APERTURE

The aperture is simply the opening within the lens that limits the amount of light
that can pass through it. By changing the aperture value, you increase or
decrease the size of that opening, thereby allowing more or less light into the
camera.

Aperture is measured in f-stops, such as f/16 and f/4, but here’s the thing: The
smaller the f-stop number, the larger the opening, and vice versa. So, when you
are adjusting the settings, think of the opposite: If you want less light to enter
(small aperture), go for a larger f-stop. How large your lens’ aperture can open
will depend on your lens. (Hint: A lens’ maximum aperture will be part of its
model name, like a 50mm f/1.8 or a 24-120mm f/4.)

Beyond controlling the amount of light, aperture determines an image’s depth of

field (DOF). Simply put, DOF is how much depth will be in focus within the image.
An image with a large DOF will have sharp focus from foreground to background,
while a small, or shallow, DOF sees the focus concentrated on one particular
plane, with foreground and background elements blurred away.

When thinking about the f-stop, choose a smaller number (larger aperture) to
achieve a shallower DOF, or a larger number (smaller aperture) to increase DOF.

SHUTTER SPEED

Just like the shutters on a window, a camera’s shutter opens to allow light in. The
shutter lives just in front of the imaging sensor, and the shutter speed is the
amount of time it stays open, like 1/60 second.

Aperture and shutter speed work together. Whereas the aperture determines the
amount of light that’s coming through the lens, the shutter determines the length
of time the sensor will be exposed to that light. When you set the shutter speed
– usually measured in fractions of a second (e.g. 1/30, 1/1,000) – you are telling
the camera how quickly or slowly to open and close the shutter. A shutter speed
of 1/4,000 second is very fast and will let in very little light, while a shutter speed
of 1/2 second will let in a lot of light.
In addition to its role in exposure, shutter speed controls how motion is captured
by the camera. A fast shutter speed will freeze moving objects in their track, while
a slow shutter speed will record the movement, allowing objects to blur. While a
certain shutter speed is required to take a steady picture without a tripod, blur
isn’t necessarily bad and sharpness isn’t necessarily good. There are many
situations when the choice between the two is a creative one, rather than a
technical one.

For example, imagine a race car: Some may want a blurry effect to illustrate its
motion around the track, while others may want to freeze it to show a specific
moment, such as when it crossed the finish line. In the former example, you’ll
want to try a slower shutter speed, like 1/60, while the latter example would
require a speed of 1/1,000 or more.

Even slower shutter speeds lead to what’s called long exposure photography. This
is how you can blur things like waterfalls or create star trails in the night sky.

WHAT IS ISO?

ISO is the short name given to the International Organization for Standardization,
but its meaning in photography is unique. Also known as “film speed,” it is a
rating carried over from the film days, but means the same thing on digital
cameras. ISO controls how the sensor responds to the light it receives from the
shutter and aperture. A high ISO leads to a brighter image, whereas a low ISO will
be darker.

Aperture, shutter speed, and ISO all affect exposure in similar ways, but whereas
the first two have creative side effects (DOF, motion blur), ISO isn’t so lucky.
Generally speaking, you’ll want to keep ISO as low as possible while still
achieving the correct exposure, as increasing the ISO also increases noise. When
you hear someone describe a photo as being “too noisy,” ISO is likely to blame.
Noise is rarely a creative effect we’re after, and if we are, it’s usually best to add it
in post.
Sensors also perform better at low ISO settings, recording better color depth and
dynamic range. (In the film days, high ISO films were “grainier.” You can think of
“grain” and “noise” as being effectively the same thing.)

In daylight or well lit scenes, the ISO can be set low, usually around 100 to 400. In
such cases, you can typically rely on just your aperture and shutter speed to dial
in a proper exposure. However, in dim lighting, there may be no other option
than to increase ISO. Furthermore, if you want both a fast shutter speed and deep
depth of field (small aperture), then raising the ISO might be necessary.

ISO is reflected by a number that, unlike shutter speed, does not reflect any sort
of real-world measurement. Most cameras start at ISO 100 or 200, and can be set
up to 12,800 or higher. The math is, fortunately, simple: Double the ISO, and you
double the brightness, so ISO 800 is twice as bright as 400, which is twice as
bright as 200, etc.

Many cameras advertise insanely high maximum ISOs, but don’t always believe
the marketing hype. Just because a camera can shoot at ISO 102,400 doesn’t
mean you should use it

You can also place the camera on a tripod to allow the use of a slower shutter
speed, thereby keeping ISO low. However, if you’re trying to shoot people other
other subjects that aren’t perfectly still, this may not be an option. Finally,
investing in a lens with a wider maximum aperture might be a good idea, as the
kit lenses included with most interchangeable lens cameras have relatively small
maximum apertures. But, as evidenced in the photo above, sometimes even an
f/1.4 lens isn’t enough to keep the ISO down.

How do aperture, shutter speed, and ISO work together?

As you’ve probably concluded, aperture, shutter speed, and ISO work together to
properly expose an image. A change to one will impact the other two. For
example, increasing the shutter speed will need to be matched by an increase in
ISO or aperture size to maintain the same exposure value. Likewise, decreasing
the size of the aperture (selecting a larger f-number) will require a faster shutter
speed or lower ISO.
In other words, selecting an exposure will always require a degree of
compromise. You’ll be able to choose the exact settings you want in many cases,
but finding a balance of settings that offers the DOF, sharpness, and noise levels
you want may be a challenge in tricky lighting setups.

