10 1016@j Compedu 2020 103921

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Gender difference in the association between internet addiction, self-esteem and

academic aspirations among adolescents: A structural equation modelling
Phoenix K.H. Mo, Virginia W.Y. Chan, Xin Wang, Joseph T.F. Lau
PII: S0360-1315(20)30120-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103921
Reference: CAE 103921
To appear in: Computers & Education
Received Date: 6 November 2019

Revised Date: 8 April 2020
Accepted Date: 8 May 2020
Please cite this article as: Mo P.K.H., Chan V.W.Y., Wang X. & Lau J.T.F., Gender difference in the
association between internet addiction, self-esteem and academic aspirations among adolescents:
A structural equation modelling, Computers & Education (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/
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Gender difference in the association between Internet addiction, self-esteem and
Phoenix K. H. Mo1, Virginia W. Y. Chan1, Xin Wang1, Joseph T. F. Lau1

1
School of Public Health and Primary Care, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Correspondence to: Joseph Lau Tak Fai, School of Public Health and Primary Care,
Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, 5/F, School of Public
Health and Primary Care, Prince of Wales Hospital, Shatin, New Territories, Hong
Kong. E-mail: jlau@cuhk.edu.hk; Tel: (852) 2637 6606; Fax: (852) 2645 3098.
Funding: This work was supported by The Knowledge Transfer Fund of the Chinese
University of Hong Kong (KPF142ICF13).
Declarations of interest: none.

