ENG1001

– Week 0 and 1
readings

Scott Wordley
1.1 OUTLINE AND INTRODUCTION
Structural engineering is a part of civil engineering, which is one of the main
engineering specialisations. Structural analysis involves using mathematical
models to predict the behaviour of structures.

This unit is about structural analysis.

After working through this unit and attending the associated lectures and tutorial
classes you should be able to:

describe the role of a structural engineer

outline the process of structural analysis within the broader context of
structural engineering.

Show Discussion
1.2 WHAT IS ENGINEERING?
Our world is full of engineering challenges. Engineers are the people responsible
for bringing the built environment into existence, as well as for designing new
products and services. Working as part of a team, engineers evolve the concepts,
devise the details, and control the construction and manufacturing to ensure that
new engineering artefacts meet the needs of our society.

Engineering analysis enables us to predict the performance of these new

products before they are built, so that they can be efficiently and economically
constructed to fulfil their function, without the need to create them by trial and
error. (Imagine creating a 747 by trial and error).

This skill to predict the behaviour of a product before it is constructed, through

the use of mathematical and physical models distinguishes the skills of an
engineer from the lay person. Technical skills in the mathematical modelling of
structures form the core content of this course.

Show Discussion
1.3 WHAT IS CIVIL ENGINEERING?
Civil engineering is an exciting and challenging profession responsible for the
creation of the basic infrastructure of modern society.

To see civil engineering achievements, just look around you. Civil engineers
meet the needs of people, and in so doing give detailed thought and
consideration to the impact of those needs on the environment. Civil engineers:

plan highways
design bridges
design and control water treatment plants
design buildings
care for the environment
manage building sites
research new materials
investigate flood control systems
work outdoors and travel overseas
restore historic structures
liaise with other professionals

 Activity
Write a list of the products and services of civil engineering that you
have used today. Start from the time that you woke , up until now. How
has a civil engineer impacted upon your day – in buildings, water,
transport etc.

Show Discussion
1.4 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Structural engineering is one of the main branches of civil engineering.
Structural engineering involves the creation and maintenance of the buildings
and bridges which comprise our built environment. Structural engineers are
important contributors to the quality of our environment, and are responsible for
the design and construction of the physical landmarks that reflect the
achievements of our society. As a structural engineer you will be proud to show
people the buildings and bridges that you have created.

Activity
Check out the following web sites that deal with structural engineering.

http://www.icenet.org.uk/

http://www.istructe.org.uk/

http://bridgesite.com
Show Discussion
1.5 PHASES OF AN ENGINEERING
PROJECT
A typical project in which you will be involved as a structural engineer has
several phases.

Structural analysis involves mathematical modelling of the behaviour of

structures. It is a skill used extensively in the detailed design phase (above). It is
also very important, combined with skill and judgement, during the concept
design phase of a project.

Note, however, that skills in analysis alone will not make you a successful
engineer. You need good interpersonal skills to work effectively with the client
and with your colleagues. You need to be able to think through a situation if you
are to understand it. You need imagination and creativity to generate alternative
solutions. You need to have an attention to detail during the detailed design
phase and during construction.

The group projects will provide you with an opportunity to develop non-analysis
skills such as communication, teamwork, cooperation and collaboration,
information retrieval, creativity and so on. Thus, this unit is designed to develop
you as a well-rounded engineer.

Show Discussion
1.6 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND
DESIGN
Structural analysis is an important part of the detailed design of a structure (such
as a footbridge or multi-storey building). It is the core content of this unit. We
can break down the detailed design phase (discussed above) into a number of

steps: The
essence of structural analysis is using mathematical models to predict what the
deformations of a structure will be during its lifetime, and what the forces and
stresses (or intensities of force) will be in the structure. These are the
fundamental parameters with which we will be concerned.

Show Discussion
1.7 IT IS NOT ALL ABOUT NUMBERS
To carry out structural analysis successfully an engineer needs two
complementary skills.

Qualitative Ability is the ability to envisage how a structure will behave, so that
the correct mathematical model can be selected, and so that the structural
engineer has a qualitative image of the structural behaviour, that can be checked
against the quantitative results.

Quantitative Ability is the ability to perform the mathematical modelling of the

structure in order to obtain values for the deformations and stresses.

Both abilities are important, and both can be learnt and improved with practice.

