PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT
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CHAPTER 1
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
“Learning is creation, not consumption. Knowledge is something a learner absorbs,
but something learner creates.” – George Courds

LESSON OUTCOMES

At the end of this Module, the learners are expected to:

• Define the meaning of learning
• Identify the different types of learning
• Describe the learner-centered perspective

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A. PREPARATORY ACTIVITY
I. Direction: Write TRUE if you agree with the statement and FALSE if
not.
_______________1. Learning is a long-term change.
_______________2. Learning does not include changes that are
physiological like maturation, mental illness, fatigue, hunger or the
like.
_______________3. Learning results from previous experience
_______________4. The cause of the change is the learner’s
experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs,
physical condition or physiologic intervention.”
_______________5. Learning is not an automatic process

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II. Direction : Explain the following writing prompts. Limit your
sentences into 10.

1. Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or

behavior due to experience.”
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

______________________________________________
2.Learning helps to solve any problems in one’s life.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

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LESSON 1: REVIEW OF THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
The ideas of the theories, Freud, Erickson, Piaget, Vygotsky
and Bronfenbrenner remain to be foundational in the teacher’s
understanding of the learners’ development. Let us recall the highlights of
their theories. Freud said “ The mind is like an iceberg, it floats with one-
seventh of its bulk of water.” This is of course the very famous analogy that
Freud referred to when he experience the subconscious mind. He believed
that much of what the person is really about is not what we see in the
outside and what is conscious, but what is there hidden in the subconscious
mind . As teachers, it is important that we remember not be too quick in
making conclusions about our students’ intentions for their actions. Always
consider that there are many factors that may influence one's behavior.
Freud also emphasized the three components that make up
one’s personality, the id, ego and the superego. The id is pleasure-centered;
the ego, reality-centered and the superego, Which is related to the ego ideal
or conscience.

Freud believed that an individual goes through five

psychosexual stages of development. This includes the oral, anal, phallic,
latency and genital stages. Each stage demands satisfaction of needs ,and
failure to do so results in fixations .

Erickson said, “ Healthy children will not fear life if their elders
have integrity enough not to fear death.”He believed the impact of the
significant others in the development of one’s view of himself, life and of the
world. He presented a very comprehensive framework of eight psycho-social
stages of development. It is Erickson who described the crisis ( expressed
in opposite polarities)that a person goes through; the maladaptation and
malignancies that result from failure to effectively resolve the crisis; and the
virtue that emerges when balance and resolution of the crisis is attained.

Piaget said,” The principal goal of education in the schools

should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things,
not simply repeating what other generation have done. “

Piaget’s theory centered on the stages of cognitive

development. He described four stages of cognitive development, namely
the sensory-motor, preoperational, concrete-operational and
formal-operational stages. Each has characteristics ways of thinking and
perceiving that shows how one’s cognitive abilities develop.
Kolhberg said, “Right action tends to be defined in terms of
general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined
and agreed upon by the whole society.” Kolhberg proposed three levels of

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moral development namely preconventional, conventional and post post-
conventional and these are further subdivided into the stages. Influenced
by Piaget, Kolhberg believed that one’s cognitive development influenced
the development of one’s moral reasoning.
Vygotsky said, “ The teacher must orient his work not on
yesterday’s development in the child but on tomorrow’s.” Vygotsky
emphasized the role of social interaction in learning and development.
Scaffolding is the systematic manner of providing assistance to the learner
that helps the learner to effectively acquire a skill. He believed that guidance
from a more knowledgeable other (MKO) would lead a learner to a higher
level of performance than if he were alone. This higher level of performance
then eventually becomes the learner’s actual performance when he works
independently in the future. His concept of zone of proximal
development. (ZPD) illustrates this.
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological
Systems Theory presents child development within the context of
relationship systems that comprise the child’s environment. The model is
composed of microsystem, mesosystem, macrosystem and the
chronosystem.E ach layer is further made up of different structures. The
term “biological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts
on his/her development. The child’s growing and developing body and the
interplay between his/her immediate family/community environment and
the social landscape fuel and steer his/her development. Changes or conflict
in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers . To study a child’s
development then, we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate
environment, but also at the larger environment with which the child
interacts.

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LESSON 1: REVIEW OF THE THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the most influential researchers in

the area of developmental psychology during the 20th century. Piaget was
the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development.
He was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we come to
know." He believed that what distinguishes human beings from other
animals is our ability to do "abstract symbolic reasoning.“ According to
Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically
inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is
based.
Cognition: The term cognition is derived from the Latin word
“cognoscere” which means “to know” or “to recognise” or “to
conceptualise”. It refers to the mental processes by an organism learns,
remembers, understands, perceives, solves problems and thinks about a
body of information.
Cognitive Development: The term cognitive development refers to the
process of growth and change in intellectual/mental abilities such as
thinking, reasoning and understanding. It is the construction of thought
processes, including remembering, problem solving, and decision-making,
from child hood through adolescence to adulthood It refers to how a person
perceives, thinks, and gains understanding of his or her world through the
interaction of genetic and learned factors.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive
development, it is important first to examine a few of the important ideas
and concepts introduced by Piaget.
The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and
grow:
SCHEMAS
It is the basic structural units of human mind. A schema describes
both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and
knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the
process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new
information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing
schemas.