Internet Addiction and Academic Aspirations
Abstract
Internet addiction (IA) is a significant public health issue among adolescents. There is
considerable evidence that IA is associated with various psychosocial harms. There is
a dearth of studies exploring the association between IA and academic aspirations.
The present study explored the association between time spent on online activities,
Internet addiction, self-esteem, and academic aspirations among 859 Chinese
adolescents in Hong Kong. Gender difference in the association between variables
was also examined. Results from structural equation modelling reported that time
spent on online activities had a positive association with IA which in turn, had a
negative association with self-esteem and academic aspirations. Multi-group analyses
further reported that time spent on online activities had significant negative
association with academic aspirations only in the female sample; while IA had
significant negative association with academic aspiration only in the male sample.
The association between time spent on online activities and IA, and between IA and
self-esteem were more evident among the male sample. Findings suggest that IA has
significant negative consequences on self-esteem and academic aspirations among
adolescents. Interventions for IA are highly warranted.
Keywords: Internet addiction, self-esteem, academic aspirations, adolescents,
gender difference
1
Introduction
High level of Internet addiction (IA) among adolescents
Internet addiction (IA) has emerged as a significant public health issue among
adolescents. According to Ko (Ko, Yen, Chen, Chen, & Yen, 2005), IA is referred to a
maladaptive pattern of Internet use, leading to clinically significant impairment or
distress. The distinguishing characteristics of IA include preoccupation, loss of
control, tolerance, withdrawal, craving, impairment of function, and reduced decision-
making ability, which are similar to those of substance dependence and impulse
control disorder (Ko et al., 2005). With the increased popularity in the use of Internet
technology, adolescents are now more accessible to the Internet and are spending
more time in the cyber world. While the use of the Internet for academic purposes
may facilitate learning and improve academic performance, the inappropriate use of
the Internet may lead to considerable disastrous consequences. In China, one study
among 6,468 10–18 year-old adolescents from Guangzhou reported that the overall
prevalence of IA was 26.5% (Xin et al., 2018). In Taiwan, one study among 2,170
senior high school students showed that the prevalence of IA was 17.4% (Lin, Wu,
You, Hu, & Yen, 2018). In Hong Kong, a review from 8 papers reported that the
prevalence of IA in adolescents ranged from 3.0% to 26.8%, which was higher than
that in other countries (Chung, Sum, & Chan, 2019). There is extensive evidence that
IA is associated with wide a range of negative outcomes among adolescents, such as
interpersonal problems (Seo, Kang, & Yom, 2009) and poorer physical and
psychosocial health (Cao, Sun, Wan, Hao, & Tao, 2011; Cheung & Wong, 2011; Wang
2
et al., 2019; Wu, Li, Lau, Mo, & Lau, 2016). The high level of IA among adolescents
and its strong association with health outcomes signifies the need for further research
to understand the impact of IA.
Potential impact of IA on academic aspirations
Academic aspirations are defined as the ideal amount of education which a
person would like to achieve (Reynolds & Pemberton, 2001). An aspiration to receive
higher education is important for adolescents as it is one of the most significant
predictors for educational attainment and academic success (Khattab, 2015;
Ngoumandjoka, 2013). Findings from the literature support the contention that
academic aspirations are influenced by a range of family, school, and personal factors.
With the increasing level of IA among adolescents, it would be important to examine
the potential impact of IA on academic aspirations. There is increasing evidence that
Internet use is associated with negative academic outcomes. For example, one study
among college students found that heavier recreational Internet use was significantly
related to impaired academic performance, and those students who have reported
Internet-caused problems with schoolwork also reported problems of staying up late,
tiredness, and missing class (Kubey, Lavin, & Barrows, 2001). Another study also
reported a negative relationship between heavy Facebook use and poorer academic
achievement as measured by self-reported GPA and hours spent studying per week
(Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010). One study among adults have also found that low
level of leisure-time Internet use was associated with higher level of educational
attainment and employment (Vandelanotte, Sugiyama, Gardiner, & Owen, 2009).
Nevertheless, other studies failed to document the association between Internet use
and academic performance (Hunley et al., 2005). Empirical findings also suggested
that IA was associated with intrapersonal factors which can be related to poor
3
academic aspirations, including low self-esteem, lack of social and emotional skills,
shyness, ineffective time management skills, negative coping style as well as poor
problem-solving skills (Armstrong, Phillips, & Saling, 2000). To our best knowledge,
there is a dearth of studies exploring the impact of IA on academic aspirations. As
academic aspiration is an important internal developmental asset and positive youth
development construct which strongly predicts educational attainment and academic
success (Khattab, 2015), we believe that it is important to examine how IA will affect
it and its underlying mechanism.
It is important to highlight that most of the studies measured problematic
Internet behaviors by the time participants spent on the Internet. Arguably, heavy
Internet usage might also be a part of the normal study routine of many students,
including those with good academic performance (Erdogdu & Erdogdu, 2015). One
study among Korean high school students found that higher school performance was
positively correlated with Internet use for study but negatively correlated with Internet
use for general purpose (Kim, Kim, Park, Kim, & Choi, 2017). A longitudinal study
among middle school students reported that the quantity of technology use did not
have a direct relationship with student academic performance. Instead, technology use
may do more harm than good when the quality of technology use is not monitored
(Lei & Zhao, 2007). Therefore, it might be more appropriate to measure IA as a
predictor of academic aspirations among adolescents. Locally, a 3-year longitudinal
study among secondary school students in Hong Kong have shown that those who did
not have IA scored significantly better in school and academic performance (Yu &
Shek, 2013). Other studies among Greek University students (Frangos, Fragko, &
Kiohos, 2010) and Chinese adolescents (Xin et al., 2018) also found that IA was
associated with poorer academic performance. Based on the literature on the
4
association between Internet use / IA and academic performance, the present study
examined the association between time spent on online activities, IA and academic
aspirations among secondary school students in Hong Kong.
Self-esteem as a potential mediator
It would be critical to identify the mediators on the relationship between IA
and academic aspirations so that more tailored interventions could be designed. In the
present study, we examined self-esteem as a possible mediator on the association
between IA and academic aspirations (Wu et al., 2016). Self-esteem plays an
important role in adolescent development. It is an important aspect of social
competence that adolescents must master in order to perform adequately in various
settings (van Tuijl, de Jong, Sportel, de Hullu, & Nauta, 2014). Self-esteem has been
documented as a facilitator of academic achievement (Trautwein, Ludtke, Koller, &
Baumert, 2006) in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. For example, an 8-
year cross-sectional study among eight cohorts of children in UK found that in
general, there were significant positive correlations between children’s self-esteem
and reading and mathematics attainments (Davies & Brember, 1999). Self-esteem has
also been documented as a facilitator of academic aspirations (Carranza, You,
Chhuon, & Hudley, 2009; Trautwein et al., 2006). A cross-sectional study among
Mexican American school-aged children found that there were significant positive
correlations between children’s self-esteem and their educational achievement and
aspirations (Carranza et al., 2009).
Furthermore, while numerous studies have suggested individuals with lower
level of self-esteem are more likely to report IA or problematic Internet behaviors (Ko
et al., 2005; Yen, Chou, Liu, Yang, & Hu, 2014), it is also plausible that IA might lead
to lower level of self-esteem. Adolescents who are addicted to the Internet may lack
5
the opportunities to practice the social or nonverbal cues, which put them at risk of
developing poor self-esteem. Without social control over the Internet, online
behaviors tended to be more disinhibited. Adolescents who are addicted to the Internet
or social media might therefore be more likely to give and receive negative feedbacks
