Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Management

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jenvman

Research article

A review of soil carbon dynamics resulting from agricultural practices

Farhat Abbas a, Hafiz Mohkum Hammad b, *, Wajid Ishaq c, Aitazaz Ahsan Farooque a, Hafiz
Faiq Bakhat b, **, Zahida Zia b, Shah Fahad d, e, Wajid Farhad f, Artemi Cerda
�g
a
Faculty of Sustainable Design Engineering, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE C1A4P3, Canada
b
Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari, 61100, Pakistan
c
Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, Faisalabad, Pakistan
d
College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
e
Department of Agronomy and Stress Physiology, The University of Swabi, Pakistan
f
University College of Dera Murad Jamali Naseerabad, Sub-Campus Lasbela University of Agriculture, Water and Marine Sciences, Uthal, 90150, Pakistan
g
Soil Erosion and Degradation Research Group, Department de Geografia, Universitat de Val�encia, Blasco Ib�
an~ez, 28, 46010, Valencia, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Literature related to the carbon cycle and climate contains contradictory results with regard to whether agri­
Carbon footprints cultural practices increase or mitigate emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs). One opinion is that anthropogenic
Semi-arid lands activities have distinct carbon footprints – measured as total emissions of GHGs resulting from an activity, in this
Soil erosion
case, “agricultural operations”. In contrast, it is argued that agriculture potentially serves to mitigate GHGs
Soil tillage practices
emissions when the best management practices are implemented. We review the literature on agricultural
carbon footprints in the context of agricultural practices including soil, water and nutrient management. It has
been reported that the management practices that enhance soil organic carbon (SOC) in arid and semi-arid areas
include conversion of conventional tillage practices to conservation tillage approaches. We found that agricul­
tural management in arid and semi-arid regions, which have specific characteristics related to high temperatures
and low rainfall conditions, requires different practices for maintenance and restoration of SOC and for control of
soil erosion compared to those used in Mediterranean, tropical regions. We recommend that in order to meet the
global climate targets, quantification of net global warming potential of agricultural practices requires precise
estimates of local, regional and global carbon budgets. We have conducted and present a case study for
observing the development of deep soil carbon profile resulting from a 10-year wheat-cotton and wheat-maize
rotation on semi-arid lands. Results showed that no tillage with mulch application had 14% (37.2 vs 43.3 Mg
ha 1) higher SOC stocks in comparison to conventional tillage with mulch application. By implementing no
tillage in conjunction with mulch application, lower carbon losses from soil can mitigate the risks associated with
global warming. Therefore, it is necessary to reconsider agricultural practices and soil erosion after a land-use
change when calculating global carbon footprints.

1. Introduction
Soil is a key component of the Earth System that controls biogeo­
chemical, hydrological and sediment cycles (Galati et al., 2016). Soils
play a definitive role to achieve sustainability as they offer resources,
goods and services to humankind (Rodrígo-Comino et al., 2018). This is
why the United Nations has highlighted the key role of soils in achieving
the UN Sustainable Development Goals (Keesstra et al., 2016). The soil
system is crucial to understanding the connectivity of water and
sediment flows (Masselink et al., 2017; Keesstra et al., 2018a; Di Prima
et al., 2018) and the sustainability of soil management practices (Cerda
�
et al., 2018a). Within the soil system, carbon controls the hydrologic,
biological and chemical soil functioning (Monreal et al., 2018) and this
is accelerated in agriculture lands (Novara et al., 2017a, 2017b; Rodrí­
go-Comino, 2018) where carbon is a key factor in the fate of the soil
system (Mau et al., 2018; Pausch and Kuzyakov, 2018; Pellegrini et al.,
2018).

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: hafizmohkum@gmail.com (H.M. Hammad), faiqsiddique@ciitvehari.edu.pk (H.F. Bakhat), artemio.cerda@uv.es (A. Cerd�
a).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110319
Received 18 September 2019; Received in revised form 6 February 2020; Accepted 21 February 2020
Available online 14 May 2020
0301-4797/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Abbas et al.
1.1. Carbon cycle and soil organic carbon
Carbon (C) associated with soil organic matter is called soil organic
carbon (SOC) and SOC is a part of the natural carbon cycle. Decompo­
sition of dead plants, animals and microbes (excluding fresh plants, litter
and straw) produces the organic matter in soil. In addition to SOC, soils
also contain carbon in inorganic forms such as carbonates and lime. Soil
and plants serve as natural regulators to regulate atmospheric carbon
dioxide (CO2). Atmospheric CO2 is stored in plant biomass through
photosynthesis and synthesized organic matter serves as food for ani­
mals and plants that ultimately die and return to soil. Remains of plants,
animals and microbes slowly decay in the soil to produce SOC. During
these mineralization processes, some of the organic carbon resistant to
decomposition is released to the soil and some of the organic matter
releases CO2 back to the atmosphere (Chan, 2008). Soil organic carbon
resistant to decomposition acts as a significant stock of carbon
(including about 80% of terrestrial residues of C) that plays an important
role in regulation of life on planet Earth (Ontl and Schulte, 2012).
In order to better understand the role of soil in the carbon systems of
world, the knowledge of the spatial distribution of SOC is very important
(Schimel et al., 2000). Carbon stored in soils is two to three times greater
than carbon in the atmosphere in the form of CO2 (Post and Kwon,
2000). Soil organic matter (SOM) helps to increase the diversity of living
organisms by providing a substrate and energy, which play an important
role in maintaining soil quality and functionality in specific ecosystems
such as the soil biota (Walmsley and Cerda �, 2017). Soil properties are
directly influenced by SOM (Wendling et al., 2010). Different portions of
SOC differ from each other in carbon turnover rates, biological stability
and biochemical composition (Paustian et al., 1992). Labile proportions
of SOM (non-humic substances) have been used as a sensitivity indicator
of changes in the soil quality (Bayer et al., 2002; Haynes, 2005). Due to
significant interactions in soil systems, labile organic compounds have
fast turnover rates as they serve as readily available substrates for soil
microorganisms (Schmidt et al., 2011).
Similarly, Gonzalez and Laird (2003) have extensively studied car­
bon distribution and its biochemical properties on soil clay size frac­
tions. They reported that the fine clay fractions contain more labile or
less humified organic matter; whereas, coarse clay fractions typically
contain more aromatic and recalcitrant or humified organic matter
(Laird et al., 2001; Oades, 1995). Soil organic matter (SOM), which is
often expressed in terms of SOC plays an important role in the sorption
of soil pollutants (Qi et al., 2017). Some SOM, such as humic substances
are naturally SOM and have a high affinity for metal cations (Brümmer,
1984) Furthermore, microbial activity can cause soil organic pollution.
For instance, the microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons
(Biswas et al., 2015) is experienced as the natural clean-up process of
organic pollutants. The humic substances in the soil are more stable
organic compounds (Milori et al., 2002). The SOC consists of approxi­
mately 40–60% humic substances including three different fractions,
which are different on the basis of their stability under permanganate
oxidation and acid hydrolysis (Paul et al., 2001). The insoluble fraction
of humic substances is known as humin (H); while the fraction which
dissolves under alkaline conditions is called humic acid (HA) and the
fraction fulvic acid (FA) is the soluble fraction of humic acid under both
acidic and alkaline conditions (Sutton et al., 2005; Gao et al., 2018). The
SOC has many beneficial effects on several soil properties, which
contribute significantly towards soil fertility and productivity (Wander
and Drinkwater, 2000).
The role of soil as carbon source or sink depends on soil use and
management practices (Lal, 2004a). A continuous modification in soil
organic content is occurred mainly by tradeoffs between carbon losses
due to soil erosion and respiration, and carbon gains by the incorpora­
tion of carbon containing biomass in the terrestrial ecosystems (Lal,
2008; Senthilkumar et al., 2009). Generally, soil properties, climatic
conditions in arid and semi-arid regions, anthropogenic factors and
topography influence the SOC dynamics (Schimel et al., 1994; Jobbagy
2
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
and Jackson, 2000; Six et al., 2000). Soil properties influence the ac­
tivity of soil microorganisms; for example, soil pH of moderately alka­
line conditions may favor the decomposition of SOM (Whittinghill and
Hobbie, 2011). Low temperature and high precipitation areas have
higher quantities of SOC content (Post et al., 1982; Burke et al., 1989).
The carbon input through anthropogenic activities such as tillage
practices, land use changes and cropping systems also influences SOC
dynamics (Yan et al., 2012). The SOC also affects the hydrological cycle
and erosion of soils by the rainfall (Li, and Fang, 2016; Cerda � et al.,
2018b), and is being seen as a nature-based solution to the environ­
mental problems of agricultural lands (Keesstra et al., 2018b).
Soil holds the largest supply of organic carbon on Earth. Conse­
quently, soil is a critical component to be assessed in global carbon cy­
cles. The SOC varies by climate, time, soil texture and vegetation, and its
(SOC’s) dynamics will change as climate changes. Many databases of
SOC underestimate SOC by more than 40% compared with field data
(Tifafi et al., 2018), which highlights the need for ground-truthed data.
This review covers studies across a range of climatic regions including
tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and semi-arid to addresses the effects of
various agricultural practices on SOC content. A case study of carbon
sequestration under two types of tillage and mulch applications is also
presented.
2. Agricultural carbon footprints in the environment
The carbon emission associated with a specific activity or group of
activities is known as a “carbon footprint”. Carbon foot printing has a
potential to be used as a tool for assessing and comparing GHGs emis­
sions caused by different sectors contributing to societal development
and earth systems. Human activity in daily life is responsible for the
production of GHGs either directly or indirectly. Carbon dioxide is the
most widely produced important GHG. It is easy to identify the direct
sources of GHGs emissions such as fossil fuel burning for electricity,
transport and heating purposes. Indirect emissions of GHGs are not
easily identifiable. Production of goods and their transportation result in
energy use and, resultantly, the emissions of GHGs. Globally, different
economic sectors contribute to carbon footprints; for example, elec­
tricity and heat production (25%), other energy sectors which are not
directly associated with electricity or heat production (10%), industry
(21%), agriculture, forestry and other land uses (24%), transportation
(14%) and buildings (6%) contributed to global emissions in the year
2010 (IPCC, 2014).
Agriculture is a big source of carbon footprint. Therefore, agricul­
tural activities and practices associated with farming must be identified
for carbon footprint. A generalized illustration of different agricultural
activities that are related to carbon footprint is shown in Fig. 1. Agri­
cultural practices are important causes for soil GHGs emissions. Various
agricultural processes and activities such as rearing livestock, soil
plowing, tilling, fertilizer application, irrigation, crops, and related
equipment emit a significant amount of GHGs. The use of fossil fuel by
machinery for electricity production and rearing livestock are the major
contributor of GHGs emission (Fig. 2). Carbon footprint through agri­
culture can be separated by hypothetical boundaries into three tiers. Tier
1 consists of all the direct GHGs emissions by the farm machinery and
soil. Tier 2 involves indirect emissions such as GHGs emission during the
generation of electricity, and tier 3 consists of the indirect emissions
related to manufacturing and transport of agriculture-based chemicals
and machinery (Jaiswal and Agrawal, 2019). Estimates show that global
agricultural GHGs emissions may increase up to 30% and reach more
than 6300 Mt CO2 eq by 2050 as compared to 5335 Mt CO2 eq during the
year 2001–2010 (FAOSTAT, 2014).
2.1. Agricultural practices (water and nutrient management) and carbon
in the environment
A linear increase in SOC levels has been observed with an increased
F. Abbas et al. Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319

