to be installed in order to cover
the entire CTR.
5.6 SELECTION OF TRANSMISSION CENTERS
The system in charge of carrying out the transmission of
audio and data is the Voice Switching System, also
known as SCV. The SCV is a management system that
integrates all the communication resources that the
control positions have, allowing the selection,
interconnection, activation, configuration and
reassignment of all of them. In addition, the SCV
includes a recording system whose main objective is to
Figure 121. Switching & coupling systems for transmission.
As previously mentioned, voice transmissions are carried
out by means of amplitude, frequency or phase
modulation of a VHF or UHF frequency carrier signal.
For the transmission to be carried out optimally, the
precision and stability of the emitter carrier must be
taken into account. On the other hand, the transmission
power must be large enough to meet the required range.
This last parameter is the one that will define the
efficiency of the system, which is the relationship
between the power sent on the output load, and the total
power recovered on the power supply.

53
5.7 SELECTION OF RECEPTION CENTERS
In order to receive the audio and data from the reception
center, it is necessary to have receiving equipment that is
operating on a dedicated frequency belonging to the
VHF or UHF band.
Figure 122. Receiving equipment.
As in the case of the transmission centers, the reception
centers must have redundancy to improve safety, and
therefore the equipment is doubled for each operating
frequency. To have this redundancy, making use of a
switching system like the BN9008 or a coupling system
like the CPR900 is of great interest.
Figure 123. Switching & coupling systems for reception.
As the transmission of audio and data was done through
an AM, FM or phase modulation, the reception will be
done by demodulating the transmitted signal.
In order for the receiving equipment to function
optimally, the accuracy and stability of its carrier is of
great importance. On the other hand, it must be able to
have a certain SNR at its input, which will be given by
the sensitivity of the equipment. The noise figure of the
equipment as well as external noises play an important
role in the SNR that will be obtained at the input. If the
equipment has a high noise figure, it will introduce more
noise and therefore the receiver will need to have greater
sensitivity to meet the required SNR.
The external noise discussed above will depend on
factors such as the geographic location of the receiver,
the time of day, the season, and the operating frequency.
Another important parameter is the selectivity of the
receiver. This parameter depends on the minimum
54
separation between two emitted frequencies that the
receiver can distinguish without disturbance.
5.8 INTERMODULATION
Intermodulations are mixtures, additions or subtractions
of two radiofrequency signals that generate a third signal
outside the frequency band in which the two original
ones are found. These unwanted signals that are
generated are known as intermodulation products and
therefore will be considered as interference.
Therefore, in this section of the report, the possible
intermodulations that exist between the antennas and
frequencies of the communication centers that have been
previously defined will be studied.
Figure 124. Scheme of an example of intermodulation
In Figure 124 it can be seen a scheme that presents an
example of intermodulation. As can be seen in Figure
124, it is very important to carry out a study to see how
the antennas behave when they are close to others.
As previously mentioned, in this project two groups of
antennas should be highlighted, which are the following:
- Transmission and reception center of the airport
service (Control tower).
- Remote transmission and reception centers of
the CTR service.
5.8.1 CONTROL TOWER INTERMODULATIONS
The first study to be carried out is regarding the antennas
located in the control tower. As previously mentioned,
the control tower has four omnidirectional antennas that
ensure the transmission of signals that cover final
approach services (arrivals and departures), aircraft
movements on the ground and emergency, and a
receiving antenna that will be in charge of capturing the
signals of the aircraft that are approaching the airport.
We will analyze the intermodulation products between
the antennas that are closer to each other. We will
proceed to study between the transmitting antennas AT1
and AT2 and the receiving antenna AR5. These antennas
have a circulator to protect them from possible power
reflections whose insertion loss is 1 dB. The coaxial
cable that joins these antennas with the emitting centers
has a loss of 3 dB.
The values of emitted powers and working frequencies
for each antenna have already been defined previously
(see Figures 110 and 111).
Radiated power P1 by antenna AT1 (Arrival):
- Output power of AT1 emissor : 50 W = 47 dBm
- Coaxial losses up to AT1: -3 dB
- Insertion loss of a circulator : -1 dB
- AT1 gain : +10 dB
- Total : 53 dBm (200 W)

Power P1' received on antenna AT2 (Departure):

- Power P1 radiated by antenna AT1: 53 dBm

- Power attenuation on antenna AT2 :
8
𝑐 3·10 𝑚/𝑠
λ= 𝑓
= 119.6 𝑀𝐻𝑧
= 2. 51 𝑚

We compute the distance between AT1 and AT2.

Form a triangle with base 10 m and height 9 m.

2 2
𝑑 = 10 + 9 = 13. 45 𝑚

Finally we can obtain how much the signal sent

by AT1 will be attenuated using the free space
attenuation formula.
Figure 125. Placement of the antennas on the control tower.
𝐴𝑡𝑡 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) =− 36. 57 𝑑𝐵
λ
4π𝑑
- AT1: Arrivals (Final Approach) - Total : 53 dBm - 36.57 dB = 16.43 dBm.
- AT2: Departures.
- AT3: Aircraft Movement on Ground (GND)
- AT4: Emergency. Power P1” received on antenna AT2:

- Power sent by AT2: 16.43 dBm

- Coaxial losses up to AT1: -3 dB
- Insertion loss of AT2 circulator : -17.5 dB
- Total : -4.07 dBm.

Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 from AT2:

- Power P1'' received at the input of the E2

transmitter: -4.07 dBm
- Intermodulation level (manufacturer data): -20
dB minimum
- Losses through coaxial to AT2: -3 dB
Figure 126. Scheme of the antennas intermodulation for the
- Circulator insertion loss: -1 dB
studied case.
- Total: -28.07 dBm.

55
Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 radiated to AR5: 5.8.2 REMOTE CENTERS INTERMODULATIONS

- Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 from In this part of the project we will analyze the possible
AT2: -28.07 dBm. intermodulations that may exist between the antennas of
- Attenuation product of intermodulation on AR5: the control tower dedicated to communicating with the
8
λ=
𝑐
=
3·10 𝑚/𝑠
= 2. 05 𝑚 remote centers previously installed .
𝑓 146 𝑀𝐻𝑧
𝑑 = 9𝑚 These antennas, together with those of the remote
𝐴𝑡𝑡 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( )
λ
4π𝑑
=− 34. 8 𝑑𝐵 centers, are responsible for transmitting and receiving
- Total : -28.07 dBm - 34.8 dB = -62.87 dBm. signals to cover the entire CTR service defined in Figure
110. The installation is equipped with three antennas,
Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 at the input of two of which transmit the signals and one is in charge of
the first AR5 receiver: the reception.

- Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 radiated
to AR5: -62.87 dBm.
- Coaxial losses from emissor to AR5: -3 dB.
- Total :-65.87 dBm.
Sensitivity of the RE9000A-C receiver: -105 dBm
In Figure 128 we can see how these three antennas are
distributed over the control tower. The distribution that
can be seen in Figure 128 has been chosen in order to
increase the distances between them and achieve the
minimum possible interference.

As the intermodulation product obtained is greater than

the receiver sensitivity, the antennas closest to each other
may cause interference.

In fact, the feature of the intermodulation product of the

RE9000A-C is better than 80 dB, and the frequency
spacing is generally higher than 100 kHz. This will make Figure 128. Placement of the remote antennas on the control
the receivers likely to be disturbed by lower level tower.
interference.
- AT1 for transmitting at ATIS frequency.
- AT2 for Approach (Entering the CTR).
To decrease the power level of unwanted frequencies
that enter on the receivers, centered cavities can be
added each on the operating frequency of the
corresponding receiver, as can be seen in Figure 127.

Figure 129. Scheme of the antennas intermodulation for the

Figure 127. Scheme of the antennas intermodulation for the studied case.
studied case adding the cavities.

56
Radiated power P1 by antenna AT1: 𝑐
8
3·10 𝑚/𝑠
λ= 𝑓
= 146 𝑀𝐻𝑧
= 2. 05 𝑚

- Output power of AT1 emissor : 50W = 47 dBm

- Coaxial losses up to AT1: -3 dB We compute the distance between AT2 and AR1.
- Insertion loss of a circulator : -1 dB
2 2
- AT1 gain : +10 dB 𝑑 = 10 + 15 = 18 𝑚
- Total : 53 dBm (200 W)
𝐴𝑡𝑡 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) =− 40. 85 𝑑𝐵
λ
4π𝑑

Power P1' received on antenna AT2 :

- Total : -31.5 dBm - 40.85 dB = -72.35 dBm.
- Power P1 radiated by antenna AT1: 53 dBm
- Power attenuation on antenna AT2 : Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 at the input of
𝑐
8
3·10 𝑚/𝑠
the first AR1 receiver:
λ= 𝑓
= 118.4 𝑀𝐻𝑧
= 2. 53 𝑚
- Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 radiated
We compute the distance between AT1 and AT2. to AR1: -72.35 dBm.
- Coaxial losses from emissor to AR1: -3 dB.
𝑑 = 20 𝑚 - Total :-75.35 dBm.

Finally we can obtain how much the signal sent Sensitivity of the RE9000A-C receiver: -105 dBm
by AT1 will be attenuated using the free space
attenuation formula. As the intermodulation product obtained is greater than
the receiver sensitivity, the antennas closest to each other
𝐴𝑡𝑡 (𝑑𝐵) = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) =− 40 𝑑𝐵
λ
4π𝑑
may cause interference.
- Total : 53 dBm - 40 dB = 13 dBm.
In fact, the feature of the intermodulation product of the
RE9000A-C is better than 80 dB, and the frequency
Power P1” received on antenna AT2:
spacing is generally higher than 100 kHz. This will make
the receivers likely to be disturbed by lower level
- Power sent by AT2: 13 dBm
interference.
- Coaxial losses up to AT1: -3 dB
- Insertion loss of AT2 circulator : -17.5 dB
To decrease the power level of unwanted frequencies
- Total : -7.5 dBm.
that enter on the receivers, centered cavities can be
added each on the operating frequency of the
Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 from AT2:
corresponding receiver, as can be seen in Figure 130.
- Power P1'' received at the input of the E2
transmitter: -7.5 dBm
- Intermodulation level (manufacturer data): -20
dB minimum
- Losses through coaxial to AT2: -3 dB
- Circulator insertion loss: -1 dB
- Total: -31.5 dBm.

Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 radiated to AR1:

- Intermodulation product level 2F1 - F2 from

AT2: -31.5 dBm.
- Attenuation product of intermodulation on AR1:

57
 installed on the ground must have the ability to tune into
any channel in the VHF band defined above.
Once the link is established, any type of digital
information can be sent for the provision of the different
air navigation services. The main advantage of the
VDL-2 protocol is that it is compatible with ACARS,
which makes it the most widely used since most aircraft
use the ACARS protocol.

VDL-2 Advantages:

- High transmission speed: 31.5 Kbps.

- Compatible with the ACARS protocol and

therefore the transition to data transmission
Figure 130. Scheme of the remote antennas intermodulation networks is made easier.
for the studied case adding the cavities.
- Makes use of the CSMA access method with
8-DPSK modulation.
5.9 POSSIBILITY TO IMPLEMENT RADIO
CHANNELS FOR DATA (VDL-2) AND ITS
- It is implemented in most programs like
FUNCTIONALITIES IN ATCO-PILOT
COMMUNICATIONS Link2000+.

VDL-2 Disadvantages:
The VDL-2 (“VHF Digital Link Mode 2”) standard was
created and accepted by the ICAO in late 1996 and
- The VDL-2 can only be used en route since its
incorporated into Annex 10 in 1997 as a method to
reliability has not yet been certified by the ICAO
provide data communications similar to ACARS. VDL-2
for the approach and takeoff phases.
is currently used in Europe, the United States and Japan.
It is the basis of Eurocontrol's Link2000+ program for
the pilot-controller data link currently being SISTEMA VDL-2
implemented.
Voice Communications NO
VDL mode 2 operates in the VHF frequency band Data Communications YES
reserved for aeronautical communications, between 118
MHz and 137 MHz. It uses 25 KHz channels and Bandwidth 25 kHz
8-DPSK modulation that allows it to reach 31.5 Kbps, a
SNR 26 - 27 dB
much higher rate than that achieved by the VDL-1. The
medium access control method for the link layer is the Transmission Rate 31.5 Kbps
CSMA ("Carrier Sense Multiple Access") algorithm.
This method consists of all stations listening to a channel Modulation 8-DPSK
before transmitting on it. This is done so that the
Main Function Data Transfer A/G
message sent does not interfere with others, but the
transmission speed is considerably reduced to 15 Kbps. Network Monitoring Ground control (without
synchronization)
The main purpose of VDL-2 is to provide the capability
for data transfer service. In addition, both the service Access Protocol CSMA
installed on board the aircraft and the equipment Communication 1

58

connections per channel
Number of Guard Bands 2
6. iVig
Once we determine all the communication systems of
the airports and their operations, in order to correctly
control the airport and its surrounding airspace, we must
implement different surveillance systems. These systems
transmit ATM, or other users, information such as the
detection of airplanes, their location and even identify
them, a major factor when it comes to safety. They are
also important nowadays since there is a huge concern
about reducing the impact of air traffic on the
environment, improving aircraft efficiency and more
flexible operations. The task is carried out by primary
and secondary radars. However, there are already new
technologies that coexist like multilateralism and ADS
systems based on GPS, due to the significant growth rate
of air traffic and its necessity to manage more complex
air traffic.
6.1 EN-ROUTE SURVEILLANCE
PRIMARY SURVEILLANCE
Before calculating our chosen SID’s, STAR’s and IAC’s
coverage, a cost benefit study will be conducted among
PSR-MSPSR, to decide which one will be implemented
and where.
6.1.1 PSR
As ICAO defines “PSR works by detecting reflections to
transmitted pulses of RF energy”. It is composed
commonly by a transmitter, receiver and a rotating
antenna as shown in Figure 131. Its monostatic design
basically sends and receives the energy to be radiated
and processed by the same antenna. The transmitter
sends pulses and when the receiver processes its
reflections. Reflections can come from a specific desired
target but also the surroundings affect creating clutter as
bulinings or other fixed objects, however, it is removed
once is processed. Used for medium range en-route,
terminal area, approach monitoring and ground
movement surveillances.

It will object of study if an implementation of radars

such as PSR (Primary Surveillance Radar), MSPSR
(MultiStatic Primary Surveillance), SSR (Secondary
Surveillance Radar), WAM, A-SGMCS (SMR+MLAT)
systems for ground and ADS-B for secondary radars, are
viable or not. These tools are being used by the ATM
(Air Traffic Management) process.
Different systems such as PSR, SSR, SMR, MLAT,
ADS-C A, and ADS-B are currently being used in Spain.

There coexist two types of categories, the independent

and the dependent.
Independents are also divided into non-cooperative and
cooperative ones. It will be the case of PSR (Primary
Surveillance Radar), SMR (Surface Movement Radar),
and MSPSR (MultiStatic Primary Surveillance Radar).
And the cooperatives are the ones that exchange
information, such as SSR (Secondary Surveillance
Radar), Radar Mode S and WAM (Wide Area
Multilateration).
Figure 131. PSR.
Since it has a high cost and does not provide
identification, which is becoming a must due to the
increasing air traffic, some service providers interrupt its
use. Moreover, since transponders are mandatory for
crowded airspaces, SSR could replace PSR and still
satisfy safety requirements. However, it is implemented
in busy terminal areas since it can identify intruders,

59
aircrafts that are not equipped with a transponder, or
those who decide to ignore SSR interrogations.
Unfortunately its use is decreasing progressively due to
lack of not giving identification data.
Its range is calculated by the time it takes the
transmission to go from the transmissor and come back
as a reflection to the receiver. On the other hand, the
bearing can be also determined knowing the position of
the rotating antenna while it is receiving the signal.
Narrow beams in the horizontal helps to acquire a high
aimut accuracy. The amount of received power can be
calculated by the equation:
Putting the focus on the typical overall performance for
L and S band PSR. The overall probability is bigger than
90% for when it comes to position detection, while the
number of false target alarms per scan is fewer than 20.
For the commonly repeated errors for slant range bias is
lower than 100 m, while the azimuth is lower than 0.1º.
Gain error is less than 1 m/NM and time-stamp error is
lower than 100 ms. However, some alternatives errors
that have been registered for the slant range are less than
120 m and for the azimuth is lower than 0.15.
To sum up, advantages and disadvantages of PSR
systems are:

Avantatges
where:
➢ Determine target’s location with no need of
Pt = transmitted power
specific on-board equipment.
Gt = transmission’s gain
➢ Detection of all types of objects, rather than only
Gr = reception’s gain
aircrafts.
σ = radar cross section
➢ Provide meteorological phenomena.
λ = wavelength
Ft = transmitter - target propagation factor
Disadvantages
Fr = target - receiver propagation factor
Rt = transmitter - target distance ➢ Difficulty to detect targets that are close to each
Rr = target - receiver distance other.
➢ Unable to identify targets unless another
procedure is parallely developed.
6.1.1.1 Types of PSR
➢ Some models do not provide information about
altitude of targets.
We can distinguish different types of PSR by its
➢ Affected by false detections. Need to process
frequency bands:
them. Doppler process systems are not always
effective.
Band’s Freq. ➢ Performance determined by its external design.
Use
name (GHz)
Composite materials for small aircrafts might
1.215–1. result in smaller radar cross section, leading to
L En-route
35 degraded detection.
➢ Transmit high power pulses due it needs enough
Airport approach and TMA
S 2.7-3.5
surveillance
power to send the signal and receive its
reflection.
X 8-10.5 PAR and ground ➢ Wind turbines can result in: clutter, targets
behind blades might be undetected, on the
15.5-15.
Ku Ground contrary, false targets detected due its
7
reflections.
Ka 24-40
Short-range, ground and
detection of FOD on runways
W 75-110

60
 6.1.2 MSPR
While PSR has a single transmitter and receiver,
MultiStatic Primary Surveillance Radar, has a network
of transmitters. It could have a single receiver or a
network of ground stations, with all of the antennas
being statics, as its name implies. The reception
represents an ellipsoid of the constant bistatic range
where the target could be found. The focus of the
ellipsoid is where Tx (transmitters) and Rx (receivers)
are located. The reflected received signals come from the
targets and are processed to send them to the CPU
(Computer Process Unit). This unit calculates the 3D
position of the target owing to the, at least three,
intersection points of the ellipsoids.
where:
t ij = time delay
R ti = transmitted to target range
R ri = target to received range
c = speed of light
Locations sharing the time delay will be located on the
ellipsoid. Ambiguity on position will occur unless more
than three Tx and one Rx are used or as well, three Rx
and one Tx are used. Different frequencies are used in
order to distinguish the different transmitted signals.
Figure 133, shows a clear visual representation of who it
works.

MSPSR benefits from systems like radio, television,

mobile telephone base stations and even specific
transmitters that avoid relying on third-party
illuminators. Two types of MSPSR coexist; the passive
and active ones.
The passives are also known as passive radar/ coherent
location radar/ parasitic radar. Uses opportunity
transmissions, as already mentioned, TV transmitters,
FM radio, among others, not as PSR does, which has its
own.
On the other hand, unlike the passive ones, active Figure 133. Determination of a targets’ position
MSPSR do not use opportunity transmissions, they use a
network of ground transmitters. This system uses
coherent processing and either CW or pulsed
waveforms.
For the range accuracy follows the equation:

where:
B = bandwidth
k = processing coefficient
SNR = Signal to Noise Ratio
σ floor = construction error
Figure 132 Principle of the MSPSR c = speed of light

Focussing on equations, to determine the time delay the GDOP (Geometric Dilution of Precision) supplies the
equation is as follows: ratio between the accuracy in one direction (in this
scenario x-axys) and the range resolution. In sampler

61
words, it adds an error space to our previous ellipsoids in
Feature Value
Figure 133.
Peak Power 500 W

Antenna Gain 2 dBi

Polarisation Vertical
Another way to calculate GDOP is with a matrices given
by: Bandwidth 1 MHz

System losses 1.5 dB

and
MSPSR Rx specifications
where:
H = observation matrix Feature Value
Z = observation measurement
R = measurement covariance matrix Antenna gain on tg 10 dBi

Antenna gain on Tx -40 dBi

As previously mentioned, one of MSPSR's strengths is
the flexibility to add new elements in order to expand the Azimut 3dB beamwidth 45 º
coverage as needed. The elementary cell that’s used to
do so, is able to be reused as many times to achieve the Elevation 3dB beamwidth “cos”
best result. The following cells show the optimal Bandwidth 1 MHz
performance when it comes to accuracy and coverage. It
is formed by 3 pairs of Tx and Rx. Noise Factor 3 dB

Integration time 500 ms

Range Processing SLL 35 dB

Doppler Processing SLL 50 dB

Range x Doppler 80 dB
Intercardinal Processing
SLL

Doppler Rejection of fixed 80 dB

targets

System Losses 2 dB

SLL Processing losses 2 dB

Pfa 3x10ᐨ₆
Figure 134. MSPSR Elementary Cell Range error floor 5m

Its design facilitates repetition in all directions by Azimut error floor 15 º

duplication, it can allow 3D triangulation and has an
increased sensitivity and position accuracy. The Doppler error floor 0.5 m/s
specifications for the Tx and Rx are the ones in the next
tables. To design the location of our transmitters and receivers,
we used the MSPSR Elementary Cell by using Google
MSPSR Tx specifications
Earth Pro. Firstly, a 30 km radius circumference is drawn

62
with our airport centered in order to have a guide. Then
we place three Tx and Rx in the vertices of an hexagon, Disadvantages
following the Figure X cell positions. As a result, we
obtained the 6 differents locations, also represented in ➢ Still underdeveloped due to its need for high
Figure 135: computational power.