on the Internet, which adversely affect their self-esteem. Studies among students have
shown that pathological Internet users had lower self-esteem and were more socially
disinhibited (Niemz, Griffiths, & Banyard, 2005). Another study among Dutch
adolescents also found that negative feedbacks received from social networking sites
decreased their social self-esteem (Valkenburg, Peter, & Schouten, 2006). A recent
local study among 9,518 secondary school students in Hong Kong found that IA
contributed to depression indirectly through reducing self-esteem (Wu et al., 2016). It
has also found that counselling program for IA were effective in reducing participant’s
IA and increasing their self-esteem (Kim, 2008). In the present study, it is
hypothesized that the association between time spent on online activities/ IA and
academic aspirations would be mediated by reduced level of self-esteem.
Gender differences on the potential impact of Internet use / IA
Gender difference in the prevalence of Internet use or IA has been widely
documented in the literature. There is consistent evidence that males are more likely
to report higher level of problematic Internet behaviors (Ko et al., 2005) compared to
their female counterparts. For example, one study reported that among 64 Chinese
students with IA, 83% of them were male (Cao & Su, 2007). The motives of using the
Internet also seem to differ across gender. While males are more likely to use the
Internet for entertainment and leisure and to pursue feelings of achievement, females
are more likely to use the Internet for interpersonal communication and educational
assistance (Weiser, 2000). Despite the widely documented gender difference in
6
prevalence of IA and motives of Internet use, there is a dearth of studies examining
the differential impact of IA on self-esteem and academic aspirations across gender.
As most of the characteristics of IA concerns impairments within the intrapersonal
level while the development of self-esteem and academic aspirations is more
influenced by goals characterized by independence, autonomy and personal
achievements among males (Cross & Madson, 1997; Schoon & Parsons, 2002), it is
hypothesized that the association between IA and self-esteem, and IA and academic
aspirations would be stronger among male students. Investigating the gender
difference in the impact of IA can provide important insights on how interventions to
reduce IA and promote self-esteem could be tailored for different gender.
The present study
The present study examined the association between time spent on online
activities, IA, self-esteem and academic aspirations among junior secondary school
students in Hong Kong. Gender differences in the association between the variables
under studied will also be examined. It was hypothesized that time spent on online
activities would be positively associated with IA. Time spent on online activities and
IA would be negatively associated with self-esteem which in turn, positively
associated with academic aspirations. The association between time spent on online
activities/ IA and self-esteem, and between IA and academic aspirations would be
stronger among male students.
Methodology
Procedure
A cross-sectional study was conducted among Hong Kong secondary school
students. Four secondary schools were chosen and all secondary one to two (i.e.
grade seven to eight) students of the chosen schools were invited to participate in the
7
study. An opt-out parental informed consent was used, parents were asked to sign and
return the consent forms if they did not wish their children to participate in the study.
No parents have declined the invitation. Students were briefed by research assistant
about the objectives of the study. They were also informed that their participation was
voluntary and returning the completed questionnaire was equivalent to an informed
consent. Students completed the questionnaire by themselves in the classroom without
presence of teachers. Ethics approval was obtained from the authors’ institution.
Measures
The following validated measures were used in the present study. The
questionnaire was pilot tested among 10 adolescents and no major difficulties in
understanding the questionnaire were found.
Sociodemographic information, including age and gender, was obtained.
Time spent on online activities. Participants were asked to report the average
number of hours they spent on online activities per week.
IA was measured by the 26-item Chinese CIAS-R (Chen, Weng, Su, Wu, &
Yang, 2003). Items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1=definitely
disagree to 4=definitely agree, with higher score indicating higher level of IA.
Sample item included “In the past month, I have spent less time on interacting with
friends as I have focused on the Internet”. The total score ranges from 26 to 104, and
those who scored higher than 63 were classified as having probable IA (C.-H. Ko et
al., 2005). The scale has been used in the Chinese adolescent population (Cheung &
Wong, 2011; Mak, Lai, Ko, et al., 2014). The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .94 in
the present study.
Self-esteem was measured by the 10-item Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
(Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995). It is a widely used self-
8
reported instrument to measure global self-worth. Items were rated using a 4-point
Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 4=strongly agree, with higher score
indicating higher level of self-esteem. Sample item included “I feel that I am a person
of worth, at least on an equal plane with others.” The scale has been used in the
Chinese adolescent population (Song et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2016). The Cronbach’s
alpha of the scale was .78 in the present study.
Academic aspirations were measured by the 7-item hope subscale of the
Academic Emotion Questionnaire (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002). Items were
rated on a 5-point Likert Scale ranging from 1=completely not applicable to me to
5=very applicable to me, with higher score indicating higher level of academic
aspirations. Sample item included “I hope to achieve my learning goals”. The scale
has been used in the Chinese adolescent population (W. Ma, 2008). The Cronbach’s
alpha of the scale was .88 in the present study.
Data analysis
As a measure of quality control, the data was first inspected for missing
values. An invalid response was defined as those with more than 25% of missing
values in any measure. Descriptive statistics and zero-order correlations among all
variables were examined by gender. Gender differences in the variables under study
were also examined using independent sample t-test (for continuous outcome) or χ2
test (for categorical outcome). To examine the association between time spent on
online activities, IA, self-esteem and academic aspirations, confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) was first conducted to evaluate the measurement model (Anderson &
Gerbing, 1988). Structural equation modelling (SEM) was then employed to test the
structural model (Byrne, 2001). Bootstrap procedure was used based on 2,000
resamples (Shrout & Bolger, 2002).
9
To examine the gender difference on the association between the variables,
participants were split into two groups according to their gender. A multi-group
analysis was first conducted to examine the equivalence of the measurement model
between the groups. Two measurement models were compared: the restricted model
with all factor loadings estimated to be equal across groups, and the unrestricted
model with all factor loadings estimated to be free. Another set of multi-group
analysis was then performed to compare two structural models within the analysis: a
restricted model with all parameters estimated to be equal across groups, and an
unrestricted model which all parameters estimated were allowed to differ across the
groups. To examine the significance of each path across groups, a series of models
with different paths being constrained were also compared. Analyses were performed
using AMOS version 24.
χ2 test was employed to evaluate the model fit. Other goodness-of-fit indices,
including incremental fix index (IFI), comparative fit index (CFI) and root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA) were also used to evaluate the model fit. IFI
and CFI range between 0 and 1, and values over 0.90 indicate a good fit (Bentler,
1990). A RMSEA value with less than 0.05 means an excellent fit whereas between
0.05 and 0.08 reflects a reasonable fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).
Results
Descriptive characteristics
A total 906 responses were collected, after excluding the invalid responses, a
total of 859 cases were included in the analysis. Slightly more than half (54.2%) of
the participants were male. The mean age of the whole sample was 13.78 years old
(SD = .79, range 11 to 18). About half (52.1%) of the students spent less than 10
hours on online activities per week, whereas 9% of them spent more than 50 hours on
10
online activities per week. One-tenth (11.0%) of the participants were classified as
probable IA as indicated by the CIAS-R. Male students reported spending more time
on online activities per week, χ2 (8) = 24.72, p<.01 and higher score on IA, t(854) =
3.25, p<.01. The prevalence of IA was also significantly higher among male students,
