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    Wl Mechanics & Hydraulics 1 Edit DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GIL Civil Engineer BSCE, LIT ~ Magna Cum Laude ‘rd Place, CE Board November 1989 ny Director & Re y Center ea Ml jeneral Engineering Sciences nila Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics tion Copyright © 1997, 1999, 2003 by Diego Inocencio Tapang Gillesanta No part of this book may be twutbout the prior permission of the amor ISBN 971-8614-28-1 Printed by, GPP Gillesania Printing Press Grmoe City, Leyte Philippines Cover design by the au prieiace as The cardinal objective of this book is to provide reference to Engineering students taking-up Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics. This may also serve as a guide to engineering students who will be taking, the licensure examination given by the PRC. The book has 9 chapters. Each chapter presents the principles and formulas involved, followed by solved problems and supplementary problems. Each step in the solution is carefully explained to ensure that it will be readily understood. Some problems are even solved in several methods to give the reader a choice on the type of solution he may adopt. To provide the reader easy access to the different topics, the book includes index. Most of the materials in this book have been used in my review classes. The choice of these materials was guided by their effectiveness as tested in my classes Lwish to thank all my friends and relatives who inspired me in writing my books and especially to my children and beloved wife Imelda who is very supportive to me. I will appreciate any errors pointed out and will welcome any suggestion for further improvement. DIEGO INOCENCIO T. GILLESANIA Cebu City, Philippines To my mother Iuminada, my wife Imelda, and our Children Kim Deunice, Ken Dainiel, and Karla Denise Preface Dedic: TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Properties of Fluid Types of Fluid Mass Density. Specific Volume. Unit Weight or Specific Weight Specific Gravity Viscosity... Kinematic Viscosity seein Surface Tension... Capillarity Compressibility Pressure Disturbances... Boney Vapor Pressure =a SOLYED PROBLEMS. ee SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS anges in Ideal Gas CHAPTER 2 Principles of Hydrostatics Unit Pressure Pascal's Law. Absolute and Gage Pressures. Variations in Pressure Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids Pressure Head. Manometers SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS ——— vii viii 9 0) 11 to 23, 24 to 26 ag 7 7 29 95 to 68 69 to 72, ii TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS iii CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 5 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 3 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow SAT Total Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surface 73 Discharge. ao Properties of Common Geometric Shapes. % Definition of Terms. 241 Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surface. 78 Energy and Head..... 244 Power and Efficiency 245 Dams 81 Bernoulli’s Energy Theorem. - 246 Types of Dams 81 Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines 248 Analysis of Gravity Dams. 84 SOLVED PROBLEMS 250 to 278 Buoyancy 88 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 274 to 276 Archimedes’ Principles 88 Statical Stability of Floating Bodies 90 ‘Stress on Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels 96 Cylindrical Tank. 96 CHAPTER 6 Spherical Shell 98 Fluid Flow Measurement Wood Stave Pipes... 98 Device Coefficients ‘ SOLVED PROBLEMS. 99 to 195 Head lost in Measuring Devices SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS 196 to 200 Orifice i Values of H for Various Conditions Contraction of the Jet. Orifice under Low Heads. CHAPTER 4 Venturi Meter Relative Equilibrium of Liquids 201 Nozle su Rectilinear Translation 201 Pitot Tube Horizontal Motion 201 Gates Inclined Motion 202 Tubes. Vertical Motion 203 Unsteady Flow (Orifice) Rotation 203 Weir: Senn Volume of Paraboloid. 205 Classification of Weirs. Liquid Surface Conditions 206 Rectangular Weif...nm0 SOLVED PROBLEMS 210 to 240 Contracted Rectangular Weit Triangular Weirs Trapezoidal Weir wn. Cipolletti Weir Suttro Weir: Submerged Weir Unsteady Flow SOLVED PROBLEMS SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 7 Fluid Flow in Pipes. Definitions Reynolds Number. . Velocity Distribution in Pipes Shearing Stress in Pipes... Head Losses in Pipe Flow. Major Head L Darcy-Weisbach Formula. Value of f. Moody Diagram Manning Formula Hazen Williams Formula Minor Head Loss. Sudden Enlargement Gradual Enlargement Sudden Contraction. Bends and Standard Fittings. Pipe Discharging from Reservoir Pipe Connecting Two Reservoirs. Pipes in Series and Parallel Equivalent Pipe Reservoir Problems. Pipe Networks. i SOLVED PROBLEMS.... TABLE OF CONTENTS SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 8 Open Channel Specific Energy .. Chézy Formula... ‘Kutter and Gunguillet Formula ‘Manning Formula Bazin Formula, at Powell Equation... Uniform Flow Boundary Shear Stress Normal Depth... Most Efficient Sections Proportions for Most Efficient Sections Rectangular Section... Trapezoidal Section. Triangular Section Circular Sections... Velocity Distribution in Open Channel Alternate Stages of Flow Froude Number... Critfeal Depth. Non-Uniform or Varied Flow Hydraulic Jump. Flow around Channel Bends... SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS v EE ve 481 481 482 483 483 483 434 485 485 486 486 437 en ABT sn 487 489 490 491 491 492 492 495 497 500 “501 to 547 547 to 550 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Se en CHAPTER 9 Hydrodynamics. ee Force against Fixed Flat Plates Force against Fixed Curved Vanes Force against Moving Vanes Work Done on Moving Vanes Force Developed on Closed Conduit Drag and Lift. Terminal Velocity. Water Hammer... SOLVED PROBLEMS SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS APPENDIX 557 559 560 563 to 597 597 to 598. Properties of Fluids and Conversion Factors 599 Table A - 1: Viscosity and Density of Water at 1 atm 599 Table A - 2: Viscosity and Density of Air at 1 atmreennu- 600 Table A - 3: Properties of Common Liquids at 1 atm & 20°C...601 Table A - 4: Froperties of Common Gases at 1 atm & 20°C..... 601 Table A - 5: Surface Tension, Vapor Pressure, and Sound Speed of Water 602 Table A - 6; Properties of Standard Atmosphere 608 Table A - 7: Conversion Factors from BG to SI Units 604 Table A - 8: Other Conversion Factors 605 INDEX 1-1IV FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Chapter 1 Properties of Fluids (CHAPTER ONE 1 Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Fluid Mechanics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids: Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deals with fluids at rest, andl fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion “The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as bei z essentially incompressible, yds deals with the application of fuld mechanics to engineeting cetng guide urually ater or of Hydraulics deals with such problems ahs few of lida trough pipes orn open channels, the design a storage tse of guid, such as ozzes, valve, el, and wines ‘TYPES OF FLUID Fluids are generally divided into two categories: ideal fluids and real fluids, Ideal fluids ‘Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance to shear) «+ Incompressible + Have uniforni velocity when flowin No friction between moving layers of fluid + No eddy currents or turbulence Real fluids «« Exhibit infinite viscosities + Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing, + Compressible + Experience friction and turbulence in flow 2 SHAPTERONE FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Real fluids are further divided into Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids Most fluid problems assume real fluids with Newtonian characteristics for convenience, This assumption is appropriate for water, ir, gases, steam, and other simple fluids like alcohol, gasoline, acid solutions, etc, However, slurries, pastes, gels, suspensions may not behave according to simple fluid relationships Fis) Eon" Se) ba CS anna Tentorion Fs) [Reefiewtonin Fa een Fide Figure 1 - 1: Types of ud ([ingram uae) Dalatant Fd MASS DENSITY, p (RHO) The density of a fluid i its mass per unit of volume, CHAPTERONE 3 ee sancHANCS Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS: where: p= absolute pressure of gas in Pa R= gas constant Joule / kg-°K “Table 1 4: Approximate Room-Temperature Densities of Common Flids pinkg/m 729) | Alcohol Ammonia ‘Glycerin, Stn 13,600 Water 7,000 SPeciric VOLUME, Vv, Specific volume, V, is the volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid. Eq.1-3 ‘mas of uid ae volume, V vane a 2 Units English = sugs/f® Note pan ~ Se peek eentann UNIT WEIGHT OR SPECIFTE WEIGHT, st kg/m? Gpecific weight or unit weight, 7 is the weight of a unit volume of a fluid. ‘or an ideal gas, its density can be found from the specific gas constant and. ideal gas law: ads 2 i ae Fqg.1-2 fluid, W qi 12a weight 4 CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE Properties of Fluids E HYDRAULICS & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fuids Ue the upper plate will adhere to it and will move with the same velocity U while English: Ib/st® the fluc in contact with the fixed plate will have a zero velocity. For small Metric: dyne/em* values of U and y, the velocity gradient can be assumed to be a straight line SI Nfos' or KN/m? and F varies as A, U and y as bau we a Sipeum ty Se ie wut Ye AY (fromthe figure)“ Specific gravity, », ia @ dimensionless saliv of a fluid’s density to some yay an standard reference density. For liquids and solids, the reference density is nie paar a) = Shearing stress, Phguia gee be eon > absolute viscosity denoted as u. In gases, the standard reference to calculate the specific gravity is the derisity dV ofalr. 7% Pane Eq.1-8 so See Eq.1-7 4 Pat : Tor water at °C: ° y= 624 Ib/f = 9.81 KN/m? 94 slugs/f = 1000 kg/m? 10 VISCOSITY, 1 (MU) The property of a fluid which determines the amount of its resistance to shearing forces. A perfect fluid would have no viscosity Consider two large, parallel plates at a small distance y apart, the space between them being filled with a fluid Consider the upper plate to be subject to a force F so as to ‘move with a constant velocity U, The fluid in contact with ‘hed ite shear stress in Ib/f€ or Pa = absolute viscosity in lb sec/ ft (poises) or Pa-soc y= distance between the plates in ft or m ocity in ft/s or m/s KINEMATIC VISCOSITY y (NU) Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamie viscosity of the fluid, 4, to its mass density, o. where = absolute viscost y 1m Fa-see p= density in kg/m FLUID MECHANICS 6 SHAPTERONE & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE = S HYDRAULICS, Properties of Fluids Table 1 - 2: Common Units of Viscosity system Absolite, Kinematic, v ae, Thsec/fe Fy English Oneie £8/sec cdynes/cm? ome Metric y | (poise) (stoke) | Pas F EF (N-s/m’) ee Note: 1 poise = 1 dynes/em 1 stoke = 0,001 m/s O41 Passéc (1. dyne= 105 N) SURFACE TENSION o (SIGMA) The membrane of “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces, and is known as suoface tension. ‘Surface tension is the reason that insects are able to sit on water and a needle is, able to float on it. Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area per unit volume. Pressure inside a Droplet of Liquid: where: = surface tension in N/m diameter of the droplet in.m gage pressure in Pa Capiltarity (@) Adhesion > cohesion (©) Cohesion > adhesion Chpillarity (Capilary action) is the name g thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capil surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do Hot wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smnaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter _ deeos0 vd iven to the behavior of the liquid in a tube is caused by h wean | For complete wetting, as with water on clean glass, the angle @ is 0° Hence the formula becomes ) win | ‘k= capillary rise or depression in m ‘y= unit weight in N/m? diameter of the tube inm = surface tonsion in Pa CHAPTER ONE 8 FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE —«g) & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Table 1 3: Contact Angles, 0 Materials ‘Angle, 0 mereury-plass 1 Water-paraffin 107 water-silver | Kerosene-glass [elycerin-glass ‘ethylalcohol glass COMPRESSIBILITY, Compressbiity (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant ~ aress | Ap ¥g.1-15 stain AV PRESSURE DISTURBANCES Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or felerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as: o= [fa = Jo Eq.1-17 Temperature process EE AW a p= te Bq.1-18 - bin PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS For any ideal gas experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by’ orp at Bq t- 14 z where: AV = change in volume V = original volume Ap change in pressure V/V = change in volume (usually in percent) BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, Ey The bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of volume, Eq.1-18 When temperature is held constant, Eq, 1-18 reduces to (Boyle's Lino) pM Eq.1-19 | When temperature is held constant (isothern 18 reduc to (Charle’s Lew) , CHAPTER ONE 10 _Propertios of Fuias FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS, ‘FLUID MEcHanics CHAPTERONE 44 HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids For Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions (no heat exchanged) pe Vika pa Va Bg.1-21 or = 22 =Constant Eg. 1-22 Ph aud By 1-23) initial absolute pressure of gas final absolute pressure of gas Vi= initial volume of gas /2= final volume of gas T= initial absolute temperature of gas in °K (°K Tz final absolute temperature of gas in °K k = ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume, Also known as adiabatic exponent. +273) VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium processes, The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the mpor pressure or saturation pressure Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures, Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easly are said to volalile liquids, Other liquids such as mercury, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid, Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point hat the vapor presstite is equal ta the lncal ambient (sisrraunding) pressive. ‘Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure, as well as the liquids tendency to vaporize ‘Table 1 4: Typical Vapor Pressures Fluid KPa, 20°C, mercur @.000173, ‘turpentine 0.0534 ‘ethyl alcohol ther Butane Freon Propane. Solved Problems __ aa ey al Problem 1-1 IA reservoir of glycerin has a. mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m Pind its (a) weight, W, (0) unit weight. 