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ASSIMILATION
The process of taking in new information into our already existing
schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective
because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with
our preexisting beliefs.
ACCOMODATION
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing
schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result
of new information or new experiences.
New schemas may also be developed during this process.
ADAPTATION
Assimilation and accommodation are the two sides of adaptation. It is
the ability of the person to adjust to the environment and to interact with it.
It’s a process that takes place through direct interaction with the
environment. Adaptation occurs as a result of two complementary
processes, Assimilation and Accommodation.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1: SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (Birth to 2 Years)

The first stage of Piaget’s theory starts from birth to approximately
age 2 and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During
this stage, the child's knowledge is limited to sensory perceptions and
simple motor activities. e.g. looking, sucking, grasping.

Sub-stages of the Sensorimotor Stage

1. Reflexes (0-1 month): In the first month of life, infants’ behaviors
reflect innate reflexes—automatic responses to particular stimuli. The child
understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as
suckling, grasping, knee-jerking. These are the reactive functions that
infants essentially exit the womb with.
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): It involves coordinating
sensation and new schemas. In the first few months of life, infants’
behaviors are focused almost exclusively on their own bodies (in Piaget’s
terminology, the behaviors are primary) and are repeated over and over
again (i.e., they are circular).
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): In this stage the child
become more aware of and more responsive to the outside world (their
behaviors become secondary), and they begin to notice that their behaviors

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can have interesting effects on the objects around them. The child becomes
more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in
order to trigger a response in the environment.
4. Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months): The child starts to show
clearly intentional actions. The child may also combine schemas in order to
achieve a desired effect. After repeatedly observing that certain actions lead
to certain consequences, infants gradually acquire knowledge of cause-
effect relationships.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months): Piaget believed this
marks the developmental starting point for curiosity and interest in novelty.
For example: A child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of
getting attention from a caregiver.
6. Early Representational Thought (18-24 months): Piaget proposed
that in the latter half of the second year, young children develop symbolic
thought, the ability to represent and think about objects and events in terms
of internal, mental entities, or symbols. They may “experiment” with objects
in their minds, first predicting what will happen if they do something to an
object, then transforming their plans into action.
Toward the end of this stage, children develop the concept of object
permanence. According to Piaget, Object Permanence is a child's awareness
or understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be
seen or heard.

2. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2 to 7 yrs) (Toddler and Early

Childhood)
Piaget’s second stage, preoperational thought, features the
flourishing use of mental representations and the beginnings of logic
(intuitive thought). This stage begins when the child starts to use
symbols and language. This is a period of developing language and
concepts. So, the child is capable of more complex mental representations
i.e. words and images. He is still unable to use ‘operations’, i.e. logical
mental rules, such as the rules of arithmetic.

TWO SUB-STAGES
1. Preconceptual stage (2 to 4 years): Here, cognitive development
becomes increasingly dominated by symbolic activity. The child can use
symbols to stand for actions; a toy doll stands for a real baby or the child
role-plays mummy or daddy. Language also develops during this stage.
Transductive Reasoning
The tendency of a child in the preoperational stage of cognitive
development to see a connection between unrelated instances, using neither

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deductive nor inductive means to do so. For example, the child might say, I
haven’t had my nap, so it isn’t afternoon.
2. Intuitive stage (5 to 7 years): This stage is characterized by the way
in which children base their knowledge on what they feel or sense to be
true, yet they cannot explain the underlying principles behind what they feel
or sense.
Conservation
It refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes
in appearance. At this stage, capabilities for logical reasoning are limited
and the child’s thought processes are dominated by the immediate sensory
impressions. This characteristic can be illustrated by asking the child to solve
a liquid conservation problem
KEY FEATURES OF THIS STAGE
1. Egocentrism: The child’s thoughts and communications are typically
egocentric i.e. about themselves or his/her point of view. It is the inability
to see the world through anyone else’s eyes except on his own.
2. Animism: Treating inanimate objects as living ones. E.g.: Children
bathing, dressing and feeding their dolls as if they are alive.
3. Centration: It refers to the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a
situation, problem or object, and so cannot see the big picture. Centration
is noticed in conservation: the awareness that altering a substance's
appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are
unaware of conservation.
4.Irreversibility: This is the inability the reverse the direction of a
sequence of events to their starting point.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONSAL STAGE (7 to 12 yrs of age)

(Childhood and early Adolescence)
The Concrete Operational stage is characterized by the appropriate
use of logic. This stage when capacity for logical thought first emerge.