χ2 (1) = 8.20, p<.01. The gender difference in self-esteem and academic aspirations
was not significant (Table 1).
Correlations between the variables
Table 2 presents the correlations among academic aspirations, self-esteem,
time spent on online activities, IA and age across gender. All the variables were
correlated in the directions that supported the hypotheses of the study. In particular,
IA was found to be negatively correlated with both self-esteem (r = -.32 for male
students; r =-.29 for female students, ps<.001) and academic aspirations (r = -.29 for
male students; r =-.23 for female students, ps<.001), while self-esteem was shown to
have a positive correlation with academic aspirations (r =.38 for male students; r =.40
for female students, ps<.001). Time spent on online activities per week had a positive
correlation with IA (r = .26 for male students; r = -.22 for female students, ps<.001).
Age had no significant correlation with any of the variables included in the study.
Measurement model of the hypothesized model
Table 3 presents the factor loadings of the measurement model. The
measurement model yielded a good fit, χ2 (24) =184.88, CFI=.96, IFI=.96, GFI=.96,
RMSEA=.06. Standardized factor loading of the measurement model ranged from .62
to .95 and were all statistically significant at the p<0.001 level.
Structural model of the hypothesized model
Results of structural equation modelling showed that the proposed model for
the whole model yielded a good fit, χ2(35) =195.45, CFI=.96, IFI=.96, RMSEA=.08.
11
In sum, time spent on online activities was positively associated with IA (beta=.35,
p<.001) and negatively associated with academic aspirations (beta=-.08, p<.05), but
had no significant correlation with self-esteem. IA was negatively associated with
self-esteem (beta=-.31, p<.001), which in turn, was positively associated with
academic aspirations (beta=.44, p<.001). IA was also negatively associated with
academic aspirations (beta=-.14, p<.05). The standardized path coefficients of the
structural model are shown in Figure 1.
Multi-group analysis by gender
Results of the multi-group analysis of the measurement model showed that the
unrestricted model showed a significantly better model fit (Model 1.1 and 1.2 of Table
4). Therefore, to examine the equality of the structural model across gender, all factor
loadings were estimated freely.
Results of the multi-group analysis of the structural model showed that
constraining either path in the model resulted in a significant change in model fit.
Overall, comparison of the various models showed that Model 2.1, in which all
parameters were estimated freely, showed the best fit to the model, χ2(60)=226.53,
CFI=.96, IFI=.96, RMSEA=.06, indicating that the association between time spent on
online activities, IA, self-esteem and academic aspirations varied across gender.
Further analyses revealed that the relationship between time spent on online activities
and IA (beta=.38, for male students and beta=.29, for female students, ps<.001), and
between IA and self-esteem were stronger among male students (beta=-.35, for male
students and beta=-.30, for female students, ps<.001). The association between time
spent on online activities and academic aspirations was significant only among the
female sample (beta=-.15, p<.05), whereas the association between IA and academic
aspirations was significant only among the male sample (beta=-.24, p<.05). Figure 2
12
presents the standardized path coefficients of the multi-group analyses of the
structural model.
Discussion
Receiving higher education is an important milestone for adolescents and an
important indicator for their future success. Academic aspirations are important as
they serve as motivations for their academic achievement. Currently, there is a dearth
of studies examining the impact of Internet use and IA on academic aspirations among
young adolescents and their mediating factors. In the present study, it was found that
11.0% of the sampled participants were classified as IA, and the prevalence of such
was higher among male participants. The figure was alarming as the current sample
was relatively young (mean age 13.78 years old). The high prevalence of IA among
this population signifies a significant public health concern. With the extensive
research evidence on the association between IA and a range of negative outcomes
(Cao, Sun, Wan, Hao, & Tao, 2011; Cheung & Wong, 2011; Wang et al., 2019; Wu,
Li, Lau, Mo, & Lau, 2016), there is an urgent need to understand the multi-
dimensional factors that may contribute to IA, and to develop effective strategies to
prevent the development of IA among this population.
Consistent with previous studies on the association between Internet use and
academic outcomes (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Kubey et al., 2001; Vandelanotte
et al., 2009), the present study indicates a negative association between Internet use,
IA and academic aspirations among Chinese secondary school students in Hong
Kong. Findings were also consistent with other studies showing that higher level of
leisure-time Internet use was associated with lower level of engaging in personal
development activities (Kim et al., 2010). According to the displacement hypothesis,
increase in time spent in one medium would lead to less time spent in other medium
13
(Nie, Sunshine Hillygus, & Erbring, 2002). Therefore, it could be conjectured that
students who have been classified as internet addicted were more likely to spend
increasing time on the Internet, leading to reduced time on academic purpose and a
decreased level of academic aspirations. Findings of the present study suggest that
Internet use and IA would potentially have a negative impact on academic aspirations
among adolescents.
Adolescence represents an important period when they strive for independence
and establish their self-identify. Having a positive view towards oneself is an
important asset to protect them against adversities. Findings of the present study
report that IA was associated with lower levels of self-esteem among adolescents.
Adolescents with IA might prefer to turn to the Internet for virtual communication,
which affects their social skills and self-esteem. They may be more likely have a
negative view towards oneself when they received negative comments from the
Internet or perceive themselves as having lost their control over Internet use. Findings
corroborate with the extant literature that adolescents who received negative
comments from the Internet or were addicted to the Internet had lower levels of self-
esteem (Valkenburg et al., 2006; Wu et al., 2016).
The present study also revealed that the negative association between IA and
academic aspirations was explained by lower level of self-esteem. It thus supports the
important role of self-esteem in academic aspirations among adolescents. Individuals
with higher level of self-esteem would have a greater sense of competence to promote
change across various domains. They may be more likely to set higher goals that lead
to self-learning, show more motivation in academic achievement, and higher levels of
academic aspirations. Findings are consistent to the literature that having a salient
belief about one’s capability was an important protector factor for better academic
14
achievement (Davies & Brember, 1999; Trautwein et al., 2006).
The present study also suggests that the strength of association between
Internet use, IA, self-esteem and academic aspirations differs by gender. In particular,
the associations between time spent on online activities and IA, and between IA and
self-esteem, were more evident among male students. The association between IA and
academic aspirations were significant only among male students. In other words, male
students seem to be more susceptible to IA and are more easily affected by the
negative impact of IA. As IA was conceptualized as mainly covering the dimensions
of compulsive use, withdrawal and tolerance symptoms which are more related to
capabilities within the individual domains, it can be speculated that the impact of IA
on self-esteem and academic aspirations would be stronger among male students who
value more individual achievements. The results are consistent to the literature that
the correlation between IA and self-esteem was stronger for boys (Shi, Wang, & Zou,
2017). On the other hand, the association between time spent on online activities and
academic aspirations was only significant among female students, suggesting that
merely spending time on the Internet might affect academic aspirations of female
students. Findings suggest that IA might have a differential impact on male and
female students; such gender differences should be taken account in future studies.
Findings of the present study offer important implications for improving
students’ academic aspirations. Previous studies have shown that assessing student’s
individual capability and interpersonal resources would be an important way to
identify students who may be at-risk of poor academic achievements or school drop-
outs (Pittman & Richmond, 2007; Plucker, 1998). Interventions that target students
with poor academic aspirations have previously focused on various individual and
interpersonal capacities, such as promoting connections between learning experiences