7, (&) mass density, p, and (4) specific “gravity (9 olution (a) Weight W= Mg 1,200)(9.81) = 11,772 N of 11.72 kN Weight, W (Unie weight, y= © Density, p 260.5 kg/m? 12. CHAPTER one e FLUID MECHANICS erties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Spedicgevtiy« ey Pwater 1605 Specie gravity,» = 1280 Specific gravity, s = 1.26 Problem 1-2 Me Pe ea ot The specific gravity of certain oil is 0.82. Calculate its (a) specific weight, in 1/#€ and KN/am’, and (3) mass density in slugs/fO and kg/m’. Solution (@) Specific weight, y Specific weight, Specific weight, 81 08 2 = 8.044 kN/m? (6) Density, p= Puan § Density, p = 1.94 0,82 = 1.59 sluge/ft® Density, p = 1000 x 0.82 = 820 kg/m? CON Siar. eee ene ee aoe ae A liter of water weighs about 9.75 N. Compute its mass in kilograms. Sol Mass = s 9. Mass = 22 981 Mass = 0.994 kg, Problem 1-4 Ian object has a mass of 22 kg at sea level, (2) what will be its weight at a point where the acceleration due to gravity = 9.75 m/s?? (b) What wil be its ‘mass at that point? FLUID MecHANics CHAPTERONE 4.3 HYDRAULICS. Properties of Fluids Solution () W=mg=22(9:75) v 2145 N (6) Since the mass of an object is absolute, its mass will still Problem 1-5 What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the Acceleration due to gravity is 395 m/s per minute? Solution m/s, Imin 395 2/8 ‘min * 60sec 6.583 m/s? W=45(6.583) W= 296.25 N lem 1-6 Mi spect: volume of « certain gas ts 07849 s02/ g, whit is ils specific ~ o7et8 kg/m, Specific weight, y= ps 1 =125 Nim Specific weight, CHAPTER ONE 14 Properties of Fiulds FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Problem 1-7 ‘What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21°C? Solution =pxg p iin > where R = 287 J/kg-°K aoe I kg _480%10° 21+273) p= 5.689 kg, 1 = 5.689 9.81 55.81 N/m? Problem 1-8 Find the mass density of helium at a temperature of 4 °C and a pressure of 184 kPa gage, if atmospheric pressure is 101.92 kPa. (R = 2079 J/kg * °K) Solution Density, p= P= Prog * Pa = 181 + 101.92 2 kPa 273= 277K 285.92 10 2,079(77) Density, p = 0. 4965 kg/m? Density, p Problem 1-9 \t32C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m. determine the gas constant of this gas. FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE & HYDRAULICS. Properties of Fluids 15 Solution Density, p = 1.397 kg/m Density, p= = RT (205-+ 101.325) «10° ea ee) et Note: Pan 32 +273) 718.87 kg °K Gas constant, R 101.225 kPa Problem 1-10 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature Sp0-Liter container, What is the mass of alt? £ 30°C in Solution 287(80+ 2 23 kg/m? Mass = px V Mass = 1.15 kg Problem 1-11 A cylindrical tank 80 em in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the liquid weighed 420 kg. The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in kN/m. 16 L=0.192m=192em Problem i~i3 A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 iter at a pressure of 1 MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. The bulk modulus of elasticity (Ep) of the liquid is: Solution ap i W/V 035-171 00 MPa Ey Problem 1-14 What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water, Es = 2.2 GPa, | FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE 4. & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Solution Es Do06v /V p= 0.0132GPa p= 13.2MPa Problem 1-15 7 Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116280 kPa absolute. Using Fe = 25 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water. Solution at dp av IV 116,280=137) 10° sxips a es aviv V = 9.0465 4.65% decrease sa v a v Problem 1-16 [f 9 my of an ideal gas at 24 °C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2 m?, (a) what is the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (b) What would hav is isentropic. Use k= 1.3, been the pressure and temperature ifthe prt CHAPTER ONE 18 properties of Fuids (@) For isothermal condition PVi= pa Ve 1150(9) = p> 2) p2= 675 kPa abs () For isentropic process PiVat= pe Va! 150(9)'*= ps @)* 2 = 1,060 kPa abs fy, ene Tr (pa Ty ly T_ (1.060)020718 +73 \ 150 Tz = 466.4°K or 193.4°C ease ee a ere nL 1 PE ec eet Problem 1-17 If the viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978. determine its absolute viscosity in Pa - s and its kinematic viscosity in m2/s and in stokes, Solution Absolute viscosity 00402 poise x 94Fa=s “poise X y= 0.000802 Pa -s Kinematic viscosity 1 _ 0.000402 (100% 0.978) 11 x 107 m/s Y= 4.11 x 10? mi/s x — Ke v= 4.11 x 109 stoke S001: 76 R ONE cHAPTEI 19 FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluld roperties of Flulds & HYDRAULICS Mvo lage plane surfaces are 25:mm apart and the space between them filled Milt a tiguic of viscosity = 0.958 Pas, Assuming the velocity gradient tobe fragt line, what force ts required to pull avery thin plate of 037 me area at Bonstant speed of 0.3 m/f the plate s 84 mum from one of the surfaces? Solution ie | _F/A 25 mm | Hu usy a4 =p WA atl 958 3 95803037) 6 4 0.0166 0.95803)037) _|, Fa 008s - 66N 64+ 12.66 9.06 N J oylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of WW mm radius. Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is equired to maintain an angular velocity of 2m radians/sec Assume the a straight line Velocity gradient t CHAPTER ONE 20 FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS 125(2n) sexing 785 m/s aie y= 0.005 m Torque = F(0.125) Torque = A (0.125) bbe stat 0.88 = [2n(0.125(03)] (0125) +=2988 Pa 2988 0785 /0.005 = 0.9 Pa-s ons -f Problem 1-20 An 18-kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with viscosity = 0.0814 Pa-sec. If the contact area is 0.3 m®, find the terminal velocity of the slab, Neglect air resistance, Solution We 169.8) = 176.5801 Terminal velocity is attained when the motion is zero sum of all forces, in the direction of FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE 4 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids [SF =O] Wsin®-F.=0 F.=Wsind F,= 176.58 sin 15° 17658 sin 15° = 0 0814 14 m/s = 5.614 mys Problem 1-24 timate’ the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 ter Solution Note: 0 = 90° for water in clean tube 40 Capillary rise, 140.0728) 7310(0.003) Capillary rise, r= 0.0099 m = 9.9 mm Capiltfry vise, b= Problem1-22 Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2 mm in diameter, Use ¢ = 0.514 N/m and 8 = 140" Solution 4ocosd _ _4(0.514)(cos 140°) YH (9810+ 13.6)(0.002) Capillary rise, Capillary rise, negative sign indicates capillary depression Capillary depression, h = 5.9 mm CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS ID MECHANICS 22 _ Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Problem 1 - 23 What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa? blem 1 - 26 iween impulses, how deep is the water? 6 a & Yelocity of the pressure wave (sound wave) is ee a ms Vp oN oat oe - 428 m/s 6 000 a Problem 1-24 the echo is received 8 ilway between impulses, then < An atomizer forms water droplets 45 um in diameter. Determine the excess es te ° Pressure within these droplets using o = 0.0712. N/m, vs sec and the total lance covered is 2i, then: Solution ns Fa dhect i a= 128% MOO7I2) 6 05 na We 1785m x10 lem 1 - 27 What pressure will 80 °C water boil? Wopor pressure of water at 80°C = 474 kPa Problem 1-25 Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mm. What is the true static height? Use c = 0.0742 N/m. olution Solution Water will boit i the atmospheric pressure equals the v _ secos eas Therefore water at §0 °C will boil at 47.4 kPs where 0 = 0° for water in glass tube n= OAD) 4.00336 m = 3.36 mm 3810(0.000) True static height ~ 24 -3.36 ‘True static height = 20,64 mm er accond tf the deve held Paurace of es wrter (x= 20810 a) and he eco i receved mwa CHAPTER ONE Properties ufFuids 23 Jsoura wave charren one 24 Properties of Fluids Supplementary Problems Problem 1 - 28 What would be the weight of 1 3-kg mass on a plane! due to gravity is 10 m/s FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE > & HYDRAULICS, tt gt Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS Fee pales es ool of nitrogen at 30° and 125 KPa ab is peri Dotermally o 30 mf what ste sealing prerere?