FEATURES OF CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

1. Serialization/Classification: The ability to name and identify sets of
objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the
idea that one set of objects can include another
2. Transitivity: The ability to recognize logical relationships among
elements in a serial order. Eg. if A is taller than B and B is taller than C, then
A must be taller than
3. Decentration: where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a
problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an

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exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller
cup.
4. Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or objects can be
changed, then returned to their original state.
5. Elimination of Egocentrism: The child’s egocentrism waves and
develop the ability to view things from another's perspective.
6. Conservation: understanding that quantity, length or number of items
is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (from 12 yrs and up)

(Adolescence and Adulthood)
This is the most complete stage of development. Ability to deal with
abstract concepts and abstract reasoning develops by about age
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems.
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to
specific information.
• Thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e., can carry out
systematic experiment

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s

controversial theory of psychosexual development and modified it as a
psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive
contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at
each stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into
successful, contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight
stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome
in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.

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Erik Erikson

Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development

based on Freud’s psychosexual theory.

Stages Of Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and

expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are
motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives.
According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of
development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each
stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion
of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a
healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of
inadequacy.

Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural

implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages
in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust

From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be
trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival.
Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are
responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender
feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met
appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in
the world.

Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn
that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get
results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the
environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to
resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe
a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her

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clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for
the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may
begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and
feelings of shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through
social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must
resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve goals
while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task.
Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow
a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These
children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who
are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by
over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the
task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with
their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of
pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and
family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they
don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have
negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a
sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and
“What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try
on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles
and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves.
Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity
and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face
of problems and other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are
apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to
conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak

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sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their
identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a
positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned

with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in
adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other
stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble
developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson
said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop
successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-
concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and
emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle
adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your
life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities
such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage,
middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through
childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and
productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not
master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not
leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little
connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-
improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of

development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is
called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on
their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People
who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they
can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not
successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus
on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the
end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.

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SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF LEV VYGOTSKY

LEV VYGOTSKY
He attended Moscow State University, where he graduated with a
degree in law in 1917. Lev Vygotsky was a seminal Russian psychologist
who is best known for his sociocultural theory. He believed that social
interaction plays a critical role in children's learning. Lev Vygotsky was born
November 17, 1896, in Orsha, a city in the western region of Russia and
died at the age of 37 on 11 June 1934 because tuberculosis.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at
the important contributions that society makes to individual development.
This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the
culture in which they live. Sociocultural theory also suggests that human
learning is largely a social process.
Sociocultural theory grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev
Vygotsky, who believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at
large were responsible for developing higher-order functions. According to
Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people. Once this
has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual level.
Vygotsky was a contemporary of other great thinkers such as Freud,
Skinner, and Piaget, but his early death at age 37 and the suppression of
his work in Stalinist Russia left him in relative obscurity until fairly recently.
As his work became more widely published, his ideas have grown
increasingly influential in areas including child development, cognitive
psychology, and education. According to Vygotsky, children are born with
basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however, provides
"tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow children to use their
abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For
example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as
note-taking, another might use tools like reminders or rote memorization.

SCAFFOLDING
In education, scaffolding refers to a variety of instructional techniques
used to move students progressively toward stronger understanding and,
ultimately, greater independence in the learning process. The term itself
offers the relevant descriptive metaphor: teachers provide successive levels
of temporary support that help students reach higher levels of

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comprehension and skill acquisition that they would not be able to achieve
without assistance. Like physical scaffolding, the supportive strategies are
incrementally removed when they are no longer needed, and the teacher
gradually shifts more responsibility over the learning process to the student.
Scaffolding is widely considered to be an essential element of effective
teaching, and all teachers—to a greater or lesser extent—almost certainly
use various forms of instructional scaffolding in their teaching. In addition,
scaffolding is often used to bridge learning gaps—i.e., the difference
between what students have learned and what they are expected to know
and be able to do at a certain point in their education. For example, if
students are not at the reading level required to understand a text being
taught in a course, the teacher might use instructional scaffolding to
incrementally improve their reading ability until they can read the required
text independently and without assistance. One of the main goals of
scaffolding is to reduce the negative emotions and self-perceptions that
students may experience when they get frustrated, intimidated, or
discouraged when attempting a difficult task without the assistance,
direction, or understanding they need to complete it.

More Knowledgeable Others (MKO)

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory;
it refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level
than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult,
this is not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's
children may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.
For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest
teenage music groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or
how to correctly perform the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to
support employees in their learning process, are now using electronic
performance support systems.
Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to
facilitate and guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs
is that they must have (or be programmed with) more knowledge about the
topic being learned than the learner does.

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ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT

The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to

the second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal
Development.
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between
what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with
guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the
example above) by itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at
all), but was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and has
developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area
where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing
the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher
mental functions.
Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of
developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative
learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from
more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

THE HEINZ DILEMMA

Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was
interested in finding out how our moral reasoning changes as we get older.