15
and students’ personal goals, parental involvement, peer culture of academic effort
and achievement, and school belonging (Abrahamse, Jonkman, & Harting, 2018;
Hamm & Farmer, 2014). The present study suggests that increasing student’s self-
esteem may be a useful approach to improve the academic aspirations among
adolescents. There is evidence that correcting negative self-talk and helping
adolescents identify the activities that they could do to raise their self-esteem were
effective in increasing self-esteem (Dalgas-Pelish, 2006).
The present study also adds to the literature that tackling the problems
associated with IA could be a potentially useful strategy for promoting students’ self-
esteem and subsequently, their academic aspirations. With the rapid advancement in
technology, it is likely that students will be increasingly relying on the Internet for
information, support, and communication. In order to mitigate the potential negative
impact of IA, effective intervention programs for IA are urgently warranted.
Meanwhile, the present study also suggests that the detrimental impact of IA on self-
esteem and academic aspirations is more evident among male students. Findings call
for a need to understand the gender differences that may exist in the cyber context, so
that gender-sensitive practice can be achieved in preventing IA, and promoting self-
esteem and academic aspirations.
Limitations
There are some limitations that should be noted. First, due to the cross-
sectional nature of the study, causality among the variables cannot be assumed. It may
be likely that students with low level of academic aspirations show poorer self-
esteem, which in turn, are more prone to IA. However, it is important to note that the
associations proposed in the study makes theoretical sense. Second, data was
collected from secondary one to two (i.e. grade 7 to 8) students from four secondary
16
schools in Hong Kong. The sample may not be generalized to all adolescents in Hong
Kong. Third, the present study used self-reported measure, there is a possibly that the
prevalence of IA might be under-estimated due to social desirability bias. However，
it is important to point out that the tool for measuring IA (i.e. CIAS-R) in this study
has been validated and is one of the most common and reliable tools for identifying
probable cases of IA. Fourth, due to the lack of benchmark of academic results among
the different schools, information about the academic achievement of the students has
not been obtained. The effect of IA on students’ academic or other forms of
achievement could not be established. Finally, it would be possible that other
psychological traits (e.g. positive affect) would also affect IA, future studies should
examine whether and how these variables might affect IA and academic aspirations
among adolescents.
Conclusion
To sum up, the present study was the first attempt in exploring the empirical
relationship between Internet use, IA, self-esteem, and academic aspirations in the
Chinese context. The study has provided support to the negative impact of time spent
on online activities and IA on self-esteem and academic aspirations among Chinese
adolescents. Findings suggest the importance of fostering self-esteem and preventing
IA among adolescents at the early stage. Findings of the present study therefore have
practical significance for educators to have a deeper understanding on identifying and
intervening students who may have poor motivation in studying.
17
Table 1. Demographic characteristics, and Internet usage of the participants (N=859)
Whole Male students Female Difference

