The Problem of Disenchantment:

a Case Study of Crystal Magic

Aida Kopmels

1
Table of contents

Introduction 3

Crystal magic in the Renaissance 3

a. Theories of the power of stones 3

b. The theological debate over talismans and amulets 10

Modern theories of crystal healing 12

The problem of disenchantment 16

The question of mysterious, incalculable forces 18

a. Renaissance 18
b. Contemporary 21

Conclusion 23

Bibliography 24

2
Introduction
Recently Egil Asprem defended his dissertation The Problem of Disenchantment, in which he argues for
an update in the way we think of disenchantment. Up till now it has been studied as a process, starting
with the rationalization of the Enlightenment. Mysterious and incalculable forces were banned from the
world, making the divine wholly transcendent and unnecessary for the functioning of the world. Asprem
argues for approaching disenchantment as a problem instead of a process, and for studying the various
ways in which people responded to a set of questions that constitute the disenchantment problem,
instead of forcing them into a straitjacket of disenchantment.

This pape ill e a ase stud i hi h I ake use of Asp e s app oa h of dise ha t e t, a d appl
it to the magical use of crystals. I will explore the way in which Renaissance magi argued that their stone
talismans work, and the way that contemporary, post-Enlightenment people working with crystals
legitimize their practice, to see how both groups deal with the problem of disenchantment. This will
allow us to draw some conclusions about the importance of the mysterious, incalculable forces for the
Renaissance magi and the potential of science in the eyes of contemporary crystal workers.1

Crystal magic in the Renaissance

The ai sou es fo ge sto e agi i the ‘e aissa e e e Fi i o s De Vita Libri Tres (1489) and
Ag ippa s De Occulta Philosophia (1533). A very important source for both of them is Picatrix (13th
century), a Medieval grimoire circulating in manuscript form during the Renaissance. Another source
they both use is Al e tus Mag us De Mineralibus et Lapidibus (13th century), a scholastic work on the
origin and use of stones and metals. Here I will discuss the above-mentioned sources and see how the
use of gems developed during the Renaissance. Albertus Magnus is not a Renaissance scholar, and the
Picatrix was around before the Renaissance as well, but I included them in this paragraph because they
were influential sources, and also because they play a part in the discussion about the legitimacy of the
use of engraved crystals, which I will discuss in part b of this section.

a. Theories of the power of stones

Albertus Magnus starts his treatise with a discussion of the material that stones are made of. He
explains that the elements forming stone are earth and water: either earth acted upon by the moist of

C stal o ke s is ot a e elega t te , ut I use it to efe to all people o ki g ith the e e g of stals,

1

e ause heale does t see to o e all of the .

3
water, or water acted upon by the dryness of earth. Earth gives stones their hardness, and water makes
the dry stone sti k together, acting like glue.2 But just water and earth are not enough: in order to
produce sto es, the ate ial has to e su je ted to a sto e-fo i g po e :

… he d ate ial that has ee a ted upo u tuous oistu e, o oist ate ial that
has been acted upon by earthy dryness, is made suitable for stones, there is produced in this,
too, by the power of the stars and the place, as will be shown below, a power capable of
fo i g sto e …3

The stone-forming power is the result of the combined Aristotelian causes:4

… the power of the elements is the material cause, and the power of the heavens is the
efficient cause, and the power of the Mover is the formal cause; and the result of all these is
the power that is poured into the material of stones and the place he e the e e fo ed…5

The elements are the matter that stones are formed of, the heavenly power causes stones to be formed
out of this matter, and God (the Mover) gives stones their specific forms. In Aristotelian philosophy
specific (or substantial) form is what gives things their identity, or essential being.6 In living things this is
the soul, but Albert spends a whole chapter arguing that stones do not have souls, since they do not live:
they do not eat or reproduce or have senses.7 Nevertheless, they do have specific forms, like all things.
The specific form is what gives stones their special powers.

Moreover, we find in stones powers which are not those of any element at all – such as
ou te a ti g poiso s, d i i g a a a s esses, att a ti g o epelli g i o ; a d … it is the
common opinion of all wise men that this power is the consequence of the specific form of this
or that stone.8

Albert ascribes to stones certain powers which are present in the stone by nature. He describes every
stone and its powers in alphabetical order. For example, Heliotrope is supposed to help against poison

2
Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, p. 12
3
Ibid., p. 22
4
One might notice that the final cause is not mentioned here. This is because according to Albert Magnus, in
i a i ate thi gs the fi al ause is ide ti al ith the fo al ause: But e eed ot look fo a fi al ause, si e i
physical things the form is the fi al ause. Al e tus Mag us, Book of Minerals, p. 26
5
Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, p. 35
6
Dorothy Wyckoff, Book of Minerals, Introduction, xxxiv
7
Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, 20
8
Ibid., p. 24

4
and bleeding (it is also called bloodstone, because it is green with red, blood-like spots), and onyx
makes one depressed and induces nightmares: Albert suggests that by its black color it is related to
black bile.9 These prope ties a e all atu al. But the sto e s atu al po e s a e e ha ed
engraving images upon them at the right astrological time.