Although with the PSR detailed in the previous sections

we realized the coverage was not enough for our airport
Rx Tx and a MSPSR should be implemented.
42°43'51.40"N 42°57'56.08"N
1°19'53.80"E 1° 8'44.58"E The coverage study with the three different centered
transmitters shows that it is more than efficient. In
42°30'17.29"N 42°43'32.91"N Figure 136, we can see the location of the transmitters
0°46'14.20"E 0°36'14.76"E marked in purple pins and green and yellow areas
correspond to high and low coverage signals,
42°57'4.51"N 42°29'58.85"N
0°45'37.70"E 1° 9'27.47"E respectively.

Figure 136. Tx’s MSPSR coverage.

Figure 135. MSPSR Elementary Cell represented in
As easily seen, MSPSR radars are able to cover more
Google Earth Pro
than the bare minimum that the CTR needs. So we can
conclude that MSPSR radars are better to be used rather
To sum up with advantages and disadvantages of the
than PSR in our airport.
MSPSR we have:

Avantatges
➢ Detection in 3D of location and target’s speed.
➢ Higher renewal rate of data.
➢ Achieves requirements for approaching the
TMA even for low radar cross sections targets.
➢ Improve coverage by adding Rx and Tx.
➢ Able to perform in mountainous locations.
➢ Less affected by noise and clutters by wind
farms.
6.2 EN-ROUTE SURVEILLANCE
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE
The following paragraphs are going to be dedicated to
determine if in the airport a secondary radar mode-S is
feasible or not. It should cover the air space from the
ARP’s elevation of the airport to the FL Max, already
defined in the AIP of the designed airspace.

63
Moreover, the introduction of other Enaire/DSNA radars
to be implemented are mentioned. The cover of the
radars is shown at the end of the section among other
current radars that are being used (Insignia).
Nevertheless, an alternative option would be
implementing WAM (Wide Area Multilateration). The
study also has in mind this possibility and a cover study
and location areas are described. SSR, WAM and
ADS-B surveillance systems are suitable for area control
in remote and oceanic areas, also ADS-C is included.
As SSR's first steps, it was really popular in the military
field since it distinguished targets as friendly or hostile.
Currently, ModeA/C is used for civil aviation, with
Mode S service significantly enhanced to be
implemented. Some transponders are placed deliberately
in ground locations, called PARROTS, whose only
function is to advise if the radar is operating as it should
or not. For interrogations and replies frequencies it is
used 1030 MHz and 1090 MHz, respectively.
We should have in mind that a Secondary Surveillance
Radar system has two main elements: Ground station
interrogator or receiver, and an aircraft transponder
system, as represented in Figure 137.
Ground-based antenna commonly is roitational. Its rate
will determine the period the target’s data is sent.
Aircrafts must be equipped with a transponder. Ground
stations are aware that the transponders have an
established delay, which is used by the target to
determine the period of time an interrogation should be
decoded and then answered as a transmission.
Figure 137. SSR
SSR calculates the range as PSR does, by measuring the
time it takes from when the radar sends the signal to
when it comes back. It has a constant accuracy when
64
inside the coverage space. However, on the other hand,
since bearing is an angular measurement it will always
be less accurate when aircrafts are further from the radar.
Bearing, calculated separately from range, is determined
by the measure of the position of the rotating antenna
once the reply arrives.
6.2.1 SSR Mode A/C
These transponders give an identity and pressure altitude
codes, Mode A and Mode C, respectively, in response to
interrogations. Assigned by ATC but listed by pilots,
Mode A transponder’s identity code is a four-digit octal
number, which receives altitude from on-board
instruments such as air data computer or pressure
altitude encoder. There is a selection of determined
codes reserved for identifying emergencies.
Advantages
➢ Determination of pressure altitude and identities.
➢ Determination of range and bearing.
➢ Awareness of emergencies such as unlawful
interference or loss of communications.
➢ Long-range coverage.
Disadvantages
➢ Aircraft equipped with Mode A/C transponders.
➢ Only identity and altitude data can be
downlinked.
➢ Limited accuracy by transponder’s
characteristics.
6.2.2 SSR Mode S
Mode S was designed to be compatible and support
Mode A/C transponders. It improves the tracking and
reduces the voice communications between ground and
flight employees, simultaneously reducing everybody’s
workload. Allows address to specific aircrafts thanks to
the use of a 24-bit address, making albe the transponder
to identify each aircraft individually. The data link is
sent not only in one way, but two, between aircraft and
ground-based stations. It provides supplementary
information from the aircraft such as aircraft ID, selected
altitude by the crew, ACAS RA report, airspeed,
heading, roll angle, track angle and its rate, ground speed
and vertical rate. Due to all this added information, its
implementation is enhanced, making it compulsory to be
equipped with this type of transponder in some of
Europe’s regions. This requirements are called ELS and
EHS, detailed in the following subsections.
6.2.2.1 Mode S ELS and EHS
ELS (Elementary length Message), basically adds the
competence to dowlink an aircraft ID making use of a
Mode S transponder. Its selective addressing is able to
overcome garbling, FURIT and other undesired
interrogations, at the same time that the auto acquisition
of IDs mitigates the deficit of the codes. Depending on
the scenario, flight ID must follow ICAO flight plan
specifications (precisely Item 7) or aircraft registration.
EHS (Enhanced surveillance), supports ground ATM
systems by providing other DAPs (Downlink Aircraft
Parameters), in order to help controllers be more aware
of the separation distances, thus, increase capacity and
safety. Commonly implemented for crowded airspaces.
This new information controllers ask can be: magnetic
heading, selected altitude, vertical rate and air speed.
Advantages
➢ Support for Mode A/C.
➢ two-way data link.
➢ Awareness of transmission errors by a CRC.
➢ Selective interrogation even for crowded
airspace by eliminating interference between
closely spaced aircraft.
➢ Reporting of pressure altitude in 100 or 25 ft
increments.
Disadvantages
➢ Aircraft equipped with Mode S transponders.
➢ Complex installation.
➢ Meticulously management of ground installation
when high overlapping Mode S interrogator
coverage areas.
Advanced error correction techniques such as sliding
windows are meant to shift the error across the message.
A typical requirement is to have four to eight replies per
65
beam width on each interrogation. Errors experienced by
a rotating antenna or a TCAS. However it is unuseful for
undetected error in long-range air-to-air application due
to its severation, it needs a high elevation of received
signals in order to have an accurate result.
6.2.3 MSSR
Monopulse SSR, is the short form of MSSR. This is a
prerequisite for the Mode S transponder already
mentioned before. It has a monopulse antenna, a
thwin-channel monopulse receiver, a monopulse OBA
processor and a plot extractor, sometimes it is equipped
with scan-to-scan processor.
The monopulse azimuth measurement, compared to a
typical sliding window azimuth one, deeply reduces the
PRF, which has as a result a better SSR atmosphere by
reducing interferences and obtaining more accurate
results. To do so, it commonly requires two antennas or a
split one, but which each section divided.
The first scenario, with two antennas, uses two beams
with parallel radiation axes and horizontally separated
centers for those aircrafts that are not on-boresight, path
lengths have a difference.
Figure 139. Monopulse azimuth measurement
On the other hand, when two beam options are applied,
they have a common phase center. The sum pattern is
used to send interrogations and both patterns are to
process replies that arrive. Commonly two antenna
outputs are combined to represent sum and difference
patterns as in next figure.
 6.2.4 WAM

Wide Area Multilateration systems aims to cover a

long-range surveillance in altitudes around 29000 -
41000 ft. In order to be a feasible solution, this square-5
layout and large base of 60 NM it should follow the
specifications of :
Figure 138. Sum and difference patterns

When it comes to the OBA, Off-boresight angle, it can

Parameter Value
be calculated from a mixt of differences and sums
channels from the ratio of the doffernece signal’s Sensitivity -85 dBm
amplitude. It should be as stable as possible and within
the 3 dB beamwidth. Antenna DME with 3º squint
MSSR receiver is a logarithmic one since it has to face Reply rate factor 2.5
elevated dynamic ranges, and process detections and
codes extractions of different targets. To cope with the Power transmission 24 dBW
dynamic ranges and also over the frequency band of the
Bandwidth 22 MHz
signals, two matched channels, sums and differences,
must have stable gains and phases. Synchronization accuracy 1 ns

A third receiver channel, the control, must be

Its positions can be used for the obtaining of range on
implemented in order to limit the beamwidth over the
short distance or AOA (Angle Of Attack) system with or
desired signals.
in its lack of active range increase. WAM systems can be
categorized following two different criteria. Split by the
At its output, we can find the monopulse processor, the
implemented method to determine the TDOA (Time
tool which aims to calculate the OBA and then appended
Difference Of Arrival) and the one used to synchronize
to the antenna bearing to finally measure the azimuth.
the receivers of the signal.
Likewise, on its output, we find the monopulse extractor,
To obtain the TDOA of signals whose frequencies are of
which supports improved code processing and reduces
1090 MHz, TOA (Time Of Arrival) must be calculated
garbling effects. Measurements such as detection in code
firs for every individual receiver, to finally calculate the
and target, or correlation on scan-to-scan basis and even
difference between them. All WAM systems with active
a considerable removal of multipath targets can be
capability must use active transmissions in the unique
improved by making use of its processors.
case no passive data is available.
Advantages
Advantages
➢ High azimuth accuracy. (a factor of 2-3 times)
➢ Accurate position in addition to the 24-bit
➢ High improvement processing garbling replies.
address.
➢ Great code detection.
➢ Able to reduce the frequency of active
➢ Reduced correlation windows.
interrogations, if active range augmentation is
➢ Reduced code repetitions.
used.
➢ Reducción en IRF .
➢ Able to reduce interference effects., if active
range augmentation used
Disadvantages

➢ Limitations in improvement of azimuth accuracy Disadvantages

due to limited amplitudes and receiver noise.