sample (N = 467) students between groups
(N = 859) N (%) (N = 392)
N (%) N (%)
Age (years, range 11-18) M =13.78 M = 13.81 M = 13.62 t(821) = 2.54 ***
SD =.79 SD = .85 SD = .70
Number of hours spent on
online activities per week
0 56 (6.5) 32 (6.9) 24 (6.1) χ2 (8) = 24.72 **
1-10 393 (45.6) 183 (39.2) 210 (53.6)
11-20 168 (19.6) 108 (23.1) 60 (15.3)
21-35 109 (12.7) 61 (13.1) 48 (12.2)
36-50 55 (6.4) 30 (6.4) 25 (6.4)
51 or above 77 (9.0) 52 (11.2) 25 (6.4)
Internet addiction (CIAS 94 (11.0) 64 (13.8) 30 (7.7) χ2 (1) = 8.20 **
cut-off = 63/64)
Internet addiction score M = 47.61 M = 48.98 M = 46.00 t(854) = 3.25**
(CIAS score) SD = 13.41 SD = 14.08 SD =
12.41
Self-esteem M = 2.75 M = 2.76 M = 2.74 t(857) = .45, n.s.
SD = .44 SD = .44 SD = .43
Academic aspirations M = 3.77, M = 3.73 M = 3.79 t(857) = -1.23,
SD = .70 SD = .73 SD = .65 n.s.
18
Table 2. Correlation between variables included in the study
1 2 3 4 5
1. Age - -.02 .05 -.06 -.02
2. Academic aspirations -.01 - .40*** -.23*** -.22***
3. Self-esteem -.04 .38*** - -.29*** -.13**
4. Internet addiction .02 -.29*** -.32*** - .36***
5. Time spent on online -
-.04 -.14** -.09 .26***
activities per week
Note. *** p<.01
Figures in the left diagonal represent the correlations between variables among male
students; those in the right diagonal represent the correlations between variables
among female students.
19
Table 3: Unstandardized and Standardized Loadings for the measurement model
Unstandardized Standardized
Parameter estimates
loading (SE) loading
IA Parcel score 1 1.00 .62
IA Parcel score 2 1.25 (.91)*** .89
IA Parcel score 3 1.25 (.07)*** .74
IA Parcel score 4 1.85 (.92)*** .90
Self-esteem Parcel score 1 1.00 .81
Self-esteem Parcel score 2 1.50 (.06)*** .88
Academic aspirations Parcel score 1 1.00 .67
Academic aspirations Parcel score 2 2.04 (.17)*** .95
Note. SE = standard error, *** p< .001
20
Self-esteem
.01
-.31***
Time spent on online Internet .44***