If this is all a little too complicated, you might consider trying a compromise
between full automatic or full manual exposure modes. This middle ground
method streamlines and simplifies the exposure process while still giving you a
level of control. You can set the aperture using Aperture Priority (A) or Aperture
Value (Av) mode to control the depth-of-field, but you don’t have to worry about
configuring the shutter speed – the camera automatically handles it for you. On
the flip side, you can manually select a shutter speed with Shutter Priority or Time
Value (S or Tv), and the camera controls the aperture. Auto ISO usually turns on
or off independently of exposure mode. Turning it on might lead to more noise,
but it will simplify the process even further.

All this can seem like a lot if you’re new to it, but remember that there’s no magic
formula for finding the best exposure. Even professional photographers
continually change their settings during shoots to find the perfect image
composition, so don’t take it personally if you have to, too. The main thing is to
experiment and have fun.

THE RULE OF THIRD

In portraiture, try to align your subject’s body along one of the vertical lines in
the imaginary rule-of-thirds grid (some cameras actually have grid overlays that
can be turned on to assist with this). You should aim to have their face at one of
the intersection points (usually, one of the upper ones). For close-ups and
headshots, the face itself may be centered, but you can still frame the eyes
according the rule of thirds.

Your subject’s sight line is also important to where you place them. They should
generally be looking into the frame, not off the edge. If they are looking to your
left, frame them on the right. If they are looking up, frame them toward the
bottom. This gives them some breathing room and allows the viewer’s eyes to
follow the subject’s line of sight into the rest of the image.
You don’t always have to do this, of course. Framing your subject so that they are
looking right off the edge can create tension and a feeling of being trapped. If
that helps illustrate the story you’re trying to tell, then it’s the stronger
composition. Most of the time, however, this is not the effect we’re going for with
a portrait.

MOVING IMAGES

A generic term for a visual work that has the appearance of movement. Examples
include motion pictures, videos, and other theatrical releases, shorts, news footage
(including television newscasts and theatrical newsreels), trailers, out-takes, screen
tests, training films, educational material, commercials, spot announcements, home
movies, amateur footage, television broadcasts, and unedited footage. These may be in
electronic form

HISTORY OF OPENING SEQUENCES

The first title sequences appeared in 1897 when Thomas Edison put a credit
at the start of one of his films to prevent piracy. Then, in the 1908 film, Bronco
Billy, G. M. Anderson became the first actor to be credited on screen. This
recognization started the tradition of giving credit to a film’s stars. 

As feature-length films became popular, the rise of the Hollywood film industry
and the increasing influence of cast and crew, a standard format for opening
credits was set and started to appear before all movies. 

Most opening credits looked fairly similar up until the early 1950s. They ran
under a minute long and would have several names clustered upon a series of
title cards that appeared on a static background. The aesthetics of the title
cards would change to fit the style of the story, but the general format was the
same. 

Opening title sequences were boring, to say the least, and they were made to
be ignored. As the lights dimmed, the projector would begin to play the
opening credits over the curtain as the screen slowly rose. The opening
credits in the classical era acted as a transitional moment and didn’t demand
the audience watch them because the credits didn’t add to the film’s narrative.
While there are some interesting opening title sequences, they are generally
viewed as an inessential part of the film. 
Preminger and Bass collaborated again on The Man with the Golden Arm.
This time, they sent a letter to theater owners that required them to raise the
curtain in front of the screen before the titles. This is when opening credits
became an essential part of the film. 

Bass revolutionized the idea of what opening sequences could be. Instead of
being insignificant, the opening credits could tell the overarching theme of the
film or reveal the tone before an actor walked onto the silver screen.
Throughout the 1950s until the 70s, a variety of styles took over the opening
credits and established them as cinematic art forms. Realism and naturalism
came into style, so cinema responded by pushing back against the stylistic
excess of the 60s, movie elaborate opening credits away from the public’s
view.

By the mid-70s, unions began negotiating with studios for more of the crew to
get credited in their respective films. As opening credits expanded and
became too long, the bulk of the credits were moved to the end of the film (a
thing that hadn’t existed in film at the time). As more and more films pushed
most of the cast and crew to the back of the film, the opening credits started to
become shorter, declining in their artistic popularity. 

While there are still plenty of notable opening sequences, the title sequence
has largely gone out of style.

In the 90s, Steven Steilbeg  reportedly conducted surveys and found that
moviegoers generally disliked opening credits. They found it to prolong the
story and tried to get through it as fast as they could. As a response, a
minimalistic approach to opening titles in the 21st century can be found in
many modern-day movies. Christopher Nolan’s movies largely set the trend of
skipping the titles altogether. It is an ultra-minimalist approach that allows the
audience to submerge themselves into the film immediately without feeling as
if they are wasting time watching names appear on the screen for a minute or
more. 

The style looks like this: the film opens to the first scene with no opening text
at the start, and then the movie ends with the title of the film appearing in
white on a black screen followed by the credits. The common approach to
modern blockbusters is to have been minimal titles upfront that stays up for
about 10 seconds, then having an elaborate animated title sequence at the
end of the film.