66
 ➢ If a failure of the MLAT system would result in
a failure of the Mode Sinterrogator and WAM
will not be suitable.
➢ Significant interference when multiple WAM
systems are used in crowded areas.
6.2.5 WAM vs MSSR
ICAO doc 9924, describes a study comparing WAM
versus MSSP accuracy in feet for en-route surveillance,
at the altitude of 35000 ft. The vertical measurement, the
height is not contemplated since MSSR can only
calculate horizontal accuracy. Plots assume 1 ns of
synchronization accuracy achieved due to the GNSS
method to do so. Other techniques, however, will lead to
a significant degradation in horizontal accuracy and ever
a higher effect in the vertical one.
Figure 140. WAM accuracy at 35000 ft
67
Figure 141. MSSR accuracy at 35000 ft
Using a 60 NM range must be more than enough to
have a good coverage, by finding a balance between
baselines covered areas and accuracy. WAM accuracy
plot shows that all receivers (white circles) must receive
the SSR pulse. The coverage will be more limited then
by the line-of-sight.
To avoid that, there exists three solutions. The first one is
to position the receivers by forming a contiguous system.
Its representation would be the same as in Figure 142,
however, not divided by half as it shows two green and
blue sectors. Secondly, is similar to the first one, but
dividing the system in multiple sets, same locations as in
Figure 142.
Figure 142. Extended multiple-system layout
The downside of this type of implementation will lead to
a higher cost since there are more receivers, that is why
if a single site could be used, the synchronization will
support the baselines. The last one is to raise site heights,
not always possible. Undoubtedly, this type of pattern
will offer a remarkable accuracy improvement when
comparing it to the MSSR as the WAM plots show in
blue while MSSR one degradates starting from brownish
one. However, the improvement will not be so notorious
in closer ranges, lower than 10 NM, where both graphs
share the same range of blues.
Clearly, the chosen one is implementing the WAM, but
not only after this study.
As a first thought since our airport does not have high
traffic, only 10 flights per hour, we would think a SSM is
more than enough. However, challenging terrain will
lead to devastating results with this type of surveillance
system. So finally comparing both advantages and
disadvantages, the final choice is to implement a WAM
system.
The location of these antennas will be the same as the
ones specified in Figure 142, since they will be a better
option and the allocations were strategically chosen. The
obtained representation shows in the center our airport as
a blue square, surrounded by receivers, whites for the
externals and red for the centered ones, next to a
transmitter symbolized as a yellow circle. The
representations and coordinates are the following ones:

Rx

42°43'34.58"N, 1° 5'49.49"E

42°47'12.32"N, 1°11'17.57"E Figure 144. WAM coverage

42°48'38.58"N, 0°59'9.16"E

42°48'56.61"N, 0°49'0.83"E 6.3 ON GROUND SURVEILLANCE

PRIMARY SURVEILLANCE
42°41'44.64"N, 0°47'57.97"E
6.3.1 SMR
42°40'6.85"N, 0°57'49.60"E

42°41'4.44"N, 1°10'47.40"E The Surface Movement Radar, the long form of SMR, is
the most popularly used non-cooperative on ground
surveillance system. Also known by ASDE, which
Tx
stands for Airport Surface Detection Equipment, this
42°44'36.32"N, 0°58'54.56"E primary radar provides surveillance to the aerodrome
area, managing take-offs, landings and taxiings. Since
they are close range services, a high resolution, accuracy
and time position are a must due to having less space for
errors.

Characteristics

Antenna size 50 - 70 cm

Rotation rate 60 rpm

Range 4 km

Figure 143. Extended multiple-system layout on Google
Earth Pro
And its coverage, more than enough for our location, as
shown in the next subtracted representation.
Resolution 5 - 20 m
This SMR gives the best coverage in the airport area,
commonly compared to the one achieved by the vision
of the control tower. Its location will be really close to
our runway. In the case the vision is not enough, more
SMR could be applied to extend the range. Nevertheless,
it should be placed as high as possible due to it using
negative angle obstruction. When it comes to the

68
elevation coverage, it is limited to about 100 m to intersections we are able to see the yellow dot, what
minimize the coverage of the airborne traffic. It sends represents our located aircraft.
the energy towards the ground while minimizing the
power directed to the horizon, not as in the conventional
surveillance radars.

In A-SMGCS (Advanced – Surface Movement Guidance

and Control Systems) the service is given by one or
various SMR.

Figure 146. Intersecting hyperboloids

For a MLAT system to be implemented, at least four

Figure 145. SMR coverage
receivers stations must determine aircrafts’ location, the
only case three could determine it would be when being
aware of the pressure altitude. This last solution is called
6.4 ONGROUND SURVEILLANCE
the 2-D solution. Despite this minimum number of
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE
receivers, commonly to ensure safety and guarantee
6.4.1 MLAT adequate coverage, many more are implemented. This is
due to the use of barometric altitude for transponder
The Multilateration System is part of the cooperative and Mode C, which will lead to less accurate location of the
independent subgroups that uses transmitted signals to targets for its difference from the geometric height.
determine positions. Used for larger areas such as airport Moreover, we should take into account its accuracy is
surveillance, approach or even en-route. It may use not linear, it depends on the target’s geometry in
interrogations to acquire a desired performance. This comparison to the stations.
passive system uses the TDOA method to determine
aircrafts positions by intersecting surfaces that represent
constant distances among target and receivers. Its
drawing consist in a 3-D hyperboloid. So basically, the
intersections will determine the aircraft’s location.
Figure 146 shows the intersection of three hyperboloids
corresponding to the TDOA of the signals, compared to
a centered receiver station and four more spread in its
surroundings. For example, the blue one corresponds to
the intersection of a centered receiver and one located in
the north-west, the green one between the centered and
south-weast and the last orange area respectively to one
receiver located at the south-east region. With this Figure 147. MLAT representation.

69
 ➢ Communication between receiver sites and the
When it comes to a passive MLAT, it does not central processing station.
interrogate the transponder. What it has achieved is the
no need of a transmission license for its installation and The locations for the four receivers and transmitters
use, and moreover, the 1030 - 1090 MHz interrogations would be the following one to ensure safety and
and replies, respectively, maintain the same. accuracy. Once again, receivers are represented by white
stars, airport by a blue square and transmitter by a
The system will detect those aircraft equipped with yellow circle.
Mode S, A/C, within the range of one or even
interrogations from ground and the same scenario for
Rx
ACAS-equipped aircrafts. To sum up, these types of
passive devices are used for crowded airspaces where 42° 43' 32.33"N, 0° 56' 37.96"E
the vast majority of aircrafts are equipped with ACAS,
or areas with MSSR surveillance infrastructures, or even 42° 43′ 16″ N, 0° 59′ 27″ E
where Mode S or ES ADS-B mandatory. In oder 42° 43′ 7″ N, 0° 56′ 4″ E
scenarios will not be as good as it should.
42° 42′ 6″ N, 0° 58′ 32″ E
To clarify the difference between active and passive
MLAT, the first one consists of one or more transmitting Tx
antennas in order to do an interrogation whereas the 42° 45′ 18″ N, 0° 56′ 48″ E
passive one only has receivers. The best part of the
active ones is that they are independent of external
sources, however, the main disadvantage is that it
generates extra interferences on the channels.

Must understand multilateration techniques that are used

for larger areas such as en-route or approach ones are the
previous explained WAM systems.

Advantages

➢ Same capabilities as Mode A/C, Mode S and

ADS-B, (detailed in the following section).
➢ No need for additional equipment since it takes
advantage of existing transponders.
➢ Great coverage in demanding surroundings.
➢ Window to implement more stations to extend
its coverage area.
➢ High accuracy and update rates. Figure 148. MLAT locations

Disadvantages

➢ Despite taking advantage of existing

transponders, aircraft must be equipped with
them.
➢ If the transmitted signal is not correctly detected
at multiple stations, it might develop difficulties
when placing the receivers.

70

Figure 149. MLAT coverage
6.4.2 ADS-C
Stands for Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Contract.
Gives data such as longitude, latitude, altitude, time
stamp, FOM, predicted route waypoints, velocity, and
meteorological data. The ATM on ground arranges an
agreement or a “contract”, that is the why of the “C”,
with aircrafts to transmit information regularly or when
some scenario takes place, which is sent on
point-to-point data links. Ground systems and airborne
negotiate the conditions of these “contracts' '. Commonly
the reporting rate of oceanic operations is about 15 to 25
minutes, but this regulation can be increased by the
controllers manually. The exchange of information is
private and other aircrafts or ATMs are not able to be
accessed.
Figure 150. ADS-C
Typically used in oceanic and remote areas without
radars, for long.range air transport aircrafts, supporting
71
separation standards where ATC controllers only have
the information sent by the flight crew on-board.
Advantages
➢ Surveillance in areas without radars or MLATs
systems.
➢ Future data knowledge (future waypoints).
➢ Advanced determination of potential conflicts.
➢ Data link between aircraft and ground.
Disadvantages
➢ Depends on the aircraft being correctly
equipped.
➢ Installation of additional avionics.
➢ Performance determined by communications.
➢ Might lead to a high cost if the update rate is
high.
➢ Messages not directly available to other
aircrafts.
6.4.3 ADS-B
Stands for Automatic Dependent Surveillance -
Broadcast, which the name already suggests is the
broadcast by an aircraft of its longitude, altitude,
latitude, velocity, ID among other obtained information.
Since they can be received and processed by any suitable
receiver, it supports ground and air surveillance services.
Some of the obtained data come from an on-board
GNSS. Every message displays its own quality so users
are aware if it's good enough or not.
Altitude is commonly obtained from the pressure altitude
encoder. Some of the newest aircrafts use an integrated
GNSS and inertial navigation to send location, velocity
and data quality data. Undoubtedly, this type of system
will lead to a improvement rather than only using the
GNSS, since some characteristics mitigate the
weaknesses of other systems.