Fig. 1. A generalized illustration of inputs and out associated with cultivation and consumption of food crops in context to the carbon footprint on the environment
(Adopted from Pandey and Agrawal, 2014).

Fig. 2. Contribution of various subsectors in agriculture contributing to total carbon footprints (Adopted from FAOSTAT, 2014).

application of organic fertilizers (Singh and Lal, 2005; Kong et al.,
2006). Crop yield and residue accumulation increase when fertilizers
and nutrients are applied to crops (Singh and Lal, 2005), which im­
proves SOM. Organic materials being used for soil applications mainly
consist of plant residues, organic fertilizers and debris (Yang et al., 2012;
Fan et al., 2014). The return of crop straw to soil has the ability to enrich
SOC for the maintenance of soil quality and to increase agricultural
productivity (Chatterjee, 2013; Liu et al., 2014). The straw application
slightly increases the SOC level enhancing the carbon-sequestration of
soil and improving soil water holding capacity (Fan et al., 2014; Poeplau
and Don, 2015). A research study on intensive summer maize (Zea mays
L.) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) has revealed that the incor­
poration of straw in the soil caused an increase of 14.4% in the SOC stock
at a soil depth of 0–20 cm. Wheat and maize straw incorporation in soil
with an input of 9.76 Mg ha 1 yr 1 carbon from an average plant to the
soil was found to be the most effective management system for carbon
sequestration in the soil 0–20 cm (Li et al., 2016). Conventional man­
agement returns only 10–20% manure to the fields in the Tai-lake region
of Jiangsu China (Tang et al., 2006). Rapid economic development has
replaced farmyard manure with synthetic fertilizers for gaining
short-term productivity profits (Xu et al., 2011); however, the GHGs
emissions with the synthetic fertilizer are significantly higher.
The rate of SOC decomposition slows down when nitrogen fertilizers
are applied at the bottom of the plow layer during chisel plowing (CP).
An increase in carbon sequestration occurs when nitrate fertilizer was
added in agricultural systems (Alvarez, 2005). A correlation between