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He wanted to find out how people decide what is right and what is wrong.
In order to explore this area, he read a story containing a moral dilemma to
boys of different age groups (also known as the Heinz dilemma). In the
story, a man is trying to obtain an expensive drug that his wife needs in
order to treat her cancer. The man has no money and no one will loan him
the money he requires. He begs the pharmacist to reduce the price, but the
pharmacist refuses. So, the man decides to break into the pharmacy to steal
the drug. Then Kohlberg asked the children to decide whether the man was
right or wrong in his choice. Kohlberg was not interested in whether they
said the man was right or wrong, he was interested in finding out how they
arrived at such a decision. He wanted to know what they thought made
something right or wrong.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT is a gradual development of an individual’s

concept of right or wrong - concious, religious, values, social attitudes and
certain behaviour.

KOHLBERG'S THEORY
This theory is a stage theory in other words, everyone goes through
the stages sequentially without skipping any stage.
However, movement through these stages are not natural. that is
people do not automatically move from one stage to the next as they
mature. in stage development, movement occurs when a person notices
inadequacy in his or her present way of coping with a given moral dilemma
According to the stage theory, people cannot understand moral
reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. for example, a person
in stage 1 can understand stage 2 reasoning but nothing beyond that.

KOHLBERG'S SIX STAGES

PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage 1: Obedience And Punishment
Especially common in young children but adults are capable of
expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage, children see rules as fixed
and absolute.

• obey rules in order to avoid punishment

• determines a sense of right and wrong by what it punished and what is
not punished

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• obey superior authority and allows that authority to make the rules,
especially if that authority has the power to inflict pain
• is responsive to rules that will affect his/her physical well being.

Stage 2: Individualism And Exchange

After your child completes their phase of believing all authority is
correct, they then enter the second stage referred to as Individualism and
Exchange. This stage allows your child to better understand the concept
that everyone has a different preference on specific topics. Each child now
feels free to pursue their own interests and they now see punishment as a
risk that must be avoided.
Although your child now has different views on issues, they still have
some sense of right action. This idea is referred to as fair exchange, which
relates to the idea of "If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours." Your child
believes that before you do whatever is "wrong", you must try to make a
fair deal first.

CONVENTIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationship
Close relationships are sometimes called interpersonal relationships.
The closest relationships are most often found with family and a small circle
of best friends. Interpersonal relationships require the most effort to nurture
and maintain. These are also the relationships that give you the most joy
and satisfaction. An interpersonal relationship is an association between two
or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association
may be based on inference, love, solidarity, regular business interactions, or
some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships are
formed in the context of social, cultural and other influences. The context
can vary from family or kinship relations, friendship, marriage, relations with
associates, work, clubs, neighborhoods, and places of worship. They may
be regulated by law, custom, or mutual agreement, and are the basis of
social groups and society as a whole. A relationship is normally viewed as a
connection between individuals, such as a romantic or intimate relationship,
or a parent–child relationship. Individuals can also have relationships with
groups of people, such as the relation between a pastor and his
congregation, an uncle and a family, or a mayor and a town. Finally, groups
or even nations may have relations with each other. When in a healthy
relationship, happiness is shown and the relationship is now a priority.

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Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
The Maintenance of Social Order Also Involves the Creation of Moral
Institutions. Clearly, punishment—or the threat of punishment—is necessary
for a general climate of obedience to social norms. What is more, there is
an element of force in all forms of property, marriage and religion.

POST CONVENTIONAL MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Stage 5: Social Contract And Individual Rights
When one arrives at stage five, they begin to question society, and
what makes a good one. They think theoretically, viewing other societies
and their values and attempting to apply it to their own, finding if said values
would be applicable to their own. Once at stage five, one normally believes
that society is a "contract" that one enters in to in order to benefit everyone,
while also recognizing that different societies will have different values.
However, there are two points which they believe everyone should agree
on, which are how all people should have basic rights, such as liberty and
life, and then the right to change unfair laws and making their society better
as a whole.

Stage 6: Universal Principles

In law and ethics, universal law or universal principle refers as
concepts of legal legitimacy actions, whereby those principles and rules for
governing human beings' conduct which are most universal in their
acceptability, their applicability, translation, and philosophical basis, are
therefore considered to be most legitimate. One type of Universal Law is the
Law of Logic which prohibits logical contradictions known as sophistry. The
Law of Logic is based upon the universal idea that logic is defined as that
which is not illogical and that which is illogical is that which involves a logical
contradiction, such as attempting to assert that an apple and no apple can
exist at and in the same time and in the same place, and attempting to
assert that A and not A can exist at and in the same time and in the same
place.