Show Discussion
1.8 SUMMARY
Structural engineers are professionals who, working as part of a team, create the
built environment within which our society operates. Structural analysis, which
is the subject of these notes, is the process of mathematically modelling the
behaviour of a structure before it is constructed, so that we can predict its
performance and satisfy ourselves that what is built will perform its intended
function.

Structural engineering: Involves the creation and maintenance of the buildings

and bridges which comprise our built environment

Structural analysis: Using mathematical models to predict the behaviour of

structures (deformations and forces or stresses)

Show Discussion
2.1 OUTLINE AND INTRODUCTION
Before we can analyse a structure we must understand how the forces move
through it. Structures can be classified into different structural forms, each
carrying the load in a different way.

After working through this unit and attending the associated lectures and
practice classes you should be able to:

discuss a range of structural forms, both for two dimensional and three
dimensional structures
sketch the load path for a given load on a given structural form
divide a two dimensional structure into a series of members and joints to
enable it to be mathematically modelled

Show Discussion
2.2 THE CONCEPT OF A LOAD PATH
For a structure to be successful it must carry the applied loads through to the
support along a load path, maintaining equilibrium at every point along the way.
One of the skills you should work at is recognising the load path in a structure.

Consider your current situation sitting in a chair.

1. the load (your weight) acts on the seat of the chair

2. the seat carries the load to the chair legs
3. the legs push down on the floor which transfers the load to the walls
4. the walls carry the load to the footings
5. the footings carry the load to the earth

So the load path is seat-legs-floor-walls-footing-earth.

If any part of this load path is not present, then the structure will fail to carry the
load (it will collapse).

For any situation you must be able to trace the load path from the point of
application of the load, to the ultimate reaction (usually the earth). I find it
useful to think of a structure as a tree.

A bird lands in a tree. The load goes through the leaf to the twig to the branch to
the trunk to the earth. This is an analogy for a structure.
 Activity
Consider yourself sitting on a bicycle. Trace the load path from your
backside to the ground. Now start pedalling – this introduces new loads.
How are these transferred to the ground?

Show Discussion
2.3 HOW DO STRUCTURES CARRY
LOADS?
Consider again the example of the load path when you sit on a chair.

1. the load (your weight) acts on the seat of the chair

the seat carries the load by bending
2. the seat carries the load to the chair legs
the legs carry the load by axially compressing
3. the legs push down on the floor which transfers the load to the walls
the floor carries the load by bending
4. the walls carry the load to the footings
the walls carry the load by axially compressing
5. the footings carry the load to the earth
the footings and earth carry the load by compressing

There are four load paths – two which involve bending and two which involve
axial compression. Bending and axial compression are called the structural
actions. All load paths can be described as one of four types:

All structures on earth can be considered to carry their loads in a combination of

these four ways.

1. When the load acts directly along the axis of the members of a structure, a
structure carries its load by shortening or lengthening – either in tension
(pulling) or in compression (pushing). Tensile axial loads cause the member
to lengthen, compressive axial loads cause the member to shorten.
 1. When the load causes an applied moment about an axis perpendicular to
the length of the member, a structure carries its load by curving. Moments
can be applied directly to a member, or more commonly they occur when
loads act transversely to the member. They cause the members to curve,
and they set up internal bending moments in the member.

2. When the load acts transversely to the

members of a structure, a structure carries its load by distorting. This sets
up internal shear forces in the member. As we shall see, shear forces and
bending moments are very closely related.

1. When the load causes an applied moment about the axis of the members of
a structure, a structure carries its load by twisting. This type of applied
moment will be called a torque. This structural action will not be dealt with
in this unit.

Our next task is to see how these types of load paths are combined to give
different structural forms.

Activity
When you are sitting on a bicycle, what structural action occurs in each
of the members which make up the load path? The alternatives are axial
compression or tension, bending moment, shear or torque.

Show Discussion
2.4 STRUCTURAL FORM # 1 –
BEAMS
Beams are the most common type of structural form, and in this unit we deal
mostly with developing mathematical models to predict the strength and stiffness
of beams. Beams divert a load, thus creating an open space beneath them,

As we have seen, this causes curving of the beam – in this case the top of the
beam gets shorter and the bottom gets longer.