3
F. Abbas et al.
high levels of nitrogen with an elevation in SOC in the soil profile under
the plow depth was reported for CP and moldboard plowing (Dolan
et al., 2006). Therefore, soil management practices maximize SOC
storage and minimize potential N and SOC losses. Similarly, in the
Tai-lake region of China, estimates showed that 2.32 M ha paddy soils
had the potential to increase SOC up to 3.44 � 106 Mg C from 2001 to
2019 under a baseline scenario with a change of 78 � 10 3 Mg C ha 1
yr 1 SOC. This is due to the incorporation of farmyard manure and the
application of chemical fertilizers at an equivalent average carbon input
rate of 0.27 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 and 0.34 Mg C ha 1 yr 1, respectively
(Zhang et al., 2016a, 2016b).
It was reported that the manure application resulted in a significant
increase in SOC (i.e., 0.10 Mg C ha 1 yr 1) when applied as organic
fertilizer during a long-term experiment (Buysse et al., 2013). Higher
quantities of crop residues were found to sequester more carbon when
compared with the manure application. For example, Zhang et al.
(2016a, 2016b) reported an increase in crop residue-based SOC by 15,
50 and 90%, equivalent to the addition of soil organic carbon with
values 0.08, 0.49 and 1.01 Mg C ha 1 yr 1, respectively, in contrast to
only 0.20 Mg C ha 1 yr 1; i.e., 1.37 to 1.55 times increase in average
SOC from baseline with N-fertilizer application.
Yan et al. (2011) reported from an analysis of data collected from
1394 soil profiles across China (during 2007–2008) and the comparison
with national soil surveys (during 1979–1982), that the SOC stocks
increased in paddy soils of China over the said two decades. These
findings provided evidence for a potential role of paddy soils in the
mitigation of climatic changes in the world. Increased crop residues,
better fertilization schemes, and increased net productivity are the
possible reasons of this observation in paddy fields (Yu, 2012). The SOC
accumulation in paddy soils is due to the high organic material input and
comparatively low rate of decomposition under anaerobic conditions
(Huang et al., 2016). Carbon sequestration rates in paddy soils of China
(data collected during 1979–1982 by nationwide arable soil monitoring
system) were reported to be in the range of 0.13–2.2 Mg C ha 1 yr 1
(Pan et al., 2004). In cropland in China, the SOC density in topsoils to the
depth of 30 cm was found to increase by 2.75 Mg ha 1 (from 1980 to
2000) based on data sets collected from 146 publications (Sun et al.,
2010).
Biomass production and SOC contents increase when water avail­
ability increases in the root zone of plants (Letey, 1985). Water man­
agement in the soil optimizes the soil moisture regime that is important
for plant growth and affects the SOC. In relation to SOC content, water
harvesting and supplemental irrigation, in-situ conservation and
drainage are three aspects of water management under semi-arid and
arid ecosystems. Supplemental irrigation and in-situ conservation play
an important role in improving biomass production and eventually
increasing the SOC contents. In contrast to irrigation, SOC contents may
decrease due to drainage of highly wet soils, as drainage leads to an
increase in soil temperature and a resulting high rate of mineralization
(Lal and Kimble, 1997).
Over the last decade, alarming figures related to scarcity and supply
of water (WHO, 2006) have demonstrated that about 1.2 billion people
do not have access to clean and affordable water in their houses. Esti­
mates from various reports agree that the water scarcity will affect
two-third of the world population over the next few decades (Raskin
et al., 1997; Vorosmarty, 2000; Wallace, 2000). Results showed that
there is a need to increase water diversions for agriculture by 12–27% by
2025 to fulfill the growing food demands (FAO, 2010).
2.2. Carbon sequestration and agricultural land management
In terrestrial ecosystems, the largest carbon pool is the SOC, which
stores over 1.55 � 1012 Mg C worldwide (Batjes, 1996; Ji et al., 2015).
Global management of climate focuses on terrestrial carbon sequestra­
tion (Table 1) as it is an effective method to influence the carbon cycle
(Lackner et al., 2003). Release of SOC to atmosphere happens when the
4
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
land is subjected to continuous cropping or intensive cultivation prac­
tices (Post and Mann, 1990). In terrestrial ecosystem, a stable carbon
sink is biogeochemical carbon sequestration, which serves as a mitiga­
tion strategy for long-term climate variability (Parr et al., 2010; Beaulieu
et al., 2012; Song et al., 2012). Similarly, high SOC levels in relation to
cation exchange capacity; water availability and base saturation are
important factors for maintaining soil productivity (Dell et al., 2008; de
Moraes S� a et al., 2009).
Agro-ecosystems have large carbon pools and account for 10% of
total terrestrial area. Due to their carbon pools, they are one of the
highly susceptible ecosystems to global climate change (Smit and
Skinner, 2002). The major goals for soil management include the
maintenance or enhancement of productivity per unit area and the
regulatory functions for the environment; e.g., removal of pollutants
from water and regulation of environmental quality (Lal and Kimble,
1997; Guo et al., 2019). On agricultural soils, improvement in soil
conservation and soil fertility are considered as adaptive restorative
practices (Lal, 2004a). The minimum soil disturbance and increased
application of organic matter are two fundamental keys to increase
carbon sequestration in soils. Therefore, NT, organic manure applica­
tion, cover crops, mulching, and decreasing the fallow period are the
best agricultural land management practices for improvement of carbon
sequestration (Lal, 2004a). Intercropping with legumes and crop rota­
tions are found to be greatly effective for the improvement in soil
fertility; particularly, nitrogen and phosphorous increase carbon
sequestration (Nishimura et al., 2008) Moreover, climate factors and
effects of management practices on SOC are mostly intertwined, which
make it difficult to recognize the main drivers at regional levels (Liu
et al., 2014).
2.3. Tillage and soil carbon
The conversion of land from its initial state to a desired state by using
mechanical methods or techniques is the primary and ultimate goal of
tillage (Gill and Vanden Berg, 1968). Different variables are taken into
consideration before selecting the type of tillage system for specific soils.
These variables include the type of crop grown, climatic zone, economic
condition of producers, priorities of producers, social pressures and
government policies.
Conservation tillage (CT) is a generic term which includes a variety
of different tillage practices. It generally reduces water and soil losses as
compared to conventional tillage practices. It also includes mulching
with crop residues to protect soil against intense rainfall. The increased
practice of CT increases SOC by enhancing soil aggregation processes
and decreasing soil degradation processes (Lal, 1989). Conservation
tillage includes any tillage and planting system that ensure the protec­
tion of soil (at least 30% of the soil) by keeping plant residues after
harvesting. No-tillage (NT) and CP are two types of CT. There are several
mechanisms which are involved in enhancement of SOC by CT (e.g.
erosion control and alterations of soil temperature and moisture re­
gimes) (Lal, 1989; Kern and Johnson, 1993). The contents of SOC are
dependent upon the type of conservation tillage and quantity of crop
residues, which are reverted to soil. A linear relationship between the
SOC contents and crop residues has been reported in tropical West Africa
(Lal et al., 1980). An estimated amount of crop residues produced in the
world is 2962 million Mg yr 1 (Lal and Kimble, 1997). A portion of these
residues may be beneficial for increasing SOC and a consequent carbon
sequestration, returned to soil by CT. Using CT, about 8% more SOC was
reported to be sequestered as compared to conventional tillage system in
Eastern Nigeria (Ohiri and Ezumah, 1990).
The impact of tillage on soil C sequestration shows that maintaining
conventional tillage from 1990 to 2020 would result in an estimated loss
of 31–52 � 106 Mg SOC. In contrast, NT practices in place of conven­
tional tillage can sequester 80 to 129 � 106 Mg SOC based on conser­
vative estimates, or as high as 286 � 106 to 468 � 106 Mg SOC (Kern and
Johnson, 1993). Furthermore, it was also reported that the CT may have
F. Abbas et al. Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319

Table 1
Worldwide carbon sequestration/potential of different eco-components during different time periods.
Sr. Country/Region Eco component Time period Carbon Sequestration/ References
No. Potential

1 Henan Province, China Living tree biomass and soil organic carbon 2020–2060 54.05 � 106 Mg-139.35 � Wang et al. (2017)
106 Mg
2 Mekong River basin, Agricultural biomass residues 2008–2011 28 � 106 Mg C yr 1 Ko et al. (2017)
3 Southeast Asia 133.1 � 106 Mg C yr 1
4 The karst region of Paddy fields, dry lands, grasslands, shrub lands, shrub 2010–2013 85.9 � 103 Mg C Liu et al. (2016)
southwestern China forests and secondary forests
5 Tropical Above ground biomass 2.1 � 109 Mg C yr 1 Oelbermann et al. (2004)
6 Temperate 1.9 � 109 Mg C yr 1
7 Hebei Province, China Soil 1980s to 120–160 Mg C ha 1 Cao et al. (2016)
2010
8 Central Taiwan Forest 25 years 30.52 Mg C ha 1 Chang et al. (2016)
9 Lusatia, Germany Robinia pseudoacaciaPoplar (Populus spp.) Past 36 years 64.5 Mg C ha 1 Quinkenstein and
10 8.9 Mg C ha 1 Jochheim (2016)
11 Northern region of Jiangsu, Jerusalem artichoke 2014–2015 336 � 10 6 to 419 � 10 6 Niu et al. (2016)
China Mg C kg 1
12 Punjab, Pakistan Biochars from crop residues 150 � 106 Mg C yr 1 Windeatt et al. (2014)
13 Nigeria Soil 0.2–30.8 Mg C ha 1 Akpa et al. (2016)
14 Global Scale Soil 2014–2100 31 and 64 � 109 Mg C Sommer and Bossio (2014)
15 Borana, Southern Ethiopia Rangeland areas Past 20 years 300.4 Mg C ha 1 Bikila et al. (2016)
16 Grazed areas 141.5 Mg C ha 1
17 Central India Jatropha curcas L. 2008–2012 7.60–101.50 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 Srivastava et al. (2014)
Soil 20.59–50.45 Mg C ha 1 yr 1
India Mixed deciduous forest Past 6 years 6.01 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 Biswas et al. (2014)
18 U.S. Agricultural topsoils 1997–2006 63,700 Mg C yr 1 Sperow (2016)
19 Zhejiang province, China Biochar soil 11.48 � 106 Mg C yr 1 Cui et al. (2016)
20 Sweden Soil Past 5 years 0.08–0.24 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 Rytter et al. (2015)
21 Europe Agriculture 1566 � 106 Mg C yr 1 Aertsens et al. (2013)
22 India Soil (NPK treatment) 0.16 Mg ha 1 C yr 1 Pathak et al. (2011)
23 Sub-Saharan Africa Agroforestry systems 3.94 Mg C ha 1 Thangata and Hildebrand
(2012)
1
24 West African Sahel Agroforestry systems 28.7–87.3 Mg C ha Takimoto et al. (2008)
25 India Aboveground biomass 3.9 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 Maikhuri et al. (2000)
26 Southern Ecuador Older secondary forest >40 years old 79 Mg C ha 1 Spracklen and Righelato
(2016)
27 Global Scale Agricultural soils Next 50 years least 25 � 109 Mg C Lassaletta and Aguilera
(2015)
28 Subtropical China Severely eroded soil potential after forest plantation Past 20 years 3.72 � 106 Mg C Shi et al. (2009)
29 China Paddy soils 1980–2050 29.2 to 847.7 � 106 Mg C Xu et al. (2011)
30 Global Scale Agricultural soils 0.12 � 1018 Mg C yr 1 Poeplau and Don (2015)
31 Loess Plateau Miscanthus energy crops 9.13 Mg ha 1 yr 1 Mi et al. (2014)
32 Queensland, Australia Riparian vegetation poor, good and excellent sites 2012 and 4.3, 134.8 and 291.7 Mg C Maraseni and Mitchell
2014. ha 1 (2016)
33 Northeast China Freshwater wetland 70–205 years 2.027 Mg ha 1 C yr 1 Zhang et al. (2016a, 2016b)
34 Mediterranean Mediterranean woody crops olive orchard 5.3 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 Vicente-Vicente et al.
Mediterranean woody crops vineyards 0.78 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 (2016)
35 Semi-arid Australia Eucalyptus camaldulensis woodlands 2008–2012 2.5 Mg C ha 1 year 1 Smith et al. (2017)