FREUD'S PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality argues that
human behavior is the result of the interactions among three component
parts of the mind: the id, ego, and superego. This theory, known as Freud’s
structural theory of personality, places great emphasis on the role of

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unconscious psychological conflicts in shaping behavior and personality.
Dynamic interactions among these fundamental parts of the mind are
thought to progress through five distinct psychosexual stages of
development. Over the last century, however, Freud’s ideas have since been
met with criticism, in part because of his singular focus on sexuality as the
main driver of human personality development.

Freud’s Structure of the Human Mind

According to Freud, our personality develops from the interactions
among what he proposed as the three fundamental structures of the human
mind: the id, ego, and superego. Conflicts among these three structures,
and our efforts to find balance among what each of them “desires,”
determines how we behave and approach the world. What balance we strike
in any given situation determines how we will resolve the conflict between
two overarching behavioral tendencies: our biological aggressive and
pleasure-seeking drives vs. our socialized internal control over those drives.

THE ID
The id, the most primitive of the three structures, is concerned with
instant gratification of basic physical needs and urges. It operates entirely
unconsciously (outside of conscious thought). For example, if your id walked
past a stranger eating ice cream, it would most likely take the ice cream for
itself. It doesn’t know, or care, that it is rude to take something belonging
to someone else; it would care only that you wanted the ice cream.
CONFLICT WITHIN THE MIND:
According to Freud, the job of the ego is to balance the
aggressive/pleasure-seeking drives of the id with the moral control of the
superego.

THE SUPEREGO
The superego is concerned with social rules and morals—similar to
what many people call their “conscience” or their “moral compass.” It
develops as a child learns what their culture considers right and wrong. If
your superego walked past the same stranger, it would not take their ice
cream because it would know that that would be rude. However, if both
your id and your superego were involved, and your id was strong enough to
override your superego’s concern, you would still take the ice cream, but
afterward you would most likely feel guilt and shame over your actions.

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THE EGO
In contrast to the instinctual id and the moral superego, the ego is
the rational, pragmatic part of our personality. It is less primitive than the
id and is partly conscious and partly unconscious. It’s what Freud considered
to be the “self,” and its job is to balance the demands of the id and superego
in the practical context of reality. So, if you walked past the stranger with
ice cream one more time, your ego would mediate the conflict between your
id (“I want that ice cream right now”) and superego (“It’s wrong to take
someone else’s ice cream”) and decide to go buy your own ice cream. While
this may mean you have to wait 10 more minutes, which would frustrate
your id, your ego decides to make that sacrifice as part of the compromise–
satisfying your desire for ice cream while also avoiding an unpleasant social
situation and potential feelings of shame.

Freud believed that the id, ego, and superego are in constant conflict
and that adult personality and behavior are rooted in the results of these
internal struggles throughout childhood. He believed that a person who has
a strong ego has a healthy personality and that imbalances in this system
can lead to neurosis (what we now think of as anxiety and depression) and
unhealthy behaviors.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Freud believed that the nature of the conflicts among the id, ego, and
superego change over time as a person grows from child to adult.
Specifically, he maintained that these conflicts progress through a series of
five basic stages, each with a different focus: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital. He called his idea the psychosexual theory of development, with
each psychosexual stage directly related to a different physical center of
pleasure.
Across these five stages, the child is presented with different conflicts
between their biological drives (id) and their social and moral conscience

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(superego) because their biological pleasure-seeking urges focus on
different areas of the body (what Freud called “erogenous zones”). The
child’s ability to resolve these internal conflicts determines their future ability
to cope and function as an adult. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to
become fixated in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits;
successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.

FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Freud proposed that psychological development in childhood takes
place during five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and
genital.
These are called psychosexual stages because each stage represents
the fixation of libido (roughly translated as sexual drives or instincts) on a
different area of the body. As a person grows physically certain areas of
their body become important as sources of potential frustration (erogenous
zones), pleasure or both. Freud (1905) believed that life was built round
tension and pleasure. Freud also believed that all tension was due to the
build-up of libido (sexual energy) and that all pleasure came from its
discharge.
In describing human personality development as psychosexual Freud
meant to convey that what develops is the way in which sexual energy of
the id accumulates and is discharged as we mature biologically. (NB Freud
used the term 'sexual' in a very general way to mean all pleasurable actions
and thoughts).
Freud stressed that the first five years of life are crucial to the
formation of adult personality. The id must be controlled in order to satisfy
social demands; this sets up a conflict between frustrated wishes and social
norms.

THE ROLE OF CONFLICT

Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict
that must be resolved before the individual can successfully advance to the
next stage.
The resolution of each of these conflicts requires the expenditre of
sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at a particular stage,
the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the
individual as he/she matures psychologically.
To explain this Freud suggested the analogy of military troops on the
march. As the troops advance, they are met by opposition or conflict. If

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they are highly successful in winning the battle (resolving the conflict), then
most of the troops (libido) will be able to move on to the next battle (stage).
But the greater the difficulty encountered at any particular point, the
greater the need for troops to remain behind to fight and thus the fewer
that will be able to go on to the next confrontation.
Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation
Some people do not seem to be able to leave one stage and proceed
on to the next. One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing
individual at any particular stage may not have been adequately met in
which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs may have
been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological
benefits of a particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two)
may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual
stage.
Fixation refers to the theoretical notion that a portion of the
individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage of
his development.