activities 35*** addiction
-.14**
Academic
aspirations
-.08*
Figure 1 Structural model of time spent on online activities, Internet addiction, self-
esteem, and academic aspirations
Note. *p<.05, **p<.01, *** p< .001
21
Table 4. Summary statistics for tested models in multi-group analyses
χ2 (df) CFI IFI RMSEA ∆χ2 (∆df)

Measurement model
Model 1.1 224.23 (48) .95 .95 .06 -
Model 1.2 564.03 (54) .87 .87 .10 6 (339.8)***
Structural model
Model 2.1 228.53 (60) .96 .96 .06 -
Model 2.2 327.83 (62) .93 .93 .07 2 (99.30)***
Model 2.3 879.13 (62) .78 .78 .12 2 (650.60)***
Model 2.4 563.46 (62) .87 .87 .10 2 (334.93)***
Model 2.5 643.98 (62) .85 .85 .11 2 (415.45)***
Model 2.6 563.46 (62) .87 .87 .10 2 (334.93)***
Model 2.7 291.43 (62) .94 .94 .07 2 (62.90)***
Note. ***p<.001
1.1 All factor loadings in the measurement model were estimated freely
1.2 All factor loadings in the measurement model were constrained to be equal
2.1 All path coefficients in the structural model were estimated freely
2.2 Path coefficient from time spent on online activities to IA was constrained to be
equal
2.3 Path coefficient from time spent on online activities to self-esteem was
constrained to be equal
2.4 Path coefficient from time spent on online activities to academic aspirations was
constrained to be equal
2.5 Path coefficient from IA to self-esteem was constrained to be equal
2.6 Path coefficient from IA to academic aspirations was constrained to be equal
2.7 Path coefficient from self-esteem to academic aspirations was constrained to be
equal
22
Self-esteem
M=.02
F=-.03
M=-.35***
F=-.30***
Time spent on online M=.38*** Internet M=.45***
activities F=.29*** addiction F=.42***
M=-.24**
F=.04
Academic
aspirations
M=-.01
F=-.15**
F=-.15
Figure 2 Structural model of time spent on online activities, Internet addiction, self-
esteem and academic aspirations by gender
Note. M=Male students, F=Female students, *p<.05, *p<.01, ***p<.001
23
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27
• Internet addiction had an indirect negative association with academic aspirations
through decreasing self-esteem.
• The association between Internet addiction, self-esteem, and academic aspirations