Show Discussion
2.5 STRUCTURAL FORM # 2 –
CABLES
Cables are far more efficient than beams – the same amount of material will
carry a much greater load. The problem is that a cable only works in tension,
and so the load must be in line with the cable. Thus cables are not as useful, and
hence not as popular, as beams. The most famous examples of cable structures
are suspension bridges, where the main cable supports many hanger cables,

Another form
is the cable stayed bridge (like the Westgate bridge in Melbourne) where the
cables connect directly to the deck.
 Cables have the unique
property that the shape of the cable changes as the load changes, so that the cable
always carries tension only.

Because cables change

shape to suit the load (always carrying the load by tension and never by bending
moment, shear or torque), we give cables a special name – funicular structures.
We will use the concept of funicular structures later in this course.

Show Discussion
2.6 STRUCTURAL FORM # 3 –
ARCHES
An arch carries load by compression. It is helpful to think of the arch as the
opposite of a cable, because a cable carries its load by tension.

Arches have an additional complication when compared to cables. Because the

arch is in compression, the arch wants to buckle. For this reason, an arch can
never be as slender as a cable. To prevent buckling an arch needs to have some
bending stiffness. Because an arch has bending stiffness it cannot change shape
to suit the load, as a cable does.
 For a given load there is one particular shape of
arch which would carry that load by pure compression in the arch, and this is the
most efficient arch shape for that load. This shape is the funicular shape. The
easiest way to find the funicular shape is to put the load on a cable, and see what
shape the cable takes up (this will be pure tension). Flip that shape upside down
and you have the shape of an arch that carries the load by pure compression.

When the shape of an arch is not the correct funicular shape for a given load, the
arch will carry the load by a combination of compression and bending moment.
The further away the shape is from the funicular shape, the more bending
moment there will be in the arch.

This video below discusses how the different structural forms we have discussed
so far can be used to build bridges in different situations.
Show Discussion
2.7 STRUCTURAL FORM # 4 –
TRUSSES

A truss can be thought of as a particular type of beam, where all the inner
workings of the beam are exposed. Trusses divert a load, in the same way that
beams do, thus creating an open space beneath them. The truss curves like a
beam (with the top in compression and the bottom in tension for the example
below).

The unique thing about a truss is that while the truss as a whole curves, each
individual member carries its load by tension or compression. Therefore,
individual members get shorter or longer (with no curving), but this causes the
truss as a whole to curve.
Show Discussion
2.8 STRUCTURAL FORM # 5 –
THREE DIMENSIONAL
STRUCTURAL FORMS
Beams, cables, arches and trusses are all two dimensional structural forms. They
are useful because when engineers develop mathematical models of real
structures we treat them as a series of repeated two dimensional structures joined
together to form a three dimensional structure. This makes them easier to
analyse and easier to build. None the less, there are times when a structure is
truly three dimensional – a load is dispersed along load paths which exist in all
three dimensions. We will look briefly at some of these.

Slabs and Plates

When a beam is extended into the third dimension it becomes a slab, or a plate.
These bend in two directions at the same time.

Nets or Membranes
When a cable is extended into three dimensions a net is created if the cables are
kept discrete. If the cables merge together to from a continuum, a membrane is
created. Nets and membranes form some of the worlds most unusual but
exciting structures. Because of the efficiency of the structure (carrying the load
in pure tension), these structures can cover very large areas with very light
structures.


Shells and Domes

When an arch is extended into three dimensions a shell or dome is created. Like
all three dimensional structures, shells and domes provide many alternative load
paths for any applied load, and by dispersing the load paths through the
structure, thinner and more elegant structures are possible with three
dimensional compared to two dimensional structures.

Space Frames
When a truss is extended into three dimensions a space truss or space frame is
created. These can span large distances because the load is dispersed through
many load paths.
Folded Plates
A folded plate is an uncommon three dimensional structure, but it illustrates well
the importance of shape in determining the strength and stiffness of a structural
form. A flat sheet of paper is useless as a beam, but when folded into a series of
peaks and valleys it becomes very much stiffer and stronger. This principle has
been used to create long span concrete roofs.

Activity
Think of examples of beams, cables, arches and trusses that you are
familiar with. Try to understand why the engineer has used these
structural forms.

Show Discussion
2.9 MODELLING OF STRUCTURES
Two Dimensional Structural Forms
To create a mathematical model of a structure we need to divide the structure up
into a series of linear members. The members are joined together at nodes.
Certain of the nodes will be restrained against movement – these are the
supports. Other nodes are left free to move as the structure deforms. There is no
limit to the number of nodes that can be used when dividing up a structure,
however a node must be provided at the following positions,

at every point where the structure is supported

everywhere that the structure changes direction
everywhere that a member changes shape or size

The process of modelling a two dimensional structure by dividing it up into a

series of members is called discretising the structure – ie modelling it as a series
of discrete members.