ORAL STAGE (BIRTH TO 1 YEAR)

In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in
a baby's mouth. It gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things
in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id demands. Which at this
stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding.
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life.
We see oral personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-
chewers, and thumb suckers. Oral personalities engage in such oral
behaviors, particularly when under stress.

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ANAL STAGE (1 TO 3 YEARS)
The libido now becomes focused on the anus, and the child derives
great pleasure from defecating. The child is now fully aware that they are
a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict
with the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed).
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in
potty training, in which adults impose restrictions on when and where the
child can defecate. The nature of this first conflict with authority can
determine the child's future relationship with all forms of authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-
retentive personality who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and
respectful of authority. They can be stubborn and tight-fisted with their
cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when
toddlers, and their mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing
them on the potty until they perform. Not as daft as it sounds. The anal
expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-training regime
during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share
things with you. They like giving things away. In essence, they are 'sharing
their s**t'!' An anal-expulsive personality is also messy, disorganized and
rebellious.

PHALLIC STAGE (3 TO 6 YEARS)

Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and
masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a new source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in
motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy
and fear which Freud called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the
Electra complex (in girls).
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves
the child adopting the characteristics of the same sex parent.

OEDIPUS COMPLEX
The most important aspect of the phallic stage is the Oedipus
complex. This is one of Freud's most controversial ideas and one that many
people reject outright.

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The name of the Oedipus complex derives from the Greek myth where
Oedipus, a young man, kills his father and marries his mother. Upon
discovering this, he pokes his eyes out and becomes blind. This Oedipal is
the generic (i.e., general) term for both Oedipus and Electra complexes.
In the young boy, the Oedipus complex or more correctly, conflict,
arises because the boy develops sexual (pleasurable) desires for his mother.
He wants to possess his mother exclusively and get rid of his father to enable
him to do so.
Irrationally, the boy thinks that if his father were to find out about all
this, his father would take away what he loves the most. During the phallic
stage what the boy loves most is his penis. Hence the boy develops
castration anxiety.
The little boy then sets out to resolve this problem by imitating,
copying and joining in masculine dad-type behaviors. This is called
identification, and is how the three-to-five year old boy resolves his Oedipus
complex.
Identification means internally adopting the values, attitudes, and
behaviors of another person. The consequence of this is that the boy takes
on the male gender role, and adopts an ego ideal and values that become
the superego.

LATENCY STAGE (6 YEARS TO PUBERTY)

No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage
(latent means hidden). The libido is dormant.
Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the
latent stage, and sexual energy can be sublimated (re: defense
mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and friendships. Much of the
child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same
gender. Freud (1909) offered the Little Hans case study as evidence of the
Oedipus complex.

ELECTRA COMPLEX
For girls, the Oedipus or Electra complex is less than satisfactory.
Briefly, the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a
penis. This leads to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a
boy.
The girl resolves this by repressing her desire for her father and
substituting the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby. The girl blames

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her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this creates great tension. The girl
then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with the
mother to take on the female gender role.

GENITAL STAGE (PUBERTY TO ADULT)

This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality
development and begins in puberty. It is a time of adolescent sexual
experimentation, the successful resolution of which is settling down in a
loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure
like during the phallic stage. For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual
instinct in adults was through heterosexual intercourse. Fixation and
conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual perversions
may develop. For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person
gaining sexual pleasure primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than
sexual intercourse.

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY

The bioecological theory of development was formulated by Urie

Bronfenbrenner and posits that human development is a transactional
process in which an individual’s development is influenced by his or her
interactions with various aspects and spheres of their environment.
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems
Theory presents child development within the context of relationship
systems that comprise the child’s environment. The model is composed of
microsystem, mesosystem, macrosystem and the chronosystem.
Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term “biological”
points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts on his/her
development. The child’s growing and developing body and the interplay
between his/her immediate family/community environment and the social
landscape fuel and steer his/her development. Changes or conflict in any
one layer will ripple throughout other layers . To study a child’s development
then, we must look not only at the child and his/her immediate environment,
but also at the larger environment with which the child interacts.

THE MICROSYSTEM
This is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with
which the child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the

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relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings
(Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include family, school,
neighborhood, or childcare environments. At this level, relationships have
impact in two directions - both away from the child and toward the child.
For example, a child’s parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however,
the child also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner
calls these bi-directional influences, and he shows how they occur among
all levels of environment. The interaction of structures within a layer and
interactions of structures between layers is key to this theory. At the
microsystem level, bi-directional influences are strongest and have the
greatest impact on the child. However, interactions at outer levels can still
impact the inner structures.