Figure 151. ADS-B
There are three different types of ADS-B data links,
explained in the following paragraphs.
Firstly, 1090 ES (Mode S 1090 MHz ES), as its name
says the data is transmitted in 1090 MHz. However, it is
available to other transponders, not only applicable for
the Mode S. It is a subpart of the Mode S system, which
has 56 bits, 120 ms long (8 ms of preamble and 12 of
data) and a data transmission rate of 1 Mbps.
IDs are transmitted every 5 s whereas the position and
velocity every 0.5 s.
In the second case, we have the UAT, whose main
function is to uplink information in addition to the
transmission of ADS-B data at 978 MHz. With a
signaling rate of 1 Mbps and a time slot , called MSO,
time when it transmits information.
When the channel is allocated at the ADS-B segment,
they are 250 ms long. Otherwise, when the channel is
allocated in the ground segment, they are 5.5 ms (22
MSOs) long.
Third and last case, we have the VDL Mode 4, VHF
digital link Mode 4. As its name indicates, it is a Very
High Frequency band, around 108 - 137 MHz.
Developed as a generic data link to support CNS. It is a
narrow-band with multiple 25 kHz channels, that assists
broadcasts and point-to-point communications for air
and ground applications. Moreover, it is able to select
free time slots for transmissions.
Advantages
➢ Easiest ground-based station.
➢ Notorious cheap costs.
72
➢ Able to be implemented in existing
architectures.
➢ Awareness indicators about quality.
➢ Provides ground and air surveillance support.
Disadvantages
➢ Dependence on aircraft's equipment.
➢ Position and velocity unanimously based on
GNSS.
➢ Provisions in place in order to correctly give
validation of the reported location of the aircraft.
The implementation of this type of ADS, looking at the
advantages, is capable of being selected since not only is
it easy to implement (WAM already equipped with
them), but it will have a huge impact in the reduction of
costs. Moreover, for the challenging terrain and
surroundings of our airport, being aware of its quality
will ensure even more the safety of our operations, not
only air but ground ones too. The coverage and location
then will be the one represented for the WAM antennas,
Figure 143 and Figure 144, respectively since we will
use ADS-B as a backup system.
7. iAUT
7.1 FLIGHT DATA PROCESSOR SUBSYSTEM
An automated air traffic management system has
different subsystems:
❖ Airspace Surveillance Subsystem
❖ Controller interface subsystem
❖ Flight Data Processor Subsystem
❖ Data Recording Subsystem
The main objective of the Flight Data Processor
subsystem is to carry out the management of the life
cycle of flight aircraft, their modifications and the
distribution to the different determined subsystems.
Therefore, it is concluded that this subsystem has the
purpose of determining the sectors that are involved in
each flight, in order to send messages, warnings or flight
aircrafts to the determined control sectors when the
situation requires it. The FDP must fulfill the following
functions:
❖ Flight plan management: Manages all flight
plans received from the IFPS and locally
 generated flight plans. These flight plans must
be submitted prior to the departure of the flight,
and must be provided with information such as
the route, the aerodrome of departure and
destination, as well as alternate aerodromes. On
the other hand, it must also contain the type of
flight, either VFR or IFR, the equipment, the
flight level, etc
❖ Modification of flight plans: The modification
of the flight plan can be carried out by the air
traffic controller.
❖ Trajectory prediction: From the flight plan,
parameters such as altitudes, estimated times...
On the other hand, the route is also calculated in
2D and 4D.
❖ Conflict detection: Detection of possible
conflicts generated from the estimation or
prediction of the trajectory.
❖ Correlation of radar or ADS traces: Correlates
common aircraft tracking traces with the
respective flight plans through identification
data.
❖ Management of the SSR codes of the
transponders: Manages the assignment of the
SSR identification codes.
❖ Distribution of flight plans: If there is a change
in the status of a flight plan or any modification,
it must be distributed to everyone who is
involved.
❖ Coordination between control centers:
Coordination between all the control centers
involved in each flight plan.
As the scenario is presented where the airport resides in
Spain, the system in charge of air traffic management is
SACTA (Automatic Air Traffic Control System).
On the one hand, SACTA integrates all the Spanish
route, approach and aerodrome control centers, in such a
way that management is carried out on coherent data and
in a coordinated manner, facilitating operations without
interruptions between all the control units and the
provision of the ATS (air traffic) services for which
ENAIRE is responsible.
On the other hand, from an international point of view,
SACTA allows automatic communication between
Spanish and foreign control centers, using international
73
data exchange standards. This entails the automatic
detection of possible conflicts and flexibility for the
reconfiguration of the operational airspace. It also
minimizes the effects of so-called traffic spikes and
manual actions. The different functions provided by
SACTA are:
❖ Processing of all the information related to
flight plans through a central processing of
flight plans and various local processing of
flight plans .
❖ Tools to help traffic planning.
❖ Radar information processing to perform
aircraft tracking and identification functions and
maintain air traffic separation.
❖ Association between radar information and
flight plans, so that the controller can identify
aircraft automatically and unequivocally.
❖ Presentation of weather information to aid
navigation in adverse conditions.
❖ Alerts to the controller of the deviations of the
aircraft with respect to the planning, or with
respect to the authorizations received in real
time.
❖ Data communication between the aircraft and
the controller. It allows the exchange of
messages with the aircraft and, in this way,
avoids oral communications.
❖ Presentation of the aeronautical information
necessary for air traffic control.
❖ Distributed supervision, configuration,
recording and technical exploitation of the
entire system.

Figure 152. SACTA
7.2 ATM SURVEILLANCE TRACKER AND SERVER
EUROCONTROL offers the whole of Europe ARTAS, a
system with the ability to process surveillance data
(SDPS) from radars such as PSR, SSR, Mode-S, WAM
and ADS. This system provides its users with a status of
air traffic in real time, with the best possible level of
accuracy and reliability (high level).
Unlike the SDPD, the ATRAS is based on a set of
identical units, which have the capacity to coordinate
together and act as a single surveillance system
throughout the region, in what is known as the "general
concept of a surveillance system." distributed". In
addition, thanks to the flexibility that ATRAS provides,
many operational needs can be met for EMSO, meaning
that it is a unique solution.
The surveillance sensors are connected to a Regional
Surveillance WAN (Wide Area Network) and the units
are also connected to this network. Each ARTAS unit
processes the surveillance data received on the network,
acting as a server, through the EUROCONTROL
Surveillance Data Distribution System (SDDS). This
provides continuous aircraft tracking data to ATC units
and other systems (e.g. terminal areas, military, flow
management units, etc.) that are connected to the
network.
74
Figure 153 ARTA operating diagram
Due to the perfect integration of all the units, it tolerates
a minimum separation of 5NM in the entire air cover. It
can also allow a separation of 3NM but in this case, the
behavior of ARTAS in local environments has to be
evaluated in depth first.
DATA TYPES
In addition to the so-called “tracking state vector
elements”, i.e. position, speed, flight mode, etc., that the
tracker maintains, the tracks served include other data of
interest to users of the system, including information
related to flight plans, provided by users of ARTAS
flight data processing systems, i.e. call sign,
departure/arrival airports, aircraft type, etc.
ARCHITECTURE
ARTAS is provided with two machines and software
services developed specifically for the purpose of the
system, ie ARTAS Middleware (MW). It is based on a
system consisting of software and hardware resources, in
order to meet all the functional and performance
requirements, it is what is called the ARTAS unit.
SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE
ARTAS software encompasses online and offline
components, middleware, and application software,
representing a total of approximately 2.1 million lines of
source code, written in Ada, C, Java, Python, and shell
scripts.
ARTAS has four groups of major function computer
software configuration items (CSCIs):
❖ TRACKER (TRK) processes the sensor input
data and maintains the latest air situation
represented in the Track DataBase.
❖ SERVER (SRV) carries out the Track and
Sensor Information Services, i.e. the
 management of all requests from Users and the
transmission of the relevant sets of track/sensor
data to these Users.
❖ ROUTER BRIDGE (RBR) processes the
external interfaces to the Normal Users, the
Broadcast Users, the Adjacent ARTAS Units and
the Surveillance Sensors.
❖ SYSTEM MANAGER (MMS) carries out the
functions related to the supervision and
management of the ARTAS Unit.
ONLINE
A_COM: A set of common packages defining those
functions/procedures used by more than a single CSCI.
BASIC SYSTEM: Many features of ARTAS (for example,
the
Most user requests like start/stop nodes) are
implemented in a lot of shell scripts.
SUPERVISION FACILITY (SUP): Two ARTAS SNMP
agents allow remote supervision (i.e. via network SNMP
request/traps) over all ARTAS functionalities.
DISCONNECTED
DAF CSCI: The purpose of this CSCI is to provide the
data analysis facilities, in order to analyze a previous
operating situation, to subsequently verify the correct
operation of the system, to assist in the adjustment and
improvement of the system.
SIM CSCI: The simulator functions are intended to
simulate ARTAS USERS (Basic Users and FPPS Users).
PATCH INSTALLER TOOL: The Patch Installer Tool is
a set of Shell/Python scripts that installs/uninstalls a
patch (a fix for an ATR/ACP) in a common (i.e. a patch
is installed the same way everywhere). of ARTAS) and
secure (i.e. all patch prerequisites are checked before
any changes are applied) on any ARTAS system.
With the ARTAS V8B version, the ARTAS unit is
housed in an ARTAS Station (AS). An ARTAS dual
system consists of two identical computers and their
associated peripherals. The internal LAN (Ethernet /
Bonding) is part of the system. The TRK, SRV, RBR,
MMS, and REC CSCIs of each chain run on a single
node.
The ARTAS V8B4 will increase its nominal capacity
from 48 sensors and 4,096 system tracks to 255 sensors
75
and 32,000 system tracks (subject to validation). This
update also provides the ability to customize and adjust
system behavior at each Terminal Maneuvering Area
(TMA), Inhibit Code Change (ICCA), and en-route.
7.3 METEO
From the ICAO point of view, the meteorological service
contributes to the safety, regularity and efficiency of
international air navigation. To meet these objectives, the
necessary meteorological information is provided so that
users such as operators, flight crew members, search and
rescue services units, air traffic services units, airport
administrations and any user who participates in
international air navigation, achieve the performance of
their respective functions.
The meteorological service that it will provide to satisfy
the needs of international air navigation is determined by
each contracting state. Following the regional navigation
agreements and based on the provisions of this Annex,
the determination of the meteorological service that will
be provided for international air navigation in
international waters and other areas that are outside the
territory of the State in question is included.
This is where the State Meteorological Agency
(AEMET) comes into play, which is responsible for
carrying out the support tasks for air navigation that
occurs at the airport of this project (Andorra Airport),
but specifying, the components that directly provide this
support are the Airport Meteorological Offices (OMA),
the Meteorological Surveillance Offices (OVM), the
Main Aeronautical Meteorological Offices (OMPA), the
Aeronautical Applications Service (SAA), the Single
Sky Program Office (OPCU) and the OMA Coordination
Service.
7.3.1 FIELD EQUIPMENT
In this type of group, the observation equipment is
located far from any source that could considerably
affect the quality of the data obtained by the set of
meteorological parameter sensors, and therefore, its
location also depends on the parameters interested in
measuring.
 Figure 154. Weather garden
Figure 156. Sonic Anemometer
Wind parameter: Anemometers and wind profilers