Three Dimensional Structural Forms

Models of three dimensional structural forms are created by dividing the
structure up into a series of elements. These elements can be plates, shells etc.
This process is more complex than for two dimensional structures, and will not
be dealt with in this unit.

The process of modelling a three dimensional structure by dividing it up into a

series of elements is called discretising the structure – ie modelling it as a series
of discrete elements.

Activity
Where ever you are now, reading these notes, trace the load path from
you to the ground. What structural forms make up that load path?

Show Discussion
2.10 SUMMARY
Beams, cables, arches and trusses are all examples of two dimensional structural
forms with the loads being carried by different types of load paths.

Plates, slabs, nets, membranes, shells, domes, space trusses and space frames are
all examples of three dimensional structural forms with the load being carried by
different types of load paths.

Two dimensional structures are modelled by dividing the structure into a series
of members connected at nodes.

Three dimensional structures are modelled by dividing the structure into a series
of elements connected at nodes.

Load path: the way that a load is carried through a structure to the supports.

Structural actions: all loads are carried by a combination of axial compression

or tension, bending moment, shear and torque.

Structural forms: the elements that make up a structure, and from the load path
can be grouped into structural forms, of which beams, cables, arches and trusses
are the most common.

Modelling: in order to develop mathematical models we idealise a structure by

‘discretising’ it into members connected at nodes.

Show Discussion
3.1 OUTLINE AND INTRODUCTION
Loads (forces) on structures are classified on the basis of how they are applied to
the structure (the type of load) and what their cause is (the class of load). Values
have to be selected for the magnitude of these loads. How do we do that?

Structures are supported in different ways. It is important that a structure has at

least enough support to make it stable, but if it has extra supports this makes the
calculation procedures more difficult. We will look at the different types of
support, and how to decide if a structure has not enough, just enough, or more
than enough supports.

After working through this unit and attending the associated lectures and
practice classes you should be able to:

classify loads by type and class

calculate values for dead and live loads
describe what is meant by stable and unstable supports, and determine
whether a structure has stable or unstable supports
describe what is meant by determinate and indeterminate structures, and
determine whether a structure is determinate or indeterminate

Show Discussion
3.2 TYPES OF LOADS
All structures support loads. Your chair supports itself plus your weight. The
floor supports you and the chair as well as itself.

In order to design a structure, ie the individual beams, columns, trusses etc., you
must be able to quantify the loads acting on them. This unit helps you get
started.

For calculation purposes, loads are treated as:

Point loads (forces)

Uniformly distributed loads (forces spread along a length or over an area),
or
Applied moments.

Point load (or concentrated load)

A point load is a load that can be considered to be acting at a single point, eg. the
load of a person sitting on a beam.

On a diagram of a structure we represent a point load by an arrow.

Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)
A UDL is a load with a constant magnitude along a structural member, eg a
shelf supporting a number of food cans (total weight = 1 kg) along a length of
500 mm. Load = 1 kg/0.5m = 2 kg/m = 20 N/m (taking g = 10 m/s2).

The most common UDL is the self-weight of a structural member like a beam.
This is usually expressed in units of kg/m (mass) or kN/m (weight).

Applied Moment
As well as transverse forces (point loads or distributed loads), beams can be
subjected to applied moments. Consider two people pushing on the beam shown.
There is no net force applied to the beam (the two horizontal forces cancel out),
rather there is an applied moment trying to rotate the beam about the point of
application. An applied moment can be represented by a curved arrow. In 3
dimensional analysis, applied moments are sometimes represented by a double
headed arrow. The direction of the double headed arrow gives the direction of
the applied moment in accordance with the right hand screw rule (refer to
Appendix A).

An applied moment is a bending or a twisting action. It most commonly is

caused by another element of the structure.
Consider a sign board under vertical load. The applied moment M on AB due to
the weight of the sign, M = W x d. This moment acts about an axis at right
angles to the page, as shown.

Activity
Look around you. What would you treat as a point load acting on the
floor, and what would you consider as a UDL? (Don’t forget the weight
of the floor itself).