potential to sequester about 23 � 106 Mg C yr 1 in the EU (European
Union), while in Greater Europe excluding former Soviet Union, it has a
potential to sequester about 43 � 106 Mg C yr 1 (Smith et al., 1998).
In this way, there is a possibility to save about 3.2 � 106 Mg C yr 1 in
emissions from agricultural fossil fuel by increasing the soil organic
pool. In Europe, agricultural carbon emissions of fossil fuels could be
mitigated by converting 100% agriculture to conservation tillage agri­
culture (Smith et al., 1998). Mixing and deep emplacement of organic
matter by the activity of soil fauna has a beneficial impact on SOC.
Transfer of SOC from upper surface to sub-soil occurs by the burrowing
activity of soil fauna. Conservation tillage facilitates soil aggregation
and helps to improve stability of aggregates (Lal, 1989; Prove et al.,
1990). Soil fauna diversity (e.g., earthworms and termites) is positively
impacted by CT, especially, as the activity of earthworms is improved by
CT (Lal et al., 1980; Lavelle, 1988).
Planting of crops using NT is a highly-recommended approach for
improving SOC, minimizing energy use in agriculture, and decreasing
CO2 emission to the atmosphere along with other benefits (USDA NRCS,
2011). There are two ways in which NT impacts the SOC stocks: the first
one is the protection of SOC from rapid oxidation as NT involves fewer
disturbances and promotes the formation of aggregates and in this way
SOC remains encapsulated inside the aggregates (Six et al., 2000). The
second way is the modification of the local edaphic environment
including pore size distribution, bulk density, temperature, air, and
water regime that play an important role in restricting SOC degradation
(Kay and Vanden, 2002).
In deeper profiles of soils, CP and moldboard plowing were related to
higher total SOC storage as compared to NT (Baker et al., 2007; Yang
et al., 2008; Blanco-Canqui et al., 2011). The possible reason for more
stable SOC in deeper soil layers for CP is an exponential decline in mi­
crobial respiration with the increase in soil depth (Eilers et al., 2012)
and storage of crop residues at 15–30 cm due to their continued plowing
under into deeper soil layers.
A slightly higher amount of SOC is stored in NT near the surface of
soil as compared to CP. The higher amount is not significant due to the
high storage of SOC below the maximum plowing depths (Kiluk, 2014).
No-tillage is successfully practiced on 90 million ha all around the
world, specifically in South and North America and in wheat-rice system
of South Asia. Although the United States has the highest area under NT
practice, NT farmland only covers 21% of all cropland in US. In
Paraguay NT accounts 60% of the agriculture land, in Argentina about
55%, and in Brazil 50% of all croplands. In rest of the world, NT ac­
counts for 3.6% approximately, including Asia, Africa and Europe
(Mrabet, 2002). Despite long lasting good research efforts, this part of

