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CASE REPORT A case study of the deep-sea tailings outfall in the tropical
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 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research

ISSN: (Print) 2324-9676 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjaw20

A case study of the deep-sea tailings outfall in the

tropical south Pacific

Albert Tsz Yeung Leung, Aurelien Hospital, Chris Young, Daniel Potts, James
Stronach & Allister Thompson

To cite this article: Albert Tsz Yeung Leung, Aurelien Hospital, Chris Young, Daniel Potts,
James Stronach & Allister Thompson (2020): A case study of the deep-sea tailings outfall
in the tropical south Pacific, Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research, DOI:
10.1080/23249676.2020.1761899

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Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research, 2020
https://doi.org/10.1080/23249676.2020.1761899

CASE REPORT
A case study of the deep-sea tailings outfall in the tropical south Pacific
Albert Tsz Yeung Leunga∗ , Aurelien Hospitala , Chris Younga , Daniel Pottsa , James Stronacha and Allister Thompsonb
a Water and Marine Engineering Department, Tetra Tech Inc., Vancouver, Canada; b Van-Dive Marine Consultants Ltd, Vancouver,
Canada
(Received 7 June 2018; accepted 9 April 2020 )

Deep-Sea Tailings Placement (DSTP) systems have been used at several mines to discharge diluted mine tailings at great
depths. DSTP often provides considerable environmental and engineering benefits compared to traditional on-land tailings
storage. The key element in the viability of a DSTP system is the ability to discharge mine tailings at sufficient depths and
at such a location that a density current is formed that carries the tailings along the seabed to the abyssal ocean, and such
that adequate dilution can be achieved and environmental impacts minimized. Depending on the composition of the slurry,
sub-sea plumes might also form from the density current at different levels of neutral buoyancy, further diluting the effluent.
The engineering, environmental and construction aspects of the deep-sea outfall system are illustrated through a case study
of the DSTP outfall system on Woodlark Island in Papua New Guinea, located in the tropical south Pacific.
Keywords: DSTP; engineering; numerical modelling; density current; tailings management; dilution

Introduction well, this paper highlights the DSTP system on Woodlark

Deep-Sea Tailings Placement (DSTP) systems have been
used at several mines to discharge diluted mine tailings
at great depths. DSTP often provides considerable envi-
ronmental and engineering benefits compared to traditional
on-land tailings storage. Three main disadvantages can be
listed for on-land tailings storage. First, dams for the on-
land storage have perpetual care and maintenance issues,
especially in mountainous and seismically active areas
where the risk of a dam failure is high. Second, the on-
land storage option has numerous problems, be it structural
and environmental, at the end of the mine’s life concerning
its maintenance. Finally, compared to a deep-sea tailings
system, the on-land storage option capital and operating
costs generally exceed the corresponding costs for a DSTP
system by a significant margin.
The purpose of a deep-sea tailings outfall is to pro-
vide a safer and more cost-effective system, from both the
environmental and human perspectives. Indeed, the human
risk factor is much smaller than for the on-land storage
option, as long as the ecological effects of the discharge to
the sea are demonstrated to be benign. Also, the deep-sea
tailings system presents several engineering and environ-
mental advantages: a defined tailings footprint, a confined
tailings release into the water column, no infiltration into
the ground and a permanent solution at the end of mine
life.
This paper describes the engineering and environmen-
tal frameworks that are used to design a DSTP system; as
Island in Papua New Guinea, which has been designed, to
definitive feasibility design standards.
Background and literature review
Rock tailings, composed mainly of finely grinded rock
fragments, has always been a by-product of mining oper-
ations. These fine rock fragments often generate acidic
runoffs, which in turn promote metal leaching, a process
that dissolves the metals from the rocks in the fragments
when they come in contact with water and oxygen. This
mine tailings, if not managed properly and released into
the environment in an uncontrolled manner, will cause
harmful effects not only to the ecosystems, but also to
human lives. Two of the most prominent environmental
disasters caused by unintended release of mine tailings
to nearby water body occurred at Marcopper Mine in
Philippines in 1996 and Mount Polley Mine in Canada in
2014.
Historically, the most common method to manage tail-
ings is on-land storage by way of constructing a tail-
ings pond. This on-land method, on one hand, ensures
a definite separation between the acid-bearing materials
and the environment, however on the other, this method
presents permanent environmental and engineering chal-
lenges. These challenges become even more pronounced
when the mine operations are located in seismically active
areas where ground motion could lead to structural and

∗ Corresponding author. Email: Albert Leung albert.leung@tetratech.com

© 2020 IAHR and WCCE

2 A. T. Y. Leung et al.
therefore functional failure of the tailings pond, or in areas
where excessive rainfall could trigger landslides.
Submarine tailings disposal (STD) is the alternative
method to on-land disposal: shallow/mid-depth and deep-
sea This disposal method has an advantage of presenting
a ‘walk-away’ and ‘cheaper’ solution: the cost of oper-
ating a STD of the Placer Dome mine in Calancan Bay
in Philippines was claimed to be less than half of the
cost associated with a tailing-pond system (Zandee 1985).
The STD method would save Kitsault mine, located in
the Province of British Columbia, Canada, where it was
given a permit for STD, 25 million dollars every year
as opposed to the cost associated with an on-land sys-
tem (Mining Watch). US Department of Interior estimated
an average of 17% reduction in capital cost with a STD
system.
Various mine operations that have released mine tail-
ings at shallow or mid depths include the Marcopper Mine
and Atlas Mine in Philippines, the Island Copper Mine
in Canada, Minahasa Raya Mine in Indonesia. However,
detrimental effects of shallow-depth disposal to the envi-
ronment were well documented for some of these mines,
such as the Marcopper Mine owned by Placer Dome in
Philippines (Coumans 2006).
The other submarine tailings disposal method is Deep-
sea Tailings Placement (DSTP), the main focus of this
article. DSTP involves discharging mine tailings to the
abyssal ocean where pollutants are unlikely to surface,
biological activities are scant and any change in ambient
condition is slow and more predictable than that of near-
surface; this method takes advantage of diluting the tailings
with large amount of deep ocean water acts as an acid and
chemical buffer that renders the discharged tailings largely
benign. If done properly, DSTP is considered more envi-
ronmentally sustainable and subject to significantly lower
risk and uncertainty. However, if done carelessly, such as
selecting an overly shallow discharge depth, or choosing a
less than optimal submarine valley such that a density cur-
rent could not be properly formed and maintained to carry
the discharged tailings downward, or under-designing the
pipe ballast requirement, etc., could all lead to the same
level of, if not greater, environmental disaster that would
take years or decades to recover from, not to mention
the financial suffering the stakeholders and relevant parties
must bear.
For these reasons, a properly-designed DSTP system
has gained significant popularity in recent years worldwide
(e.g. Misima, Lihir, Woodlark, Ramu and Simberi mines in
Papua New Guinea, Black Angel Mine in Greenland and
Batu Hijau Mine in Indonesia, etc.). Many more have been
proposed to use the DSTP system for tailings discharge.
Comprehensive studies into the environmental impact
and feasibility of utilizing a DSTP system were conducted
for mines in Goro, Ramu, Moa, Simberi and Woodlark.
Description of the framework
A DSTP system usually consists of the following com-
ponents: Figure 1 shows a sketch of a typical DSTP
system.
• A mix/de-aeration tank at the shore, in which slurry
from the plant is mixed with seawater before being
discharged to the sea. In addition to providing initial
dilution, the mix/de-aeration tank allows the slurry
to be de-aerated before it enters the outfall pipe to
avoid unwanted buoyancy due to air entrapment, to
ensure efficient conveyance of the slurry in the pipe,
and to eliminate the possibility of air bubbles exit-
ing the outfall pipe and carrying contaminants to the
surface;
• A feed pipe carrying slurry from the plant, discharg-
ing into the mix/de-aeration tank;
• A seawater intake pipe leading into the mix tank,
either pumped or gravity-driven (by the head differ-
ence between the operating level in the tank and sea
level, considering the relative densities of tailings
slurry and seawater); and
• A tailing discharge pipe from the mix/de-aeration
tank, transporting the tailings/seawater mixture to
the outfall terminus at depth.
The efficiency of a deep-sea tailings system depends
on its ability to create a density current. As shown in
the bottom panel of Figure 2, slurry (tailings solids and
liquid) discharged at depths usually greater than 150 m
below the mixed layer, will, upon exiting the outfall pipe,
form a density current that travels along the seabed to the
deeper parts of the ocean floor, i.e. depths greater than
1,000 m. As the density current descends, it casts off dis-
solved material and fine sediment to the overlying water
column as this material finds its neutral buoyancy, usu-
ally at depths greater than 400 m. This material generally
stays at that depth and spreads horizontally under the action
of the ocean currents, unless the discharge location is in
an area of strong upwelling or downwelling. Sediment
ultimately settles out from the density current and the sub-
sea plumes. Since these processes occur at great depths,
the interaction with the upper mixed layer, and, hence,
surfacing of the discharged material, both important envi-
ronmental considerations, are non-existent. Similarly, the
discharged material does not enter the photic zone, the
region where sunlight penetrates and primary production
from photosynthesis occurs, because the slurry constituents
could interfere with biological activity.
The determination and optimization of an efficient
deep-sea tailings system is usually a two-component pro-
cess: both engineering and environmental aspects must be
considered.
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research 3

Figure 1. Illustration of a typical deep sea tailings system.

Figure 2. Outfall discharge not forming (Top) / Forming (Bottom) a density current.
4 A. T. Y. Leung et al.
Figure 3. Mix tank and outfall pipe installation at Simberi
Island.
Engineering aspects of the system
Mix/De-aeration tank design
The mix/de-aeration tank is constructed on the shore
(Figure 3), and usually placed in a dry moat to allow
access for inspection and maintenance. The slurry feed and
seawater intake lines deliver flow to the mix tank where
the two input streams are mixed. The mixed stream then
exits the tank through the outfall line. Inside the tank, a
submerged, circular weir is installed to eliminate short-
circuiting in the tank. An important role for the mix-tank,
in addition to providing a vessel for seawater and efflu-
ent to mix, is to allow entrained air bubbles to escape. The
semi-circular weir within the mix tank forces the flow to
rise in the tank, promoting the liberation of any entrained
air to the atmosphere. The diameter of the mix/de-aeration
tank is established with consideration of the liberation of
air bubbles that may be entrained within the slurry. This
consideration requires that the downward velocity of the
slurry within the tank shall be less than the rise velocity of
entrained air bubbles within the slurry.
The mix tank can be fabricated in concrete or steel with
appropriate protection against corrosion. Other material
options include stainless steel or carbon steel with/without
a brick or ceramic tile liner. The concrete option is con-
sidered to be the most economical solution, while also
offering excellent durability, strength, corrosion resistance,
and resistance/stability in terms of seismic loading. Con-
crete walls also provide structural support for the access
platforms/walkways and steel grating on top of the tank,
and simplifies connection of the intake/outfall pipelines
via cast-in-place (stainless steel and 28% chrome allow
steel) nozzles through the tank walls. Furthermore, there
is a large number of available contactors to choose from
who could construct the concrete tank.
The mix tank design has to take into consideration both
the steady state mode for different inflow rates and the
system response to hydraulic transients, as would occur
during system start-up and shut-down.
Slurry characteristics
A DSTP system can operate only within a specific range of
parameters, including solids concentration. Systems with
solids concentrations that are too high may present risks in
terms of deposition both inside the outfall pipe and after
leaving it. The slurry flow velocity in the outfall pipe has
to be large enough to maintain the solids in suspension
while scouring of the pipe wall due to wear and tear from
the solids in the liquid is to be avoided. The flow at the
outfall exit is also critical in the design: if solids deposi-
tion occurs in the receiving environment in the immediate
vicinity of the exit from the pipe, the depositional area
may grow to include the pipe itself, causing some form
of failure. In these situations, the usual mode of failure
is that the pipe can transport slurry even though there is
a deposit built up just outside its terminus, but as soon
as the system is shut down, for repairs or maintenance
say, the deposited material falls back into the pipe, mak-
ing it very hard to start the system up again. Systems with
solids concentration that is too low may develop an unsta-
ble density current in the receiving environment, due to the
small density difference between the slurry and the ambi-
ent water, resulting in the formation of sub-surface plumes
near the outlet. These sub-surface plumes will result in a
failure of the system in terms of a negative environmental
impact.
Slurry feed to a typical DSTP system would have its
solids content ranging between 5% and 40% by weight.
Dilution by seawater, which was fed into the mix/de-
aeration tank by gravity, will typical achieve an initial
dilution ranging between 1 and 8. However, the operat-
ing concentration range of the system is very dependent on
the following factors: seabed slope, particle size, solid con-
centration and pipe diameter. Typically, seabed slope and
particle size are fixed, and only pipe size and solids concen-
tration can be varied to optimize the system. For example,
a greater seabed slope will allow a shift of the operating
range of solids concentration towards higher values since
higher solids concentrations may tend to deposit less when
the slope becomes greater. On the other hand, low solids
concentrations may tend to form sub-surface plumes close
to the outfall terminus due to the steep slope which causes
a strong entrainment of the overlying waters. This quali-
tative description is also true for flatter slope: high solids
concentrations would lead to deposition, hence should be
avoided in favour of low solids concentrations. Ultimately,
the operating range for the system will need be carefully
determined, based the parameters described. In some cases,
the location of the outfall may need to be changed from the
initial candidate location, in order to discharge into a region
with acceptable seabed slope.
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research
Pipe route
The outfall pipe route is governed by three design
objectives:
• Sufficient slope at the outfall terminus so that
deposited sediment does not obstruct the mouth of
the outfall;
• Ultimate depth conforming to regulatory require-
ments; and
• Appropriate slopes along the pipe route: minimal
transverse slopes so that sliding or tipping is not
a concern and avoidance of adverse slopes (uphill)
along the route, to eliminate deposition in the pipe.
• Pipe terminus must be at sufficient depth to avoid
tailings being discharged into the upper mixed layer
of the ocean, thereby preventing tailings from sur-
facing as well as negatively affecting the biological
communities in the shallow waters.
Design of the outfall and seawater intake pipes
As the outfall and seawater intake pipes will likely be
partially buried underground and partially exposed at the
sea bottom, the specification selection of the outfall and
seawater intake pipes is undertaken in conjunction with a
hydraulic and structural analyses, and is governed by these
design objectives:
• Provide sufficient velocity to keep solids(not appli-
cable for seawater intake pipe) in suspension,
• Provide minimum head requirement such that dilu-
tion target is achieved,
• Flow velocity in outfall pipe should be less than
5 m/s, a design flow velocity at which there is an
increased risk of scouring of the wall in the outfall
pipeline,
• Provide sufficient material strength of the pipe to
prevent failure, such as buckling, due to exces-
sive deflection and wall compression due to pipe
curvature and external loading, and
• Minimize construction costs.
Pipe diameter has a significant impact on deposit veloc-
ity in the pipe – the velocity of the slurry required to
keep solids, both fine and coarse materials, in suspen-
sion. The upper operating velocity limit is about 5 m/s,
as recommended by the HDPE (High Density Poly Ethy-
lene) manufacturers. Deposition velocity is an important
step in pipeline design because the deposition condition
in the pipe represents the lower limit of operating veloc-
ities for the DSTP system. It varies based on the solids
concentration, the particles size and the pipe diameter.
5
Wave Climate
Wave climate along the outfall route is predicted using
combined suite of wave models, WAVEWATCH III and
SWAN (Simulating WAves Nearshore). WAVEWATCH
III is a third generation operational wave model main-
tained at NOAA’s National Center for Environmental Pre-
diction (NCEP). Parameterizations of physical processes
(source terms) include wave growth and decay due to
the actions of wind, nonlinear resonant interactions, dis-
sipation (‘whitecapping’), bottom friction, surf-breaking
(i.e. depth-induced breaking) and scattering due to wave-
bottom interactions; SWAN is the nearshore wave model
developed at Delft University of Technology, which takes
into account of wave transformation in shallow waters as
they approach the coastline.
Riprap protection
Riprap over the trenched and unburied portions of both
seawater intake pipeline and tailing discharge pipeline in
the near-shore sections may be required. The intent of pro-
viding riprap over the pipes is to combat scour around
the pipes due to wave action and currents near the shore.
Riprap protection is typically designed for 200-year return
period storm events from the most prominent direction that
generates the most force on the outfall system.
Ballast design
Ballast is required on the outfall pipe to prevent side-
ways motion of the pipe due to wave and current forces
and to prevent flotation of the pipe. The forces acting on
the pipe can be categorized into two groups: static forces
(weight and buoyancy) and hydrodynamic forces (drag
force, inertial Force and lift force) from water motion:
1
Drag force : FD = ρ CD DU2 (1)
2
D2 dU
Inertial force : F I = π ρ CM (2)
4 dt
1
Lift force : FL = ρ CL DU 2
(3)
2
where ρ is the density of water in kg/m3 ; CD , CM and
CL are drag, inertia and lift coefficients, respectively; D
is representative diameter in m; U is the undisturbed
water velocity in m/s, and dU/Dt is the acceleration of
the undisturbed flow field. Typically, the inertial forces
are evaluated using Morison’s equation (Sarpkaya and
Issacson 1981), and the other two are based on standard
hydrodynamic theory.
The following summarizes the design criteria for the
ballasting:
• The bottom thickness (height) of the ballast block
below the pipeline must be equal to at least half of
6 A. T. Y. Leung et al.
one pipe diameter; this consideration reduces the risk
of localized high scouring velocities underneath the
pipeline and helps ensure the pipe remains supported
above the seabed in loose/soft granular soils;
• The maximum spacing is selected for a minimum
25% air offset (i.e. the pipeline could be up to 25%
full of air by volume along its entire alignment),
and would remain on the seabed (not buoyant) in
seawater;
• The maximum spacing is selected to accommodate
pipe handling on land such that the bending stress
experienced by the pipe with one unsupported block
suspended between two adjacent supported ballast
blocks is within tolerable design limits for HDPE
(e.g. maximum design stress of 8 MPa as per Aus-
tralia and New Zealand Standard – AS/NZS 4131),
and
• The maximum spacing is selected such that if the
seabed were to slough away beneath three of the
ballast blocks, then the bending stress experienced
by the pipe suspended between two other ballast
blocks while carrying the weight of the unsupported
ballast blocks is within tolerable design limits for
HDPE (e.g. maximum design stress of 8 MPa as
per Australia and New Zealand Standard – AS/NZS
4131).
Installation and pipe sinking
The HDPE outfall pipe is generally installed using S bend
sinking. The pipe is fitted with ballast blocks and blind
flanges at both ends, and towed into its approximate align-
ment. The inshore end is attached to the mixtank. During
sinking, water will be pumped into the landward end of the
floating pipe, causing that part of the pipe to sink. A tug
will maintain tension on the weighted pipe, and gradually
more water will be introduced, accompanied by controlled
release of air at the floating seaward end, and the contact
point of the pipe on the bottom will move seaward: the
pipe will be sinking. During this process, the configuration
of the pipe is an elongated S shape: hence the term S-bend
sinking. If the pipe must be raised during sinking, then air
will be introduced, preferably from the seaward end, and
water drained from the landward end. It would be possible
to inject air from the landward end, but at the expense of
considerable turbulent flow and disruption in the pipe.
During S-bend sinking, the part of the pipe that is sus-
pended in the water column is supported to a large extent
by the buoyancy of the air in the seaward part of the pipe.
At some point, the amount of air-filled pipe is insufficient
to support the pipe, and the pipe must then be lowered to
the sea-bed under control of the tug, but with some assis-
tance from the air in the pipe. For the purposes of this
discussion, this phase is referred to as J-bend lowering,
although this term is also typically used to refer to sinking
from a lay barge. The sinking process is usually monitored
by an ROV, and by monitoring the flow of water into the
pipe versus touch-down point.
Generally, for this type of sinking, past experience has
shown that a tug boat must provide a tension of at least 12.5
tonnes. Also a safety factor of two should be considered.
Thus a tug boat that provides a tension of about 25 tonnes
should be considered. Figure 4 illustrates the typical DSTP
pipe installation, showing the launch of the pipeline.
Environmental characterization
Tailings fate modelling
In order to address the overall fate of the tailings, a den-
sity current model coupled with the sub-sea plume model
is required. The first phase is a two dimensional near-field
density current model to simulate the behaviour of the tail-
ings as they leave the pipe and form a density current.
This model uses a relatively fine grid, commensurate with
the diameter of the pipe. The subsequent behaviour fol-
lows two pathways. The heavier fractions of the solids stay
within the density current and are carried further offshore,
along the bottom, where they settle. This phase is mod-
elled by a far-field density current model using a larger
grid spacing, commensurate with the dimensions of the
receiving basin. The lighter fractions will leave the den-
sity current as passive sub-surface plumes, at depths where
the density of the fluid comprising the density current is
approximately equal to the density of the ambient water.
As the lighter fractions strip off, the material left behind in
the density current is in fact the heavier fraction, whose
greater density relative to the ambient density provides
additional forcing to carry the density current onward to
greater depths. The density current thus acts as an exten-
sion of the outfall pipe, carrying material deeper, but with
some losses to subsurface plumes along the way. The
stripped off portion the tailings will form sub-sea plumes
as they are lifted off from the bottom near the level of neu-
tral buoyancy. The fate of these plumes require a sub-sea
plume model to determine the behaviour as they drift away
from the bottom and into the open sea.
Density current model
The tailings fate numerical model, also called the den-
sity current model, is a two-dimensional reduced-gravity
model of the density current created by the tailings dis-
charge. That is, it considers the two-layer flow consisting
of the density current flowing under the receiving water as
if the density current were a one layer flow, but with the
acceleration of gravity in the equations of motion modified
according to:
D − h ρ − ρambient
greduced = g · · (4)
D ρambient
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research
Figure 4. Installation of outfall pipe.
where D is the total water depth, h is the thickness of the
density current, ρ ambient is the ambient seawater density and
ρ is the density of the density current, including both the
effects of entrained ambient seawater and the solids load.
Commonly, the layer thickness of density current is much
less than the overall water depth, and the above equations
reduces to:
ρ − ρambient
greduced = g · (5)
ρambient
The model is a time-stepping model, and uses a spa-
tial grid of uniformly spaced cells. The simulation starts
with a bare seabed, and with all cells devoid of the denser
tailing-bearing fluid. As tailings are discharged, more and
more computational cells are turned on as the density cur-
rent distribution builds in a down-slope direction with time.
Ultimately, a quasi-steady state is reached, with the solids
either being carried out of the model domain, settling to
the seabed within the model domain, or being carried off in
subsurface plumes.
In order to simulate the frontal advance of the density
current, an algorithm similar to the algorithm for flood-
ing and drying tidal banks in shallow water is used. At
each timestep (i.e. the simulated period is broken down
in smaller intervals with limited changes from one time
interval to the next – these intervals are called timesteps),
each active cell is first examined to see if it should be de-
activated because the density current has retreated from
that particular cell.
Next, de-activated cells are examined to see if they
should be re activated, because the thickness of the density
current in an adjacent cell is sufficient to flood into that
cell. The simulation then proceeds to evaluate the fluxes
7
of mass into each cell, velocity components, and concen-
trations of dissolved scalars and sediment. The net result
is that the density current readily flows in the downstream
direction, but also spreads laterally, the expected behaviour
for a density current discharging down a slope, and similar
to the configuration of a turbulent wall jet (Rajaratnam and
Pani 1974).
The model hydrodynamics include:
• Advective terms; Coriolis term; bottom friction;
interfacial friction, expressed as a fixed fraction of
bottom friction; turbulent kinetic energy associated
with the confined pipe flow;
• Entrainment of ambient fluid based on a fit to the
Ellison and Turner (1959) observations:
E = E0 · e−k·Ri (6)
where E 0 and k are adjustable constants and Ri is the
local Richardson number;
• Depletion, which removes material from the top of
the density current when it is unstable, based on a
Richardson Number criteria;
• Horizontal eddy viscosity, and drag by ambient cur-
rents.
As the density current exits the pipe, the central core
maintains a high velocity, but the flow along the two outer
boundaries, to either side of the main core, is slower, and
generally, small levees form along these lateral bound-
aries. However, their height is limited, because once they
are tall enough to exceed a critical slope, they collapse
into the main core of the flow, where the high turbulence
8 A. T. Y. Leung et al.

Table 1. Comparison of modelled and observed lift-off distance for the density current with data from
Hurzeler et al. (1996).

Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Run 4 Run 5

qo (m3 /s) 3.9 × 10−3 5.9 × 10-3 3.6 × 10-3 4.2 × 10-3 4.3 × 10-3
ρ 0 (kg/m3 ) 1011.6 1002.1 1005.2 1003.7 1003.3
ρ i (kg/m3 ) 1001.9 998.6 998.6 999.8 998.3
ρ a (kg/m3 ) 1004.5 999.9 1000.2 1001.1 999.5
Lobs (m) 14.5 14.3 9.8 7.7 14.5
Lmod (m) 14.5 12.0 11.0 6.8 11.2
L Difference (%) 0 − 19 + 11 − 12 − 22

and velocities carry the collapsed sediment away from the

pipe. The levee growth and failure cycle is simulated in
the model by reproducing the growth of the levees until
the slope exceeds the angle of repose. The levees then col-
lapse before starting growing again. The angle of repose
depends on the angle of repose in stationary water, as well
as on the velocity of the flow moving past the levees, and
is considerably less than the angle of repose in stationary
water.
The density current model involves several processes
that govern the behaviour and fate of the discharged
tailings and must be parameterized based on observa-
tional data; these governing processes include entrainment,
depletion, interfacial and bottom stress, and settling veloc-
ity. This necessitates a thorough calibration and valida-
tion against laboratory and field observations to establish
confidence in utilizing the model.
Stronach et al. (1999, 2000) describe in details the
model validation and calibration process: The model has
been validated against three sets of data. (1) laboratories
studies conducted by Hurzeler et al. (1996); (2) laborato-
ries studies by Jain and Kennedy (1984); and (3) observed
depositional patterns resulting from the tailings disposal
system at Island Copper Mine, as described by Hay (1982).
The laboratory work of Hurzeler et al. (1996) was con- Figure 5. Comparison of observed (Physical Model) and Mod-
cerned with the effects of reversing buoyancy in the plume elled (Numerical Model) Deposition depth along the centreline of
when the density contrast between the density current and the density current (Source: Stronach et al. 2000).
the ambient water decreases and, ultimately, becomes neg-
ligible, causing the density current to lift-off and formation
of the sub-sea plume. Hurzeler undertook the study in a parameters controlling entrainment, depletion and settling
tank filled with water at certain density (ρ a ), and an injec- characteristics of the sediments.
tion of fluid of higher density (ρ 0 ) at a steady rate (q0 ) The model validation undertaken against the study con-
along the bottom. The denser fluid consisted of mixture ducted by Jain and Kennedy (1984), which involved a
of sediment and water of density (ρ i ). The study involved series of physical model studies of the near-field behaviour
multiple experiment runs with different combinations of of a mine tailings discharged onto a sloping bottom through
fluid density and flow rate. Table 1, which is excerpted a single submerged outlet in a fjord, was completed by
from Stronach et al. (2000), shows the comparison between comparing the observed (from physical models) and mod-
the observed lift-off distance (Lobs ) and the modelled lift-off elled (numerical simulation) deposition depth near the
distance (Lmod ) for some of the experiment runs. The agree- outfall (Figure 5). It appeared the numerical model was
ment between the modelled and observed lift-off distance able to reproduce many of the main features observed in
was relatively close; however, the general trend indicated the laboratory study or, in this case, a physical model study.
that the smaller the density difference between the inflow- The model validation undertaken against the data pre-
ing fluid and the ambient fluid, the poorer the agreement sented in Hay (1982) involved comparison of the modelled
becomes. This can be corrected by adjusting the model and field-observed depositional footprint in Rupert Inlet
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research 9

Figure 6. Comparison of (a) Field-observed (Source: Hay 1982) and (b) Modelled (Source: Stronach et al. 2000) Change in Bathymetry
in Rupert Island resulting from the tailings discharge from the Island Copper Mine in BC, Canada.

for the tailings outfall from the Island Copper Mine in
BC, Canada. Both the field-observed (Figure 6a) and mod-
elled (Figure 6b) change in bathymetry illustrated a distinct
and similar meandering channel depositional pattern as the
density current migrated into the deeper waters.
Sub-surface plume model
As the density current propagates down-slope, a con-
siderable amount of dissolved and fine suspended mate-
rial is transported from the density current into the
water column by the generation of subsurface plumes.
10 A. T. Y. Leung et al.
A three-dimensional circulation model, H3D (details
described in the next section), is used to track the fate
of the liquid and solid fractions of the tailings once they
have separated from the density current, thus complet-
ing the tailings fate modelling. On oceanic scales of this
size, ocean conditions are often characterized by eddies
which propagate through the region with time scales of
several days, in addition to slower-varying quasi-mean
states. These eddies are a form of turbulence, on ocean-
basin scales, and hence are not predictable. As an example,
currents at Lihir Island, Papua New Guinea, where stud-
ies were conducted into the consequences of an increase in
flow, provided an interesting challenge to numerical sim-
ulation. The most significant feature of the current field
at Lihir was the large ratio of the rms speed to the mean
speed, and the persistence of this characteristic throughout
the water column. Observed current metre data did not pro-
vide sufficient coverage that it could be used exclusively to
provide three-dimensional currents over the entire area the
subsurface plumes would utilize. Thus, a standard dynamic
circulation model was used to provide the velocity field for
the subsurface plumes. This same circulation model was
used to provide the velocity field for the far-field density
current model. By adjusting an impressed mean current and
mean sea surface slope, the resulting modelled current had
similar mean and rms values to the observed values. Impor-
tantly, the model calibrated very well against observed
seabed deposits of tailings, with a much wider area of cov-
erage than earlier thought based on the application of a
simpler modelling system by others.
Three-dimensional circulation model: H3D
H3D is a three-dimensional time-stepping numerical
model which computes the three components of velocity
(u,v,w) on a regular grid in three dimensions (x,y,z), as well
as scalar fields such as salinity, temperature and contami-
nant concentrations. The model uses the Arakawa C-grid
(Arakawa and Lamb 1977) in space, and uses a two level
semi-implicit scheme in the time domain.
H3D is an implementation of the numerical model
developed by Backhaus (1983, 1985) which has had
numerous applications to the European continental shelf,
(Duwe et al. 1983; Backhaus and Meir-Reimer 1983),
Arctic waters (Kampf and Backhaus 1999; Backhaus and
Kampf 1999) and deep estuarine waters, (Stronach et al.
1993). Locally, H3D has been used to model the tempera-
ture structure of Okanagan Lake (Stronach et al. 2002), the
transport of scalar contaminants in Okanagan Lake, (Wang
and Stronach 2005), sediment movement and scour / depo-
sition in the Fraser River, circulation and wave propagation
in Seymour and Capilano dams, and salinity movement in
the lower Fraser River. H3D forms the basis of the model
developed by Saucier and co-workers for the Gulf of St.
Lawrence (Saucier et al. 2003), and has been applied to the
Gulf of Mexico (Rego et al. 2010). H3D is typically driven
by the following forcing mechanisms:
• Tidal and non-tidal water level fluctuations, such
as storm surges, at the open boundaries, based on
observed, hindcasted or predicted water levels.
• Wind stress acting at the water surface: winds are
determined by data from one or more meteorological
stations. Wind forcing causes surface currents and
return current in enclosed water bodies; water level
differences; and enhanced vertical mixing.
• Propagating air pressure systems, acting as an
inverted barometer.
• River and land drainage inflows: these bring mass
and momentum into the water body, as well as
contaminants. Water exits this way as well.
• Turbulence modelling is important in determin-
ing the correct distribution of velocity and scalars
such as contaminants. The diffusion coefficients for
momentum and scalars at each computational cell
are dependent on the level of turbulence at that point.
H3D uses a shear-dependent turbulence formula-
tion in the horizontal, and a shear and stratification
dependent formulation in the vertical. These param-
eterizations have been shown to work well when
simulating flows and scalar distribution in a variety
of waterways.
The model operates in a time-stepping mode over the
period of simulation. Thus, a one-month simulation for
example, might be broken down into a number of small
timesteps, possibly of size one to five minutes, depend-
ing on grid size. During each time step, values of velocity,
temperature and contaminant concentration are updated in
each cell.
H3D was used at two different steps in determining
the fate of the discharged tailings. First a simulation was
conducted to provide bottom current values to the density
current model. Then the density current model simulated
the fate of the tailings through deposition and release into
the overlying water column forming and sustaining sub-sea
plumes. The fate of these sub-sea plumes are then modelled
by H3D.
Environmental guidelines
Meeting receiving water criteria is achieved in two
ways:
(1) By virtue of the seawater dilutions in the mix-
tank on shore, reducing levels of contaminants
considerably, but usually not totally in compliance
with water quality standards;
(2) Negotiating a mixing zone, similar to municipal
regulations in Canada, within which water qual-
ity guidelines can be exceeded. The radius of the
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research
Table 2. Physical properties of the proposed tailings at the
woodlark mine.
Woodlark
Tailings Solids Production Rate 305
(Tonnes per hour)
Slurry Solids Content 51–58% by weight
29–35% by volume
Specific Gravity of Slurry 1.49–1.59
Specific Gravity of Solids 2.65
Specific Gravity of Liquid 1.025
mixing zone is often quite large, up to 3,000 m at
Lihir, for instance, but this area of exceedance must
remain below a specified water depth, such that the
effluent does not come into contact with the bio-
logical activity occurring in the top 150 m or so of
the water column. Such a mixing zone is typically
negotiated between the mine and the appropriate
government agencies, assisted by the mine’s envi-
ronmental consultants who often have to conduct
extensive pioneering baseline studies; and by itera-
tions on the outfall design, to arrive at a design that
causes the tailings to quickly move to deep water,
and to dilute to the greatest extent possible.
A case study of the deep-sea outfall system: woodlark
mine
Woodlark Mining Ltd. (WML), owned by Geopacific
Resources Ltd., was considering a DSTP system as the
tailing management strategy for a proposed gold mine
(Woodlark Island Goldmine Project, hereafter referred to
as the Project) on Woodlark Island (also referred to as
Muyua Island) in Milne Bay Province, Papua New Guinea.
Lycopodium Minerals Pty Ltd. retained Tetra Tech Canada
Inc. to develop a feasibility design of the DSTP system
capable of managing 2.4 Mtpa of tailings, which was pro-
posed to be located about 10 km north east of the mine site,
near Wamunon Bay. Table 2 details the physical properties
of the proposed tailings.
Location and Bathymetry
The study area is located on the north-eastern shore of
Woodlark Island, at approximately 9.07°S and 152.83°E.
Woodlark Island is part of the Milne Bay Province in Papua
New Guinea, located in the Solomon Sea, approximately
160 km east of Papua New Guinea’s main island, as shown
in Figure 7. Figure 8 illustrates the offshore bathymetry at
the project site.
Mixed layer and CTD data
Draft General Guidelines for DSTP in Papua New Guinea
(SAMS 2010) include the provision that the DSTP pipeline
11
discharge depth must be in accord with the following
criteria:
(1) At a minimum depth of 120 m where the maximum
depth of the euphotic zone is 80 m or less,
(2) Where the euphotic zone is deeper than 80 m the
discharge should be below the maximum observed
depths of the surface mixed layer or the euphotic
zone, whichever is deepest, + 50% of that length,
(3) Formation of plumes of tailings in the water col-
umn must be minimized. In the event of density
changes in the water column occurring the length
of the pipe should enable the discharge of tail-
ings to occur below low-density weakly stratified
surface waters as detailed in the site specific hydro-
graphic measurements.
The CTD data collected between 2010 and 2018 has
been analysed by Coffey Environments and Tetra tech
Canada Inc. in order to determine the seasonal fluctua-
tions in, and the maximum depths of, both the surface
mixed layer and the euphotic zone. Based on the den-
sity profiles (Figure 9) derived from available CTD data,
the maximum measured euphotic zone depth is in excess
of 80 m and the maximum measured surface mixed layer
depth (153 m) exceeds the maximum measured euphotic
zone depth (106 m). Therefore, the DSTP outfall terminus
must be located at a minimum depth of 230 m (50% greater
than 153 m).
Wind and wave climate
The offshore wind and wave climate of Woodlark Island
was determined based on modelled winds produced by
WAVEWATCH III for period between 2005 and 2012
due to lack of long-term observed wind record for the
project site. Figure 10 is the wind rose for the offshore
wind. Statistical extreme value analysis for the wind was
then undertaken using the peak-over-threshold method
(Goda 1988) based on the modelled wind data. While
the strongest winds are from the southeast direction, the
project location is largely sheltered by land in that direc-
tion; on the other hand, winds from the north-northeast
direction, due largely to the presence of the land, would
likely lead to the strongest wave climate at the site. Table 3
details the offshore wind conditions with 200-year return
period.
To determine the nearshore wave climate along the
proposed pipe route, SWAN was utilized. A compound,
or nested, configuration was created for SWAN. First, a
coarse grid with 30-m cell size was implemented over
a domain extending to about 18 km from shore. Second,
a fine grid with 5-m cell size was implemented over a
much smaller domain within Wamunon Bay, extending to
about 350 m from shore in order to provide finer resolution
of the wave transformation in the nearshore environment
12 A. T. Y. Leung et al.

Figure 7. Location of the Woodlark mine.

Figure 8. Offshore high resolution Bathymetry at the project site.

and extract critical parameters along the pipeline (bot-
tom orbital velocity, wave height, wave period, energy
transport, etc.). The coarse grid SWAN model covers a
large enough domain such that the wind-generated waves
are able to become fully developed along their fetch in
the southeast, east, and north-northeast direction from the
proposed pipeline location. This coarse grid model then
provides boundary condition wave information to the fine
grid model at its offshore boundary.
To determine the wave climate along the proposed
pipe route, SWAN was utilized. A nested configura-
tion was created for SWAN. The results in terms of
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research 13

Figure 9. Density profile of the water column at the project site derived from CTD measurements.

Figure 10. Wind rose of the offshore wind near the project location.

Table 3. 200-year return period design offshore wind and Figures 11–13 show simulated wave heights and direc-
wave conditions based on modelled results from WAVEWATCH tion from SWAN, for the 200-year design storms from
III.
east, north-northeast, and southeast respectively, as sum-
Signficant marized in Table 4. Vectors in the figures show the domi-
Wind Wind wave Wave nant wave directions. The contoured colours represent the
direction speed height period variation in significant wave height for the given storm
Southeast 16.2 m/s 4.6 m 10.8 sec event. It should be noted that the offshore wave heights
East 15.9 m/s 4.5 m 10.6 sec in these figures are in accord with the 200-year wave
North-Northeast 15.5 m/s 4.3 m 10.4 sec heights calculated by WAVEWATCH III and shown in
Table 3. Depth contours are provided for reference in
the coarse grid domain. Visual comparison of the SWAN
wave heights, wave periods, bottom orbital velocities, as model results confirms that the proposed outfall location
well as assessment of wave shoaling and wave break- is partly sheltered from southeast storms (Figure 13) and
ing location/depths are dependent on the local bathymetry. that the largest local waves and bottom orbital velocities
14 A. T. Y. Leung et al.

Figure 11. Modelled wave conditions with 200-year design storm from the East.

Figure 12. Modelled wave conditions with 200-year design storm from the North-Northeast.

are associated with a storm from the north-northeast
(Figure 12).
The wave conditions near shore govern the design
for trench and riprap protection of the pipes. The vari-
ation in depth, wave height, wave period, and bottom
orbital velocity along the pipe route for a design 200-
year return period storm event from the north-northeast
is shown in Figure 14. Note that the maximum signifi-
cant wave height (3.4 m) occurs where the water depth is
35.7 m, and the corresponding maximum bottom orbital
velocity is 0.3 m/s. Where the pipeline comes out of the
sea bottom at around 7 m water depth, the maximum
significant wave height is 3.2 m with a corresponding max-
imum near bed velocity of 1.1 m/s. Note that the largest
maximum near bed velocity (1.7 m/s) occurs in 2.9 m
depth where the pipeline will be protected within the
trench by backfill as well as by scour protection (armour
layer).
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research
Figure 13. Modelled wave conditions with 200-year design storm from the Southeast.
Table 4. 200-year return period design nearshore wave
conditions from SWAN.
Wind direction Signficant wave height Wave period
Southeast 1.0 m 11.1 sec
East 2.5 m 10.5 sec
North-Northeast 3.4 m 10.3 sec
Currents
The maximum speed observed at a depth of 200 m at
this point was 0.55 m/s, with an average speed of approx-
imately 0.10 m/s. These currents represent open ocean
conditions, whereas the proposed route is sheltered by a
bay. Therefore, a design current speed of 0.67 m/s, based
on the measured ADCP current data, was judged to be
adequately conservative. Thus a current speed of 0.67 m/s
was used for assessing the potential lateral (along-pipe and
across pipe) currents along the pipeline during design of
the ballast blocks.
Engineering – Mix/De-aeration tank
The circular mix/de-aeration tank inside diameter is 8 m
and the tank walls are 7 m tall. Given that the system
operates passively, during normal steady-state operating
conditions, the operating fluid level in the tank is below
sea level; hence the bottom of the mix/de-aeration tank
is situated 4.5 m below LLW in order to ensure the oper-
ating level in the tank during steady-state operation and
during transients remains safely above the top of the outfall
pipeline (to prevent vortex formation or air ingestion).
15
The mix/de-aeration tank is surrounded by soil, except
for on its north side where an access and protection cham-
ber (about 4 m × 7 m cross section), and about 5.8 m deep
is provided to facilitate access to the nozzles (pipe interface
with tank) and isolation valves during regular inspection
and maintenance procedures. The walls of this access
chamber are 500 mm thick reinforced concrete, supported
by internal struts, anchors, or tie-backs as required. Expe-
rience on similar systems has shown that the seal at this
interface point where the nozzles pass through the walls
of the mix/de-aeration tank may deteriorate over time (i.e.
potential source of leaking, or potential weak point), and
thus it is highly recommended that easy access to this point
is facilitated in design. The intake pipeline and the out-
fall pipeline each have one knife gate valve situated within
this access chamber, which may be used to isolate the
mix/de-aeration tank from the rest of each marine pipeline.
The tank walls are comprised of 500 mm thick rein-
forced marine concrete. The mix/de-aeration tank rests on
top of a 700 mm thick reinforced concrete slab. A 5.4 m
thick jet grout plug is installed below the mix/de-aeration
tank (below the concrete slab) in order to provide adequate
weight (downward force) to offset the upward buoyancy
forces that will exist due to the displaced groundwater
below/around the mix/de-aeration tank and also to provide
a groundwater cutoff below the structure.
The tailings slurry feed pipe and seawater intake pipe
discharge into a semi-isolated inner mixing chamber (25%
of entire mix tank plan view area) that is separated from
the rest of the mix/de-aeration tank by a continuous 3-
segment arching 2 m tall baffle wall (Figure 15). This
baffle wall is designed to encourage efficient mixing of the
16 A. T. Y. Leung et al.
Figure 14. Wave conditions and bottom orbital velocity along the proposed pipe route.
inflowing streams of tailings slurry and seawater, prevent
short-circuiting of the tank (i.e. increase the length of the
flow path between the inlet and the outlet of the tank), and
also direct the inflowing tailings/seawater mixture upward
towards the fluid surface level to facilitate detrainment of
any air that may be in the tailings slurry. The inside walls
of the inner mixing chamber (tank walls and baffle walls)
where flows are expected to be most turbulent are lined
with a ceramic liner, given its superior wear and corrosion
resistance.
The seawater intake pipeline (1,000 mm outside diame-
ter (OD), 814.9 mm inside diameter (ID), HDPE, standard
diameter ratio (SDR) 11) is connected to the tank via a
815 mm ID stainless steel nozzle and terminates inside the
tank with a flap valve in order to prevent any backflow
within the intake pipeline. The bottom of the inside of the
seawater intake pipeline is located about 0.5 m above the
bottom of the tank in order to ensure that the intake pipeline
is not at risk of being blocked should any deposition of
tailings solids occur within the tank.
The DSTP outfall pipeline (800 mm OD, 651 mm ID,
HDPE, SDR 11) passes through the tank wall, via a 28%
chrome alloy 651 mm ID steel nozzle, with the bottom
of the pipe located about 0.5 m from the bottom of the
tank.
Engineering – pipe route
The selected outfall pipe route is based on the mix/de-
aeration tank location, an assessment of the available
bathymetric data in the nearshore (shallow water) and
offshore (deep water) environments, and the above-noted
criteria. The selected route is approximately 1,000 m in
the horizontal plane, and 1,038 m in actual length. The
proposed discharge point is 230 m below LLW. Figure 16
shows the proposed pipe route overlaid on a contour map
coloured by the bottom slope in the vicinity of the pipeline
with black lines outlining the depth contours. Figure 17
illustrates the profile and slope along the proposed pipe
route.
Engineering – selection of outfall and seawater intake
pipes
Hydraulic analysis and pipe structural analysis were under-
taken with different combinations of tidal conditions (high
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research 17

Figure 15. Configuration of the mix-de-aeration tank.

Figure 16. Plan view of the proposed pipe route.

tide and low tide) and operation process parameters such as Engineering – pipe protection with riprap and trench
solid throughput, solid concentration and process flow rate Depending on the pipe and the existing bed profile, the
to determine the most suitable dimensions for the outfall outfall and seawater intake pipes will either be buried in
and seawater intake pipes, which are detailed in Table 5. an armoured trench or be protected by riprap in order to
18 A. T. Y. Leung et al.

Figure 17. Profile view of and slope along the proposed pipe route.

Table 5. Outfall and seawater intake characteristics for the Table 6. Detail of sizes and distribution of rocks in riprap.
woodlark DSTP systems.
Pipe section Pipe section Pipe section
Outfall pipe Seawater intake 0–42 m 42–122 m 122–142 m

Type PE100, SDR 11 PE100, SDR11, Armour Layer D15 275 mm 1,000 mm 590 mm
HDPE HDPE Armour Layer D50 300 mm 1,100 mm 650 mm
Outside Diameter 800 mm 1,000 mm Armour Layer D85 320 mm 1,200 mm 700 mm
Inside Diameter 651 mm 814.9 m 1st Filter Layer D15 125 mm 465 mm 235 mm
Minimum Wall 72.5 mm 90.3 mm 1st Filter Layer D50 140 mm 510 mm 300 mm
Thickness 1st Filter Layer D85 150 mm 550 mm 330 mm
2nd Filter Layer D15 – 175 mm –
2nd Filter Layer D50 – 190 mm –
2nd Filter Layer D85 – 200 mm –

prevent scouring around the pipes in shallow, nearshore

waters due to wave action and currents, and to pro-
vide additional stability to the pipeline in addition to the
required ballast concrete blocks. Table 6 details the armour
specifications for the ripraps requirements for the trench,
and Figure 18 illustrates the conceptual profile of the
trenched section of the pipe. Note that the armour rocks
in certain section of the pipe is too large that a second filter
is required in additional to the 1st filter layer in order to
ensure the system is geometrically closed.
Engineering – ballast design
The spacing and weight of the concrete blocks to pro-
vide the required ballast are summarized in Tables 7 and 8
below for the outfall and seawater intake pipes, respec-
tively. Figure 19 illustrates that the stabilizing force pro-
vided by the ballast blocks (blue line) is always than the
destabilizing force such as tipping (yellow line) and slid-
ing (red line), except for the shallow pipe section along
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research 19

Figure 18. Conceptual trenched section of the pipeline.

Table 7. Concrete block ballast requirement for outfall pipe. outfall terminus. At 100 m downstream the terminus, flux-
averaged dilutions of 473:1 are achieved. Finally, at 120 m
Number of
Chainage Nominal ballast Mass of downstream from the outfall terminus, at the downstream
along ballast block blocks in ballast block boundary of the fine-grid model, flux-averaged dilutions of
pipeline spacing section in air 639:1 are observed. Vectors are shown on these figures,
enabling one to observe the pathway of the density cur-
0 - 140 m 6.5 m 23 1,701 kg
140–290 m 5.2 m 29 1,701 kg rent as it moves downslope away from the outfall pipeline
290–1,002 m 6.0 m 119 1,701 kg discharge location. The thickness of the density current
(Figure 21) reaches an average of 0.47 m height at 10 m
downstream of the outfall terminus and up to 2.90 m height
Table 8. Concrete block ballast requirement for seawater intake when reaching the northeast boundary of the model domain
pipe. about 120 m downstream from the terminus.
Number of The depositional footprint within the near field domain
Chainage Nominal ballast Mass of is shown in Figure 22. The velocity of the density cur-
along ballast block blocks in ballast block rent exiting the pipeline is about 3.0 m/s. The central core
pipeline spacing section in air of the density current maintains a relatively high veloc-
ity as it exits the pipe. In comparison, the flow along the
0–140 m 5.0 m 31 1,914 kg
140–296 m 4.2 m 38 1,914 kg two outer boundaries, to either side of the main core of
the density current, is relatively slower. This results in the
formation of small transient levees along the lateral bound-
Table 9. Density current dilution at various distances from aries of the density current’s predominant pathline. The
outfall. height of the levees are limited, and hence they levees are
transient, because once they are tall enough to exceed a
Distance from Flux-averaged Plume centre-line
outfall dilution dilution critical slope, they then collapse into the main core of the
flow where the high turbulence and velocity carry the col-
10 m 22 19 lapsed sediment away from the pipe. The levee growth and
20 m 42 36 failure cycle is simulated in the model – levees grow until
30 m 149 122
40 m 473 355 the slope exceeds the angle of repose, at which point they
50 m 639 473 then collapse and begin to grow again. The angle of repose
is considerably less than the angle of repose in stationary
water due to the velocity of the flow.
which the stabilizing force is provided by the overburden Since the required dilution has been achieved in the
from trenched material and/or riprap. near-field, far-field density current model and sub-sea
plume model were required.

Tailings fate modelling

The achieved dilutions in the near-field and thickness of the
density current in the near field are shown on Figures 20
and 21 respectively. Dilutions and density current thick-
ness at various distances from the outfall pipe are provided
in Tables 9 and 10, respectively. Flux-averaged dilutions
of 22:1 are achieved about 10 m downstream from the
Conclusion
Design of a DSTP system requires considerations of a com-
plex array of engineering and environmental parameters
to ensure construction of a safe, environmentally sustain-
able and cost-effective system that would act to mitigate
any harmful effects which might otherwise be caused if
20 A. T. Y. Leung et al.

Figure 19. Stabilizing and destabilizing forces along the pipeline.

Figure 20. Modelled dilution of the nearfield density current. Figure 21. Modelled thickness of the nearfield density current.
 Journal of Applied Water Engineering and Research 21

Table 10. Density current thickness at various distances Notes on contributors

from outfall.
Mr. Albert Tsz Yeung Leung is a Hydrotechnical
Distance from Flux-averaged Plume centre-line Engineer with the Water & Marine Resources group
outfall dilution dilution in the Vancouver office. He holds a Master’s Degree
10 m 0.47 m 0.52 m in Environmental Fluid Mechanics. He has a back-
20 m 0.58 m 0.62 m ground in hydrology, hydraulics, coastal engineering,
30 m 1.06 m 1.14 m physical limnology, and oceanography. Mr. Leung has
40 m 2.27 m 2.24 m been involved with hydraulics and coastal engineering
50 m 2.90 m 2.73 m projects including modelling and frequency analysis of
winds and waves, oil spills, determination of hydro-
dynamic forces on coastal structures, breakwater and
mooring analyses, pipe route selection, and engineering
of underwater pipelines for deep sea tailings discharge
(DSTP). He has also performed ocean, lake, and pit
lake circulation modelling using H3D at various loca-
tions around the world; plume modelling of wastewa-
ter and tailings; field instrument installation and data
collection.
Mr. Hospital is a Hydrotechnical Engineer in the Van-
couver office. His background is in physical oceanog-
raphy, marine engineering and hydraulics. Mr. Hospi-
tal has been primarily involved with numerical mod-
elling of contaminated waters, oil spills and engineering
of underwater pipelines for deep sea tailings discharge.
His projects involving deep-sea outfall at a feasibility
level or detailed design level were located in Papua New
Guinea, New Caledonia, Greenland and Chile. His oil
spill modelling work were part of two major oil and
fuel terminal development projects on the west coast of
Canada. He is the co-developer of the oil spill model
SPILLCALC. He also modelled the behaviour of con-
taminated waters from mine/tailings pond/processing plant
into a reservoir/river/lake. Mr. Hospital has gained inter-
national experiences while working at the IFREMER in
France.
Figure 22. Modelled deposition in the nearfield density current.
Chris Young is a Junior Hydrotechnical Engineer in the
Water, Air, and Coastal Engineering Group, working from
the Tetra Tech office in Kelowna BC, Canada. Mr. Young
has experience in designing field work plans, perform-
an on-land tailings storage system is used. Design aspects,
ing field investigations, processing and analysing field
many of them interrelated, ranging from system hydraulics,
data, writing reports, and quantifying and modelling ther-
sediment transport, to ocean circulation and fate of con-
modynamics in lakes. Mr. Young has collaborated with
taminant transport, from structural stability and integrity
numerous organizations, including municipal and provin-
of the outfall pipe, compatibility of the pipe system with
cial governments, regional districts, fish and game clubs,
sea bottom to installation methodology, and maintenance
and local consulting companies. Recent areas of investi-
inspection, have to be carefully integrated. DSTP systems
gation include application and post-processing of numer-
not only offer a more permanent solution to the tailings
ical modelling and Computational Fluid Dynamic Mod-
management than the on-land storage systems do, but
elling (CFD), sediment transport studies (including field
also pose a significantly lower risk to the environment
surveys), as well as hydrological modelling, conducting
and to human health in both short and long terms. This
wind/wave studies, and design of channel and shoreline
paper presented design of the DSTP system on Wood-
stabilization.
lark Islands, which involved all aspects of the engineering
and environmental considerations required a functional and Mr. Potts is a Hydrotechnical Engineer in Vancouver,
environmental compliant system in both the short-term and BC. He recently assessed potential failure mechanisms
long-term. for the outfall pipes at Goro, NC and at Long Harbour,
 22 A. T. Y. Leung et al.
NF. He has also worked on several other underwater out-
fall designs, developing and exercising numerical tools
to assess pipe strength during installation and sinking.
He holds a Master’s Degree in hydrotechnical engineer-
ing, and has experience in a variety of oceanographic and
hydraulic engineering projects and 3-D modelling. He has
developed numerical tools and models for underwater pipe
installation, breakwater moorings, project prioritization,
wastewater chemistry and more.
Dr. Stronach is a Principal Technical Specialist and
Senior Physical Oceanographer with EBA, A Tetra Tech
Company in Vancouver, BC. He has over 34 years of
experience in physical oceanography and marine engi-
neering, including the design and implementation of field
programmes, data processing, software development and
numerical modelling of three-dimensional hydrodynamics
and related transport of waste water, tailings, pollutants
and sediments in complex waterways. Dr. Stronach has
also designed large marine outfalls, developed a compre-
hensive sediment transport model for rivers, lakes and
marine environments, and has recently developed a com-
prehensive oil spill model that was used for environmental
assessments and permit applications for the three major
hydrocarbon transportation projects on the west coast of
Canada.
Mr. Thompson is a marine construction specialist with
over 30 years of experience in land and marine pipeline
construction and related underwater technology. VMC Ltd.
has introduced many innovative solutions to pipeline prob-
lems. Mr. Thompson is the inventor and holder of the US
Patent 6,357,966 for his Ballasting Method and Appara-
tus for the Installation of Synthetic Underwater Pipelines.
Prior to forming VMC, Mr. Thompson worked as a Diver
and Marine Construction Manager for several Canadian
diving and construction companies. Mr. Thompson has
been involved with various subsea tailings and pipeline
projects worldwide.
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