Therefore we must conclude that if a figure is impressed upon matter, either by nature or by
art, [with due regard to] the configuration of heaven, some force of that configuration is
poured into the work of nature or of art.10

The images discussed are all astrological images, which Nicolas Weill-Parot des i es i Ast al Magi
a d I telle tual Cha ges. The i ages a e alled ast ologi al, e ause the were believed to receive
their power from the stars and planets, and not necessarily because they represent the signs of the
zodiac, the planets, or the constellations, although sometimes they did represent astrological bodies.11
The action of engraving the image of a certain celestial body into a stone at the right celestial time was
believed to transfer power from these bodies into the stone, thus creating a talisman. For example: The
image of Andromeda, a girl with restrained hands, seated upon a rock, engraved on a conciliating stone
i gs lasti g lo e et ee a a d ife. 12
Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn are earth signs, so their
qualities are cold and dry. They were used according to Galenic medicine to counteract heat and
moisture, like fainting and hot infirmities.13

Albertus does not tell us how he believes that (unengraved) stones produce their effects, except that
heali g a d help a e o fe ed solel atu al po e s. 14
Neither does he explain how planetary
powers enter the stone when it is engraved. He only says that the stars have influence over nature, but
not over free will, and that

the configurations of the heavens are the primary figures, having precedence over the figures
of all things made my nature and art. For that which is first in kind and order among
productive powers undoubtedly pours its causal influence into everything that comes after…15

9
Ibid., p. 109
10
Ibid., 136
Weill-Pa ot, Ast al Magi a d I telle tual Cha ges,
11
12
Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, 142
13
Ibid., 141
14
Ibid., 146
15
Ibid., 135

5
I suspe t that i Al e t s ie , stones and planets just act a certain way because it is in their nature. This
is confirmed in the first tractate of De Mineralibus, he e he sa s that the atu e of sto e has o l o e
fu tio , a d hat it pe fo s is pe fo ed e essit … 16

Picatrix gives more information on the powers working in image talismans. It was one of the main
sources for magic during the Renaissance. Its main subject is the making of talismans. Picatrix defines
talismans as follows:

A d [these] i ages the ise e all telsa [talis a ] hi h is i te p eted as iolato

because whatever an image does, it does through violence and in order to overcome it does
that for which it is composed.17

A talisman gives power and control over something that is some kind of entity or pneuma, because the
agi ia used ope atio s that attract the pneuma corresponding to [the operations]. 18

Picatrix seems to acknowledge that gems have special powers of themselves,19 but never discusses
them: whenever gems are discussed, it is always as the starting piece of a celestial talisman. By
engraving the stones with a planetary image, at the time that this image is in a fortunate position (or
unfortunate, if the purpose requires), the stone is made the receptacle of the planetary rays of which al-
Kindi wrote.20 For example, if you take a white Korund and engrave in it the Venus image of a woman
with an apple in her right hand and a comb in her left, when Venus is in the first decan of Scales, the
wearer of the ring with this stone will always be happy and laughing.21 In addition to an image, a spell
has to be uttered in order to make it effective, like a body needs a soul in order to live.22 Some standard
formulas are given, which the readers can use to make their own spell.

Marsilio Ficino quotes Hermes Trismegistus from the Asclepius as authority on the special powers of
stones. …He es hi self put togethe statues f o he s, t ees, sto es, a d spi es, hi h had ithi

16
Ibid., 25
Pingree, Picatrix: The Latin Version of the Ghayat Al-Hakim, . Et ymagines sapientes appellant telsam, quod
17

interpretatur violator quia quicquid facit ymago per violenciam facit et pro vincendo facit illud pro quo est
composita. T a slatio i to E glish: AK
I id., quibus fortificantur attrahuntur spiritus… T a slatio i to E glish: AK
18
19
Ibid., 90
20
Al-Kindi was an influential source for the idea of the interconnectedness of the whole world by means of rays,
creating a universal harmony. See Pinella Travaglia. Magic, Causality and intentionality: the Doctrine of Rays in Al-
Kindi. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 1999.
Bing, Picatrix das Ziel des Weisen, 121
21
22
Ibid., 37

6
 23
themselves, as he says, a natural force of divinity. So stones, among other things, bear within them
special qualities, which can be used for magical purposes. Ficino believes that these special powers
come from the heavens:

For since these most beautiful and almost celestial things could not be created under the earth
without the greatest gift from the heavens, it is probable that in things of this kind wonderful
powers from the heavens inhere.24

Ficino could well be meaning the quintessence. Ficino believed there was an Anima Mundi, or World
Soul, as intermediary between the Divine Mind and the physical o ld, the o ld s od . A second
intermediary is positioned between the Anima Mundi and the physical world; this is the Spiritus Mundi
or World Spirit.25 The World Spirit also spreads the planetary influences in the world. Certain objects,
like stones, contain higher concentrations of quintessence than other things,26 which makes them
particularly suited for magical operations. There are two ways in which stones are used in the Three
Books on Life: grinding them to powder to be used in medicines (pills, potions or salves), or setting them
in magic rings.

Thebit the philosopher teaches that, in order to capture the power of any of the stars just
mentioned, one should take its stone and herb and make a gold or silver ring and should insert
the stone with the herb underneath it and wear it touching [your flesh].27

Of course this would have to be done at an astrologically fortunate time. It has to be made of a specific
stone, herb and metal corresponding to a certain planet, sign or constellation, engraved with the
corresponding image.28 He even gives some examples:

I have read, in fact, that the Magi counseled the Persian king that he should engrave this image
[of Serpentarius] on the stone haematite, and set it in a golden ring, but in such a way that
between the gem and the gold they would insert the root of the snake-weed. For when

23
Ficino, Three Books on Life, 389
24
Ibid., 207
25
Clark, Three Books on Life, Editorial Introduction, 43-44
26
Ficino, Three Books on Life, 247
27
Ibid., 279
28
Ibid., 327

7
 wearing this ring you would be safe from poison and poisonous diseases, provided, of course,
you make it when the Moon aspects Serpentarius.29

I already discussed the relevance of the stone and the image. The metal and herb were added
because the more items corresponding to the same planet are united, the more of its power it
attracts. However, Ficino is hesitant toward the use of images. First of all, there is the danger of
accidentally making a pact with a demon, as will be discussed below. Second, Ficino questions the
effectiveness of engraved images:

… a justl dou t hethe i ages of this ki d [ elestial i ages] ha e a elestial po e . I

also often doubt it, and, were it not that all antiquity and all astrologers think they have a
wonderful power, I would deny it. Of course I would not deny it categorically, for I am of the
opi io … that espe iall easo of the ate ial sele ted the have at least some power
to a ds good health… 30

According to Ficino, the engraving of images can be effective, but if it is, this is only because of the
action of engraving was done at the right astrological moment, thus absorbing the planetary powers
through performing some kind of action on the stone at the right time, and not through the image itself:

It is a good idea to use the right celestial time in making up medicines. And if anyone should
want to deal with metal or stones, it is better only to strike them and heat them rather than to
engrave them. For besides the fact that I suspect the figures to be useless, we ought not rashly
to allow even the shadow of idolatry.31

In fact, Ficino prefers using the pulverized stone in a medicine rather than making it into an amulet: he
thi ks that u h o e of [po e to a ds good health] esides i d ugs a d u gue ts o pou ded
32
with the favor of the stars because talismans and amulets are less receptive for celestial influence
than traditional medicines.33 For theological reasons this was also much safer.

Agrippa gives various examples of the effects of stones apart from planetary influences: Aetites helps
women during pregnancy when put on the bed, but causes abortion when put under the bed; jasper

29
Ibid., 319
30
Ibid. 3.16, 321
31
Ibid., 343
32
Ibid., 321
Fo a o e o plete dis ussio of Fi i o s p efe e e fo edi i e o e talis a s, see Copenhaver, Scholastic
33

Philosoph a d ‘e aissa e Magi . I Renaissance Quarterly, Vol. 37, No. 4 (Winter, 1984), pp. 523-554

8
(jaspis) helps a wound stop bleeding; heliotropium can make the wearer of the stone invisible.34 Some
stones work by sympathy or antipathy, according to the principle that like attracts like, and opposites
push each other away: emerald attracts wealth, and amethyst is antipathetic to drunkenness.35 Agrippa
summarises the opinions of wise men on why stones have these special properties: according to the
Peripatetics, they come from the qualities of the four elements that constitute them; according to Plato,
from the Ideas; Avicen says it is because of the Intelligences, Hermes says it is the stars, and Agrippa says
they are all right, but ultimately, all occult qualities come from God:

For God in the first place is the end, and beginning of all Vertues [sic]… The Fo the efo e,
and Vertue [sic] of thi gs o es fi st f o the Idea s [sic], then from the ruling, and governing
Intelligencies, then from the aspects of the Heavens disposing, and lastly from the tempers of
the Elements disposed, answering the influencies of the Heavens, by which the Elements
themselves are ordered, or disposed.36

There are two ways in which stones a e used i Ag ippa s agi . “ome of the planetary incenses
described in chapter 44 require certain stones: the loadstone for Saturn and Mars, Lapis Lazuli for
Jupiter, red coral for Venus, achate for Mercury.37 But the most common use is in magic rings. This
allows the user to wear the stone close to the skin and benefit from its effects whenever the ring is
worn. The ring is made from a stone, a metal, an herb and an inscription:

Now the manner of making these kinds of Rings, is this, viz. when a Star ascends fortunately,
with the fortunate aspect, or conjunction of the Moon, we must take a stone, and Hearb that
is under that Star, and make a Ring of the Metall that is sutable to this Star, and in it fasten the
stone, putting the Hearb, or root under it; not omitting the inscriptions of images, names, and
38
Characters.

Agrippa says that writing is the highest form of language, because it contains the virtues of thought and
speech in it, which makes writing the sum of all levels of language, and thus the most powerful.
Inscriptions are essential to make any kind of magic work:

34
Agrippa, Three Books of Occult Philosophy I.10, 29
35
Ibid. I.17, 38
36
Ibid. I.13, 30
37
Ibid. I.44, 88-89
38
Ibid. I.47, 94

9
 And therefore Magicians command, that in every work, there be imprecations, and inscriptions
made, by which the operator may express his affection: that if he gather an Hearb, or a Stone,
he declare for what he doth it; if he make a picture, he say, and write to what end he maketh
it; which imprecations, and inscriptions, Albertus also in his book called Speculum doth not
disallo , ithout hi h all ou o ks ould e e e ought i to effe t…39

Engravings provide magical objects with influences from the planets, which makes them more effective
in magic:

…for such an Image, both in regard of the matter naturally congruous to the operation and
Celestiall [sic]influence, and also for its figure being like to the Heavenly one, is best prepared
to receive the operations and powers of the Celestiall [sic] bodies and figures, and instantly
receiveth the Heavenly gift into it self; then it constantly worketh on another thing, and other
things do yield obedience to it.40

For all the above magicians, talismans are effective because the materials they are made of are fit, and
are made even more fit, to receive influences from the stars: through images, and sometimes letters
and invocations or fumigations. The talisman then transmits this planetary influence to its wearer.

b. The theological debate over talismans and amulets

The sources discussed above frequently mention engraving images on stones in order to make them
(more) effective, but authoritative sources proclaimed that any kind of such practices was dangerous
and condemned. Hermes Trismegistus was a great authority of magic, and quotes from the Asclepius
attribute magical effects to stones: the ha e a atu al po e of di i it , 41
but one had to be very
careful with praising the Egyptian mage. The problem was that this passage deals with the drawing
down of gods in statues, which Saint Augustine condemned as idolatry. Worship should be directed only
to God, not to entities in statues. Talismans were believed to be smaller, portable versions of the
statues,42 and Augustine places them in the same category: after condemning the god-making