THE MESOSYSTEM
This layer provides the connection between the structures of the
child’s microsystem (Berk, 2000). Examples: the connection between the
child’s teacher and his parents, between his church and his neighborhood,
etc.

THE EXOSYSTEM
This layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not
function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s development
by interacting with some structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). Parent
workplace schedules or community-based family resources are examples.
The child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel the
positive or negative force involved with the interaction with his own system.
THE MACROSYSTEM
This layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s
environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised
of cultural values, customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The effects of larger
principles defined by the macrosystem have a cascading influence
throughout the interactions of all other layers. For example, if it is the belief
of the culture that parents should be solely responsible for raising their
children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This,
in turn, affects the structures in which the parent’s function. The parents’
ability or inability to carry out that responsibility toward their child within the
context of the child’s microsystem is likewise affected.

THE CHRONOSYSTEM

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This system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a
child’s environments. Elements within this system can be either external,
such as the timing of a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological
changes that occur with the aging of a child. As children get older, they may
react differently to environmental changes and may be more able to
determine more how that change will influence them.

LESSON 2: NATURE OF LEARNING

Many educators have attempted to define learning. Some of these
definitions are too complicated to have meaning. Others are not broad
enough in their scope. One writer defines learning as an intelligent
adaptation to changing conditions. Another authority defines learning as the
process of acquiring knowledge. Perhaps the best definition, especially
where educators are concerned, is the definition which puts emphasis on
the student’s ability to perform as the result of learning.

Definitions of Learning:
1. Gardener Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in
behaviour to meet environmental requirements.”
2. Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the
strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.”
3. Crow & crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge &
attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals
attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents
progressive changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain
goals.
NATURE OF LEARNING
1. Learning is Universal. Every creature that lives learns. Man learns
most. The human nervous system is very complex, so are human reactions
and so are human acquisition. Positive learning vital for children’s growth
and development.
2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind
of experience, direct or indirect (vicarious).

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3. Learning is from all Sides: Today learning is from all sides. Children
learn from parents, teachers, environment, nature, media etc.
4. Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning.
Every day new situations are faced and the individual has to bring essential
changes in his style of behaviour adopted to tackle them. Learning is birth
to death.
5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour
influenced by previous behaviour. It is any activity that leaves a more or less
permanent effect on later activity.
6. Learning is an Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust
himself adequately to the new situations. Most learning in children consists
in modifying,
adapting, and developing their original nature. In later life the individuals
acquire new forms of behaviour.
7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and
practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information
longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition. Every time
practice occurs, learning continues.
8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change. After a rat wake up from
his nap he still remembers the path to the food. Even if you have been on
a bicycle for years, in just a few minutes practice you can be quite proficient
again.
9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth
and development. At reach stage the learner acquires new visions of his
future growth and news ideals of achievement in the direction of his effort.
According to Woodworth, “All activity can be called learning so far as it
develops the individual.”
10. Learning is not directly observable. The only way to study learning
is through some observable behaviour. Actually, we cannot observe
learning; we see only
Moreover, learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change
in one’s behavior as a result of his interaction in the environment. Omrod
(2004) has defined learning as something that happens as a result of one’s
experience. Changes in behavior are pieces of evidence showing that
learning has taken in place. However, most theorist agree to the following
definition of learning because it is useful for identifying the kinds of events
that learning theorist should explain. Learning is a relatively permanent
change in one’s behavior as result of interaction in the environment

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Nearly, all definitions of learning point to three equally important concepts:
change, behavior and experience.

1. Change. Learning involves change in knowledge and behavior.

Psychologists
agree that learning involves change within the individual organism. For
example, if a rat is a lost in a maze, it produces an array of attempts to look
for its way out. For several times, it does the same thing until it finally gets
its way out. Here, we see that nothing about maze. Everything else in the
rat’s situation has remained unchanged except the rat. Behavioral theorist
maintain that learning consists of changes in behavior, while cognitive
theorists claim that learning involves changes in knowledge. It is therefore
clear that performance of some observable behavior is necessary indication
of learning, but it is not necessary identical to learning. A change that
disappears after a few hours does not reflect learning ( Mayer, 2002)
2. Behavior. In the previous example about the rat in a maze, we can say
that learning is acquisition of knowledge. But to some extent, do we know
that knowledge Has been acquired? The mere fact that the rats makes an
array of attempts to gets its way out demonstrates that it has learned. The
changes brought about by learning are relatively permanent. Changes are
making responses can be produced by other factors aside from learning.
The nature of relative permanence helps us to rule out changes that are
brought by such things as drives, fatigue, disease, and injury that dissipate
rapidly. Drugs can also produce Changes in responding but will also dissipate
when the drugs wear-off.
3. Previous experience. Learning results from previous experience.
Therefore, learning Involves experience. Many changes that we observe
specially among children are the results of growth or maturation of the
skeletal, muscle and nervous systems.