The instruments responsible for carrying out wind
measurements are anemometers and wind profilers.
These measurements are carried out with sensors
positioned 10 meters above the ground, taking into
account the obstacle limitation areas, the prevailing
winds at the aerodrome, and must be exhaustively
studied by experts.
On the other hand we have wind profilers, a type of
weather observation equipment, which uses radar
equipment or sonic waves (SODAR) to detect wind
speed and direction at various elevations above the
ground. Such data is very useful to meteorology and
aviation.

The basic equipment for measuring wind speed is the

cup anemometer, which consists of a system of three
cups that the wind rotates horizontally around an axis,
obtaining an estimate of the average intensity of the
wind, which will be expressed in kilometers per hour or
in knots.

Figure 157. Wind profiler

Relating these instruments to the established use on

airport runways, a series of anemometers come into
action that measure the speed and direction of the wind
at different points on both sides of the runways,
detecting shear events and microbursts, is what is
Figure 155. Cup Anemometer
Known as Low Level Wind Shear Alert Systems
(LLWAS). These systems alert in real time the pilots
The sonic anemometers use ultrasonic sound waves to
who carry out maneuvers in approach and takeoff, of the
determine instantaneous wind speed by measuring how
possibility of windshear, in order to avoid it.
much sound waves traveling between a pair of
transducers are sped up or slowed down by the effect of
the wind.

76

Figure 158. LLWAS
Visibility parameter: Transmissometers, scatterometers.
Transmissometers and scatterometers are used to
determine visibility. These must be located at a height of
approximately 2.5 meters from the ground and their
exact location will be determined taking into account
aeronautical meteorological considerations. The data is
displayed on the users' monitors and is continuously
updated.
Regarding the transmissometers estos son an instrument
for indicating visibility by measuring the transmission or
extinction of a light beam over a known distance.
Together with a luminance meter, it allows to extract the
visibility and runway visual range (RVR) of takeoff and
landing, necessary for aeronautical meteorological
METAR reports. It is usually located in the touchdown
areas (of the plane when it touches the ground when
landing) and near the runway centerline and, sometimes,
also in the central area of said runway.
Figure 159. Transmissometer
Scatterometers are instruments that measure the
scattering coefficient of light in a small volume of air.
An emitter emits a light of known intensity towards a
receiver that is not located on its axis but forms a certain
77
angle, which measures the scattered light, and therefore,
to estimate visibility and runway visual range.
Figure 160. Scatherometer
Present time parameter.
Present weather phenomena are classified into three
categories: precipitation (drizzle, rain, snow, ash, ice
pellets, hail and small hail), obscuration phenomena that
restrict horizontal visibility (haze, fog, smoke, volcanic
ash, dust, sand and haze) and other phenomena that
restrict visibility (dust or sand eddies, squall, tornado,
sandstorm and dust storm).
Present weather observations are made visually by
weather observers. Automatic systems, although they
measure some parameters, are not yet capable of
discerning all present weather phenomena.
Sky conditions parameter: Ceilometers.
The ceilometer or nephobasimeter is the most frequently
used instrument for measuring cloud base height and
cover, which fall into two categories.
On one side are the optical ceilometers, which are made
up of a projector, a detector and a means to record
information. These ceilometers project a beam of light at
the bottom of the cloud, modulated, so that from that
beam of light and triangulations, its height can be
determined.
On the other hand there are the laser ceilometers. This
type of ceilometer is used in conditions where the sky is
dark and therefore cloud information cannot be given.
The operation of laser ceilometers consists of taking
pulses of laser light that are emitted vertically and
reflected after making contact with the base of a cloud,
in this way the height is determined..

Figure 162. Dew temperature sensor in ASOS systems

Pressure parameter: barometers

Figure 161. Ceilometer or Nephobasimeter One of the most essential measurements for the
aeronautical field is the measurement of pressure, since
this is what determines the measurements of aircraft
altimeters, which are based on said pressure. The
Temperature parameter and Dew temperature parameter: instruments responsible for measuring pressure are the
Thermometers and hygrometers. famous barometers, which can be both mercury, aneroid,
automatic digital pressure…
In the aeronautical field there are several methods to
make observations of temperature and dew point
temperature.The most common and traditional method to
measure temperature and dew temperature is carried out
using mercury thermometers and psychrometers, which
are located in a meteorological booth located in the
meteorological garden at a height between 1.25 and 2
meters from the ground. floor.

Another less conventional instrument, or at least in the

past, is the hygrothermometer. This electronic instrument
is responsible for processing the signals coming from the
sensors to obtain the air and dew temperatures and
allows them to be displayed digitally on the users'
monitors. Atmospheric humidity for aeronautical
purposes is expressed in terms of dew point temperature.
One of the most used sensors in automatic systems are
cold mirror hygrometers, these work by cooling the
surface that is in contact with the volume of air until
condensation occurs on the surface

Figure 163. Pressure sensor

Pressure measurement must be redundant, which is why

there are several sensors in order to avoid any

78
contingency or failure of any of them. The reliability of
the pressure sensors must be verified regularly by
comparing the measurements of each sensor with the
other sensors located in the same station and with the
standard barometer. To avoid errors in the
measurements, the pressure sensors must be placed
statically on a support designed to minimize the
wind effects
7.3.2 OFFICE EQUIPMENT
At AEMET, the Integrated Meteorological Data
Observation System (SIM) automatically and
continuously obtains data from the different
meteorological sensors and generates encoded messages
in the format required by the International Civil Aviation
Organization.
These data obtained are presented graphically on digital
consoles, to be used by meteorology personnel and
aeronautical users. In turn, this data is automatically
archived in order to prepare airport climatologies.
The meteorology staff works in the airport
meteorological offices (AMO), from which the
necessary meteorological service is provided to meet
operational needs, such as providing sufficient
information for aviation flight crew members, air traffic
units and airport managers.
Figure 164. Location of meteorology and office
equipment
Figure___ shows the map of the airport and the
meteorological elements. In green we can find the
meteorological garden (all the systems described above
79
are found in the field equipment) and the office
equipment (AMO). And in orange the LLWAS, which
warn of low-altitude wind shear on the runways
7.4 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE
(AIS)
The responsible for the provision of the Aeronautical
Information Service (AIS) is ENAIRE. Thanks to AIS,
the necessary information and advice is provided to
guarantee safety, regularity and operational efficiency in
air navigation. Both the data of the Spanish territory and
that of the air space are compiled from various
authorized sources and are then made available to the
aeronautical community.
Thanks to the information provided, the management
and planning is more suitable for the operations, which
guarantees the maximum availability of the data, just by
accessing it through different products, media, formats,
technologies and applications. The AIS is provided by
two automated management systems to perform its
functions.
The first automated AIS management system is
INSIGNE (Integrated Aeronautical Information
Management System), whose main aim is to manage and
provide a complete and integrated database of
aeronautical information, which is capable of supporting,
on the one hand, the activities of the AIS, regarding the
management of data and generation of products, and on
the other to the activities of users of aeronautical
information.
The use of a Geographic Information System (GIS)
allows not only an effective management and
maintenance of large volumes of information with
geographic content, but also the transition to a digital
information management model in an optimal way.
As previously mentioned, the main element is a database
called INSIGNIA that stores all the information
centrally, with the aim of facilitating access and
management, in such a way that the upload of data to the
database is done as automatically as possible,
minimizing manual data entry.
Operations based on the information contained in the
database:
❖ Automated production of aeronautical charts
❖ On-line map generation
❖ Data exchange
The second automated AIS management system is
ICARO (NOTAM message management system), which
allows the reception of NOTAM projects from the
originators, the processing of messages and their
subsequent national and international distribution. The
ICARO system is also used to consult NOTAMs and
generate GDP by airspace users.
Therefore, based on the two automated management
systems explained above (INSIGNE and ICARO), the
aeronautical information service receives, assembles,
edits, publishes, stores and distributes aeronautical
information or data relating to the entire territory of the
state.
Date of entry into force: moment from which that
information is valid and can be used.
There must be a period of 42 days between the date of
publication of information and the date of entry into
force of the same → Once the information has been
published, it must reach the user (date of receipt) within
the following 14 days → The user has 28 days to take
the appropriate measures before it comes into force
(update their databases, load on-board equipment, etc.

Also in the case of areas in which the State is responsible

for air traffic services outside its territory, under ICAO
regulations which establish that all Member States must
provide aeronautical information services.

Type of publication based on the type of information:

❖ Temporary: This is information associated with

unforeseen Incidents that are expected to last a
short time, incidents that last a short time but
were planned, and incidents that last more than Figure 165. AIRAC Dates
three months.
AIRAC dates shall be published for each year at the end
❖ Permanent: It is one that does not experience of the previous year. So the same for all countries, that
frequent changes. is, all countries work with the same AIRAC dates,
unique and common.
❖ Predictable: This is previously studied data that
needs to be published in advance so that users
have enough time to take the appropriate
measures.

❖ Unpredictable and/or urgent: It is one that

originates due to unexpected or fortuitous
events, which affects operations and, therefore,
requires urgent notification.

❖ Administrative: It is the information, advisory

or related to administrative issues, referring to
important changes in the very long term.