39
Ibid. I.73, 159-60
40
Ibid. II.35, 291
41
Asclepius 38, in Copenhaver, Hermetica: The Greek Corpus Hermeticum and the Latin Asclepius, 90
Ha eg aaff, “ path o the De il,
42

10
procedure of the Asclepius, he sa s: In this class place also all amulets and cures which the medical art
o de s… 43
and a little later in the same work:

It is one thing to say that if you drink this herb after it has been crushed, your stomach will not
hurt, but quite another to say that your stomach will not hurt if you hang the herb about your
neck. The one is approved as a preparation that brings health; the other is a token of
superstition and condemned.44

Whether it is a herb or a stone that is hanged around the neck, does not make any theological
difference. The problem is the fact that healing powers are attributed to an object, while it is not the
object that heals, but only and exclusively the mercy of God.45 Thomas Aquinas takes a milder position:
he allows images, as long as they do not bear any kind of inscription, and Albertus Magnus accepts the
use of images, and even characters and words, as long as they are celestial and not demonic.46

B ia Cope ha e e plai s that e ause e al i s iptio s a e a tifi ial, the ha e o atu al po e ,

none of the active or passive qualities of elementary bodies, nor any natural quality derived from the
hea e s. 47
If their magic is effective, it has to involve a supernatural entity. The core of the issue is what
Nicolas Weill-Pa ot alls add essati it : he defi es add essati e agi as an act by means of which
the magician addresses a sign to a separate intelligence (a demon, an angel or some other spirit or
i tellige e i o de to o tai its help to pe fo the agi al ope atio . 48
As long as magic is
nonaddressative, it is licit, as it relies on the powers that are present in nature because God created the
world this way, but when magic is addressative, it is condemned, because it involves demons. The
Speculum Astronomiae distinguishes between two kinds of image magic: the detestable and the
abominable kind. The detestable kind of magic makes use of suffumigations and invocations, and
according to the author this magic includes the worship of demons.49 The second, abominable kind, is
the inscription of characters which are exorcised by certain names. The author suspects that these

Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, . , as uoted i C o , Mi a le o Magi ?

43

Augustine, De Doctrina Christiana, 2.23.36, 29.45, as quoted i Cope ha e , “ holasti Philosoph and
44

Renaissance Magic,
Crow, Mi a le o Magi ?
45

Cope ha e , “ holasti Philosoph a d ‘e aissa e Magi , ., 531; 534

46
47
Ibid., 532
Weill-Parot, Ast al Magi a d I telle tual Cha ges, 169
48
49
Ibid., 170

11
names are the names of demons.50 The demons of the second category are not worshipped, which
makes it less bad, but it is still bad enough to be condemned.

Picatrix does not seem to concern itself with theological finesses. The whole process of making
talismans is dependent on coercing demons:51 Picatrix explains that the fumigations used in making the
talisman attract a spirit.52 The way in which talismans are made, give them power over the spirit they
att a t to ake it pe fo a e tai task. Fi i o s agi too att a ts elestial e tities, although they do
not reside in talismans. The talisman just attracts celestial qualities from the planets ruled by these
entities, and transmits them to the user. However, Ficino admits that his magic addresses celestial
beings. He tries very hard to convince his readers that his method is legitimate:

… e a ed efo eha d ot to thi k e a e speaki g he e of o shippi g the sta s, ut athe

of imitating them and thereby trying to capture them. And do not believe that we are dealing
with gifts which the stars are going to give by their own election, but rather by a natural
influence.53

He does invoke entities, but does not worship them, so it is not the idolatry that Hermes Trismegistus
was accused of, and the influences received from the stars are purely natural, and theologically
correct.54

Agrippa claims that his magic is approved by Albertus Magnus: he describes talismans with
i p e atio s, a d i s iptio s, Al e tus also i his ook alled “pe ulu doth ot disallo … 55
This is
accurate for his practices concerning stones, but some of the magic he describes in De Occulta
Philosophia would certainly be condemned.

Modern theories of crystal healing

In this paragraph I explain the modern theories of how crystals effect us. When I make statements like

50
Ibid., 170-171
Bi g ed. , Picatrix das Ziel des Weisen, 8
51

Pingree (ed), Picatrix: The Latin Version of the Ghayat Al-Hakim, . The Lati eads spi itus .
52
53
Ficino, Three Books on Life, 357
Fo o e i fo atio o the atu e of the pla eta e tities i Fi i o s agi , see John R. Clark, Three Books on
54

Life, Edito ial I t odu tio ; ‘e o Cata i, The Da ge of De o s: the Ast olog of Ma silio Fi i o. Italia “tudies,
Vol. LV, 2000, 37-52
55
Agrippa, Three Books of Occult Philosophy I.73, 159-60

12
 stals help us g o to a highe le el, this efle ts the opi io of ode p a titio e s, a d ot
necessarily my own.

Today stones are still being used for healing purposes. Although the theory explaining their effects are
different, there are some similarities. Nowadays we have a detailed knowledge of crystals, what they
consist of, and how they came into existence. This knowledge is reflected in the theory about their
effects. For example, according to Judy Hall, an authoritative author on the powers of crystals, the way
that a crystal grows in the earth influences its properties: crystals formed under high pressure have a
different nature than those that grow in layers.56

I asked modern people working with crystals to explain to me how crystals affect us, and their
explanations were all in terms of energy and vibration. The molecular structure and the chemical
composition of stones gives them their unique frequency of vibration,57 which causes them to have
certain effects on humans (or animals) and spaces. All these statements have a basis in quantum
physics, or an interpretation thereof. There is a wide tendency among modern spiritual currents to back
up their beliefs with theories of quantum physics.58 This relatively new science has proven to be very
suitable for interpretations that confirm spiritual worldviews.59 In the years between 1920 and 1930 the
field of quantum physics was popularized by sharing the spectacular new discoveries with a wider
enthusiastic audience, including speculations about the philosophical implications of the discoveries.60
Early scientists of quantum mechanics sometimes shared their own philosophical interpretation of the
data.61 For example, Pascual Jordan observed that the role of the observer seemed to be crucial in
quantum mechanical experiments, and concluded that the observer does more than just picking from
pre-existing outcomes; he actually creates the reality of the outcome through the act of observation.62
The ultimate implication is that reality is created by consciousness.63 Other scientists were more careful
in the presentation of their views: instead of claiming that quantum mechanics proves that the world is
enchanted, they point out parallels between the worldviews and quantum science.64 However, on the

56
Judy Hall, De Kristallengids, 14
57
Ibid., 16
58
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 260
59
Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture, 62
60
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 261
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid., 263
63
Ibid., 262
64
Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture, 64

13
basis if the scientific credentials of the author, the general audience takes their interpretation as
scientific facts.65

For crystal workers, this is how it works: matter mostly consist of just space, and the parts in that space
vibrate. Basically, everything is vibration. Under certain conditions, these vibrating particles behave like
energy, which leads to the conclusion that all matter is essentially energy. The vibration of one thing can
affect the vibrational frequency of something else. This is how stones can help us: by adjusting our
frequency. Whe ou get offe ed a highe i atio tha ou o , ou a t to ea h to a d that…
ou e i ited to go to that i atio … 66
And,

Pu e e e g . E e thi g is e e g . B ha i g that [the sto e] i ou e e g field, so whether

you hold it or have it near you, the energies interact with each other. Even more so if you
o s iousl ope ou self to it, if ou sa I a t this sto e to help e, the it o es i ia
ou e e g . 67

Every species of stone has a different chemical composition, which determines things like colour,
hardness, density, and healing properties. Even within one species of stone, every individual stone has
its own way of affecting us.

Be ause the e o posed of diffe e t ate ials, e ause of their composition, their vibration
is different, so they offer another frequency. And you can even encounter that within one
si gle spe ies of sto es. It s ot like, if ou ha e fift o k ua tzes, that the all ha e the sa e
frequency. No, they are all completely different.68

It is as if every crystal has its own personality, and is interacting with us in its own way, just like every
human has a different way of interacting with other people.69

A quick web search reveals that there is a huge variety of ways in which crystals are used. The most
common is to carry one or more crystals around on the body, on a necklace, in a ring, or in some other
kind of jewelry, placing them in a room to spread their healing energy, o ha gi g d i ki g ate
letting it a so the sto e s po e s. Another widely used method is meditating with crystals. They are

65
Ibid., 63
66
Coby de Grijs. Interviewed by author. Heerhugowaard, 4 November 2013.
67
Mariëlle Diemel. Interviewed by author. Soest, 8 November 2013.
68
Coby de Grijs. Interview.
69
Mariëlle Diemel. Interview.

14
also integrated in healing therapies, like chakra healing, Reiki, Shamballa, and many others. Stones help
us by bringing us in touch with our inner experience,

by b i gi g ou i o ta t ith hat ou feel. I the spi itual o u it it s a o o pla e

that everything has to be light, love and zen. And this makes you ignore very normal, human,
primordial feelings. Stones make you more conscious of that what you feel, of what happens
within you.70

They help you uncover unresolved problems or memories from the past, and help you deal with them.
A i po ta t side ote: stals do ot sol e ou p o le s fo us! The e el help us sol e it. I the
e d [a sto e] a t ake ou ette , ou ha e to do it ou self. 71

Stones can be chosen for their physical healing qualities, but they work on the other levels as well. What
the other levels are, depends on whom you ask, but most common is physical – emotional – spiritual.
Sometimes the spiritual level is called mental, and sometimes there is an astral level above that. If a
problem manifests on one of these levels, it is possible that the origin of the problem lies on another
level. A friend of one of my interviewees was convinced she suffered from Pfeiffer syndrome?? , while
i te ie ee as su e it as a e otio al p o le fo the past, a d that she eeded g ou di g
to feel more firm and stabilized. What stones do on the higher levels, is help us remember who we truly
are. They help us grow spiritually:

You could say that all crystals in the world are connected to each other in energy. And that all
crystals in the world and in the earth work together to heighten the vibration of humanity. And
to heal them and help them grow in their personal development.72

A d o the highest le el, sto es … help ou e e e ho ou t ul a e. A d the of ou se o all

le els. 73
Stones bring us back in touch with our true emotions, with who we are, and with where we
originally came from, our ultimate Being. And they make us aware of our powers:

What stones do, they bring you in contact with the magical, with what we all have. We all
knew as a child the feeling of fantasy and escaping i a fa tas o ld, a d i opi io it s

70
Ibid.
71
Coby de Grijs. Interview.
72
Ms. Blijham. Interviewed by author. Landsmeer, 10 November 2013. (She prefers to be mentioned only with her
last name).
73
Ms. Blijham. Interview.

15
 not necessarily fantasy. As children we sense that magic is part of life. And stones bring you
back in contact with that, with your own nature, your own creation power, what you could call
doing magic.74

The crystal o ke s that I i te ie ed did t see to e too o e ed a out the s ie tific validity
of their practice, but they all said to believe that the effects of stones can be explained according to
the principles of science.

The problem of disenchantment

Disenchantment is a term used by Max Weber (1864-1920) to describe a process of
intellectualization that, according to him, led to the Enlightenment era. Instead of thinking that
gods or spirits are attributed with powers interfering in our world, things were now explained by
means of mechanistic causality.

The increasing intellectualization and rationalization do not, therefore, indicate an increased

and general knowledge of the conditions under which one lives. It means something else,
namely, the knowledge or belief that if one but wished one could learn it at any time. Hence, it
means that principally there are no mysterious incalculable forces that come into play, but
rather that one can, in principle, master all things by calculation. This means that the world is
disenchanted. One need no longer have recourse to magical means in order to master or
implore the spirits, as did the savage, for whom such mysterious powers existed. Technical
means and calculations perform the service.75

This does not mean that we know everything about the world; it just means that, in principle, it is
possible to find things out through investigation. This may sound like the potential of knowledge is
limitless, but this is not what Weber meant. Disenchanted science cannot teach us anything about value,
meaning, or how to be a good person. Weber did not discredit religion as nonsense; it was perfectly
acceptable to believe in God or other things that cannot be proven, as long as the believer did not try to
justify his beliefs through reason, evidence or fact. The believer has to make an intellectual sacrifice:

The capacity for the accomplishment of religious virtuosos - the 'i telle tual sa ifi e - is the
decisive characteristic of the positively religious man. That this is so is shown by the fact that in

74
Mariëlle Diemel. Interview.
We e , “ ie e as a Vo atio ,
75

16
 spite (or rather in consequence) of theology (which unveils it) the tension between the value-
spheres of 'science' and the sphere of 'the holy' is unbridgeable.76

The process of disenchantment started already in Antiquity, when theology separated God from the
world.77 Jan Assmann calls it the Mosaic distinction: the idea of a e lusi e a d e phati T uth that
sets God apart from everything that is not God and therefore must not be worshiped, and that sets
religio apa t f o hat o es to e shu ed as supe stitio , paga is , o he es . 78
God is supposed
to be a transcendent being, u k o a le, esidi g i a pla e outside this world. From this point in time
is it possible to distinguish between e ha ted a d dise ha ted o ld ie s.79

Weber and his followers have always conceptualized disenchantment as a process. Recently, Egil
Asprem challenged this approach in his dissertation: he proposes to treat disenchantment as a problem
instead. He states that seeing disenchantment as a problem instead of a process makes it more
o siste t ith We e s othe o ks, a d that the problem approach is in line with Problemgeschichte:
i stead of t i g to fi d out wie es eigentlich gewesen, the historian orders the data around specific
problems fo ulated the histo ia i o de to a al se people s thoughts o a tio s.80 This is how
Asprem formulates the problem of disenchantment:

Starting off from Weber's original formulations, the problem of disenchantment becomes a set
of clearly stated questions related to the three dimensions that we have identified earlier in
this chapter: are there incalculable forces in nature, or are there not? How far extended are
the boundaries of our capabilities for acquiring knowledge? Is there, or can there be, any basis
for morality, value, and meaning in nature? Can religious worldviews be extrapolated from
scientific facts? If no, why? If yes, how? In short: the problem of disenchantment contains all
the features of Weber's disenchanted world, with question marks added.81

Asprem proposes to look at how individuals responded to the problem, instead of assuming a
ho oge eous, dise ha ted o ld ie as the ideal a of thi ki g. Be ause i ealit , the e is a ide

76
Ibid., 133
77
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 15
78
Assmann, Of God and Gods, 3
79
I do not mean that there is a clear line between the two; of course there are overlaps and borderline cases. I
mean that it is possible to distinguish between the two as ways of thinking.
80
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 3
81
Ibid., 32

17
variety of reactions to the questions posed by disenchantment, and the process approach just classifies
them as invalid, and does not do them justice.

The question of mysterious, incalculable forces

In this section we will see how our philosophers and the modern practitioners deal with the first
question formulated by Asprem in relation to their use of crystals: are there incalculable forces in
nature? A comparison between Renaissance and modern magic has already been made by Wouter
Ha eg aaff, i his a ti le Ho Magi “u i ed the Dise ha t e t of the Wo ld. I this a ti le,
Hanegraaff compares Renaissance and 20th century theories, practices and legitimation of magic.
Renaissance magi and modern practitioners both feel the need to defend their practices and worldviews
against criticism, but the former have to protect themselves against accusations of performing illicit
magic, as we have already discussed above, while modern practitioners try to legitimize their practice
for an audience that is unconvinced of its efficacy.82 This legitimation of practices has everything to do
with the question of mysterious incalculable forces, so this is my focal point for comparing Renaissance
crystal magic to modern crystal healing. I ill ake use of Ha eg aaff s a ti le, ut fo us spe ifi all o
how it applies to working with crystals. While I discuss how Renaissance and modern practitioners of
crystal magic answer the problem of mysterious incalculable forces, I will also explain how the terms
atu e a d ste ious i al ula le fo es were understood by them.

a. Renaissance

Renaissance magi believed that there were two books of divine revelation, the book of Scripture: the
Bible, and the book of Nature: the created world. The reasoning was that as a creation of God, Nature
can reveal knowledge about the nature of God: this knowledge could be acquired by reading the book of
Scripture, but Nature too was a book in which one who knows how to read it, can learn about God.83 But
nature was also seen as an organism: a living being that mirrored the structure of the human being. As
the macrocosm, the world reflected the human being, the microcosm: both have a body, a spirit and a
soul, as we have seen formulated above by Ficino. The world is divided in three layers: the lowest layer
of the world, its body, is the sublunar world. The next layer is the planets and stars, and past the fixed
stars we find the highest level, where God and the angels reside. The two lower levels were considered
pa t of the atu al o ld. Magi ia s ofte lai ed that thei agi as pu el atu al, fo if it as t, it

Ha eg aaff, Ho Magi “u i ed the Dise ha t e t of the Wo ld,

82
83
Hanegraaff, Guide for the Perplexed, 25

18
would make use of beings in the third realm: spiritual entities, like demons, and as I explained above,
this was very risky. In order for magic to e o side ed atu al, it had to o k o l ith the fo es
present by nature in the two lower levels: stones, plants, animals, and the planets and stars.