5
F. Abbas et al.
world has a low rate of NT adoption. At the moment, Europe is far
behind the countries mentioned earlier in its application of NT practices
(approximately at <1%–2% of its agricultural land). Of the countries in
Europe, France and Spain have the highest use of these techniques
(Derpsch, 2005).
In subtropical soils of Brazil, implementation of the NT system has
led to accumulation of SOC indicating the ability of NT to promote the
soil as a sink of atmospheric carbon (Bayer et al., 2006). For carbon
sequestration, NT management has been proved to be one of the most
efficient practices. In the top 30 cm of soils, NT practiced during
2001–2019 would show a significant increase of average annual SOC up
to 0.13 Mg C ha 1 yr 1 as compared to conventional tillage practice
(Zhang et al., 2016a, 2016b). Stable aggregates impart physical pro­
tection and a less oxidative environment under NT-ICL (no-tillage and
integrated crop-livestock) that supports the accumulation of SOC. On
the other hand, increased exposure of SOC through conventional tillage
system has reported to lead its mineralization by microbial activity
(Conceiça ~o et al., 2007). Similarly, Mathew et al. (2012) reported that
tillage systems influence soil microbial communities along with soil
physicochemical properties. Conventional deep tillage practices can
accelerate soil organic matter oxidation and decrease soil aggregate
stability (Gathala et al., 2011). Therefore, sustainable soil management
can be achieved through conservation tillage practices, including NT
(Hobbs et al., 2008). Conservation tillage significantly reduces soil
physical disturbance (Uri, 1999), promotes soil aggregation, and im­
proves soil microorganism dynamics because of more beneficial envi­
ronmental conditions (Helgason et al., 2010; Guo et al., 2015).
Therefore, investigating the effects of conservation tillage on SOC is
necessary for further understanding of soil carbon sequestration. The
SOC dynamics driven by soil microbial processes within soil may help to
clarify soils’ potential for carbon storage. On a tropical Oxisol in Brazil,
conventional tillage was observed to have the lowest SOC stocks while
NT and ICL systems were reported to have the highest SOC stocks in both
0–100 cm and 0–30 cm soil layers. An increase of 3.2 and 10.1 Mg ha 1
was observed for NT and ICL systems, respectively in the 0–30 cm layer
when compared with conventional tillage system (Zanatta and Salton,
2010). These findings demonstrate the important role of conservation
tillage for increasing the SOC stocks in the soils of tropical, subtropical
and temperate regions (Six et al., 2002b; Diekow et al., 2005). In
addition, a relationship between NT practices and soil carbon seques­
tration showed a net carbon sequestration rate up to 0.8 � 106 Mg C yr 1
for an NT system in China (Lu et al., 2009). A decrease in SOC degra­
dation in Tai-lake paddy soils in China was observed by using the NT
approach in the planting of wheat.
The NT is an effective way to reduce physical disturbance and in­
crease the cover of crop residues on the surface of the soil (Farah et al.,
2008). Additionally, an increased grain yield has the tendency to affect
carbon sequestration positively in this region (Qiu et al., 2009; Liu et al.,
2016). Thus in the top 30 cm of soils, the NT practice has the potential to
be considered as a beneficial on-farm approach, keeping in view its
specific characteristics to sequester 3.3 � 106 Mg of C year 1 in the U.S.
for the next 100 years (Lee and Chang, 1993). The NT approach was
applied to about 35% of cropland in US planted with eight major crops
in the year 2009. The increase in NT management cropland was reported
to increase about 1.5% per year from 2000 to 2007 (USDA ERS, 2010).
Nevertheless, studies have shown inconsistencies regarding NT ef­
fects on SOC variations. These changes include both significantly posi­
tive and negative effects depending upon the type of land and properties
of soil, land use history, depth of soil layers, microclimatic conditions,
topography and climate change on large scale (Six et al., 2002a; Xu
et al., 2010; Dimassi et al., 2014). Whether removing significant
amounts of carbon from atmosphere using NT is a realistic approach or
not is a part of an ongoing debate. The rate of NT sequestration which is
based on meta-analysis ranges from 0.1 to 0.57 Mg ha 1 yr 1 (e.g. West
and Post, 2002; VandenBygaart et al., 2003; Ogle et al., 2005; Virto
et al., 2012). Similarly, Huang et al. (2016) reported that NT enhanced
6
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
the concentration of total SOC by 18.1% as compared with conventional
tillage (CT) under a long-term maize cropping system in China. They
also reported that the amount of soil large macro-aggregates (>2000
μm) was higher in NT than in CT.
3. Soil erosion and soil carbon loss
Soil erosion has severe impacts on carbon losses (Lal, 2003), directly
by displacing the soil particles and exposing encapsulated carbon. Soil
erosion also indirectly uncovers the subsoil, which increases the bio­
logical carbon emissions and degrades the aggregates (Haring et al.,
2013). A carbon loss of about 20–50 Mg C ha 1 has been reported to
occur when a natural ecosystem is converted into agricultural ecosystem
within 5 years in the tropics and 50 years in temperate regions
(Davidson and Ackerman, 1993; Lal, 2003). Around the globe, about
1600 million ha are under the effect of erosion, comprising about 1/10
of the total terrestrial global area (Oldeman, 1992). Soil and wind
erosion are responsible for removing 75 billion metric tons of soil from
the land surface yearly; the majority of this soil removal comes from
agricultural lands (Myers, 1993). Wind erosion is the transportation of
soil particles by wind. In arid and semi-arid regions, it is a widely-spread
process which is a major cause of land degradation (Lal, 1989; Hammad
et al., 2018). The susceptibility of soil to wind erosion is function of
several physical properties of soil such as roughness, surface cover,
compaction strength, surface shear, distribution of soil aggregate size
and stability, and water content (Feng et al., 2011). Generally, the
erosion rates are lower in no tillage plots than the plots used for grazing.
A study reported a faster rate of soil degradation in soils composed of
finer particles (Tanner et al., 2016).
Decomposition of organic matter is one of the main reasons for
carbon loss from agricultural soils due to soil erosion (Freibauer et al.,
2004). A number of processes which occur due to soil erosion adversely
affect soil quality. However, there is a lack of knowledge about
cause-and-effect in this regard. Soil organic matter is considered an
important indicator of soil quality (Doran et al., 1998). Soil quality is
affected by increased soil erosion (Lal and Bruce, 1999) which decreases
the agronomic productivity of soil (Olson et al., 1998; Lal, 1998). A
significant reduction in the thickness of the Ap horizon is a commonly
noticed characteristic of eroded lands (Frye et al., 1982; Mermut et al.,
1983), which consequently affects the soil water holding capacity, SOC
contents, nutrient status and ultimately crop productivity (Frye et al.,
1982; Chengere and Lal, 1995).
There is a great impact of water erosion on the storage of carbon in
the world (Lal, 2003) due to carbon losses triggered by the surface runoff
that causes the transportation of sediments, which include the soil car­
bon present in different size particles (Shi et al., 2013). A large fraction
of terrestrial carbon has been found to be mineralized (Gon ~ i et al., 1998)
and it has been estimated that around 1.14 � 1012 Mg C yr 1 is released
into the atmosphere as a result of water erosion (Lal, 1995). Battany and
Grismer (2000) reported that during first 60 days of observations at
Napa Valley, California, USA, the CO2 emission from a particulate
deposition area was 17.0 g C m 2 higher than the 13.80 g C m 2
emissions from an eroded site. In a period of 100 days, about 29–35% of
the exported carbon was mineralized. A high amount of soil erosion
poses a serious threat to the long-term fertility and sustainability of soil
(Battany and Grismer, 2000). Duration and intensity of rainfall, surface
cover, topography, soil moisture and soil properties are among the
principal factors affecting erosion process (Nearing et al., 2005). It has
been also reported that characteristics of SOC especially its solubility,
are the possible reasons for high carbon losses associated with soil loss
and high surface runoff during rainfall (Jin et al., 2009).
Soil cover with vegetation significantly lessens the soil erosion rate
(Greene et al., 1994; Chen et al., 2004) by intercepting raindrops and
reducing the flow rate of rainwater. Natural vegetation is the most
effective way to reduce erosion as vegetation not only promotes evap­
orative water loss but also intercepts rainfall (Chen et al., 2004).
F. Abbas et al.
Sediment accumulation and runoff velocity are affected by land use
(Mohammad and Adam, 2010). In temperate regions, land cover can
dramatically influence the export of soil organic carbon dissolved in
runoff. Studies conducted in a red soil hilly region of China by Ma et al.
(2014) concluded that the runoff volumes, sediments with SOC content
and mobilization of dissolved organic carbon were higher from no
tillage plots with high rainfall. These results correlated with the in­
tensity of rainfall in comparison to low runoff with low rainfall intensity.
The simulated rainfall test showed an average export of dissolved
organic carbon values of 0.27, 0.64 and 0.76 g C m 2 ha 1 for con­
ventional tillage with low rainfall, no tillage with low rainfall, and no
tillage with high rainfall, respectively (Ma et al., 2014). The authors
concluded that the SOC content leaving the erosion zone was signifi­
cantly correlated with water runoff from the soil surface. So, chisel
ploughing (conventional tillage) improved the water infiltration and
resulted in a decreased export of dissolved organic carbon. Puttock et al.
(2013) indicated significantly higher losses of dissolved organic carbon
from forest soils than from grasslands. These results were in agreement
with the findings of Kindler et al. (2011), who found that dissolved
organic carbon loss from soils adjacent to streams tended to be highest in
forested sites, intermediate in croplands and lowest in grasslands in a
pan-European study.
Conversion of grassland (a former Conservation Reserve Program
(CRP) site in southwest Iowa) into cropland resulted in severe losses of
the SOC pool (20-Mg ha 1 in the top 30-cm layer) caused by the severe
onset soil erosion (Gilley and Doran, 1997). Application of different
practices for field management; for example, the use of conventional
tillage may also influence the dissolved organic carbon losses due to the
increased solubility of organic carbon (Dominy et al., 2002). The author
showed that soil with long term (>50y) pasture histories have higher
soil organic matter contents due to the retention of organic residues with
minimum disturbance of soil in comparison to continuous (>30y) maize
or sugarcane cultivation.
During the last decade, the Para rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was
introduced in South China to replace the forestland use system. The area
under para rubber tree cultivation increased almost 400% (Xu et al.,
2014), which resulted in an exponential decline in the carbon stocks of
topsoil, reaching a steady state when 75% SOC of the original stock was
lost after 20 years (De Blecourt et al., 2013). A loss of 37 Mg C ha 1 was
reported when the land was converted from forest to rubber plantation.
These losses were attributed to the disturbance of soil during prepara­
tion, sparse vegetation cover, and construction of terraces (De Blecourt
et al., 2013). Acacia plantations can facilitate better carbon and nitrogen
retention and decrease soil erosion. There are serious consequences of
loss of SOC through runoff and erosion on agricultural lands; this
problem is especially severe in soils with a low concentration of organic
carbon.
Moreover, the soil type plays an important role in the retention of
water and SOC in soils (Worrall et al., 2012). Additionally, the retention
depends on the macro-fauna and microbial community composition
(Cragg and Bardgett, 2001), topography, slope length, inclination
(Chaplot and Poesen, 2012), hydrologic flow paths and water residence
times (Puttock et al., 2013), vegetation cover and agricultural practices
(Valentin et al., 2008; Mailapalli et al., 2012; Rochelle-Newall et al.,
2014). A vital component of the net carbon balance in ecosystems is the
flux of dissolved organic carbon (Kindler et al., 2011). Regardless of the
importance of dissolved organic carbon, this aspect has been ignored in
sub-tropical and tropical regions, where intense and episodic events of
rain can severely change the soils via inorganic and organic carbon
losses and soil erosion (Battin et al., 2009).
Dust storms cause soil carbon loss of about 0.05–1.04 Mg ha 1 yr 1
in northern China (Wang et al., 2006). In the Sahel region of West Africa,
wind erosion was reported to cause a loss of fine particles and nutrients
(Visser and Both, 2005). Total soil carbon loss was reported as 3.6 Mg C
ha 1 yr 1 from eroded soil using a soil series classification in 1980–81
(Harper et al., 2010). In the process of soil desertification in China, a
7
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
significant amount of SOC was lost by wind erosion (Duan et al., 1996).
One serious dust storm may carry more than 0.64 M t dust mass esti­
mated by remote sensing technique (Yan et al., 2002a, 2002b). Net CO2
emission to atmosphere due to wind erosion is about 124 � 106 Mg C for
40 years, which represents about 3 � 106 Mg C yr 1 (Duan et al., 1996).
A total reduction of 41% SOC was reported due to erosion on cultivated
land when compared with a grassland area in Canada (Mermut et al.,
1983). Smith et al. (2001) reported that the wind erosion caused a loss of
about 1.4 � 1012 Mg C yr 1 globally. Soil organic carbon is highly
influenced by the loss of topsoil and by nitrogen dynamics that
contribute to potential of carbon sequestration in soils (Stallard, 1998;
Lal, 2003). Erosion of topsoil due to wind events caused a loss of nu­
trients in soil particles in the Indian Thar desert (Santra et al., 2006;
Mertia et al., 2010). Nitrogen and carbon contents in eroded soils were
0.37 and 4 g kg 1, respectively, in comparison to surrounding soils with
0.44 g kg 1 N and 5.01 g kg 1 C in the center of the Arid Zone Research
Institute, Rajasthan, India (Santra et al., 2013).
The proportions of organic nitrogen and carbon decrease signifi­
cantly due to wind erosion (Guang-Lu and Xiao-Ming, 2010). A field
experiment was conducted in Iran to examine the impact of wind erosion
on soil with typical characteristics of arid regions. Results showed that
wind erosion severely affected the soil properties such as clay contents
and bulk density. Moreover, wind erosion had an impact on the loss of
nitrogen and carbon as the organic nitrogen and carbon contents
decreased significantly with the severity of erosion (Faghihinia and
Afzali, 2013). Therefore, effects of wind erosion on farmland produc­
tivity require the accurate calculation of soil carbon losses.
Considering soil erosion in the calculation of the global carbon
budget is obligatory. Additionally, there is a need to develop new ap­
proaches for monitoring soil erosion and to track the intrinsic soil
erosion effects on the dynamics of soil carbon. A case study in the
northeast of China has shown that underestimation of about 50% of
carbon loss occurred as a result of overlooking soil erosion in a degraded
grassland. Therefore, global carbon budget assessments require
rethinking and reconsideration of past trends (Li et al., 2014). By using a
degradation gradient or land use sequence, many researchers have
surveyed soil carbon sequestration and losses (Walker and Desanker,
2004; He et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2010; Tang et al., 2010; Li et al., 2013;
Wen et al., 2014). In addition to the above mentioned problems, the
estimate of C loss by measuring erosion can be misleading as the
deposition of eroded material may constitute a C sink (Berhe et al.,
2007). Moreover, a land surface feature basis assessment of soil erosion
is very difficult to calculate in natural ecosystems as significant soil
erosion may occur at small spatial scales (Table 2). A deficiency of in situ
monitoring data is a hurdle in estimating carbon loss from soil erosion
directly. Consequently, soil erosion and its impact on the estimation of
carbon losses from soil mostly remains uncertain (Walker and Desanker,
2004; Pei et al., 2008; Li et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2013). In the past, a very
high rate of soil erosion (averaging 30–40 Mg ha 1 yr 1) was reported
for Africa, Asia and South America (Barrow and Cox, 1992), findings
which are not supported by the research conducted with experimental
approaches (Ochoa et al., 2016; Mekonnen et al., 2017; Sharma et al.,
2017; Vaezi et al., 2017; Antoneli et al., 2018).
4. Carbon sequestration versus greenhouse gas emission
Industrial emissions and burning of fossil fuel contribute to CO2
emissions, accounting for a 78% increase in global GHGs emissions from
1970 to 2011, resulting in global warming (IPCC, 2014). Deforestation
for residential and commercial sectors contributes substantially to GHGs
emissions. An increase of more than 100 ppm was reported in the con­
centration of atmospheric CO2 since the pre-industrial era (IPCC, 2014).
The agricultural land expansion at the expense of forested areas has
been a major reason for carbon losses to the atmosphere from the
biosphere (Foley et al., 2005; Abbas et al., 2017). Continuation of this
process and net carbon release from agricultural practices, specifically
F. Abbas et al. Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319

Table: 2
Carbon losses by different types of soil erosion on the Earth.
Sr. Study Type Type of Erosion Type of Soil Carbon Region/Country Carbon Loss Reference
NO.

1 Field Studies Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon Semi-arid soils 10.8 g C m 2 y 1 Müller-Nedebock and
Tropical soils 6.4 g C m 2 y 1 Chaplot (2015)
Temperate soils 1.7 g C m 2 y 1
2 Laboratory Water erosion Soil organic carbon (SOC) Loess Plateau in China 0.3 g m 2 min 1 Li et al. (2016)
study (silty clay loam)
2 1
Soil organic carbon (silty 0.08 g m min
loam)
2
3 Field Study Water erosion Total organic carbon Tabernas, SE Spain 10.2 g m Chamizo et al. (2017)
(Biocrust removal)
2
4 Field Study Water erosion Total organic carbon Xishuangbanna, Southwest China 15 g C m Liu et al. (2016)
(Rubber plantations)
5 Field Study Water erosion Dissolved organic carbon Northern Vietnam 0.03–0.25 g C m 2/ Janeau et al. (2014)
40 min
6 Field Study Sheet erosion Soil organic carbon Sahel 0.24 g C m 1 Maïga-Yaleu et al. (2015)
7 Field Study Water erosion SOC (perennial desiccation The Sahelian region 0.36 g C m-2 y 1 Maïga-Yaleu et al. (2013)
crusts)
SOC (gravel crust) 0.15 g C m 2 y 1
SOC (erosion crust) 0.37 g C m-2 y 1
(structural crusts) 0.24 g C m-2 y 1
8 Field Study Soil erosion Soil organic carbon Central Belgium 3310 g C m 2 Bouchoms et al. (2017)
9 Field Study Water erosion Soil organic carbon South Africa 0.75 g C m 2 Mchunu and Chaplot (2012)
10 Field Study Wind erosion Soil organic carbon Western Australia 20 g C m 2 y 1 Chappell and Jeffrey (2016)
11 Field Study Water erosion Total organic carbon England 0.2 � 109 g C y 1 Quinton et al. (2006)
Total organic carbon Wales 0.76 � 109 g C y 1
12 Field Study Dust storm erosion Soil total carbon China 5.3–104.4 g C m 2 Wang et al. (2006)
13 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon Ethiopia 9.9 g C m 2 y 1 Girmay et al. (2009)
14 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon South East Spain 2.6 g C m 2 y 1 Martinez-Mena et al. (2008)
15 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon South Africa 26.2 g C m 2 y 1 Orchard et al. (2013)
16 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon Mali 14.1 g C m 2 y 1 Drissa et al. (2004)
17 Field Study Soil erosion Soil total carbon L. chinensis platforms China 2320 g C m 2 Li et al. (2014)
C. virgata and bare saline-alkaline 2430 g C m 2
patches China
18 Field study Water erosion (Runoff) Soil total carbon Ohio-USA 29–46% of C Jacinthe et al. (2002)
19 Field Study Water erosion (Rainfall Soil organic carbon Southern China 3.52, g m 2 h 1 Ma et al. (2014)
events) 1.08 g m 2 h 1
0.07 g m 2 h 1
20 Field study Soil erosion (Aggregate Soil organic carbon Belgian Loess Belt near Leuven, 10–80% Wang et al. (2014)
crushing) Belgium
21 Field Study Water erosion Soil organic carbon North Africa 2.8 g C m 2 y 1 Morsli et al. (2006)
22 Field Study Water erosion Soil organic carbon Spain 1gCm 2y 1 Martinez-Mena et al. (2008)
23 Field Study Water erosion Soil organic carbon Canary Islands andosols 4.9 g C m 2 y 1 Rodriguez et al. (2004)
24 Field Study Water erosion Soil organic carbon Mali 5050gC m 2 y 1 Diallo et al. (2004)
25 Field Study Sheet erosion Soil organic carbon Different Regions of the World 1.32 � 0.20 Gt C Müller-Nedebock and
Chaplot (2015)
26 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon Kenya 0.7 g C m 2 y 1 Boye and Albrecht (2006)
27 Field Study Soil erosion Soil organic carbon Tripura 23 g m 2 year 1 Tiwary et al. (2015)
28 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon USA 22 g C m 2 y 1 Polyakov and Lal (2004)
29 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon Benin 16.7 g C m 2 y 1 Barth�es et al. (2006)
30 Field Study Sheet erosion Particulate organic carbon India 4gCm 2y 1 Cogle et al. (2002)

from tropical deforestation, is projected to be 25% (1.7 � 1012 Mg yr 1)
of fossil fuel emissions (Malhi et al., 2002a, 2002b). A slight decrease in
SOC stocks can increase GHGs concentrations in the atmosphere that
may lead to global warming (Smith and Fang, 2010).
Atmospheric carbon sequestration by agricultural soils is a signifi­
cant contributor in increasing SOC stocks for the mitigation of global
warming (Wiesmeier et al., 2014). Potential greenhouse effects are a
reason of concern in terms of atmospheric quality, which is an important
issue in the modern era. Functional pools of carbon are involved in the
processes of releasing GHGs from soil. The SOC content determines the
turnover time (the average time required to completely renew the
content of the pool at steady state), which extends from 0.2 to 1.4 years
for active pools and may expand up to several thousands of years for
passive pools. Careful management of soil can reduce emissions of gases
such as CH4, CO2 and NOx. Increasing passive pools (consisting of
resistant humic substances) can improve carbon reserves and reduce
GHGs emissions. Although mineral nitrogen fertilization enhances car­
bon sequestration, it may lead to increased emissions of other GHG such
as NOx (Desjardins et al., 2001).
Restoration of soil organic carbon stocks depleted from arable lands
and reversing the emissions from the burning of fossil fuel are one of the
promising approaches for mitigating the effects of climate change
(K€ampf et al., 2016). There are a number of carbon sequestration stra­
tegies in agriculture to capture carbon in soil from atmosphere; i.e.,
reduction in tillage intensity, increase in inputs of crop residues, manure
application, nutrient management and removal of summer fallows, and
restoration of permanent forests and grasslands (Paul et al., 1997;
Hutchinson et al., 2007; Lu et al., 2009; Hillel and Rosenzweig, 2011;
Zahra et al., 2016; Abbas et al., 2017). Degradation rates of SOC are
balanced by applying organic materials to compensate for dynamics
changes; i.e., C mineralization, and basal and total respiration in the soil
(Laird and Chang, 2013). An abandoned agricultural land (385–472
million ha) could produce 1.6 to 2.1 billion Mg of dry biomass that can
significantly contribute to C sequestration (Campbell et al., 2008).
Another estimate showed a potential of 0.4–1.2 � 109 Mg yr 1 carbon
sequestration in the world soils (Lal, 2004a). Some of the most pro­
ductive and carbon enriched soils of agricultural ecosystems account for
about 11% of the earth land. Consequently, these can play an important

8
F. Abbas et al.
role in the release and storage of carbon within the carbon cycle of
terrestrial ecosystem (Lal and Bruce, 1999). It is crucial to conserve high
enough SOC levels in soils of tropical and temperate regions to ensure
the chemical, physical and biological functioning of the soils. Soil
fertility improves with the presence of an appropriate amount of SOC in
soil. SOC preserves biodiversity, sequesters carbon and reduces soil
erosion (Six et al., 2002a). Sequestration of anthropogenic carbon into
SOC is possible by eliminating agricultural tillage practices (Paustian
et al., 2000; West and Marland, 2002; Jarecki and Lal, 2003). Restora­
tion of SOC involves conversion of conventional tillage practices to
conservation tillage, application of organic manures, and legume based
crop rotation adaptations. Agriculture serves as a potential solution to
mitigate GHGs emissions when practices implement the preservation
and enhancement of adequate organic residues using best soil man­
agement practices. Carbon sequestration is dependent upon soil man­
agement systems because conservation practices such as plant residue
management, crop rotations, and organic farming play a fundamental
role in carbon storage (Mrabet, 2006). Conversion of grasslands and
forests to arable lands is the major contributor of carbon emissions from
land use change. Average loss of carbon from 2002 to 2011 was 0.9 �
0.8 � 109 Mg yr 1 including both above ground mass and soil carbon
(Stocker et al., 2013; Gonzalo et al., 2017). Net contribution of agri­
cultural soils for depletion of historical terrestrial carbon has been
projected up to 42–78 � 109 Mg of carbon (Hillel and Rosenzweig,
2011). It represents 8–15% of anthropogenic inputs between 1870 and
2014 (Stocker et al., 2013). However, several agricultural management
practices also have been reported to increase soil carbon sequestration;
such as, croplands amended with organic manure (Diacono and Mon­
temurro, 2010), cover cropping, reduced tillage, improved crop rota­
tions (West and Post, 2002), and grazing management (Soussana et al.,
2010).
4.1. Effects of ambient air temperature and soil moisture content on
carbon sequestration
Desert and semi desert areas are widespread land biomes of the
world occupying more than 30% of earth’s surface (United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP), 1997). These are considered as the most
responsive ecosystems to global climate change (Mellilo et al., 1993;
Huxman and Smith, 2001). In these regions, the growth of plants is slow
thus the exchange of carbon is also slow. These areas are very important
in terms of carbon fluxes among different carbon pools due to their wide
distribution (Lal, 2004b; Reynolds et al., 2007). In terrestrial carbon
exchange, precipitation and temperature are the most important drivers
(Austin et al., 2004; Collins et al., 2008; Weltzin et al., 2003; Wu et al.,
2011; Abbas et al., 2014), especially in semi-arid ecosystems (Heisler-­
White et al., 2008; Talmon et al., 2011; Valentini et al., 2000). Changes
in temperature and precipitation were found to be the most important
factors governing the variation of CO2 sequestration by soils and the
ocean (Ahlstrom et al., 2015). In the dry region of Australia and globally
(IPCC, 2014), heat waves, long-term droughts, and wild-fire intensity
and frequency are likely to increase due to global warming (Hughes,
2003; Murphy and Timbal, 2008; Taschetto and England, 2009). In arid
and semi-arid ecosystems, peaks in soil respiration have been reported
during episodic rainfall events (Ma et al., 2012; Unger et al., 2012). In
hot arid environments, this is a primary factor restricting the seques­
tration of carbon. However, there is a need for moisture, a limiting factor
in dry lands, to promote decomposition. On-site characteristics illustrate
the complex relationship between moisture and temperature in con­
trolling decomposition. In Central Texas, about 65–98% of the varia­
tions in fluxes of CO2 were accounted for by the combination of soil
moisture, temperature and time of the year, which is closely related to
tillage, crop sequence and season (Franzluebbers et al., 1995). In
contrast to this situation, in a semi-arid region (Alberta, Canada), water
was reported as a major factor controlling the rate of respiration during
a growing season (Akinremi et al., 1999). Therefore, there is always an
9
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
optimal temperature range for the introduction of organic matter to
facilitate slower rate of decomposition. This range varies from 7.5 to 15
C (Lal, 2005).
�
5. A case study: soil carbon profile development (60 cm depth)
from wheat-cotton and wheat-maize rotation practices on semi-
arid lands
A field study of SOC buildup and nitrogen productivity were initiated
in 2013 at an experimental farm of the Nuclear Institute for Agriculture
and Biology (NIAB), Faisalabad, Pakistan. The study consisted of four
treatments including two levels of tillage (conventional and no tillage)
and mulch (with and without mulch) application that were performed in
split plot arrangements. Tillage was performed in the main plots,
whereas mulch was replicated three times in sub plots. A maize-maize
crop sequence in spring (February–May) and fall (July–November)
growing seasons was followed in rotation. Conventional tillage (Tþ)
consisted of disk ploughing, tine cultivation followed by planking,
whereas no tillage was performed under no tillage (T‒). In the mulch
retention treatment 4.8 Mg ha 1 maize stover was obtained from the
previous crop and applied to the soil after crop planting.
The effects of PACs on the studied variables were analyzed by
ANOVA using the Statistix statistical package. When the F-values were
significant, the least significant difference (LSD) test was used for
comparing treatments means. The differences in treatment means were
considered significant at P < 0.05 and P < 0.05.
Maize (cv. EV-77) was sown on 15–25 February for spring and 10–20
July for fall plantation in different study years with row to row and plant
to plant distance of 70 and 20 cm, respectively. Under tilled conditions,
phosphorus (P) (triple super phosphate) and potassium (K) (sulfate of
potash) were applied at the rate of 100 kg ha 1 at the time of seedbed
preparation. Nitrogen in form of urea fertilizer (165 kg ha 1) was
applied in three splits; i.e., one-third of N at the seed bed preparation
and remaining 2/3rd at 15 days after sowing and at the tasseling stage of
the crop. However, under T‒ conditions, all the P, K and 1/3 N were
applied with first irrigation, whereas remaining N was applied similar to
Tþ treatment. Soil moisture was monitored using an on-site calibrated
neutron probe and irrigation was scheduled on a weekly basis depending
on rainfall events. In the case of higher rainfall, irrigation was delayed
subsequently. The SOC amounts at 0–15, 15–30 and 30–60 cm soil
depths were measured at the onset of the experiment and after the 6th
crop growing season. Nitrogen use efficiency with 15N labelled urea (5%
atom excess) was measured in the fall 2015, spring 2016 and fall 2016
crop growing seasons.
5.1. Results
5.1.1. Soil organic carbon
Before the initiation of the study in the fall 2012 crop season, the SOC
of 0–15, 15–30 and 30–60 cm of soil depths was 11.5, 10.3 and 10.8 Mg
ha 1, respectively. The measurements were made after the 6th maize
growing season (Spring-2015) that showed higher SOC differences
among different applied treatments. In general, the individual effect of
tillage on SOC was confined to the upper 0–15 cm of soil layer; whereas,
for mulching it was apparent up to 30 cm depth (Table 3). Interactive
effects of tillage and mulch treatments showed higher SOC for T‒Mþ
(19.4 Mg ha 1) in the upper 15 cm soil layer which was 25, 36 and 31%
higher than the T‒M‒, TþM‒ and TþMþ treatments, respectively
(Table 3). However, in the deeper soil layers, i.e., 15–30 cm, SOC was
higher in TþMþ treatment (13.6 Mg ha 1) followed by T‒Mþ, T‒M‒ and
TþM‒ with respective mean values of 12.9, 11.5 and 11.7 Mg ha 1.
Generally, no changes in SOC were observed at 30–60 cm soil depth.
In the absence of tillage and baseline SOC stock (32.6 Mg ha 1), the
overall SOC in 0–60 cm soil depth was 25% (32.6 vs. 43.3) higher with
mulch and 12% (32.6 vs 37.0) without mulch application. However,
with tillage, an increase in SOC with mulch application was
F. Abbas et al. Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319

Table 3 Similarly, total N recovery from the applied fertilizer in terms of kg ha 1