() What would the wwe been if the process had been isentropic? Jpressuire and temperature have been ifthe pi Lea (8) 34.7 kPa abs; -63°C t where the acceleration Ans: 30 N Problem 1-29 A vertical cylindrical tank with a diameter of 12 m and a depth of 4 m is filled with water to the top with water at 20°C. If the water is heated to 50°C, how. auch water will spill over? Unit weight of water at 20°C and 80°C 1g 979 KN/m? and 9.69 kN/m, respectively, Boe us sage slides down an A squre block weighing 1.1 KN and 250 mm on an edge slides down an line on im of 60 hee Assuming nen veloc pron the fil and neglecting air resistance, what is the terminal velocity of the block? *The viscosity of cil is7 mPa-s. Angle of inclination is 20" Ans: 5.16 m/s Ans: 4.7 mi Problem 1 - 30 A Higid steel container is partially filled witha liquid at 15 atm, The volume of Pesnittid 8 123200 L. At a pressure of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid is 2.231001. Find the average bulk modulus of elasticity ofthe liquid over the given range of pressure if the temperature after compression is allowed to ‘eturn to its inital value, What isthe coefficient of compressibility? Ans: En = 1.872 GPa; P - 0.534 GPa" Problem 1-35 Benzene at 20°C has a viscosity of 0.000551 Pa-s. What shear stress is required 1o deform this fluid at a strain rate of 4900 5"? ena Problem 1-36 A shaft 70 mm in ciameteris being pushed a speed of 400 mm/s through a Hearing sleeve 702 mm in diameter and 250 min long, The clearance, assumed niform, is filled with oil at 20°C with v = 0.005 m’/s and sp. gr. = 0.9. Fin« the force exerted by the ol in the shaft Problem 1-31 Cateulate the density of water vapor at 350 kPa abs'and 20°C if ts gas constant 4s 0.462 kPa-m'/kg.°K a. Ans: 2.59 kg/m! Problem 1 - 37 ‘wo clean parle glass plate, separated bya distance = 1.5 may are dipped {n.a bath of water. How far does the water rise due to capillary action, if ¢ 0730N/m? Problem 1-32 Air is Kept at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 30°C in a SO0-L container. What is the mass of the air? Ans: 9.94 mm Ans: 1.15 kg, 26 Specie Grovty blem 2-2 (2) Open manometer (©) iferentiat manometer itis the pressure 12.5 m below the ocean? Use sp. gr. = 1.08 for salt water. lution poyk p= (81 »1.05)0125) 1263 kPa (©) Prezometer 36 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS ial eee ieee Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics 37 Problem 2-3 Problem 2-5 If the pressure 23 meter below a liquid is 388445 kPa, determine its uni If the pressure in the air space above an oil (= 0.75) surface in a closed tank is weight y, mass density p . and specific gravity s 115 kPa absolute, what is the gage pressure 2 m below the surface? Solution Solution (a) Unit weight. y payh 338.415 — y 23) Y= 14.715 Ni P= Poutuce +Y Prune = 115 ~ 10125 Note: Pan = 101.325 kPa Put = 13.675 kPa gage p= 13.675 + (9.81%0.75)(2) 28.39 kPa 18) Mass density» pet i hiiaticha aii g Problem 2-6 14715010" Find the absolute pressure in KPa ata depth of 10 m below the fre surface of 98 il of sp. gr. 075 ifthe barometric reading is 752 mmHg = 1,500 kg/m a (0) Specific gravity, ae = Pets Pom = Yale fae (81 = 13.6)0752) 1.500 pm ~ 100229 kPa Wate Prats "00.329 + (981 « 0.7>\(10) oaye Pots = 173.9 kPa Problem 2-4 a Problem 2-7 If the pressure at a point in the ocean is 60 kPa, what is the pressure 27 meters AA presstire gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 below this point? kPa. Another gage height 4 m reads 103 kPa, Determine the specific weight of the liquid Solution The difference in pressure between any two points in a Solution liquid is po pi = yh poo pit yh = 60 + (9.81%1.03)(27) p= 332.82 kPa popayh 103 - 90 = y(2) y= 65 kN/m® CHAPTER TWO 38 Principles of Hyarostaties Problem 2-8 [An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene (y = KN/m), Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank. FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Solution (a), Pressure atthe interface ea = 02) a= 256 kPa Kerosene es (0) Pressure at the bottom Sem? m penta ‘A eet oli sia 5815.8) + 862) a= 82.498 kPa 2 Problem 2-9 If atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 188 mmbig vacuum, find the absolute pressure within the tank. Solution Pas = Pa + Per Prog ™ Yr Herry (981 x 13.6)(0.188) (08 kPa vacuum Paras * 25.08 kPa paw = 95.7 + (-25.08) ats = 70.62 kPa abs Problem 2-10 ‘The weight density of a mud is given by y= 10+ 0.5h, where yis in kN/m? and his in meters, Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of 5 m CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Solution Since the density of the mud varies with depth, the pressure should be solved by integration ap=y dk p= (10+ 05 hth p= 10h+025H" | (106) + 0.256) -0 56.25 kPa blem 2= i Ui the figure shown ifthe atmospheric Pressure is 10103 kPa and the absolute tre atthe bottom of the tank is kPa, what isthe specific gravity sive oil” SAE OI, s= 0.89 Ove, s =? Mercury, $ = 13.6 lution Goge pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 231.3 ~ 101.03 Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 130.27 kPa [p= 2a P= Yu lta Yo e+ Yo lh + Yo to 13U2/ = (BBL « 15,6)(04) + 9.81 38 39 592.9) + 98125) | 0.81 « 089/15) CHAPTERTWO gy CHAPTER TWO. FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS BE raewcsrtics 40 _Frinciples of yarostatcs & HYDRAULICS |) _& HYDRAULICS Bieles of Hy Female Pooeaer ide of 1,200 m if the If air had a constant specific weight of 122 N/m? and were incompressible Compute the barometric pressure in KPa at an altitude, of 1.200 e : & e Pa. As {isothermal conditions a 21°C. Use what would be the height ofthe atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (seal pressure at sea Tove s 101.3 Pa, Assume level) is 102 kPa? R= 287 Joule /kg-*K. Solution Solution Helght of atmosphere, h= 2 Hyves 10210" pa Height of atmosphere, = = 8,360.66 m Problem 2 43 (CE Board May 1994) = 000001185 p Assuming specific weight of alr to be constant at 12 N/m, what is the approximate height of Mount Banahaw if a mercury barometer atthe base of 4p =-(0.00001185 (981) dt the mountain reads 654 mm and at the same instant, another barometer at the 0001168 dt top of the mountain reads 480 mm, aa | antes fam a0 3 , 20 inp = 0,0001163% Psa I, Inp= In (101.3 105 = -0.000116(1200 - 0) Inp= 11386 286 pre p= 88,080 Pa Pros Pop = 1 (tw Hs) ection ~ (Yu ta)op = Ct Hae {9810 x 13.6)(0.654) - (9,810 x 13.6)(048) = 12 f= 1,934.53 m chapter TWO CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS rostatics 43 42 _Principies of Hyarostatics & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostat Problem 2-15 blem 2 - 18 (CE November 1998) le that of piston B is 950 69. cm. Convert 760 mim of mereury to (a ol of sp. gr 0.82 and (@) water, on A has a cross-section of 1200 sq. cm while that of pisto fe wae th the latter higher than piston A by 1.75 m, Ifthe intervening passages are Solution led with oil whose specific gravity is 08, what is the difference in pressure 0) a= 136 = 0763s oe 9,810 x 08)(1.75) hh 12.605 m of ol Beaman ©) Tate * Hers Sery 0.76(13.6) Fisate = 10.34.m of water Problem 2-16 (CE Board May 1994) A barometer reads 760 mmFig andl a pressure gage attached to a tank reads £850.cm of ol (sp. gr. 0.80), What is the absolute pressure in the tank in kPa? lem 2-19 the figure shown, Solution ine the weight W Pas™ Pam + Pe can be cartied by the ~ (9.81 « 13.1076) + 0.81 x0.8)8.5) EN force Acting, an the Pony = 168.1 kPa abs a Of, s= 082 Problem 2- 17 A hydraulic press is used to raise an 80-KN cargo truck. If oil of sp. gr. 082 mo acts on the piston under pressure of 10 MPa, what diameter of piston is required? olution Solution Since points 1 