According to the ICAO, predictable changes with
significant relevance to operations are published in the
regulated AIRAC publication system, with the aim of
allowing users to receive the information in sufficient
time to be able to study it and include it in their reports.
manuals.
Publication date: which is when it was published.
Figure 166. AIRAC Dates
The type of publications based on the different types of
information are collected in the "Integrated
documentation of aeronautical information" according to
ICAO, which includes the following publications.
❖ AIP → Aeronautical Information Publication
❖ AMDT → Amendments
❖ SUP → Supplement

80
 ❖ AIC → Circulars
❖ PIB → Pre-flight information bulletins
❖ NOTAM
❖ Summary of NOTAM
❖ Checklists
The AIP is the basic and official manual issued by any
State, or with its authorization, which contains
aeronautical information of a permanent and predictable
nature, essential for navigation. It is usually distributed
in DVD format and in the case of Spain, it is published
in a bilingual edition, that is, it is published in Spanish
and English. It consists of information sheets with a
white background and aeronautical charts, both in black
and white and in color, and each sheet indicates the date
of entry into force of the information that has been
incorporated, modified or eliminated, as well as the
amendment in which was done, as shown in the figure__
Figure 167. AIP
The three pillars of which the AIP is made up are the
Generalities (GEN), the En-Route (ENR) and the
Aerodromes (AD).
GEN [consists of five sections]: Contains information
of an administrative, explanatory nature and that affects
the entire AIP or the entire territory of the Nation is
included. Some examples are general data on
publications, national regulations, entry and exit
requirements of the territory, aeronautical authorities,
tables and codes used, rates, etc.
ENR [consists of seven sections]: Contains all the
information related to en-route navigation and the use of
airspace in Spain (ATS procedures and standards – air
traffic services-, description of the airspace, airways,
delegated airspaces, P zones, D, R and sensitive fauna,
radio aids that serve route navigation, airspace
classification, etc.).
AD [consists of four sections]: Contains information
related to aerodromes and heliports open to national and
international civil traffic: geographic and administrative
data (airport schedules and their services), physical
characteristics of the runways, taxiways and apron, their
81
lighting, radio aids that serve aerodrome procedures,
associated cartography, etc.
The AIP, as noted above, is a variable publication, that
means, it is constantly changing. To maintain a good
update of the pages, the amendments are used, in which
there is a green or blue cover and behind them, the pages
that must be replaced when the date of entry into force
arrives.
On the one hand, there are the regular amendments
(AMDT) [blue color cover], which are published
monthly, and their publication is usually made to
coincide with the date of entry into force of an AIRAC
cycle. AMDTs contain minor editorial changes and
corrections, as well as permanent information that has
been previously distributed by NOTAM and requires its
inclusion in the AIP.
On the other hand, there are AIRAC Amendments
(AIRAC AMDT) [green color cover], which, like the
regular amendments, contain predictable information of
a permanent nature, but this time, this information is of
importance for air navigation and/or airport operations.
The modifications enter into force on a date subsequent
to their publication. In the cover are indicated the
following elements:
❖ AIRAC SUP number.
❖ Date (day and month of publication).
❖ The AMDT AIRAC number.
❖ The date (day and month) of publication.
❖ The AIRAC effective date of the information.
❖ A brief description of the changes that the
amendment incorporates and a list indicating the
pages that must be inserted and/or replaced in
the AIP on the effective date.
❖ A list of NOTAM, SUP and/or AIC that must be
canceled with the incorporation of the
amendment.
.
Regarding the information of a temporary nature, this is
published through supplements, which can be regular or
AIRAC.
The Regular Supplement (SUP) [yellow color sheet]
Issued at regular intervals when information is available.
Contains minor temporary changes of long duration
(three months or more) and information of short duration
that is lengthy or contains graphics. They consist of:
❖ Regular Sup number.
❖ Date (day and month of publication).
❖ Effective date of the information.
❖ Part of the AIP affected by the incident.
❖ Period of validity.
❖ Detailed description of the incident.
❖ A list of NOTAM, SUP and/or AIC that must be
canceled with the incorporation of the SUP.
The AIRAC Supplement (pink color sheet) Issued at
fixed intervals (AIRAC) when information is available.
It contains the important modifications for long-term
temporary operations (three months or more) and
short-term information that is extensive or contains
graphics. They consist of:
❖ AIRAC SUP number.
❖ Date (day and month of publication).
❖ Date of entry into force AIRAC of the
information.
❖ Period of validity.
❖ Part of the AIP affected by the incident.
❖ Detailed description of the incident.
❖ A list of NOTAM, SUP and/or AIC that must be
canceled with the incorporation of the AIRAC
SUP.
The NOTAM are notices distributed by means of
telecommunications that inform about the establishment,
condition or modification of any aeronautical
installation, service, procedure or danger. They also
inform about meteorological alerts and warnings about
reserved areas that cannot be penetrated by aircraft.
The information they contain is temporary, unpredictable
and of short duration, without graphics. It is also related
to the establishment, condition or modification of any
aeronautical facility, service, procedure or hazard, the
timely knowledge of which is essential for the personnel
82
in charge of flight operations. It is distributed through
the AFTN network.
7.5 EUROCONTROL NETWORK MANAGER
The one in charge of carrying out the functions of the
ATF networks is the one known as the Network
manager. It carries out functions such as airspace design,
air traffic flow management, assignment of transponder
codes and radio frequencies, etc. for the European
Commission under the responsibility of Eurocontrol.
The Network Manager uses and implements the ATM
network of 43 countries, in order to achieve a single
European airspace or SES (Single European Sky). Its
objectives are to increase safety, capacity, flight and
environmental efficiency and reduce costs.
Network Management Features:
❖ Develop and create the route network design
(Route Network Design).
❖ Provide frequency assignment function.
❖ Improve the assignment of SSR codes.
❖ Carry out ATFM (Air Traffic Flow
Management) functions.
❖ Collaborate with the development of SESAR
Network Management Tasks:
❖ Helping air navigation services, civil and
military airspace users and airports to improve
their networks in Europe.
❖ Development of strategies, plans and priorities.
❖ Help create more efficient routes.
❖ Balance between demand and air traffic
capacity.
❖ Manage scarce resources.
 ❖ Consolidate information to the centralized ATM
databases.
❖ Help make decisions.
❖ Predict, monitor and analyze network functions.
❖ Deal with topics such as weather, hotspots, etc.
Several projects related to information systems, airspace,
capacity, ATFM, airports, security and optimization of
the CNS, are being developed by the Network Manager.
These projects are known as the "Network Strategic
Projects".
Network Strategic Projects:
❖ Flight Efficiency Initiative (FEI)
❖ Free Route Airspace
❖ Airspace Management and Advanced FUA
❖ Airport and TMA Network Integration
❖ Cooperative Traffic Management
❖ Initial Trajectory Information Sharing
❖ European ATM Information Management
System (EAIMS)
❖ Network Manager Ops service platform
(n-CONNECT)
❖ Network Business Intelligence
❖ Call Sign Similarity Tool (CSST) Network
Manager Strategic Project
❖ SKYbrary Network Manager Strategic Project
❖ Safety Tools Network Manager Strategic Project
Other advantages of the Network Manager is that it also
provides predictions about the traffic and the delays that
there will be in Europe. Therefore, the Network Manager
Performance Plan and the Network Strategy Plan
perform the following activities.
❖ STATFOR (Statistics and Forecast Service)
❖ OAR (Operational Analysis and Reporting)
❖ CODA (Central Office for Delay Analysis)
83
The NMOC (Network Manager Operations Center) is
responsible for: Flow and Capacity Management, ATM
Access Gateway and Flight Planning Operations,
Information Domain Management, Crisis and
Contingency Management and Post-OAR.
Network Operations planning is responsible for ensuring
that it improves the design of European airspace, its use,
as well as facilitating the integration of the FUA
(Functional Airspace Blocks).
The NMD (Network Management Directorate) is
responsible for ensuring that the CNS (Communications,
Navigations and Surveillance) systems and subsystems
work together and in an interoperable manner, safely and
efficiently.
The NTS (Network Technical Systems) ensures that all
services work perfectly 24 hours a day.
—----------
Once all the functions and supplies provided by the
network manager have been analyzed, it is time to carry
out a study on how it interconnects with all the operating
systems at the Vall d'Aran airport located in Pla de Beret,
in order to improve safety, capacity, flight efficiency and
the environment and reduce costs.
First of all, one of the functions that the Network
Manager must carry out at the Vall d'Aran airport is the
performance of A-CDM (Airport Collaborative Decision
Making). Its objective is to improve efficiency in airport
operations, on the one hand it increases the predictability
of events an on the other hand it optimizes the use of
resources. For example: reduce taxi time by improving
the use of stands and doors, reduce queues and
congestion on said tracks. Thanks to A-CDM,
information on aircraft departure and arrival times will
be more accurate, leading to more accurate demand
calculations.
In second place the ACAP (Airport Capacity and
Performance) tasks. These tasks are responsible for
supporting the operations and actions of the NMOC
airports. The appropriate plans are evaluated and
developed to solve certain situations that may affect the
airport.
On the other hand, airport capacity is analyzed from
PIATA Neo (Airport Performance Indicator and Analysis
Tool), which is capable of determining runway capacity
by analyzing runway utilization.
Therefore, a good balance between the demand and the
capacity of the airport can be guaranteed from an
optimal and efficient regulation of air traffic, using the
airport in the most logical way possible.
Figure 168. Scheme of how ACAP works
Thirdly, Airport Information Management comes into
play, with the aim of providing, in an effective way,
information to the airport by applying an information
database, which will contain information on important
events, on the air side and on the ground side, the
capacity , traffic forecasts, weather conditions,
approaches/TMA, the implementation of CDO
(Continuous Descent Operation) and CDM
(Collaborative Decision Making), etc. All confidential.
And last but not least, the Interconnection between the
airport and the operations network, thanks to which the
efficiency of all users with the necessary information is
ensured. It also offers improvements to outbound traffic
and ATFCM in situations where delays occur. This
allows better management and allocation of slots, airport
capacity, it reduces delays, etc.
So the network manager supports the airport in assigning
SSR codes to have better surveillance between planes
and radars, increasing its security, and also avoids
interference, helping to assign the most appropriate
frequencies.
Thanks to the NM, the most optimal routes are provided
to reach other destinations, using the navigation charts
created for the Vall d'Aran airport, improving flight
efficiency and reducing costs and emissions.
7.6 AMAN & DMAN
7.6.1 AMAN
The Arrival Manager (AMAN) is a collaboration tool in
the arrival management process for the controller and the
84