Show Discussion
3.3 CLASSES AND MAGNITUDES OF
LOADS
Structures are loaded in many different ways. For example, earthquake load or
wind load might destroy a structure that has safely withstood its own weight and
the weight of its occupants for many years.

So already we can list four types of loads:

earthquake loading
wind loading
dead load (the self weight of the structure)
live load (the load associated with the normal use of a structure (eg people
and furniture in a building, cars on a bridge)

There are many other types of loading, eg. earth pressure, liquid pressure,
thermal loading, snow loading. In this unit we will only discuss dead load and
live load.

Dead Load
This is perhaps the easiest load to calculate, and the one whose value we are the
most certain about. The dead load of a bridge can be obtained by calculating the
volume of all of the materials used in the bridge, and multiplying by the density
of the materials. Densities of some common materials are listed in Appendix B.
A small problem is this;

In order to design the bridge you need to know how much it weighs (the
dead load), but you do not know how much it weighs until you have
designed it! Therefore all design must begin with an estimate of the size,
shape, and density of the structure so that the dead load can be estimated.
This requires experience, and the ability to learn from similar structures
that are already completed.
Let us decide that the bridge will be made of concrete. Each bridge beam (a
beam spans from pier to pier) will be 30 metres long, 1.5 metres deep, and 0.7 m
wide.

volume of one beam = 30 x 1.5 x 0.7 = 31.5 m3

density of concrete = 2400 kg/m3

therefore, weight of one beam (dead load)

= 31.5 x 2400
= 75,600 kg
(= 75.6 tonnes)
= 75,600 x 9.81 Newtons (say x 10)
= 756 kN

OK, we have a number, but how confident are we about that value? For
example, concrete is a variable material, our concrete may weigh 2200 kg/m3, or
worse, it may weigh 2600 kg/m3, in which case our bridge will have a greater
load than we have designed for.

All load calculations involve uncertainty, and so we can use the principles of
probability to control the risk that we take when we choose a value for a load.
Most data samples approximate to a Normal (Bell) Distribution Curve. This
curve is symmetrical about the mean/average, and the standard deviation (σ) is
used to indicate the degree of spread of values from the mean. In a normal
distribution curve, 68% of values occur within
(mean ± σ) and 90% of values occur within (mean ± 1.65σ). Accepted practice is
to choose a value for the density that only has a 5% chance of being exceeded
(i.e. (mean + 1.65σ)). Therefore, on average, 1 design in 20 will have assumed a
material density less than that of the actual material used.

This value is called the CHARACTERISTIC DEAD LOAD.

Live Load
The calculation of live load is more uncertain than the calculation of dead load,
but a similar principle applies. Think of the case of a domestic house. How much
should we allow for the live load (ie people and furniture)? This obviously varies
very much from house to house, and yet when you are designing the house you
cannot know how much ‘stuff’ the people will put into it. The large variation in
live load values means that the live load probability density curve spreads further
than the dead load one – the standard deviation is higher.
With live loads, the accepted practice is to choose a value of the load that has a
5% chance of being exceeded once in 50 years. 50 years is chosen, because that
is the design life of most buildings. This is called the CHARACTERISTIC LIVE
LOAD.

There is an Australian Standard which recommends values for the characteristic

live load for many situations – take a look at it if you are interested, it is in the
library. It is Australian Standard AS 1170.1-1989 Part 1: Dead and live loads and
load combinations.

Some characteristic live load values from the standard are:

Domestic Houses: 1.5 kPa (150 kg/m2)

Car Parks: 3.0 kPa (300 kg/m2)
Offices: 3.0 kPa (300 kg/m2)
Grandstands: 5.0 kPa (500 kg/m2)
 Activity:
Visit the library and find the location of Australian Standards. Locate
AS1170.1-1989 Part 1 : Dead and live loads and load combinations.
Look at the live loads for different situations, and compare values.

Load Factors
We now have a rational basis for choosing values for the dead and live loads:

Dead load: choose a characteristic value for the density that only has a 5% value
of exceedance.

Live load: choose a characteristic value of the load that has a 5% chance of
being exceeded once in 50 years

Should you design your structure for these characteristic values? If you do, then
on average one structure in 20 will be designed for less than its actual dead load,
and one structure in 20 will receive more than the design live load during a 50
year period. There would be structures collapsing everywhere! To maintain an
acceptable level of safety, we apply load factors to the characteristic dead and
live load. These vary depending on the circumstances, and the limit state that we
are designing for.
Limit States
When we design a structure we must think of a ‘checklist’ of things to design for,
eg,

is it safe against collapse?

will it deflect too much?
will it vibrate annoyingly?
will it withstand a fire?