and 2 ie on the Sneha Since the pressure under the piston is uniform: fame elevation, ps= ps oa Force = pressure x Area £80,000 = (10x 109) # D2 D=01m=100mm » W=150kN CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics 44 Problem 2-20 A drum 700 mm in diameter and filled with water has a vertical pipe, 20 mi in diameter, attached to the top. How many Newtons of water must poured into the pipe to exert a force of 6500 N on the top of the drum? a Zs 56 Abe bark 16,904 = 9810 i: h=1.723m Weight = yx Volume = 9810 $ (0.02)%(1,723) ‘rea on top Weight=5.31N 700 mim Problem 2-21 cylinder. What force F is required to balance the weight of the cylinder ifthe weight of the plunger is negligible? Poe, Ja 0.00823 mt joi, + -0.70 Jol, s = 0.78 CHAPTER TWO t NT Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS 45 +a lcpraee nate Niet an Ja = 0.305 \Eso129 w Noi, s = 0.78 You, s = 0.78 ty 00303 pr=309.6 F (Pa) Wir ous Pan” o3m po 13622 KPa 136.22 - 309.6 F = (9.81 « 078)(4.6) F=0.326 kN = 326 N Problem 2-22 The hydraulic press shown is filled with oil with sp. gr. 0.82. Neglecting the weight of the two pistons, what force F on the handle is required to support the TO KN weight? CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics 47 46 SHAPTERTWo FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS [LUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Solution then the reading is equivalent to'30 cm of gasoline [ince the gage reads “FULL” Since points | and 2 lie on the same elevation, then, map — song 400mm Reading (pressure head) when the tank contain iy + 2h) em of gasoline y+2qly =30 y= 27.06 em Ca (0.425) = 1.11(0.025) 25mm 000m F = 0.0654 kN Peet =654N ‘Problem 2 24 (CE Board November 2000) 4m Determine the value [= Mo = 0} F(0.425) = F(0.025) lor the tank shown in the Figure, fy = 3m and Ih of Fe FB0 of the lever arm Problem 2- 25 Solution Summing-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of water 5 ngogay-x= PS Y Y The fuel gage for a gasoline (sp. gr. = 0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage. If the tank is 30 cm deep an accidentally contaminated with 2 ‘em of water, how many centimeters of gasoline does the tank actually contain when the gage erroneously reads “FULL”? ae 0+ 0.84 I~ (4-3)=0 ia fy = 119m Tr sagt oen| _Gablne, § = 068 roa Ly Ful CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics 48 ae CHAPTER TOTO oes Priciptot of Fyarostaties Problem 2 - 25 (CE Board May 1992) |m the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber? joMt bso 39) {S$ ~§ mgidov9 Problem 2 - 26 (1008 rod For the manometer shown! rivarle vtornonn determine the pressure at the a center of the pipe eran, = = 1355 Solution The pressure in the air space Solution equals the pressure on the surface Sum-up pressure headt from of oll. px 103 in meters of water: noo athe 98102) p= 19.62 kPa Pa pom tol £14758) 1962 ps = (981 « 0.80)(a) py= 148.7 kPa p= 177 kPa Another solution Sum-up pressure head from 1 to3 in meters of water Pr 42 40.80) = 22 422326 2 CHAPTER TW 50 P. Principles of Hydrostaties Problem 2-27 (CE Board November 2001) Determine the value of yin the manometer shown in the Figure, im BE Solution Summing-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water PA 4908) 415-9136) 5 Ps sor +39- 13.6y 981 aes where pe = 0 y= 0.324 m FLUID MECHANICS Mf FLUID MECHANICS fesctiArTeR TWO S& HYDRAULICS I & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hy a im f si Mercury Problem 2-28 (CE May 1993) jo 30am | In the figure shown, when the a! funnel is empty the water surface is at point A and the mercury of sp. gt. 1355 shows a deflection of 15 cm. Determine the new deflection of mercury when the fonnel is filled with water to B, Solution figure (a): Level at A Figure (b): Level at 8 Solve for y in Figure (0): ‘Sum-up pressure head from A to 2in meters of water: Pa + y-015(1388) = 2 O+y-203=0 y= 203m 52 CHAPTERTWO FLUID MECHAR De anics CHAPTERTWO 53 Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS DRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics In Figure (b) When the funnel is filled with water to B, point 1 will move down to with the same value as point 2 moving up to 2” Bp preseare head froma 20 eters of water % yig-2= Be 5 7 136y- In Figure @): ‘Sum-up pressure head from B to 2! CMa: Py Y ae ty tre (x +0154 2)(13.5 op O84 yt x= (6+ 015 + 31355) Bi. 1p pressure head from 2 to mt in meters of water: Pa 0+080+203+x-271x-2m=0 Bo + @asino+y+02)09.6)- (+02) ~ Pat 1 261x=080 ¥=0.031m=3.1em 0+ 272sin0 +13.6y+2.72-%-02 1B6y-x=8183-272sin0 Eq. (2) New reading, R=15 + 2x =15+2G.1) New reading, R = 21.2 em Be [136y -»=13.6y-3) 8.183 -2.72sin0 = sin 9 = 03852 0-22.66" m0 Problem 2 - 29) ‘The pressure ut point m in the figure shown was increased from 70 kPa to 105 kPa. This causes the top level of mercury to move 20 mm in the sloping tube. What is the inclination, 6? lem 2-30 flosed cylindrical tank contains 2.m of water, 3 m of oil (s= 0.82) and the air col has a pressure of 30 kPa. If an open mercury manometer at the of the tank has 1 m of water. determine the deflection of mercury. Solution tion ‘Sum-up pressure head from Lto 4 in meters of water: ae +3(0.82) +2+1 - (13.6) = Bh +246 +3-13.6y=0 y= 0.626 m Figure (a) Figure (b) In Figure (a) CHAPTER TWO 54 Principles of Hyarostatics Problem 2- 31 The Uctube shown is 10 mm in diameter and contains mercury. [f 12 ml of water is poured into the right-hand leg, what are the ultimate heights in the two legs? ae L Solution Solving for hi, (ee figure b) Volume of water = Law = 15.28 em Since the quantity of mercury before and after water is poured remain the same, then; 1208)=R+3 412044 Re2x=240 > Bq. (1) 20K — 1 20mm —! 1 20mm Figure (a) Figure (b) CHAPTER TWO Principtes of Hydrostatics 95 In Figure () ‘Summing-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in mm of water: Pt + 1528- RG3.6) = 22 7 7 R=1124mm InEq. 2 11.24 +2 x1 Ultimate heights in each leg Right-hand leg, n= h+ x =1528 + 114.38 Right-hand leg, fy = 267.18 mm_ Left-hand leg, n= R+ x 11.244 114.38 Left-hand leg, Jy «125.62 mm jem 2-32 ‘ gage reading of -17.1 kPa, fine the (f) rlevations of liquids in the open weometer columns E, F, and and (b) the deflection of the Mercury in the U-tube Manometer neglecting the ‘weight of air cHaprer two 56 Principies of Hyarostatics Solution FLUID MECHAM & HYDRAULI { ane a Column £ Sum-up pressure head from 1 toe in metes of water, Ls iyor) = 2° Y y He + incor hy =25 m Surface elevation Surface elevation 15-hy 15-2. 25m Column F Sum-up pressure head from 1 to fin meters of water exon mn}= #2 ae Surface elevation 12+ 0.357 = 12.357 m FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TWO ‘& HYDRAULICS 57 Principles of Hydrostatics Column G ‘Sum-up pressure head from 1 tog in meters of water: PL 4300.7) +4()-In.6) * SUL 421 +4-16hu=0 In=272m Surface elevation = 8 + ip Surface elevation =6 1 2.72-10.72-m Deflection of mercury ‘Gum-up pressure head from 1 to5 in meters of water; PL 4300.7) +4+4-Iu(13.6) 7 2H +101-13.6% y= 0.614 m roblem 2-33 ‘An open manometer attached to a pipe shows a deflection of 150 mung with the lawer level of mercury 450 mm below the centerline of the pipe carrying, water, Calculats the pressure at the centerline of the Pipe Sum-up pressure head from 1 to Hin meters of water; Ph 4 o45-0.15(13.6) = 2 Y 7 PL +045-204=0 38 pin 15.6kPa CHAPTER TWO 58 Principles of Hydrostaties Problem 2-34 For the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the piston if the pressure gage reading is 70 kPa, CHAPTERTWO gg FLUID MECHANG Principles of Hydrostatics ILUID MECHANICS HYDRAULICS )) Gage liquid = mercury, = 0:1. m ‘Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water; Ph ype be MI3)-¥-15" Y b Ba Y 5-01 + 0.10136) 76 m of water carbon tetrachloride Weight Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 4in meters of water; PL ath h(L58)-1-15= Bs 5 7 Solution Sum-up pressure head from Ato Bin meters of water; imo 2A 140.86) = 28 1 "Piston ee oi 52086 Weight = Fr pax Area = 78.44% 50)? Weight = 61.61 kN ‘Problem 2- 35 Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury, # connecting tubing being filled with water. The higher pressure vessel is 1.5 lower in elevation than the other. (a) If the mercury reading is 100 mm, wh is the pressure head difference in meters of water? (2) If carbon tetrachloride 1.59) were used instead of mercury, what would be the manomete ( reading for the same pressure difference? Bi Ps 154059 . where 21. P& =2.76 m > from (a) BR oy 276=15+ 059% he=2.136m blem 2-36 In the figure shown, determine He height i of water and the ype reading at A when the lute pressure at B is 290 ka cHapTer TWO 60 starrer nwo FLUID MECHANIGg) FLUID MECHANICS eee Principles of Hydrostaties & HYDRAULIES| | & HYDRAULICS selbtion Sumn-up pressure (gage) head from 1 tod in meters of water: FL + x(0.9) +130.) -1.3(13.6)= cd Y ‘Sum-up absolute pressure head from B to 2 in meters of water; Bb ee AP + 09x-1651-0 381 x=1381m 8 0.7036) - i 700 rom ‘Then, x+ y= 2842 m 1 >o 6 ols $= 085 Problem 2-38 For the manometer setup determine the difference in pressure between A and B. Sum-up absolute pressure head from B to A in meters of water; 28 97036) +07= 2A Y Y shown, FR -952407= 2A 81 9 = 2035 kPa abs Problem 2-37 In the figure shown, the atmospheric ea Solution pressure is 101 kPa, the gage A +068ny+17 reading at A is 40 kPa, and the vapor oa T x-y~102m * > Fq (1) pressure of alcohol is 12 KPa | absolute. Compute x+y 1 SSum-up pressure head from A to B uf inmeters of water; , a3 Pax 0680085) + y= FE tary Pa PB ax.ys 0578 > Fa.) Solution = 124908 Substitute x - y = 1.02 in Eq, (1) to Eq. 2}: ‘Sum-up absolute pressure head from ae eee Saar ~ 102i Ba. 1 to2in meters of water, Pa _ Pa -102+0578 et 2 -yos) Pa=Ps = 1508 404101 12 a See pa po=15.68kPa 981 Yost y=1461m CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics FLUID MECHANICS 62 Problem 2-39 A differential manometer i attached to a pipe as shown, the difference between points Caleulate pressun and B. Solution Stim-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water bs (0.9) -0.1(13.6) + 0.1(0:9) + (0.9) = 0.1(13.6)-0.1(0.9) Pap 981 pe= 1246 kPa 5 Solution CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostatics 63 the figure shown, the 0.25 m lection of mercury is initially mmm. If the pressure at A is eased by 40 KPa, while Jintaining the pressure at B mistant, what will be the new fereuiry deflection? 1 Figure (a) Figure (b) In Figure a, sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water: PA Pa 1 0.6 -0.25(13.6) + 0.25 + 2.1 Pe Y = 1.65 m of water CHAPTER TWO G4 _Principies of Hydrostatics In Figure b, py’ = p+ 40 ‘Sum-up pressure head from A’ to B in meters of water; PA (06-3)-(025+ 297136 + (235+) = 2 But MA 165 New mercury deflectio 250+ 2(162) New mercury deflectio Problem 2-41 Im the figure shown, determine the difference in pressure between points and B. serzene CHAPTER TWO. Principles of tyarostatics OD Mercury Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; FA. + 0.2(0:88) -0.09(13.6) - 031(0.82) + 0.25 -0.1(0.0012) PA. PB = 1.0523 m of water i Y £81(1.0523) = 10.32 kPa biem 2 - 42 (CE Board) suming normal barometric pressure, how deep in the ocean is the point here an air bubble, upon reaching the surface, has six times its volume than {had at the bottom? olution | phe Applying Boyle's Law (assuming isothermal condition) Viz peal p= 1013+ 9.81(0.03)h p= 1013 + 10.108 wav m=1013+0= 1013 va=6v (101.3 + 10.1041) = 101.3 (6 ) 10:104 h = 101.3(6) - 101.3, f= 50.13 m 66 SHAPTERTWo Problem 2 - 43 A vertical tube, 3m long, with one end closed is inserted vertically, with open end down, into a tank of water to such a depth that an open manot connected to the upper end of the tube reads 150 mm of mercury. Neglect vapor pressure and assuming normal conditions, how far is the lower end the tube below the water surface in the tank? Solution ren =A Applying Boyle's Lave Vax paVs Before the tube was inserted; ‘Absolute pressure of air inside, p1 Volume of air inside, Vi = 34 013 When the tube was inserted; Absohite pressure of air inside, Absolute pressure of air inside, p 101.3 +9.81(13.6)(0.15) 121.31 kPa Volume of air inside the tube, V2 = (3- y)A bias aval 1013 GA)=12131[@-y)A] 3~y= 2505 495 m From the manometer shown; Po= Yu lty = 0.81 + 13.6(0.15) ps= 20.0124 kPa. e FLUID MECHANI Principles of Hydrostaties 5 HYDRAUI CHAPTER TWO. Principles of Hydrostatics OF fe the pressure in air insice the tube is uniform ips = pe = 20.0124 kPa wht 20.0124 = 981K; = 04m Then, x=h+y=204+0.495 535 m jam 2-44 ‘consisting of a cylinder 15 em in diameter and 25 cm high, has a neck fs 5 cm diameter and 25 cm long, The bottle is inserted vertically in | with the open end down, such that the neck is completely filled with Find the depth to which the open end is submerged. Assume normal wtric pressure and neglect vapor pressure. n ying Boyle's Law Vin pV the bottle was inserted Volume of air Vi= F057 25) + $6R25) V;= 4,908.74 em! Absolute pressure in air pr= 101.325 Wp the bottle is inserted Volume of air: Va= $15) (25) V2= 4417.9 cm' Pressure in air: pr= 101325 + 9.81) Ins Vs = pe Val 101.325(4,908,74) = (101.325 + 981 hy(4.417 9) 101.325 +9.81 k= 11258 115m r=h+25= 2615 em CHAPTERTWO “HANICS 68 SHAPTERTWo FLUID MECH Mec Principles of Hydrostatics Principles of Hydrostaties &HYOI IRAULICS Peppa 2 48) lementary Problems eer A bicycle tte is inflated at sea level, where the atmospheric pressure ia 1 ee kPaa and the temperature is 21 °C, to 445 KPa, Assuming the lire does expand, what is the gage pressure within the tre on the top of a moun where the altitude is 6,000 m, atmospheric pressure is 47.22 kPaa, and ther report indicates the barometric pressure is 28.54 inches of mercury. Js the atmospheric pressure in pounds per square inch? temperature is 5 °C ane Solution Bh. paVe Bi. Bab ye Jube shown is filled with oil. Determine the pressure heads at B and C in of water At sea level Absolute pressure of air, p= 101.3 + 445 Absolute pressure, p) = = 546,3 kPaa Volume of air, Vi= V Absolute temperature of air. 7) =21 + 273 = 294 °K (On the top of the mountain: Absolute pressure of air; pp= 47.22 + p Since the tire did not expand, volume of air, V: = V Absolute temperature of air, T;=5 + 273 = 278°K Piva. al Th. sete jou s~ 085 5463) (47.22 pw “208 8 ae 4722+ p=51657 ihe tank shown in the figure, compute the pressure at points B, C, D,and E sh. Neglect the unit weight of air Lue =" P Ants: ps = 4.9; po= po = 4.9; pe 21.64 70 Figure 3 - 5: Arch dam ID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE IRAULICS 83 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces A.A buttress dam consists of a wall, or face, supported by several buttresses on the downstream side, The vast majority of buttress dams are made of concrete that is reinforced with steel. Buttresses are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 m (20 to 100 f), depending upon the size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams because the buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley. Figure 3-7: Multiple arch dam 4 CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS. FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERTHREE gg Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULIGS & HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces ANALYSIS OF GRAVITY DAM ‘A dam is subjected to hydrostatic forces due to water which is raised on its upstream side, These forces cause the dam to slide horizontally on its foundation and overturn it about its downstream edge or foe. These tendencies are resisted by friction on the base of the dam and gravitatidnal forces which causes a moment opposite to the overturning mment, The dam ‘may also be prevented from sliding by keying its base, A. Vertical force 1. Weight of the dam WiayeVir Wanye Var Wome Vs 2, Weight of water in the upstream side (if any) Wn 1M 3, Weight or permanent structures on the dam 4. Hydrostatic Uplift Us y Ye u Upstream Side Downs Side ne rae) Horizontal Force Hendwater 1. Total Hydrostatic Force acting at the vertical projection, of the submerged portion of the dam, | F=yha Vertical 2. Wind Pressure Projection of — she submerged 3. Wave Action face of dam 4, Floating Bodies 5, Rarthquake Load Il Solve for the Reaction A. Vertical Reaction, Ry Ry= 3h, oes Ry= Wi + Wo + Ws + Wy Un - U: Soni pressure B. Horizontal Reaction, Ry Desrem net IV, Moment about the Toe A. Righting Moment, RM. (rotation fowards the upstream side) RM = War Wim + Wars + Wee Figure 3 - 8: Typical section of a gravity dam showing the possbkfores acting B. Overturning Moment, OM (rotation towards the downstream side) eee OM=Py+ U2) + U2 With reference to Figure 3 - 8, for purposes of illustration, anassumption was made in the shape of the uplift pressure diagram, V. Location of Ry (%) |. Consider 1 unit (1 m) length of dam (perpendicular toe sketch) I. Determine all the forces acting: (CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS 86 _Totairiydrostatic Force on surfaces HYDRAULICS where: 1 unit weight of water = 9.81 KN/m? (or 10) kg/m!) y= unit weight of concrete w= 24y (usually taken as 23.5 KN/ms) Factors of Safety Factor of safety against sliding, where: ‘oefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation Foundation Pressure For e< B/6 From combined axial and bending stress formula: R, 9B /2 v5 RvenB/2) BB FLUID MECHANICS \PTER THREE CHAI 87 & HYDRAULICS ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces R, be y (ial) mieeest/6 Ba Note: Use (+) to get the stress at point where R, is nearest. In the diagram shown above, use (+) to get qr and (-) to get 7 compressive stress and a positive stress indicates tensile stress, A negative stress indicates Gince soil cannot carry any tensile stress, the result of Eq. 3 14 is invalid if the stress is positive, This will happen if e > B/6, Should this happen, Eq. 3 - 15 uill be used, when e> B/6 x aa/y an3x a2 JID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE gq) eriicen FLUID MECHANI ee HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULI BUOYANCY = unit weight of the fluid ee Vs me displaced. Volume of the body below the liquid surface ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE Vp = volume displaced. Volume of the body q ‘A principle discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes that states that “ body immersed in a fluid is acted upon by an upward force (buoyant force) equal to weight of the displaced fluid”. solve problemts im buoyancy, identify the forces actnng and apply conditions of static qulibriv EFy=0 a EFy=0 is principle, also known ao the Ime of hydrostatics, applies to both float =M=0 and submerged bodies, and to all fluids. homogeneous solid body of volume ¥ “floating” in a homogeneous fluid at Consider the body shown in Figure 3 - 9 immersed in a fluid of unit weight ‘The horizontal components of the force acting on the body are all equilibrium, since the vertical projection of the body in opposite sides is eri same, The upper face of the body is subject to a vertical downward for Vp= Se eLoreedy y. Tet y Eq.3-17 ‘which is equal to the weight of the fluid above it, and the lower face is subj sp-grofliquid fuga to an upward force equal to the weight of real or imaginary liquid above it ‘The net upward force acting on the body is the buoyant force. % If the body of height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area such as Wertical cylinders, blocks, ete a i [cross-sectional are, A cs Fo igure 3 - 9: Forces acting on a submerged bocy BE=Fr-Fr =(Vok) -y(Voh) BF = y(Vol:- Voli) If the body is of uniform vertical cross-sectional area A, the area submerged A = ap-profbody 4. Teoly 4 Eq.3-19 sp.grofliquid” Yyqua CHAPTER THREE FLUID cs 90 MECHANI Total Hydrostatic For a ID MECHAN! CHAPTER THREE |ECHANICS 91 i ic Force on Surta ae HYDRAULICS. Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces STATICAL STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES A floating body is acted upon by two equal oppesing forces, These are, df body's weight WV (acting at its center of gravity) and its buoyant force B (acting at the center of buoyancy that is located at the center of gravity of # displaced liquid) When these forces are collinear as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (a), it loats an upright position. However, when the body tilts due to wind or wave actio the center of buoyancy shifts to its new position as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (B and the two forces, which are no longer collinear, produces a couple equal t Wea). The body will not overturn if this couple makes the body rotate towards its original position as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (b), and will overturn if 1 situation is as shown in Figure 3 - 10 () Figure 3 - 10 (c): Unstable postion The point of intersection between the axis of the body and the line of action of Fo o the buoyant force is called the metacenter. The distance from the metacentet (M4) to the center of gravity (G) of the body is called the metacentric hei (MG). It can be seen that a body is stable if M is above G as shown in Figure 10 (b), and unstable if M is below G as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (¢) If M coincides with G, the body is said to be jus! stable Figure 3 - 10: Forces on a lating body RIGHTING MOMENT AND OVERTURNING MOMENT RM or OM= WG) Eq. 3-20 ELEMENTS OF A FLOATING BOD ~ weightof the bod Br = buoyant force alvays equal to Wfor a loatng body) Ge center of gravity of he body Bo center of buoyancy inthe upright position (centri ofthe displaced guid bo" center of buoyancy inthe ted postion Up = volume displaced N= metaenter the pont ofintersaton between the line of aston ofthe buoyent force and te ai fe body <= center of gravity ofthe wexiges (immersion and emerson) 4 Thonznelal distance between the’ ofthe wedges Volume ofthe wedge oF mmersion 8 angle of ting hbo "stance tom Mio Bo Go = distance rom Gto Be MC = metacentric height, distance from M to G Fgure 3 - 10 (a): Upright positon Figure 3 - 10 (b)= Stable postion 92 SHAPTER THE FLUID MECHANIK CHAPTER THREE 93 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULK HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Metacentric height, MG = MB. GB, Moment due to shifting of BF= moment due to shifting of wedge BF (2)=F(s) Use (-) if Gis above Bo BR=y Vo Use (+) iG is below Bo Pete / z= MBo sin® Nore: M as always above 6, f 7 Vo MBa sin 8 = 0s VALUE OF MB, The stability of the body depends on the amount of the righting momes which in turn is dependent on the metacentric height MG. When the body tilt the center of buoyancy shifts to a new position (Bo'). This shifting, also cau the wedge « to shift to a new position v. The moment due to the shifting. the buovant force BF(2) is must equal to moment die to wedge shift F(s) oe Eo For small values of 8, (@ = 0 or Be (72) tan6 ae Wedge, vlume = v Figure 3 - 11: Rectangular body Woatertine Section Consider a body in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped length 1. as shown in Figure 3-11; Volume of wedge, v Volume of wedge, 0 ¥a(B/2){(B/2) tan OL For small values of 8, = 2B NID MECHANICS CHAPTERTHREE cHaereR tineE eg a ae A HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfac Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAU! Vp sind HUB ton B<3 B MB, = "3 But for small values of 8, sin @~ tan a Il values of 8, 8 MB. (672)sec0 —_4 (2) tan 8 Note: This formula can be applied to any section. Ccentrald of wedge Since the metacentric height MG is dependent with MB, the stability of From Eq.3 - 22, floating body therefore depends on the moment of inertia of the water rolling bec the moment finer In piching i greater than ‘hat roling me where Ls the nth prendre fare v= VA(B/2)[(B/2) tan OIL v= $LBYan 8 MOMENT ‘The righting or overturning moment on a floating body is: Centroid of triangle, 7 tits _ 04 (B/2)sec8 + (B/2)cos0 From geometry RM or OM=Wx=W (MGsin 8) ~H[teeate 6 (“cos 96 CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANIK FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERTHREE 7 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces LANDRATEL HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 2 Consider a pipe of diameter D and (12? tano| 2(2+<02%6 Ihickness be subjected toa net pressure MB, = Buren, p To determine the tangential stress in . (BDE)sine the pipe wall, let us cut a section of length 2 2 falong the diameter, The forces acting on Gane ecase this section are the total pressure F due to Mi eee { the internal pressure and this is to be pee \ tesisted by T which is the total stress of 2 Ls cos? \ the pipe wall. Maes Haast \ Pips ere ) Applying equilibrium condition; 0-2 (ty “ae ca toe F=2r Naga teeta ase ea , F=pA=pDs ae ) it sec? 0 = 1 + tan? 0 Teal 7 (8% 1) B pecan engl pDs= 2x (Sr(6x MB, = <2 are) (2 2 Tangential stress, = 22 12Q)D 1D To determine the longitudinal stress, lot us cut the cylinder across its length as shown, [Fu=0) F=T F=pA STRESS ON THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS is a ‘THIN-WALLED CYLINDRICAL TANK Ava = xDE A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile T=SinDt forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections SixDt pap D Longitinal stress, $, = 2 Fq.3-27 p= internal pressune~ external pressure cH 98 IAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Su nD MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE lydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULICS HYDRAULICS 99 ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces ‘SPHERICAL SHELL Ifa spherical tank of diameter D and thick r vckness | contains gas under a pressur of p, the stress at the wall can be expressed as : 7 Problem 3-1 He {vertical rectangular plane of height d and base b s submerged na liquid , Writh its top edge atthe liquid surface. Determine the total force F acting on i { fe side and its location from the liquid surface. Solution ‘SPACING OF HOOPS OF A WOOD STAVE PIPE n(a/2\(bd) Vayb id i aa/2 sake (bd)(d/2) end/6 + Pressure dagram (languiar prism) write yy aa/2+d/6 77 the pressure diagram: Volume of pressure diagram slr) = *ay b 25, Ay Spacing, = 25:40 esa where The location of Fis at the centroid of the pressure diagram, 5,= allowable tensile stress of the hoop x= cross-sectional area of the hoop p= internal pressure in the pipe D = diameter of the pipe For rectangular surface (Inlined or vertical) submerged in a fluid with top edge flushed on the liquid surface, the center of pressure from the bottom is 1/3 ofits height. Note: 100 Fur, O must be below Fu [Mo = 0} Faa(2~y) = Fu~y) G.150/85- 9) = 201144 -y) 1 2n)(6)* anx6y(t3) 0.23077 m Total normal force 106 SHAPTER THREE FLUIDMECHANICS MME F.uio mechanics CHAPTER THREE 4.97 i See ZHVORAULICS MG HVORAULICS Tota Hydrostatic Force an Suraces Solution 17) + 124,800.77) y=363m_ > Location of F from the bottom Fr rha=9sih (015) Fe14715h 00 2Q) = 22m 2m where 7 C5)? (15*1h 12h Pressure Diagram i + 0.08333 = 2.718 5.27 m= h +05=5:77m > critical water depth 3000(8)(2n) = 128,000r kg, a= ¥4,800)(6)(2n) = 28,800x kg P= P,+P=156,800rkg > Total normal force Py=Piy +P, Problem 3 10 (156,800) y = (128,000x)(4) + (28,800n}(2) {A vertical circular gate is submerged in a liquid so that its top edge is flushed with the liquid surface. Find the ratio of the total force acting on the lower .63m > Location of P from the bottom half to that acting on the upper half. Problem 3= aation In the figure shown, stop B will ws. Ratio = A break if the force on it reaches 40 KN. Find the ertical water depth. The length of the gate H Ratio= perpendicular to the sketch is 15m h im aoa OE CHAPTER THREE 108 _Totat Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE 4. QQ & HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Problem 3 ~ 11 A 30 m long dam retains 9 m of ‘water as shown in the figure, Find the total resultant force acting on the ‘dam and the location of the center of eee pressure from the bottom. det A= 1305 m0? = (9810 x 0.83)(4.167)(1.900) Solution Feyha F=981(45){(30)(10.392)] F=13,763 KN ‘An inclined, circular gate with water on one side is shown in the #4(00)(10.392)° figue. Determine he (Gor 10.392)(45 7 sina te satan e=1732m 8 y= ¥9(10.392) -1.732 . y= 3464 mn y= 4 (10.392) = 3.464 m. lem 3-12 The isosceles triangle gate shown in the figure is hinged at A and weighs 1500 N. What is the total Solution FayhA it =2+05sin6o" hydrostatic force acting on one side 33 of the gate in kiloNewton? F=981(2.433) $ (1? F=18.746 kN ‘ol(s = 0.88) 2m 110 CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULICS Problem 3 - 14 \ The gate in the figure shown is 1.5 m wide, hinged at point A, and rests against a smooth wall at B. Compute (a) the total force’on the gate due to. seawater, (2) the reaction at B, and (c) the reaction at hinge A. Neglect the weight of the gate Seawater S= 103 Solution PaR+D d=36m tan 0 = 2/3 6=33.09" i sind gebReaes singe 721m (wo Paha F = (9.81 x1.03)(4)(0.5)(3.6)] 18.25 kN FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE & HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 111 Ay (1.5%3.6)(7.21) e=0t5m x=18-035 z=165m EMO) Fé) -RaQ)=0 25(1.65 Ryn 180 kN ee [Fi= 0] Rm+Fsin6-R=0 180 - 218.25 sin 33.69° 58.94 KN Ru a Ryv-Pcos0=0 Ro= 218.25 cos 33.69 Ray= 181.6 KN. Raw Rav? + Ran? = Yt181.6)* + 658.94)" Ry=190.9 KN Problem 3-15 Determine the magnitude find location of the total hydrostatic force acting on the 2m x 4 m gate shown in the figure. CHAPTER THREE Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 112 Solution FapgA P= Sih p Pa. = (281.293) + 81)(15) + @81H080)(1) +32 P= 91.645 KPa s1.645(2% 4) F=73316 KN Solving for ¢ Solve for ft and 7 Feyha 733.16 = (081x126) 24) i =7414m [sins 60° = 7414 / sin 60° 561m HONE! @xa(e5e1) ‘Therefore. P is located 1.844 from the hattam of the gate. (CHAPTER THREE Force on Surfaces 113 ‘& HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostat Problem 3 - 16 (CE November 1997) Determine the magnitude of the force on the inclined gate 15 m by 05 m shown in the Figure 001. The tank of Water is completely closed find the pressure gage at the bottom of the tank reads 90,000 N/m. Use 9800 N/cu. m. for water. Po, = 64030 Pa P= 64030 (0515) F=48,0225 N = 90,000 Pa Problem 3-17 The gate shown in the figure is hinged at A and rests on a smooth floor at B. The gate is 3 m square and oil of having sp. gr. of 0.82 stands to a height of 15 im above the hinge A. The air above the oil surface is under a pressure of 7 kPa above atmosphere. If the gate weighs 5 KN, determine the vertical force F required to open it. UID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE ‘& HYDRAULICS ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces 115 our 114.

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