airport, that is, it supports air traffic controllers in
managing the flow of arriving traffic.
The AMAN provides on the one hand the sequence on
the track or at the measurement point Programmed target
time on the track or at the measurement point (APTT /
APTO) and on the other hand it provides warnings
Warnings to implement the target sequence (time to lose
/ time to win, and optionally speed, route, maneuver
warnings), in order to meet the following objectives:
❖ Assign the optimal track.
❖ Optimize the arrival sequence on the runway and
in TMA.
❖ Regulate / manage (measure) the flow of
arriving aircraft,
❖ Provide notices (TTL / TTG, CTA…) to
controllers to support them in managing arrival
traffic.
But when there are long waits for takeoff, it means
unnecessary fuel consumption, delays and
unpredictability. This situation turns out to be frustrating
for both passengers and drivers. Currently, these delays
have decreased considerably due to the way of the
departure management process, which improves the
accuracy of departure time estimation.
7.6.2 DMAN
Here is the Departure Manager (DMAN), a tool that
improves traffic predictability, safety, profitability,
environmental sustainability, because it takes into
account time slot restrictions, previously scheduled
departure times , the factors of the airport... Thanks to
the DMA, which takes into account all the factors
mentioned above, the controllers in the tower optimize
the previous departure sequence.
When calculating the sequences, the DMAN accesses
precise information on the status of the flights and the
resources available to the airport, making decisions with
the A-CDM.
For example, the destination time from the airline, out of
the block (TOBT) is provided. On the other hand, there
is the controller in the tower that uses tables that
generate variable taxi times to achieve the target time of
takeoff (TTOT). Information about departure slots or
computed take-off times (CTOT) is then obtained from
Network Manager, which is responsible for flow control
throughout Europe.
Now, given that the scenario that is presented is an
airport in the mountainous areas of the Pyrenees, that is,
the Vall d'Aran, it is necessary to carry out an in-depth
study of AMAN and DMAN based on their
characteristics mentioned above, their benefits and how
it can affect the Vall d'Aran airport, in order to decide if
those "systems" could be implemented in the airport
located in Pla de Beret.
7.6.3 AMAN & DMAN ANALYSIS
Analyzing AMAN deeplier, a more detailed explanation
is obtained about its implementations in Europe, which,
despite having their differences, are quite similar to each
other, for example, almost all of them need to have an
AMAN manager responsible for the system in operation,
operate within about 150 miles from landing, use some
sort of timeline in their operation and use similar HMIs
to display flights and their AMAN information.
At the time of AMAN implementation, there are effects
on HMI, procedures and operations, work methods, etc.
On the other hand it also affects human factors and
safety. This is where simulations come into play, by
which the best working arrangements are determined and
also provide an opportunity for implementers to "debug"
the system in a realistic representation of the expected
environment.
Although the system seems "simple", the training to
implement the AMAN turns out to be more extensive
and more "deep" than many team members see. AMAN
works in a different way than controllers can operate, so
it is important that those operating on the system have a
good understanding of the differences in methods
between machines and humans, otherwise the possibility
of errors occurring. , misunderstandings, distrust and the
same rejection of the tool, increases
Speaking of AMAN, it turns out to be effective when
used to measure and help distribute traffic in a
reasonable way and in a reasonable sequence. Instead, if
you talk about ATMs, this is not it. AMAN is not
capable of solving arrival management problems.
Therefore AMAN should be seen as a support tool,
which is effective (for ATCOs) when the principles and
operating methods are kept “simple”.
AMAN is ideal for hosting additional functionality, such
as coordination functionality and messaging, especially
for use between ACC and APP. Some research is
planned to investigate the integration of AMAN with
85
other systems such as DMAN; currently AMAN is not
widely integrated with other FDPS systems.
Most AMAN implementations use a fixed position, such
as the IAF, as the measurement point for system users to
select and operate. Short-duration flights, or pop-up
flights, consistently provide the most “operational” (and
technical) difficulty or issues in almost all daily AMAN
deployments.
Currently, there is no AMAN user group. The
establishment of such a group is requested by all current
implementers and some planned implementers who were
contacted during the last two years for these projects,
willing to participate and support such a group.
Several of the implementers consider that the formation
of an AMAN user group is becoming a more important
requirement, especially since AMAN is focusing on the
SESAR work packages and the expectations that are
being considered for the system in the future. future. So
if AMAN could be implemented in the Vall d'Aran
aerodrome.
Analyzing the DMAN, it can be concluded that the
benefits that can be extracted from this tool is the
improvement of the predictability and stability of the
output sequence, start approval time and idle time locks,
and runway scheduling. On the other hand, it reduces
fuel consumption, CO2 emissions, waiting times, taxi
times and delays on the runway.
The DMAN acts as an independent demonstrator or as a
development system, with which a first adjustment of
parameters and an evaluation of benefits can be made.
The DMAN can be embedded in real or simulated tower
ATC environments. The tool was operationally tested in
the RTS1 tests of the Puerta a Puerta project. The results
indicate that, for controllers, the operational concept of a
closed-loop output management compatible tool is easy
to understand and implement.
Thanks to the DMAN, many benefits can be reaped such
as the reduction of taxi departure delays in terms of
overall improved efficiency, reduced environmental
impact and harmonized traffic flow. Furthermore, the
DMAN not only improves the predictability and
reliability of schedules, but also enables and/or promotes
other advanced ATM concepts in the future, such as
CDM and CPDLC. The lessons learned can be useful to
introduce such a tool in European airports. So if DMAN
could be implemented in the airport of Vall d’Aran.
7.7 VOIP SYSTEM
Control towers and air traffic control centers have a
system that is responsible for allowing the selection,
interconnection, activation and configuration of all
communications resources; this system is called SCV
(Voice Communication System). Thanks to these
systems, air traffic controllers are able to initiate,
receive, attend to and maintain radio or telephone
communications with pilots and other responsible
personnel. The SCV consists of several subsystems.
First, there is the radio communications subsystem,
which is responsible for ground-air communications
between pilots and controllers from selected frequencies.
Talking about the radio channel, it is configured using a
Push-To-Talk (PTT) button, for reception, that is to listen
to the audio, an RX and for TX transmission, that is to
transmit the message.
Second, there is the communications subsystem, thanks
to which ground-ground communications are established
between controllers and other support, management and
administration personnel. It allows communication
without the need to accept the call, providing an instant
access service for the management of TX and RX.
In third place is the management subsystem, responsible
for managing and sectorizing the system.
Fourth, there is the recording subsystem, in order to
record all communications.
The SCVs are provided with VoIP (Voice over IP)
technology, which is all that technology that is needed,
such as devices and protocols necessary to carry out the
transmission of the voice signal through the Internet
following the Internet Protocol (IP), that is say from data
packets, the voice signal is sent digitally.
VoID System Essentials:
❖ The client: Decrees voice calls through a
microphone. This sent information is encrypted
using codecs, which aim to encode and
compress the audio. The type of codec depends
on the bandwidth, such as G.711 (bit rate 56 or
64 kbps). When the information or message is
received, it is decoded and reproduced.
❖ Servers: responsible for handling database
operations, using specific software.
❖ The gateways: act as a bridge between the
communications of all users.
86
The most determining factors for quality of service are
bandwidth, time delay and packet loss. Among all of
them, the one that stands out the most is the delay and as
a consequence it must be taken into account (it is
acceptable if the delay is <= 150 ms). As has been said
before, it is possible that due to network congestion or
other factors, frames are lost during their journey
through the IP network, negatively affecting the quality
of the voice.
Due to these factors that worsen the quality of the voice
and therefore generate a potential problem when making
the communication, three types of quality of service
(QoS) are implemented, in order to solve these problems
mentioned above.
❖ Best effort delivery: packages are sent as they
are received.
❖ Integrated services: a path is agreed for data that
has priority.
❖ Differentiated services: each device allows
handling packets individually.
At present, telecommunications service companies are
suppressing services through TDM lines (Time Division
Multiplexing) and other organizations such as
Eurocontrol or the FAA (Federal Aviation
Administration) request the interoperability of
communication systems (due to the increase in air
traffic), causing ATC to develop its voice
communications infrastructure. For this reason, the use
of IP networks for data transmission is increasingly used.
IP systems are provided with a decentralized network,
which moves from the central core of the network to all
peripheral equipment.
Standards in the WG67 for the use of IP for voice
communications in ATC from the point of view of
EUROCAE
❖ ED-136 (VoIP ATM Systems Operational and
Technical Requirements): Telephony and radio
(signaling requirements, delay, displaced
frequencies, selection of the best signal, etc).
❖ ED-137 (Interoperability Standards for VoIP
ATM Components): Part 1 (radio
interoperability), Part 2 (telephony
interoperability), Part 3 (recording
interoperability) and Part 4 (monitoring).
 ❖ ED-138 (Network Requirements and
Performances for VoIP ATM Systems): Part 1
(network specification, security policies, IP
addressing plan), Part 2 (network design guide).

❖ ED-139 (Qualification Tests for VoIP ATM

Components and Systems): Validation of
components and interfaces.

In order to implement the VoID system technology at the

Pla de Beret airport, Rohde & Schwarz technology is
used for ground-air (radio communications) and
ground-ground (telephone communications)
communications.

❖ Application of the R&S VCS-4G (Voice

Figure 169. Scheme of how ACAP works
Communication System) for ground-to-ground
and ground-to-air communications, utilizing all
the advantages offered by IP technology.
Complying with the ED-137 standard, it is
compatible with all ground-to-air
communications systems, intercoms and
telephone services. Used in ACCs and control
towers.

❖ Use of IP-based remote control units, employing

the R&S GB4000T control unit and the R&S
GB4000V audio unit for ground-to-air
communications. They use IP technology and
comply with the ED-137 standard. It offers a
reduction of the space in the consoles of the
operators.
Figure 170. Diagram of the interconnection between the
❖ VoIP radio equipment: We will use the R&S control tower, the ACC and the backup
Series4200 family of radios. It uses IP
technology and also fits the ED-137.

❖ Remote monitoring and control based on IP

technology: R&S RCMS II software is used. It
allows a complete view of the situation of all
radios and voice communication systems.

87
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