M ste ious i al ula le fo es is a eti te coined by Max Weber in 1917; Renaissance magicians
did not use it, but we can very well be apply it to Renaissance theories of magic. Renaissance concepts
for those mysterious incalculable forces are correspondences, the World Soul and World Spirit, and
entities like angels and demons. These are the three theoretical frameworks that Wouter Hanegraaff
disti guishes i Ho Magi “u i ed the Dise ha t e t of the Wo ld. Magic could be effective
through correspondences, the intermediation of the Spiritus Mundi, or demonic intervention.84 The
theory of correspondences is based on the belief that God created the world in such a way that it is one
unity, consisting of different parts which are connected by links of sympathy and antipathy.85 Sympathy
causes attraction, and is often indicated by signs86 or similarities: by likeness the Sun is sympathetic to
certain stones that

resemble the rayes of the Sun by their golden sparklings, as doth the glittering stone Aetites87
which hath power against the Falling-sickness, and poisons: so also the stone, which is called
the eye of the Sun [chrysoberyl], being of a figure like to the Apple of the eye, from the middle
whereof shines forth a ray, it comforts the brain, and strengthens the sight; So the Carbuncle
which shines by night, hath a e tue agai st all aie , a d apo ous poiso … [sic]88

Coral and chalcedony are antipathetic to black bile and make melancholy states disappear by virtue of
their correspondence to Jupiter and Venus, which counter the power of Saturn related to black bile.89
Working independently of the correspondences is the Spiritus Mundi, or World Spirit, or Quintessence,
which we have already discussed above. The World Spirit is an all-permeating substance, transmitting
magical influences in the universe. Although it is called a spirit, it is not part of the spiritual realm, but of
the natural world, as a link between the sublunar and the spiritual sphere.90 One of its functions is
transmitting celestial influences from the planets into the world below. It is found in high concentrations

Ha eg aaff, Ho Magi “u i ed,

84
-64
85
For a more complete explanation of correspondences, see Jean-Pierre Brach and Wouter Hanegraaff,
Co espo de es, i Ha eg aaff ed . Dictionary of Western Esotericism. pp. 275-79
Ha eg aaff, Ho Magi “u i ed,
86
87
Aetites is sometimes called eagle-stone, and is often mentioned as promoting easy childbirth.
88
Agrippa, Three Books of Occult Philosophy I.23, 51
89
Ibid. 3,12, 301
90
Clark, Three Books on Life, General Introduction, 43.

19
in certain objects, like stones, as Ficino stated, and using the stones transmits the quintessence further
into the object or body treated with that stone.

Magic that worked by means of correspondences and the World Spirit were perfectly legitimate.
However the third category, magic that works with demons, is not, as we have seen already. That does
not mean that it was never used; Picatrix is an example of a source that does not even try to hide its
demonic magic. Albertus does not tell us how he believes that (unengraved) stones produce their
effe ts, e ept that heali g a d help a e o fe ed solel atu al po e s. 91
Nor does he explain
how planetary powers enter the stone when it is engraved. He only says that the stars have influence
over nature, but not over free will, and that

the configurations of the heavens are the primary figures, having precedence over the figures
of all things made my nature and art. For that which is first in kind and order among
p odu ti e po e s u dou tedl pou s its ausal i flue e i to e e thi g that o es afte …92

I suspe t that i Al e t s ie , sto es a d pla ets just a t a e tai a e ause it is i thei atu e. This
is confirmed in the first tractate of De Mineralibus, he e he sa s that the atu e of sto e has o l o e
fu tio , a d hat it pe fo s is pe fo ed e essit … 93
The reason that Albertus does not fall
within one or more of the frameworks discussed above is because he was not a Renaissance scholar, but
lived much earlier, when magical effects were attributed to either demons or natural causes. This is why
he e pli itl e tio s that the u es he des i es o k solel atu al94 powers.

Although the three frameworks are described as independent of each other, magicians often mixed
them, or made use of different models at different times.95 Ficino for example makes use of
correspondences and the World Spirit in explaining how his magic works,96 and so does Agrippa. Picatrix
relies on demons and on al-Ki di s theo of a s. But all three depend on mysterious incalculable forces

91
Albertus Magnus, Book of Minerals, 146
92
Ibid., 135
93
Ibid., 25
94
Although these po e s a e o ult ualities , the a e o ult i the se se that the a e hidde o u k o , ut
still atu al. “ee Keith Hut hiso , What Happe ed to O ult Qualities i the “ ie tifi ‘e olutio ? Isis, Vol. ,
No. 2 (Jun., 1982), pp. 233-253
Ha eg aaff, Ho Magi “u i ed,
95

One could even argue that he relies on all three: Ficino believed that daimones (in the Platonic sense – not the
96

evil ones from Christianity) were the authors of correspondences. Clark, Three Books on Life, Editorial Introduction,
52-53; 64

20
in nature; correspondences and the World Soul work within nature, and although demons are not
natural themselves, they can work upon nature.

b. Contemporary

I his a ti le Ho Magi “u i ed the Dise ha t e t of the Wo ld Ha eg aaff e plai s how occultists

made their belief in magic compatible with a disenchanted worldview: agi o ks o a sepa ate-but-
o e ted agi al pla e, 97
the power of magic resided in the human psyche and could be accessed by
using the creative imagination.98 Magic was saved, but it was a disenchanted magic.99 Although crystal
workers nowadays are of course influenced by occultism, the separate-but-connected plane solution
does not work for them, which I will show later in this section.