LESSON 3: TYPES OF LEARNING

TYPES OF LEARNING
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or
participation in classroom activities. These types of learning are basic
ingredients to success in school.
These are what schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form learning for one to maintain and go through
daily life activities as for example, walking, running, driving, climbing and
the like.
These activities involve motor coordination.

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b. Verbal learning it involves the use of spoken language as well as the
communication devices used. Signs pictures symbols words figures sounds
used in such activities .
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of higher-
order mental processes like thinking, reasoning and analyzing. It involves
two processes: abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is a learning to differentiate between
stimuli and responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is being
able to distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus,car and
ambulance.
e. Learning Principles. It is learning principles related to science,
mathematics Grammar and the like. Principles show the relationship
between two or more concepts, some examples of which are formulas, laws,
associations, correlations and the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning
requires the use of cognitive abilities- such as thinking, reasoning,
observation, imagination and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and
predicts behavior. Learned attitudes influence one’s behavior toward people,
objects, things, or ideas.

LESSON 4: LEARNER-CENTERED LEARNING

Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers
a wide range of activities which cannot be explained with a limited
framework. This may be reason why there is available wide range of theories
of learning, each propounding and focusing on a particular perspective or
view to explain what learning is.
A learning theory is an organize set of principles explaining
individuals how to acquire, retain, and to recall knowledge. Learning theories
try to explain how people learn and why they learn. They also try to explain
the phenomenon of learning – its nature, and the conditions under which
learning best occur. The explanations are, however, considered as tentative.
Be as it may, these statements are not the result of guesswork. Instead,

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they are well studied or seriously thought out, and in many cases, the result
of scientific study. These theories especially guide teachers to have a better
understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn (“Educational
Learning and Learning Theories,” n.d.).
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used
differently by different theories. As theories of learning evolved over time,
definitions of learning shifted from changes that occur in the mind or
behavior of an individual, to changes in participation in on going activities
with other individuals, to change in a
person’s identity within group. (“Theories of Learning” n. d.)
Learning Point: Defining “Learner-Centered”
Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-
centeredness in educational practice, especially in curriculum development
and teaching methodology. This means that policy, planning, and
implementation of educational practice should have the learners as its focus.
It is therefore expected that theories of learning and their application should
be learner-centered.
Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual
learners- their heredity, experiences, perspective, background, talent,
interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning- the best available
knowledge about learning and how it occurs, and about teaching practices
that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation,
learning, and achievement for all learners.
For a better understanding of the term learner-centered, following are
learner-centered principles, meant to provide a framework for developing
and incorporating new strategies and designs of teaching,
These are the main ideas of these principles:
✓ They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
✓ They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the
control of the learner.
✓ They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the
internal factors.
✓ They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be
viewed in isolation.
✓ The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational, affective, developmental, social, and individual
difference factors related to learning.
✓ These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody
involved in the

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educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators, parent staff,
and guidance counselors.

Who are the Learners?

All human beings regardless of age, race, or space, need certain conditions
to thrive. They must feel that they:
✓ Belong and are included
✓ Have some worth and value
✓ Are safe in all aspects: physically, emotionally, and cognitively.
✓ Have some choice and freedom related to their environment and
activities.
✓ Can be successful.
✓ Are appreciated for who they are.
Cognitive research tells us that every brain is unique. Even children born
into same family with the same nature (genes) and nurture
(environment) do not look or act alike. Each has a preferred learning style
and will thrive better in a visual, auditory, tactile, or kinesthetic environment.
Some like natural light, some a musical background, some a quiet space.
Some students need hands-on or “being there” experience, while others
appreciate analogy. Some need movement and activity and collaboration,
while some need quiet time for contemplation and reflection. Most brains
are naturally curious and seek understanding and meaning.

CHAPTER 1 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT
CONTENT

GENEREAL DIRECTION:
Write what you remember most about the ideas of the following theories.
Focus on what you think are their most important ideas about the
development of learners.
Sigmund Freud
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Eric Erickson
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Jean Piaget
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Lawrence Kohlberg
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Urie Bronfenbrenner
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CHAPTER 1 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT
CONTENT
REFERENCES
Brawner, Dalisay G., Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching: Manila:
Adriana Publishing Co., Inc. 2018
Lucas, MR.D & Corpuz B.B Facilitating Learning: A Metacocnitive
Process. (Revised Edition). Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing Inc. 2018

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.

https://www.slideshare.net/anivvp/cognitive-development-piaget-
66207428
ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/erikson
s-stages-of-psychosocial-development/
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF LEV VYGOTSKY.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT.
educationaltechnology.net › stages-Stages of Moral Development -
Lawrence Kohlberg – Educational
FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html
BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY.
https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory

CHAPTER 1 THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT