See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/328830925

Changes in mechanical properties of sprinting during repeated sprint in elite

rugby sevens athletes

Article  in  European Journal of Sport Science · November 2018

DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1542032

CITATIONS READS

21 2,516

7 authors, including:

Pedro Jimenez-Reyes Matt R Cross

King Juan Carlos University Auckland University of Technology
146 PUBLICATIONS   2,839 CITATIONS    64 PUBLICATIONS   1,102 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Alex Ross Pierre Samozino

USA Rugby Université Savoie Mont Blanc
10 PUBLICATIONS   405 CITATIONS    238 PUBLICATIONS   7,116 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

SKIPP project View project

Criteria for Return to Sport after ACL reconstruction with lower re-injury risk View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Pedro Jimenez-Reyes on 11 November 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 European Journal of Sport Science

ISSN: 1746-1391 (Print) 1536-7290 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tejs20

Changes in mechanical properties of sprinting

during repeated sprint in elite rugby sevens
athletes

Pedro Jiménez-Reyes, Matt Cross, Alex Ross, Pierre Samozino, Matt

Brughelli, Nicholas Gill & Jean-Benoît Morin

To cite this article: Pedro Jiménez-Reyes, Matt Cross, Alex Ross, Pierre Samozino, Matt
Brughelli, Nicholas Gill & Jean-Benoît Morin (2018): Changes in mechanical properties of sprinting
during repeated sprint in elite rugby sevens athletes, European Journal of Sport Science, DOI:
10.1080/17461391.2018.1542032

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1542032

Published online: 08 Nov 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tejs20
European Journal of Sport Science, 2018
https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1542032

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Changes in mechanical properties of sprinting during repeated sprint in

elite rugby sevens athletes

PEDRO JIMÉNEZ-REYES 1,2, MATT CROSS3,4,5, ALEX ROSS5,6, PIERRE SAMOZINO3,

MATT BRUGHELLI5, NICHOLAS GILL7, & JEAN-BENOÎT MORIN5,8
1
Centre for Sport Studies, King Juan Carlos University, Madrid, Spain; 2Catholic University of San Antonio, Physical Activity
and Sports Science, Murcia, Spain; 3Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Biologie de la Motricité, University Savoie Mont Blanc,
Chambéry, France; 4Département Scientifique et Sportif, Fédération Française de Ski, Annecy, France; 5Sports Performance
Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand; 6Union Argentina
de Rugby, Buenos Aires, Argentina; 7Faculty of Health, Sport and Human Performance, University of Waikato, Tauranga,
New Zealand & 8LAMHESS, Université Côte d’Azur, Nice, France

Abstract
This study aimed to analyse fatigue-induced changes in mechanical sprinting properties during a specific repeated-sprint test in
elite rugby sevens athletes. Twenty elite rugby sevens players performed ten 40 m sprints on a 30 s cycle with participant’s
running back and forth in a marked lane. Radar was used to assess maximal overground sprint performance over each 40 m.
Macroscopic mechanical properties (maximal horizontal force (F0), maximal horizontal power (Pmax), maximal ratio of
horizontal force (RFpeak), decrease in the ratio of horizontal-to-total force (DRF), total force and maximal sprinting velocity
(v0)) were drawn from horizontal force velocity relationships, using a validated method applied to the speed–time data.
Fatigue-induced changes were analysed comparing the first sprint to an average of 2nd-4th, 5th-7th and 8th-10th. Repeated-
sprint ability (RSA) testing induced substantial changes in the maximal velocity component, with a decrease (–15%) in v0
(effect size (ES) = –2.46 to –4.98), and to a lower extent (–5.9%) in the maximal force component F0 (ES = –0.59). DRF
moderately decreased (14%; ES=–0.76–1.11), and RFpeak largely decreased in the later sprints (ES = –0.32 to –1.27).
Fatigue observed in this RSA test appeared to have a greater effect on the technical ability to produce horizontal force at
high velocities, likely due to an alteration in the ability to maintain horizontally oriented force application when velocity
increases rather than during the initial acceleration phase, but also the overall force production capacity. The ability to
maintain forward-oriented force at high velocities is of central importance for identifying fatigue and monitoring load.

Keywords: Acceleration, sprint mechanics, horizontal force, repeated efforts, fatigue, force-velocity profiling

Highlights
. It is possible to measure and compute horizontal force-velocity relationships during repeat sprints, which might be valuable
in the design of individualised training protocols according to changes in mechanical determinants of sprint performance
(e.g. F0 or v0).
. In an on-the-field RSA test in high-level sevens players, fatigue-induced reductions in performance were associated with
greater decrements in horizontal force at high speeds (v0) than force at low speeds (F0).
. Compromised horizontal force at high velocities was accompanied with a decrease in the ability to maintain an effective (i.e.
more horizontal) orientation of force at high velocities (DRF).
. While more research is warranted, sevens players may benefit from increased capacity to maintain the technical ability to
apply and maintain force at high velocities with the onset of fatigue.

Introduction

Seven-a side rugby union, otherwise known as “rugby activity (Ross, Gill, & Cronin, 2014). Sevens is
sevens”, is a field-based contact team-sport charac- widely considered to be in the upper echelon of
terised by intermittent, high-intensity bouts of field based contact sports in regards to the

Correspondence: Pedro Jiménez-Reyes, Centro de Estudios del Deporte, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Campus de Alcorcón, Avda de
Atenas s/n, 28922-Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain. E-mail: peterjr49@hotmail.com/pedro.jimenezr@urjc.es; Twitter: @peterjr49

© 2018 European College of Sport Science

2 P. Jiménez-reyes et al.
conditioning of athletes requiring highly developed
repeat sprint ability (RSA) (Gabbett & Wheeler,
2015; Serpiello, McKenna, Stepto, Bishop, &
Aughey, 2011). In rugby sevens, RSA is a determi-
nant ability to develop because it is reported that
faster sprint performance is related to a better attack-
ing performance (Ross et al., 2014), and fatigue may
influence specific movement patterns within games
(Ross, Gill, & Cronin, 2015) such as a decreased
number of accelerations and time spent in high-
intensity running (Higham, Pyne, Anson, & Eddy,
2012).
The ability to maintain performance over repeated
sprinting bouts and handling the effects of fatigue is
of interest to athletes and practitioners in many
team sports. Thus RSA has been widely studied,
focusing generally on the understanding of the phys-
iological underpinnings of fatigue (for review, see
(Girard, Mendez-Villanueva, & Bishop, 2011)).
Relatively little attention has been placed on the bio-
mechanical underpinnings of fatigue during repeated
sprints, which form the link between physiological
mechanisms and performance alteration (Girard
et al., 2011; Morin, Jeannin, Chevallier, & Belli,
2006; Morin, Samozino, Edouard, & Tomazin,
2011).
Generally, the impairment of sprint performance
has been assessed (Nagahara, Morin, & Koido,
2016) as the main indicator of fatigue over different
distances, the most common being ∼10m (Twist &
Highton, 2013). Nevertheless, sprint performance
does not bring information about the underlying
biomechanical parameters of force and velocity pro-
duction. These capabilities may be described,
expressed and analysed through the linear force-
velocity relationship which ranges between the
players’ individual theoretical maximal horizontal
force he can produce (F0) and the theoretical
maximal velocity until which he is able to develop
horizontal force (v0) (Morin & Samozino, 2016;
Morin, Edouard, & Samozino, 2011; Rabita et al.,
2015). They both characterise the capability to
produce high levels of horizontal force at low vel-
ocities and high velocities, respectively. Moreover,
as the relationship between these variables encom-
passes the entire capability of the neuromuscular
system, it is inclusive of mechanical properties of
individual muscles, morphological features, and
neural mechanisms underpinning motor-unit
drive. In addition, the sprint mechanical force–vel-
ocity profile integrates the athlete’s ability to orient
the total (i.e. resultant) force developed in a
forward horizontal direction, which was showed to
be determinant for sprint acceleration performance
(Morin, Edouard, & Samozino, 2011; Morin &
Samozino, 2016).
To our knowledge, only one study has investigated
the changes in running kinetics over the entire accel-
eration phase of repeated sprints (Morin et al., 2011;
four blocks of five 6-s sprints, with 24 s of passive
recovery between sprints and 3 min between
blocks), but without detailed focus on the force–vel-
ocity profile. On the other hand, single sprint force–
velocity profiling has been studied in high-level to
elite sprinters (Morin et al., 2012; Rabita et al.,
2015), without focusing on repeated-sprint modality.
In both cases, an instrumented sprint treadmill was
used, which has been associated with clear differences
in performance and running mechanics compared to
overground sprinting (Morin & Sève, 2011). More-
over, it presents a lack of specificity compared to
elite rugby sevens specific training context.
To perform sprint kinetics and force–velocity
profile analyses in field conditions, Samozino et al.
(2016) have developed and validated a simple field
method of analysing sprint mechanical outputs from
centre of mass displacement or velocity over time
during overground sprinting. To date, only three
studies have directly investigated the influence of
rugby- and soccer-specific fatigue on sprint force–vel-
ocity–power mechanical outputs using this macro-
scopic approach in field conditions (Cross et al.,
2015; Marrier et al., 2016; Nagahara et al., 2016).
This experimental approach allows for a direct analy-
sis of the alterations in the above-mentioned sprint
mechanical outputs with similar patterns of fatigue
during an actual rugby sevens game environment.
Interestingly, this field method has also provided
valuable and realistic information about Olympic-
level rugby sevens performance (Marrier et al.,
2016). However, none of these studies tested a
specific RSA protocol, thus making it impossible to
assess or interpret fatigue-induced changes in mech-
anical variables throughout the sprints
A deeper understanding of fatigue associated with
repeated sprints and its effects on mechanical
outputs is likely the first step in designing efficient
and individualised training interventions. These
interventions, focusing specifically on the mechanical
variables determinant of RSA, could potentially
reduce the fatigue induced alterations, and so the
decrement in performance, identify fatigued athletes,
assist in training load management during training
and games, and improve sprinting performance in
sporting contexts. Thus, the purpose of this study
was to analyse the fatigue-induced changes in sprint
performance and the underpinning mechanical
outputs (force, velocity, power, effectiveness of
ground force application) during a RSA protocol in
elite rugby sevens players. We hypothesise that the
fatigue induced by a repeated sprint protocol would
result in a decrease in practical performance
 Repeated mechanical sprint profiling in elite rugby sevens 3
measures, from an associated impairment of horizon-
tal power output (Morin et al. 2011). Since Morin
et al showed that the alteration in DRF was important
compared to the decrease in total force production,
the decrease in horizontal power is supposed to be
due to a greater decrease in the ability to produce
horizontal force at high speeds (i.e. v0) than at low
speeds (F0), which could provide valuable infor-
mation to work on the determinant mechanical par-
ameters such as v0 and DRF in fatigue conditions
for improving repeated sprint performance in these
elite athletes.
Methods
Subjects
Twenty international rugby sevens players (age =
23.9 ± 3.9 years, body mass = 96.3 ± 6.6 kg, height
= 187.7 ± 5.2 cm) volunteered to participate in this
study. All participants were free from musculoskeletal
pain or injury as confirmed by medical screening per-
formed by team elected physiotherapy staff. All par-
ticipants were full time professional (elite/
international level) rugby sevens players representing
New Zealand and completed 12–20 h of training per
week consisting of technical rugby training and
strength, speed and aerobic endurance sessions. All
players provided informed written consent and the
Auckland University of Technology Ethics Commit-
tee provided approval for the study.
Repeated-sprint ability (RSA) testing was per-
formed during a team training camp, three weeks
prior to international rugby sevens tournaments.
The training camp consisted of both low-intensity
skill sessions and physical assessments including
strength, speed, and power. The RSA test was per-
formed on the second day of the camp with the first
day consisting of speed testing (40 m) and a low
intensity skill session.
Methodology
Repeated-sprint testing. The RSA test consisted of ath-
letes performing ten 40 m all-out sprints, inter-
spersed with 30 s rest periods, with participant’s
running back and forth through a marked lane. All
athletes were familiar with the protocol as the test
was a regular assessment for the team. Prior to per-
forming the test, participants completed a 15 min
standardised warm up consisting of 5 min of low
intensity jogging followed by stretches for the
upper and lower limbs and progressing to sprint
drills (i.e. high knee runs, skips, bounds) before fin-
ishing with three progressive sprints building to 95%
of maximum effort. All athletes wore sprigged train-
ing shoes and team training outfits. A verbal expla-
nation of the testing protocols was provided to
participants prior to beginning the assessment. Par-
ticipants began each sprint from a stationary, split-
stance, crouched position with no countermove-
ment allowed. Upon completing each sprint, partici-
pants walked back to the start line in preparation for
the next sprint. A 3 s countdown was provided to the
participants as they prepared for each sprint. Partici-
pants were verbally encouraged to provide maximal
effort on each sprint. The test was performed
indoors on a standard synthetic athletics track
surface.
Mechanical sprinting properties. Running speed was
continuously measured during the 40-m acceleration
using a radar with a 46.9 Hz sampling frequency
(Stalker ATS II Version 5.0.2.1, Applied Concepts,
Dallas, TX, USA). The radar device was attached
to a tripod 10 m from the finish line for the first
sprint at a height of 1 m corresponding approximately
to the height of subjects’ centre of mass. To collect
both incoming and outgoing information from the
participants running both towards and away from
the radar device respectively, the combined
inbound/outbound setting was applied. All data
were collected using STATS software (Model:
Stalker ATS II Version 5.0.2.1, Applied Concepts,
Dallas, TX, USA) provided by the radar device’s
manufacturer. A custom-made LabVIEW program
(Build version: 11.0, National Instruments Corp,
Austin, TX, USA) was developed to analyse horizon-
tal external force, velocity, and power from the raw
data set. For each trial, only the acceleration phase
(from sprint start to the velocity plateau) was con-
sidered and velocity–time curve was modelled using
an exponential function (Samozino et al., 2016).
Doubtful velocity values at the beginning of the
sprint were removed from the processing, and then
extrapolated adding a third parameter (a time
delay) to the mathematical exponential function in
order to associate the first velocity value considered
to the true time (Samozino, 2018). After integration
over time of the velocity, position of the athlete’s
centre of mass was modelled over time and 5- and
40-m split times were obtained.
The sprint acceleration mechanical outputs were
obtained using the method of Samozino et al.
(2016) based on an inverse dynamic approach
applied to the body centre of mass. In the method,
horizontal external force, velocity and power were
obtained from speed data measured during the accel-
eration phase of each sprint. From the horizontal-
force and sprint–velocity values, individual force–
4 P. Jiménez-reyes et al.
velocity relationships were determined with least-
squares linear regressions (Samozino et al., 2016).
Theoretical maximal horizontal force (F0) and theor-
etical maximal sprinting velocity (v0) were then ident-
ified as the x- and y-intercepts of the force–velocity
relationships, respectively. Maximum horizontal
power output (Pmax) was determined as F0 × v0/4.
Ratio of Force (RF) was calculated as the ratio of
horizontal force to total (i.e. resultant) force from
the time of 0.3 s after sprint start to top speed
throughout the sprint (Morin et al., 2011; Samozino
et al., 2016). Peak RF (RFpeak (in %)) was identified
as the highest RF value. Mean total force (average
force during the entire sprint). The slope of the
linear RF-velocity relationship represented the decre-
ment in RF (DRF) with increasing speed.
Statistical analysis
All data are presented as means ± standard deviation
(SD). In order to clearly assess the practical
meaning of the results, data were analysed using
the magnitude-based inference approach (Hopkins,
Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin, 2009). Effect size
and 90% confidence intervals (lower limit; upper
limit) were calculated to compare the difference
between the first sprint, and the average for sprints
2–4, between the first sprint and the average for
sprints 5–7, and between the first and the average
for sprints 8–10. Threshold values of 0.2, 0.6, 1.2,
2.0 and 4.0 were used to represent small, moderate,
large, very large and extremely large effects, respect-
ively (Hopkins et al., 2009). A preset value of 0.2
was chosen as the smallest worthwhile difference
given the paucity of research in this area. The prob-
ability that differences were higher, lower or similar
to the smallest worthwhile difference was evaluated
qualitatively as: possibly, 25–74.9%; likely, 75–
94.9%, very likely, 95–99.5%; most (extremely)
likely, >99.5%. The true difference was assessed as
unclear if the chance of both higher and lower
values was >5%.
Results
Performance decreased considerably over the RSA
test, as shown in Table I. Sprint performance
decreased substantially over 5-m and 40-m times
(by 8.4 ± 3.0% and 10.3 ± 1.3%, respectively) (ES:
1.25 ± 0.43 and 3.93 ± 0.47, respectively). The
decrease in maximal power was even larger (20.1%
± 3.3; ES: 2.53 ± 0.47).
Concerning mechanical variables tested over the
RSA test, we observed small changes in F0 (–5.9 ±
4.5%, ES: 0.59 ± 0.49), whereas v0 largely decreased
after the RSA test (–15.1 ± 1.3%, ES: 4.98) (Table I).
Figure 1 shows changes in mechanical variables of
F0, v0 and Pmax along the RSA test. Figure 2 shows
the standardised difference for the main mechanical
and performance variables changes during the
RSA test.
Discussion
This was the first study, to our knowledge, that inves-
tigated the effects of fatigue-induced changes in
sprint mechanics during an on-the-field RSA test in
elite rugby sevens players. The main findings from
this work show that the major decrease in sprint per-
formance was associated with a substantial decrease
in both v0 (–15,1%) and Pmax (–20.1%). Regarding
maximal power development, the decrease in our
study (20%) was more likely related to (v0) than the
ability to apply high levels of force into the ground
at low speeds (F0) and mainly altered from the
latter half of trials (1vs5-7; 1vs8-10). The variable
v0 also characterises the ability of the athletes to
produce horizontal force at high velocity, which is a
clear determinant of better sprint performance
(Colyer, Nagahara, Takai, & Salo, 2018). This
force production alteration at high speed was shown
to be induced by a larger decrease in the technical
ability to orientate force at high velocities (DRF).
The mechanical effectiveness (RFpeak) at low speeds
was less effected.
In addition, the decrease in capability to develop
horizontal force at high velocities was associated
with a greater % decrement in DRF (–14.0 ± 6.0%,
ES: 1.11) than RFpeak (–6.8 ± 2.0%, ES: 1.27). This
indicates that the ability to orient the force horizon-
tally was strongly altered over the RSA test at the
higher velocities as opposed to initial acceleration.
The mean total force was almost unaltered by the
RSA test (–0.7 ± 0.1%, ES: –0.10 ± 0.01). The
alteration of force production at high speed might
be important not only for the muscular performance
decrement (power loss) but also because of the possi-
bility of a negative influence on the quality of sporting
specific skills (Mendez-Villanueva, Hamer, &
Bishop, 2008; Morin et al., 2011). Thus, it could
be speculated that the greater decrements in v0
rather than F0, may have occurred due to a decre-
ment in the power-generating capacity of the
recruited fibres due to greater metabolite-induced
disturbances (Bishop & Spencer, 2004). Contrast-
ingly, the lesser decrement in F0 could be due to
the fact that PCr resynthesis pathways recover rela-
tively fast and the very first seconds of effort are not
as impacted by fatigue as the subsequent ones,
TABLE I. Changes (and associated qualitative inference) in mechanical, technical and performance variables between first sprint average from 2 to 4, average from 5 to 7 and average from 8 to 10
during 40 m repeated sprint efforts.

Sprint 1 Sprint 2–4 Sprint 5–7 Sprint 8–10

!
x ± SD !
x ± SD !
x ± SD !
x ± SD

v0 (m s–1) 9.61 ± 0.28 8.90 ± 0.33 8.59 ± 0.27 8.17 ± 0.35

F0 (N kg–1) 8.91 ± 0.80 8.87 ± 0.74 8.43 ± 0.84 8.38 ± 0.98
Pmax (W kg–1) 21.20 ± 1.78 19.63 ± 1.78 18.02 ± 2.04 16.98 ± 1.91
RFpeak (%) 55.49 ± 2.91 54.45 ± 1.64 52.64 ± 1.87 51.68 ± 2.18
DRF –0.082 ± 0.009 –0.090 ± 0.008 –0.089 ± 0.006 –0.094 ± 0.010
Mean total F (N kg–1) 10.05 ± 0.69 10.02 ± 0.70 10.00 ± 0.70 9.97 ± 0.69
5-m (s) 1.23 ± 0.08 1.26 ± 0.04 1.31 ± 0.05 1.33 ± 0.05
40-m (s) 5.35 ± 0.13 5.58 ± 0.12 5.76 ± 0.17 5.90 ± 0.21
Sprint 1 vs 2-4 Sprint 1 vs 5-7 Sprint 1 vs 8-10

%Δ ± SD ES; ±90% CL QI %Δ ± SD ES; ±90% CL QI %Δ ± SD ES; ±90% CL QI

v0 (m s–1) –7.5 ± 1.1 –2.46 ± 0.40 V Large -∗∗∗ –10.6 ± 0.9 –3.51 ± 0.34 V Large -∗∗∗ –15.1 ± 1.3 –4.98 ± 0.50 Ext Large -∗∗∗∗
F0 (N kg–1) –0.44 ± 3.5 0.00 ± 0.37 Trivial –5.1 ± 3.9 –0.53 ± 0.43 Small -∗ –5.9 ± 4.5 –0.59 ± 0.49 Small -∗
Pmax (W kg–1) –7.4 ± 3.0 –0.87 ± 0.36 Mod - –15.2 ± 3.7 –1.86 ± 0.49 Large -∗∗ –20.1 ± 3.3 –2.53 ± 0.47 Large -∗∗∗
RFpeak (%) –1.8 ± 1.6 –0.32 ± 0.30 Small - –5.1 ± 2.0 –0.93 ± 0.37 Mod -∗ –6.8 ± 2.0 –1.27 ± 0.39 Large -∗∗
DRF 9.4 ± 4.2 0.76 ± 0.33 Mod +∗∗ 8.6 ± 4.0 0.70 ± 0.31 Mod +∗ 14.0 ± 6.0 1.11 ± 0.45 Mod +∗
Mean total F (N kg–1) –0.3 ± 0.1 –0.05 ± 0.01 Trivial –0.5 ± 0.1 –0.07 ± 0.01 Trivial –0.7 ± 0.1 –0.10 ± 0.01 Trivial
5-m (s) 2.3 ± 2.0 0.36 ± 0.30 Small+∗ 6.2 ± 2.6 0.93 ± 0.37 Mod +∗∗ 8.4 ± 3.0 1.25 ± 0.43 Large+∗
40-m (s) 4.3 ± 1.0 1.68 ± 0.39 Large+∗∗∗ 7.7 ± 1.3 2.95 ± 0.49 V Large+∗∗∗∗ 10.3 ± 1.3 3.93 ± 0.47 V Large+∗

Values are mean ± standard deviation, percent change ± standard deviation and standardised effect size; ±90% confidence limits. Abbreviations: n: sample size; !x: mean; SD: standard deviation, %Δ:
percent change; ES: effect size; 90% CL: 90% confidence limits; kg: kilogramme; v0: theoretical maximal velocity; m: metre; s: second; F0: theoretical maximal force; N: newton; Pmax: maximal
power output; W: watt; RFpeak: maximal ratio of force; DRF: slope/rate of decrease in RF with increasing velocity; F: Force; V: Very; Mod: Moderate; Ext: Extremely. Qualitative inferences (QI) are
trivial (<0.20), small (0.20–<0.60) and moderate (0.60–<1.20): ∗ possibly, 25–<75; ∗∗ likely, 75–<95%; ∗∗∗ very likely, 95–<99.5; ∗∗∗∗ most likely, >99.5. Positive, neutral and negative descriptors
qualitatively describe the change between post and pre values and its importance relative to the specific variable.
Repeated mechanical sprint profiling in elite rugby sevens 5
6 P. Jiménez-reyes et al.

Figure 1. Changes in F0, v0 and Pmax over the course of the sprints for the mean of the team comparing the 1st with the average of sprints 2nd
to 4th, 5th to 7th and 8th to 10th.

which could be supported by impairment of sarco-
lemmal excitability (Perrey, Racinais, Saimouaa, &
Girard, 2010).
The results from this study indicate that an RSA
test in elite rugby sevens players did not drastically
alter the maximal horizontal force production capa-
bility at low speed, but resulted in a substantial
change in the ability to produce horizontal force at
high velocity (maximal velocity component). A
more detailed analysis of the fatigue-induced

Figure 2. Standardised differences between first sprint, average from 2 to 4, average from 5 to 7 and average from 8 to 10 in mechanical
changes during RST. Bars indicate uncertainty in true mean differences with 90% confidence intervals. The trivial area was calculated
from the smallest worthwhile change (SWC).
 Repeated mechanical sprint profiling in elite rugby sevens 7
changes over the RSA test showed very large
decreases in v0 when comparing the first sprint with
the average of the second to fourth set (–7.5%) or
to average of the fifth to seventh set (–10.6%) or
even extremely large decreases when this comparison
was made between the first sprint and the average of
the last three efforts (–15.1%; ES: –4.98), further
supported by a larger decrease in DRF (more related
to v0 and the ability to apply force at high velocities)
than in RFpeak (more related to F0 and the ability to
apply high levels of force at low velocity). This
could support the interest of a specific training of v0
in fatigue conditions to improve this key variable in
within-match conditions where repeat sprint
sequences are numerous and a key parameter in
success (Faude, Koch, & Meyer, 2012; Schimpchen,
Skorski, Nopp, & Meyer, 2016). In our study, a RSA
test (which could share similarities with sevens com-
petition) impaired the ability to apply horizontal
forces at high velocities which is in line with Nagahara
(Nagahara et al., 2016) who reported a decrease in
high-speed sprinting capabilities after a soccer match.
To our knowledge, the main novelty of our study
was to investigate the effect of repeat-sprint generated
fatigue on mechanical capabilities during over-
ground sprinting. Although changes in some sprint
mechanical variables during repeated sprints have
been investigated (e.g. (Morin et al., 2011;
Tomazin, Morin, & Millet, 2017)), no previous
studies have assessed over-ground sprinting with a
specific focus on the force–velocity–power profile
mechanical variables. The data provided in this
research sheds lights about the mechanical origin of
performance decrease evoked by fatigue during a
sequence of efforts. From a practical standpoint,
our findings provide meaningful information to
coaches about the fatigue-induced changes in sprint
mechanics over a training session or some specific
game high-intensity actions. This could support the
use of force–velocity mechanical profiling to design
a more specific and individualised training according
to the changes in mechanical determinants of sprint
performance (e.g. F0 or v0). In this sense, sprint
force–velocity profiling in repeated-sprint tasks
could be an adequate, simple test to monitor specific
RSA training sessions and load management
accordingly.
The fatigue accumulated from this protocol eli-
cited a decrease in force application effectiveness
(expressed through the DRF and RFpeak variables)
but not total (resultant) force. This result indicates
that repeated sprint fatigue is associated with a
greater impairment in the ability to orient the
ground force in the horizontal direction, rather than
in the ability to produce high amounts of force onto
the ground. Consequently, enhancing the ability to
maintain and orientate force forward under fatigue
could limit the decrease in performance during a
RSA test or similar conditions. These findings only
partly corroborate those reported by Morin et al.
(2011), who showed altered total force after a proto-
col of repeated sprints (5.81 ± 5.76%, ES: 0.78).
However, Morin et al. (2011) used an instrumented
treadmill repeated sprint protocol with university stu-
dents, so a slightly different outcome could be
explained by the different level of physical fitness of
the populations. Indeed, the athletes who comprised
our sample were world-class athletes, who regularly
perform many repeated efforts both in training and
under actual playing conditions. From a physiologi-
cal point of view, reduced muscle activation
(Mendez-Villanueva et al., 2008), neural adjustments
(e.g. central nervous system’s drive to the active mus-
culature) (Drust, Rasmussen, Mohr, Nielsen, &
Nybo, 2005; Racinais et al., 2007) or alterations in
neuromuscular activation of the contracting muscu-
lature (Billaut et al., 2006) could explain why the
ability to apply horizontal force is reduced to a
greater extent at high speeds. Also, it is possible
that fatigue induced by a RSA test would mainly
impact the hip extensors (gluteal and hamstring
muscles), which are the main muscles involved in
mechanical effectiveness (Edouard et al., 2017;
Morin et al., 2015). In addition, this could have
implications in terms of hamstring injury risk and
prevention purposes (Mendiguchia et al., 2016;
Morin et al., 2015).
One limitation of this study was that only the
macroscopic force, velocity and power components
of sprint acceleration performance were assessed.
Thus, we could only speculate about the neurophy-
siological underpinnings of fatigue-induced changes
studied and discussed elsewhere (Girard et al.,
2011; Girard, Brocherie, Morin, & Millet, 2017;
Girard, Brocherie, Tomazin, Farooq, & Morin,
2016). That said, this study brings novel interpret-
ation to the results illustrated in previous studies, in
an elite population, and may be a first step toward
the development of specific tests and physical-per-
formance standards for high-level players training in
specific field conditions. Also, it should be high-
lighted that the alterations in v0 and DRF can be
associated to the fact that v0 and DRF, and their
underpinning mechanisms, are more sensible to
fatigue than F0 and RFpeak, as discussed above, but
also to the fact that during a sprint, force production
at high velocities occurred always after 2 or 3 s of
effort, and so are more exposed to fatigue than
force production capabilities at low velocity that
occurred in the first seconds. So, the short resting
periods between sprints can be enough to recover
the force production capability only for the first
8 P. Jiménez-reyes et al.
seconds of the following effort, and not for the final
seconds. In this case, it would be more a “time”
effect, than a “velocity effect” on force production
which explains present results. Anyway, in actual
field conditions, high velocities always occur at the
end of the acceleration phase, so “time” and “vel-
ocity” effects are not dissociable, which can underline
the interest to train v0 and DRF under fatigue. Finally,
it is important to note that our findings may not be
generalised to all repeated-sprint protocols since
acute mechanical and physiological responses are
specific and dependant to sprint distance or duration,
number of repetitions and sets, and recovery periods
as previously reported in other sports such as soccer
(Haugen et al., 2015; Haugen, Tønnessen, Hisdal,
& Seiler, 2014). That being said, the protocol used
in the current study was implemented in an elite
sport context and evidentially provided a clear
fatigue-inducing stimulus. As such, we believe the
results provide insight into the specific mechanical
responses to repeated sprint efforts that can be
expanded upon and re-tested in future research.
Practical applications
This study potentially provides valuable practical
information for team sport coaches. It appears that
(i) RSA tests affected in a greater proportion of v0
than F0, (ii) this was associated with a limitation in
the capability to orient force horizontally at high vel-
ocities (DRF) and not in the capability to develop high
levels of horizontal force at low velocity (F0 and
RFpeak) and (iii) technical ability to orientate force
is key and it should be considered for training pur-
poses in fatigue conditions in team sports. These
observations can help coaches better control their
training programme and to focus to train v0 and
DRF in fatigue conditions since these are the two
capabilities most exposed and altered by fatigue-
induced changes to improve physical performance
related to repeat sprint sequences, directly associated
with success in team sports. Furthermore, it is impor-
tant to note that this study was conducted in over-
ground sprinting conditions and with international
elite players. Further studies are required to deter-
mine if these findings are observed in other playing
levels and sporting codes.
Conclusion
Given the recent inclusion of rugby sevens into sports
featuring in the Olympic Games and the central role
of RSA in sevens performance, the results from this
study are of direct interest to athletes and coaches
alike. The elite subject pool used in this study has
been notoriously restricted and difficult to access.
These athletes offer a comprehensive view of the
upper limits of the acute effects during training and
competition situations in world class athletes. Con-
sidering our findings, it is important to note the
importance and interest to work mechanical par-
ameters such as v0 and DRF in fatigue condition as
a determinant for improving repeated sprint perform-
ance in these elite athletes, which could be very para-
mount by increasing the ability to maintain horizontal
force application at high velocities in long distances,
which can be of great importance and decisive in
this sport. Furthermore, the direct practical appli-
cation of this information could assist coaches to
make evidence-based practice decisions since these
reference mechanical parameters could be used for
specific training, track fatigue in ecological con-
ditions and load management in elite rugby seven
players.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank all athletes, coaches, and
strength and conditioning staff associated with the
New Zealand All Black Sevens for their participation
in this study. No benefits in any form that may have
affected this study in any capacity have been or will
be received from any source.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Pedro Jiménez-Reyes http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
8156-243X
References
Billaut, F., Basset, F. A., Giacomoni, M., Lemaître, F., Tricot, V.,
& Falgairette, G. (2006). Effect of high-intensity intermittent
cycling sprints on neuromuscular activity. International Journal
of Sports Medicine, 27(1), 25–30.doi:10.1055/s-2005-837488
Bishop, D., & Spencer, M. (2004). Determinants of repeated-
sprint ability in well-trained team-sport athletes and endur-
ance-trained athletes. The Journal of Sports Medicine and
Physical Fitness, 44(1), 1–7. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15181383.
Colyer, S. L., Nagahara, R., Takai, Y., & Salo, A. I. T. (2018).
How sprinters accelerate beyond the velocity plateau of soccer
players: Waveform analysis of ground reaction forces.
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. doi:10.
1111/sms.13302
Cross, M. R., Brughelli, M., Brown, S. R., Samozino, P., Gill, N.
D., Cronin, J. B., & Morin, J. B. (2015). Mechanical properties
of sprinting in elite rugby union and rugby league. International
 Repeated mechanical sprint profiling in elite rugby sevens 9
Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 10(6), 695–702.
doi:10.1123/ijspp.2014-0151
Drust, B., Rasmussen, P., Mohr, M., Nielsen, B., & Nybo, L.
(2005). Elevations in core and muscle temperature impairs
repeated sprint performance. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica,
183(2), 181–190. doi:10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01390.x
Edouard, P., Gimenez, P., Arnal, P., Jimenez-Reyes, P.,
Samozino, P., Mendiguchia, J., … Morin, J.-B. (2017).
Influence of fatigue on hamstring muscle function during
repeated sprints. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 51(4),
314.2–31314. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2016-097372.79
Faude, O., Koch, T., & Meyer, T. (2012). Straight sprinting is the
most frequent action in goal situations in professional football.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 30(7), 625–631. doi:10.1080/
02640414.2012.665940
Gabbett, T. J., & Wheeler, A. J. (2015). Predictors of repeated
high-intensity-effort ability in rugby league players.
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 10
(6), 718–724. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2014-0127
Girard, O., Brocherie, F., Morin, J.-B., & Millet, G. P. (2017).
Mechanical alterations during interval-training treadmill runs
in high-level male team-sport players. Journal of Science and
Medicine in Sport, 20(1), 87–91. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2016.05.
002
Girard, O., Brocherie, F., Tomazin, K., Farooq, A., & Morin, J.-B.
(2016). Changes in running mechanics over 100-m, 200-m and
400-m treadmill sprints. Journal of Biomechanics, 49(9), 1490–
1497. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.03.020
Girard, O., Mendez-Villanueva, A., & Bishop, D. (2011).
Repeated-Sprint ability - part I. Sports Medicine (Auckland,
N.Z.), 41(8), 673–694. doi:10.2165/11590550-000000000-
00000
Haugen, T. A., Tønnessen, E., Hisdal, J., & Seiler, S. (2014). The
role and development of sprinting speed in soccer. International
Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 9(3), 432–441.
doi:10.1123/ijspp.2013-0121
Haugen, T., Tønnessen, E., Øksenholt, Ø, Haugen, F. L.,
Paulsen, G., Enoksen, E., & Seiler, S. (2015). Sprint condition-
ing of junior soccer players: Effects of training intensity and
technique supervision. PLOS ONE, 10(3), e0121827. doi:10.
1371/journal.pone.0121827
Higham, D. G., Pyne, D. B., Anson, J. M., & Eddy, A. (2012).
Movement patterns in rugby sevens: Effects of tournament
level, fatigue and substitute players. Journal of Science and
Medicine in Sport, 15(3), 277–282. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2011.
11.256
Hopkins, W. G., Marshall, S. W., Batterham, A. M., & Hanin, J.
(2009). Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine
and exercise science. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 41(1), 3–13. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e31818cb278
Marrier, B., Le Meur, Y., Robineau, J., Lacome, M., Couderc, A.,
Hausswirth, C., … Morin, J.-B. (2016). Quantifying neuromus-
cular fatigue induced by an intense training session in rugby
sevens. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2016-0030
Mendez-Villanueva, A., Hamer, P., & Bishop, D. (2008). Fatigue
in repeated-sprint exercise is related to muscle power factors
and reduced neuromuscular activity. European Journal of
Applied Physiology, 103(4), 411–419. doi:10.1007/s00421-008-
0723-9
Mendiguchia, J., Edouard, P., Samozino, P., Brughelli, M., Cross,
M., Ross, A., … Morin, J. B. (2016). Field monitoring of sprint-
ing power-force-velocity profile before, during and after ham-
string injury: Two case reports. Journal of Sports Sciences, 34
(6), 535–541. doi:10.1080/02640414.2015.1122207
Morin, J. B., Bourdin, M., Edouard, P., Peyrot, N., Samozino, P.,
& Lacour, J. R. (2012). Mechanical determinants of 100-m
sprint running performance. European Journal of Applied
Physiology, 112(11), 3921–3930. doi:10.1007/s00421-012-
2379-8
Morin, J.-B., Edouard, P., & Samozino, P. (2011). Technical
ability of force application as a determinant factor of sprint per-
formance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(9),
1680–1688. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e318216ea37
Morin, J. B., Gimenez, P., Edouard, P., Arnal, P., Jimenez-Reyes,
P., Samozino, P., … Mendiguchia, J. (2015). Sprint accelera-
tion mechanics: The major role of hamstrings in horizontal
force production. Frontiers in Physiology, 6(DEC). doi:10.
3389/fphys.2015.00404
Morin, J. B., Jeannin, T., Chevallier, B., & Belli, A. (2006). Spring-
mass model characteristics during sprint running: Correlation
with performance and fatigue-induced changes. International
Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(2), 158–165. doi:10.1055/s-
2005-837569
Morin, J. B., & Samozino, P. (2016). Interpreting power-force-vel-
ocity profiles for individualized and specific training.
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11
(2), 267–272. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0638
Morin, J. B., Samozino, P., Edouard, P., & Tomazin, K. (2011).
Effect of fatigue on force production and force application tech-
nique during repeated sprints. Journal of Biomechanics, 44(15),
2719–2723. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2011.07.020
Morin, J.-B., & Sève, P. (2011). Sprint running performance:
Comparison between treadmill and field conditions. European
Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(8), 1695–1703. doi:10.1007/
s00421-010-1804-0
Nagahara, R., Morin, J.-B., & Koido, M. (2016). Impairment of
sprint mechanical properties in an actual soccer match: A
pilot study. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance, 11(7), 893–898. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0567
Perrey, S., Racinais, S., Saimouaa, K., & Girard, O. (2010).
Neural and muscular adjustments following repeated running
sprints. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(6), 1027–
1036. doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1445-3
Rabita, G., Dorel, S., Slawinski, J., Sàez-de-Villarreal, E.,
Couturier, A., Samozino, P., & Morin, J. B. (2015). Sprint
mechanics in world-class athletes: A new insight into the
limits of human locomotion. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine
and Science in Sports, 25(5), 583–594. doi:10.1111/sms.12389
Racinais, S., Bishop, D., Denis, R., Lattier, G., Mendez-
Villaneuva, A., & Perrey, S. (2007). Muscle deoxygenation
and neural drive to the muscle during repeated sprint cycling.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(2), 268–274.
doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000251775.46460.cb
Ross, A., Gill, N., & Cronin, J. (2014). Match analysis and player
characteristics in rugby sevens. Sports Medicine, 44(3), 357–367.
doi:10.1007/s40279-013-0123-0
Ross, A., Gill, N., & Cronin, J. (2015). The match demands of
international rugby sevens. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33(10),
1035–1041. doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.979858
Samozino, P. (2018). A simple method for measuring force, vel-
ocity and power capabilities and mechanical effectiveness
during sprint running. In Biomechanics of training and testing
(pp. 237–267). Cham: Springer International. doi:10.1007/
978-3-319-05633-3_11
Samozino, P., Rabita, G., Dorel, S., Slawinski, J., Peyrot, N., Saez
de Villarreal, E., & Morin, J.-B. (2016). A simple method for
measuring power, force, velocity properties, and mechanical
effectiveness in sprint running. Scandinavian Journal of
Medicine & Science in Sports, 26(6), 648–658. doi:10.1111/
sms.12490
Schimpchen, J., Skorski, S., Nopp, S., & Meyer, T. (2016).
Are “classical” tests of repeated-sprint ability in football
externally valid? A new approach to determine in-game
 10 P. Jiménez-reyes et al.
sprinting behaviour in elite football players. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 34(6), 519–526. doi:10.1080/02640414.2015.
1112023
Serpiello, F. R., McKenna, M. J., Stepto, N. K., Bishop, D. J., &
Aughey, R. J. (2011). Performance and physiological responses
to repeated-sprint exercise: A novel multiple-set approach.
European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(4), 669–678.
doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1687-0
View publication stats
Tomazin, K., Morin, J.-B., & Millet, G. Y. (2017). Etiology of neu-
romuscular fatigue after repeated sprints depends on exercise
modality. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance, 12(7), 878–885. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2016-0200
Twist, C., & Highton, J. (2013). Monitoring fatigue and recovery
in rugby league players. International Journal of Sports
Physiology and Performance, 8(5), 467–474. Retrieved from
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23319463.