were stronger among male.
• Time spent on the Internet had significant association with academic aspirations
only among female students.
Phoenix Mo: Conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, writing – original draft,
supervision, project administration, funding acquisition
Joseph Lau: Conceptualization, methodology, writing – review and editing, supervision, funding
acquisition
Virginia Chan: Investigation, writing – review and editing
Xin Wang: writing – review and editing

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Gender difference in the association between internet addiction, self-esteem and

To appear in: Computers & Education

Received Date: 6 November 2019

© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

academic aspirations among adolescents: A structural equation modelling

Phoenix K. H. Mo1, Virginia W. Y. Chan1, Xin Wang1, Joseph T. F. Lau1

University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Declarations of interest: none.

Gender difference in the association between Internet addiction, self-esteem and

academic aspirations among adolescents: A structural equation modelling

considerable evidence that IA is associated with various psychosocial harms. There is

a dearth of studies exploring the association between IA and academic aspirations.

Internet addiction, self-esteem, and academic aspirations among 859 Chinese

adolescents in Hong Kong. Gender difference in the association between variables

negative association with self-esteem and academic aspirations. Multi-group analyses

significant negative consequences on self-esteem and academic aspirations among

adolescents. Interventions for IA are highly warranted.

Keywords: Internet addiction, self-esteem, academic aspirations, adolescents,

Gender difference in the association between Internet addiction, self-esteem and

academic aspirations among adolescents: A structural equation modelling

High level of Internet addiction (IA) among adolescents

maladaptive pattern of Internet use, leading to clinically significant impairment or

distress. The distinguishing characteristics of IA include preoccupation, loss of

control, tolerance, withdrawal, craving, impairment of function, and reduced decision-

IA is associated with wide a range of negative outcomes among adolescents, such as

to understand the impact of IA.

Potential impact of IA on academic aspirations

Academic aspirations are defined as the ideal amount of education which a

higher education is important for adolescents as it is one of the most significant

predictors for educational attainment and academic success (Khattab, 2015;

With the increasing level of IA among adolescents, it would be important to examine

the potential impact of IA on academic aspirations. There is increasing evidence that

Internet-caused problems with schoolwork also reported problems of staying up late,

attainment and employment (Vandelanotte, Sugiyama, Gardiner, & Owen, 2009).

there is a dearth of studies exploring the impact of IA on academic aspirations. As

academic aspiration is an important internal developmental asset and positive youth

development construct which strongly predicts educational attainment and academic

it and its underlying mechanism.

It is important to highlight that most of the studies measured problematic

(Lei & Zhao, 2007). Therefore, it might be more appropriate to measure IA as a

predictor of academic aspirations among adolescents. Locally, a 3-year longitudinal

associated with poorer academic performance. Based on the literature on the

aspirations among secondary school students in Hong Kong.

Self-esteem as a potential mediator

It would be critical to identify the mediators on the relationship between IA

present study, we examined self-esteem as a possible mediator on the association

between IA and academic aspirations (Wu et al., 2016). Self-esteem plays an

important role in adolescent development. It is an important aspect of social

competence that adolescents must master in order to perform adequately in various

documented as a facilitator of academic achievement (Trautwein, Ludtke, Koller, &

Baumert, 2006) in both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. For example, an 8-

year cross-sectional study among eight cohorts of children in UK found that in

general, there were significant positive correlations between children’s self-esteem

also been documented as a facilitator of academic aspirations (Carranza, You,

correlations between children’s self-esteem and their educational achievement and

aspirations (Carranza et al., 2009).

Furthermore, while numerous studies have suggested individuals with lower

contributed to depression indirectly through reducing self-esteem (Wu et al., 2016). It

IA and increasing their self-esteem (Kim, 2008). In the present study, it is

academic aspirations would be mediated by reduced level of self-esteem.

Gender differences on the potential impact of Internet use / IA

Gender difference in the prevalence of Internet use or IA has been widely