The modern, disenchanted notion of nature is that it is the physical, material world that we can perceive
with our senses, governed by unchanging laws of physics. Nature, or C eatio as, i Asp e s o ds,
ut a o ple a tefa t, a d o ap i ious agi ould d ell i it – hence one could study its
e ha is s a d su essfull p edi t its eha io . 100
Cause and effect are linked by instrumental
causality: secondary causes or mechanisms function as intermediates between cause and effect101
instead of occult qualities or entities of some kind. Modern crystal workers are surrounded by this
materialistic worldview. They resist the disenchantment of the world, while at the same time using its
language to e plai ho stals o k. There is an apparent dichotomy: while criticizing science for
being too materialistic and shallow, some contemporary esotericists,102 like the crystal workers I
interviewed, use this very system to prove that their spiritual practices work. But this dichotomy is only
apparent: they do appreciate the ability of science to explain the world, but what they resist is the
intellectual sacrifice discussed above: they do not accept the limits of knowledge prescribed by modern
science. According to them, God, or the divine, is present in the world, and thus knowable through
investigation of the world. This is h the sepa ate-but- elated pla es do not work for them: in their
view, the planes are not separate. The star diagram f o He ‘eed s Edgar Cayce on Mysteries of the
Mind seems to be a better suited model of their reality. As Hanegraaff explains in New Age Religion and
Western Culture, the star-shaped diagram represents the relation between the Divine Mind and the

Ha eg aaff, Ho Magi “u i ed,

97
98
Ibid., 371
99
Ibid., 360
100
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 15
101
Hanegraaff, Esotericism and the Academy, 165
I use esote i ists la k of a etter term for people who practice within the broader current of esotericism
102

nowadays.

21
human mind. The center of the star is the Divine Mind; it is the center of Consciousness, the place where
all individual minds originate and unite, while the points of the star represent the individual minds,
further removed from the source, but more fit to focus and concentrate.103 In the context of the present
discussion, the most important aspect is that in this model there is a continuity between the divine and
the human. It should be noted that the people I interviewed, or the websites I visited, did not use the
te God o di i e . It is hard to pinpoint specific terms, but it is clear that there is a notion of some
kind of Consciousness permeating and uniting all parts of creation. The spiritual practices of
contemporary esotericism are largely based on this belief, and the belief that science will eventually be
a le to k o the i d of God. 104
But if the mind can be investigated by science, just like everything
else in the world, there are no mysterious incalculable forces left, and what you end up with is just
another version of disenchantment. As Asprem states:

The main question, of course, was whether or not the phenomena of life and mind were
capable of being described completely in terms of mechanistic processes that were
structurally indistinguisha le f o those studied lassi al ph si s . If so, it ould
mean that life and thought, as the final refuges of the non-mechanical and unpredictable,
had also been disenchanted.105

According to Hanegraaff, this is the result of logically incompatible elements in contemporary

esoteric thinking: esoteric worldviews are being interpreted in terms of a disenchanted world.106
The immanence of the divine is translated into consciousness permeating the material world, to
which the claim is added that it is thus possible to investigate it using scientific methods. But this
would mean that metaphysical claims can in principle be falsified if scientific evidence invalidates it.
The intellectual sacrifice is two-edged: it means sacrificing the possibility to base metaphysical
beliefs on scientific evidence, or accepting that such beliefs can be refuted by it. This is the problem
of disenchantment of contemporary esotericists. Asprem notes in his dissertation:

By the time of the late 18th century, the problem of disenchantment has come to concern
u h o e tha the e e e iste e of ste ious i al ula le fo es . It is tied to the li its

103
Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture, 205-207
104
Ibid., 63
105
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 564
106
Hanegraaff, New Age Religion and Western Culture, 407

22
 of human rationality, the foundation and reach of scientific knowledge, and the relation of
knowledge to questions of worldview, ethics, and meaning.107

Of course the way that people formulated the questions of disenchantment changed, shifting emphasis
from one aspect to another, but they are not just a modern phenomena related to secularization: they
concerned people since the rise of monotheism. While for Renaissance magi the problem of
disenchantment centered mostly around mysterious, incalculable forces in the shape of entities and
correspondences, for contemporary crystal healers the intellectual sacrifice is the central issue. This is
why we should applaud Asp e s update of the dise ha t e t thesis: to allo a a iet of oi es i
the debate of the relation between the world, the divine and ourselves, without classifying some of
the as a k a d o u e lighte ed.

Conclusion
In this paper I wanted to show how a problem-oriented approach as proposed by Asprem in The
Problem of Disenchantment can be applied to a case study of two practices involving the powers of
crystals: Renaissance magic and 21st century crystal healing, one before and one after the supposed
process of disenchantment. We have seen that in the Renaissance, the question of mysterious,
incalculable forces played a central role, but for contemporary esotericists the emphasis is more on the
question of the limits of knowledge. Renaissance magi had to defend themselves against accusations of
devil worship and interaction with demons, and tried to compel their readers that their magic only
worked with the forces present in nature, while contemporary crystal workers use modern science in
their explanation of the power of stones, based on the assumption that science will be able to prove the
presence of the divine in nature. Disenchantment is more than the process envisioned by Weber and his
followers: in both time periods investigated in this paper, people thought about the questions of
disenchantment, although they focused on different aspects of the problem.

107
Asprem, The Problem of Disenchantment, 571-72

23
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