These different conditions are called ‘limit states’. If, during its lifetime, the
limit state of ‘collapse’ is exceeded, the consequence will be severe – loss of life
usually. If the limit state of ‘deflection’ is exceeded the consequence is not so
great – people may not feel comfortable, or cracking might occur. Because the
seriousness of the consequences varies, the acceptable risk of exceeding the limit
state varies also. This variation in risk is achieved by using different load factors
for different limit states.

For example, the load factor for the limit state of collapse (commonly called an
ultimate limit state) is typically in the range 1.2 to 2. This reduces the chance of
the design load being exceeded from 1 in 20 to say 1 in 100,000. The load factor
for the limit state of deflection (commonly called a serviceability limit state) is
often less than 1.0 With this limit state we are concerned about ‘average’ rather
than ‘extreme’ load events. Using a load factor less than 1.0 will increase the
chance of the design load being exceeded from 1 in 20 to say 1 in 5 or 1 in 10.

Activity:
Consider the following list of structures

Your house/flat/hall of residence

Monash University lecture theatres
Military communication headquarters
Houses of parliament
Football grandstand
Hospital
Carport

As a designer would you design each structure to have the same

probability of collapse? Rank the structures in order of importance and if
a carport has value 1.0 allocate a relative factor of safety that you as the
designer, would use for each structure.

Show Discussion
3.4 SUPPORTS OR RESTRAINTS
A structure can be attached to its supports by connecting a member or members
of the structure to the supports in one of four ways.

Fixed (or Built In)

The member cannot move in any direction with respect to the support – it
cannot translate and it cannot rotate. An example would be a telegraph pole
which is “built in” to the ground.

A fixed support provides 3 reactions (for a 2 dimensional structure),

a force in the x direction, Fx

a force in the y direction, Fy
an applied moment about the z axis, Mz

Therefore, in general at a fixed support:

 Fx≠0

Fy≠0

Mz≠0

Pinned (or Hinge)

The member cannot translate in any direction with respect to the support, but it
can rotate. For example the back leg of the chair that you sit on cannot translate
across the floor – it is “fixed” by friction – but it can easily rotate with respect to
the floor when you swing backwards on your chair (don’t try it!). Any member
of a structure that is connected to the support with one bolt will be a pinned
connection – it cannot translate but it can rotate.

For a structure to be stable we must ensure that it is not free to rotate about the
pin (rotational equilibrium of the structure is to be maintained).

The applied moment due to all forces acting on the structure, (taken
about the pin) must be zero.

ΣM about the pin = 0

A pinned support provides 2 reactions (for a 2 dimensional structure),

a force in the x direction, Fx

a force in the y direction, Fy

Therefore, in general at a pinned support:

Fx≠0

Fy≠0

Mz=0

Roller
The member is prevented from translating in one direction only, and it is free to
rotate. When you stand in roller blades or on a skateboard, you are free to rotate
(topple over), and you can translate in the direction of the rollers, but you cannot
translate into the ground or at right angles to the rollers. You are therefore
connected to the earth through a roller.

For a structure to be stable we must ensure that there is no rotation about the
roller (rotational equilibrium maintained) and there is no translation of the roller
(translational equilibrium maintained).
 The applied moment due to all forces, taken about the roller, must be
zero, and the force at the roller (in the direction of the roller) must be
zero.

ΣM about the roller = 0

ΣFxat the roller = 0, where x is the

direction of the roller

A roller support provides 1 reaction (for a 2 dimensional structure), a force

perpendicular to the roller, Fy.

Therefore, in general at a roller:

Fx=0

Fy≠0

Mz=0

Free
When there is no connection between the end of a member and the support, then
the end of the member is free to translate and rotate with respect to the support.
Think for example of the top of a flagpole.

A free support provides no reactions.

Therefore, at a free end

Fx=0

Fy=0

Mz=0

It is important to note that while we draw the reactions for rollers and pins in
the positive axis direction only, it is understood that they can provide a reaction
in both the positive and negative directions. A more complete picture of the
support would be:

Suggested Reading (5 Minutes):

Hibbeler, R.C., Statics and mechanics of Materials, Section 4.2 pp.141-
143.
Show Discussion
3.5 JOINING MEMBERS TOGETHER
In mathematically modelling the behaviour of structures (structural analysis) we
classify the ways in which members are joined to one another (at a node) into
two types:

Fixed
If one member is fixed to another member, for example by welding or gluing,
then they become one member. There is no relative translation or rotation
between the ends of the two members once they are joined.

Represented in a diagram as,

Pinned
If one member is “pinned” to another member, for example by a single bolt
connection, then there cannot be relative translation between the ends of the two
members, but there can be rotation. We refer to this as an internal pin or a hinge
in the structure (it is called an internal pin to distinguish it from a pinned
support. This has an important consequence for equilibrium of the structure. If
the sum of all the applied moments due to all the forces to one side of the pin
does not equal zero, then the structure will rotate about the pin – it will not be in
equilibrium. Therefore, at an internal pin we can write equilibrium equations to
say that, at an internal pin,
 ΣM taken to one side of the pin = 0

Activity:
During the next week, make a point of looking closely at the structures
around you. Try to find fixed, pinned and roller supports. Try to find
fixed and pinned connections between members. (Hint – in real
structures, a pin is often not a perfect pin, instead it is a connection
which will allow some rotation between the two parts.)

Show Discussion
3.6 STABLE AND UNSTABLE
SUPPORT TO A STRUCTURE
One of the main tasks of the structural engineer is to design a structure which
will not collapse when loaded. The most magnificent structure will be of no use
if the supports are not adequate to prevent collapse, so the structural engineer
must pay careful attention to see that the structure is adequately supported.

A structure is stable when it has a set of supports that provides adequate support
to prevent the structure from rotating or translating. A stable structure has a load
path from an applied load to the support.

A structure is unstable when the set of supports do not prevent rotation

and/or translation, so the structure will collapse. An unstable structure does not
have a load path from an applied load to the support.

Determinate and Indeterminate Structures

If a structure has just enough support to make it stable, then we can calculate
exactly how much of the applied load is carried by each support, using the
equations of equilibrium (topic 4). When the reactions can be determined from
the equations of equilibrium alone, we say that the structure is determinate.

If a structure has extra support, so that the equations of equilibrium do not give
enough information to calculate how much of the applied load is carried by each
support then we say that the structure is indeterminate.

A determinate structure has only one load path from an applied load to the
support. An indeterminate structure has a choice of load paths from an applied
load to the support. In this case, the proportion of the load that is carried by each
load path depends upon the stiffness of the various load paths.

A useful way of checking whether a 2 dimensional stable structure is determinate

or indeterminate is to count up the number of reactions that the supports provide.
If this equals 3 the structure is determinate. If there are more than 3 reactions the
structure is probably indeterminate, and has alternative load paths (although this
is not always the case), and if there are less than 3 reactions then the structure
does not have enough support, and it will collapse – it is unstable.

The support of a structure can be classified as follows:



Activity:
Place one end of your ruler onto a round pen or pencil, lying on your
desk (a roller). Leave the other end unsupported. Is this unstable or
 stable?

Place the other end of you ruler onto a second round pen or pencil.
Apply a horizontal force to your ruler. Is this stable or unstable?

Hold the ruler at one end to prevent it moving horizontally, so this end is
now a pin support. Is this stable or unstable? If stable, is it determinate
or indeterminate?

Show Discussion
3.7 SUMMARY
1. The main types of loads are point loads, uniformly distributed loads,
and applied moments.

a point load is a load that can be considered to be acting at a single point.

a uniformly distributed load (UDL) is a load with a constant magnitude
along a structural member.
an applied moment is a bending or twisting action applied at a single point.

1. Dead loads and live loads are the two main classes of loads. There are
many other classes (wind, thermal, …)

dead load is the self weight of the structure.

live load is the load associated with the normal use of a structure.

1. Characteristic values for loads are determined based upon an

acceptable risk of the design load being exceeded.

the characteristic load is the value that has 5% probability of being

exceeded.

1. Limit states are a ‘checklist’ of conditions to design for (collapse,

deflection, …)

1. The design loads are different for the different limit states. This is
achieved by multiplying the characteristic load by different load
factors.

load factors are applied to change the probability of the load being
exceeded.


1. Supports for a structure can be fixed, pinned, roller (or free).

a fixed support in 2D provides three reactions (2 forces and one moment).

a pinned support in 2D provides two reactions (forces).
a roller in 2D provides one reaction (force).

1. Connections between members can be fixed or pinned.

a fixed connection between members prevents relative translation and

rotation.
a pinned connection between members prevents relative translation, but
allows relative rotation.

1. A structure will have stable or unstable support.

1. A stable structure will be determinate or indeterminate.

Show Discussion
4 APPENDIX A – SIGN
CONVENTIONS
Introduction
There are two types of actions and displacements that we have to define a sign
convention for – external and internal.

External actions are things that are done, or applied, to a structure (loads and
reactions), and external displacements are measurable displacements of a
structure. They include:

applied force: external action

applied moment and torque: external action
deflection: external displacement
rotation: external displacement

Internal actions describe how a structure is carrying a load, and internal

deformations are the deformations that result. They include:

bending moment: internal action

shear force: internal action
torsion: internal action
axial force: internal action
curvature: internal deformation
stress: internal action
strain: internal deformation

External Actions and Displacements

These are defined with respect to a set of axes that obeys the right hand screw
rule – if the fingers of your right hand are curled from the x axis to the y axis,
then your thumb points in the z axis direction.
Once the axes are defined then,

applied force is positive in the positive axis direction

applied moment and torque are positive in accordance with the right hand
screw rule – place your right thumb along the positive axis direction, and
curl your fingers to see the direction of a positive moment

deflection is positive in the positive axis direction

 rotation is positive in accordance with the right hand screw rule

Internal Actions and Deformations

Sagging bending moment is positive. Bending moment diagrams plot on the
tension side of the beam (which is the same as plotting positive moments
downward).

Shear force is positive as shown (the pair of shear forces cause a positive
moment). Shear force diagrams are plotted by following the load arrows
(which is the same as plotting positive shear force upward).
torsion is positive if the member twists in accordance with the right hand
screw rule, when viewed along the positive axis direction

axial force is positive if tensile, negative if compressive

curvature is positive if sagging

lengthening is positive, shortening is negative

normal stress is positive if tensile, negative if compressive

 normal strain is positive if lengthening, negative if shortening

Show Discussion
5 APPENDIX B – UNITS AND LOADS
Units
In structural engineering we deal mainly with two physical quantities, distance
and force.

You should only ever use the following units:

distance: metres (m) or millimetres (mm)

force: newtons (N) or kilonewtons (kN)

From these we can derive units for bending moment (force x distance), stress
(force / area), and pressure. For these you should only ever use one of the
following units:

bending moment: kilonewton-metres (kNm) or newton-millimetres (N-mm)

stress: newtons per square millimetre (N/mm2), which is a megapascal, (MPa)

pressure: kilonewtons per square metre (kPa)

The best way to keep track of your units is to declare at the start of your
calculation the units you will be using.

Example
Calculate the extension that occurs in a steel bar 100 mm square and 3 metres
long when it is subjected to an axial tension of 500 kN. The elastic modulus for
steel is 200,000 MPa.

The formula for axial extension is .

Option 1:

Units are N and mm.

P = 500 kN = 500,000 N

L = 3 m = 3000 mm

A = 100 x 100 = 10,000 mm2

E = 200,000 MPa (=N/mm2)

Option 2:

Units are kN and m.

P = 500 kN

L = 3 m

A = 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.01 m2

E = 200,000 N/mm2

= 200,000 x 106 N/m2

= 200,000 x 106 / 103 kN/m2

= 2 x 108 kN/m2

Convert mass to kg, before converting to force (weight). Take g = 10 m/s2

(rather than 9.81). The result is in N.

For example,

A car weighs 0.8 tonne. What is the force?

mass = 0.8 tonne = 800 kg

force = 800 kg x 10 m/s2 = 8000 N = 8 kN

Information on Loads

density of concrete: 2400 kg/m3 = 24 kN/m3

density of steel: 7850 kg/m3 = 78.5 kN/m3

Try to remember some of the following, or make up your own. They will help a
lot in giving you a feel for the numbers;

weight of an apple: 0.1 kg = 1 N

weight of a car: 1 tonne = 10 kN

pressure on a desk due to a full coffee cup: 0.8 kPa

atmospheric pressure: 100 kPa

pressure under a stiletto heel: 10 MPa

stress required to crush concrete: 40 MPa

stress to yield steel: 300 MPa

Show Discussion