Soil organic carbon buildup (Mg ha 1) in soil used for maize-maize cropping
pattern for 6 continuous growing seasons (Case study).
Soil depth (cm) Before study After study
T‒M‒ T‒Mþ
0–15 11.5 14.5 b 19.4 a 12.3 d
15–30 10.3 11.5 c 12.9 b 11.7 c
30–45 10.8 10.9 ns 11.0 ns
0–60 32.6 37.0 b 43.3 a 34.7 c
Means values that share different letters in a column vary significantly at P �
0.05.
ns ¼ Non-significant.
Tþ ¼ Conventional tillage, T‒ ¼ no tillage Mþ ¼ mulch, M‒ ¼ no mulch.
approximately 12.4% (32.6 vs. 37.2). The differences under no-mulched
treatment were non-significant with respect to the baseline value.
5.1.2. Biomass, grain yield and nitrogen use efficiency
In crop seasons of the fall 2015, spring 2016 and fall 2016, 15N-
labelled urea was used to quantify percent N derived by the crop from
applied fertilizer under different tillage and mulch combinations.
Generally, in both tillage systems the application of mulch resulted in a
reduction of above ground biomass and grain yield of maize. However,
the differences were more pronounced for grain yield than biomass
production. Averaged across growing seasons the differences in biomass
were non-significant for T‒M‒, T‒Mþ and TþM‒ treatments with mean
values of 16.7 � 2.2, 14.7 � 1.5 and 15.4 � 2.5 Mg ha 1, respectively.
However, when compared to T‒M‒, significantly lower above ground
biomass was recorded for the TþMþ treatment (14.0 � 2.6 Mg ha 1).
The trend was similar for grain yield with 14, 8 and 20% lower values
for T‒Mþ, TþM‒ and TþMþ compared to T‒M‒ treatment (Table 4).
Similarly, total N uptake in the grain (TNg) was higher for T‒M‒ (106.2
� 10.0 kg ha 1), which was 16, 8 and 22% lower in T‒Mþ (0.089 �
0.006 Mg ha 1), TþM‒ (0.097 � 0.012 Mg ha 1) and TþMþ (0.083 �
0.014 Mg ha 1) treatments, respectively (Table 4).
Total N recovery in grain from applied fertilizer (%NDFF) exhibited a
negative impact of mulch application in the initial phase of this study.
The overall NDFF averaged across three growing seasons ranged from
28.5% in T‒M‒ to 18.1% in T‒Mþ conditions (Table 4). The mean values
was 47.6 kg ha 1 for T‒M‒ followed by 37.8, 30.8 and 29.9 kg ha 1 for
TþM‒, TþMþ and T‒Mþ treatments, respectively.
It is hypothesized that due to the immobilization of N in the presence
TþM‒ TþMþ
of organic mulch in this transition period from CT to NT practices, the
overall fertilizer N use efficiency (FNUE) of grain was lower with the
13.4 c
mulch application. However, conservation tillage in the absence of
13.6 a
10.7 ns 10.2 ns mulch responded early with respect to FNUE (44.5%). Mulch applica­
37.2 b tion coupled with conservation tillage had the lowest FNUE (33.6%)
followed by TþMþ (38%) and TþM‒ (38.9%).
6. Summary
Soils serve as natural regulators of the atmospheric CO2 and can store
two to three times more carbon than that in the atmosphere. However,
the recent trends of climate change with increasing temperature may
intensify the losses of carbon stored in the soil. There are number of
strategies that can be employed to sequester more carbon in the soil; i.e.,
reduction in tillage intensity, increase in inputs of crop residues, manure
application, nutrient management and removal of summer fallows, and
restoration of permanent forests and grassland. Planting of crops with
NT is an efficient approach for enhancing carbon sequestration. In arid
and semi-arid regions, the changes in temperature and precipitation
cause variations in carbon sequestration potentials of soils by affecting
below and above ground biological activities. Therefore, region-specific
agricultural practices can minimize carbon footprints. Net contribution
of agricultural soils to the depletion of historical terrestrial carbon has
been projected to be 42 � 103–78 � 103 Mg of carbon (Hillel and
Rosenzweig, 2011). Carbon sequestration in arid and semiarid regions
depends on soil management systems because conservation practices
such as tillage, incorporation of plant residue, mulching, crop rotations,
and organic farming play fundamental roles in carbon storage. Degra­
dation rates of soil organic carbon can be balanced by soil applications of
organic material to facilitate the changes in dynamics of SOC of agri­
cultural soils. Reduction in tillage operations and the addition of crop
residues on the soil surface or by harvesting the crop at different heights
can improve SOC storage by improving soil temperature and reducing
water losses from the soil. There is a specific temperature range that is
optimal for the introduction of organic matter to accomplish its slower
decomposition rates. This range lies between 7.5 and 15 C which is rare
�

under CT were 22.9% without mulch and 18.9% with mulch application.
in these areas. Erosion of the surface soil is another leading cause of the
loss of carbon present in different size particles. Moreover, erosion re­
Table 4 sults in the loss of soil fertility that significantly decreases the inherent
Effect of tillage and mulch on above ground biomass, grain production and capacity of the soil to sequester carbon from its above and below ground
harvest index of maize [Individual values are mean � SD of three maize growing carbon stocks.
seasons] (Case study).
Results of the case study presented here showed that the conven­
Treatment Biomass Grain TNg NDFF FNUE tional tillage had an effect on SOC for the 0–15 cm soil layer, which
yield
increased to 69% SOC compared to the base line when mulching was
Mg ha 1
(Mg ha 1
) % % practiced. Generally, in both tillage systems (conventional and no till)
TþMþ 14.0 � 5.9 � 0.083 � 18.7 � 1.5 c 38.0 � application of mulch resulted in a reduction of above ground biomass
2.6 b 0.8 c 0.014c (30.8 � 2.4) 3.5 bc and a reduction in grain yield of maize. However, the Fertilizer nitrogen
TþM‒ 15.4 � 6.8 � 0.097.1 � 22.9 � 5.2 b 38.9 � use efficiency (FNUE) was higher in no till with no mulch conditions.
2.5 ab 0.4 b 0.012 ab (37.8 � 8.6) 6.6 b
Lower carbon losses from soil can be accomplished by implementing no
T‒Mþ 14.7 � 6.4 � 0.089 � 18.1 � 1.7 c 33.6 �
1.5 ab 0.4 bc 0.006 bc (29.9 � 2.8) 2.0 c tillage in combination with mulch application can mitigate the risks
T‒M‒ 16.7 � 7.4 � 0.106 � 28.5 � 4.2 a 44.5 � associated with global warming.
2.2 a 0.5 a 0.001 a (47.0 � 6.8) 6.2 a
LSD P< 2.07 0.59 0.012 3.17 5.01 Declaration of competing interest
0.05
P< 2.79 0.80 0.016 4.27 6.81
0.01 The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the
publication of this paper.
Figures in a column followed by different letter are significantly different by
Duncan’s multiple range test (P < 0.05).
TNg ¼ Total N offtake in the grain, NDFF¼ Fertilizer nitrogen recovery as Mg CRediT authorship contribution statement
ha 1.
FNUE¼ Fertilizer nitrogen use efficiency. Farhat Abbas: Methodology, Supervision, Writing - review & edit­
LSD ¼ Least significance difference, Tþ ¼ Conventional tillage, T‒ ¼ no tillage ing. Hafiz Mohkum Hammad: Writing - original draft, Writing - review
Mþ ¼ mulch, M‒ ¼ no mulch. & editing. Hafiz Faiq Bakhat: Writing - original draft, Writing - review

10
F. Abbas et al. Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319

& editing. Zahida Zia: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & Plains. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 144, 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
agee.2011.07.004.
editing. Artemi Cerda
�: Methodology, Supervision, Writing - review &
Bouchoms, S., Zhengang, W., Veerle, V., Sebastian, D., Kristof, V.O., 2017. Modelling
editing. long-term soil organic carbon dynamics under the impact of land cover change and
soil redistribution. Catena 151, 63–73.
Boye, A., Albrecht, A., 2006. Soil erodibility control and soil carbon losses under
Acknowledgement ShortTerm tree fallows in western Kenya. In: Roose, E.J., Lal, R., Feller, C.,
Barthes, B., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Soil Erosion and Carbon Dynamics. CRC Press, USA,
The authors gratefully acknowledge Deborah A. Martin, Research pp. 181–196.
Brümmer, G.W., 1984. Heavy metal species, mobility and availability in soils. In:
Hydrologist, Emerita, U.S. Geological Survey, 3215 Marine Street, Bernhard, M., Brinckman, F.E., Sadler, P.J. (Eds.), The Importance of Chemical
Boulder, CO, USA for the English language improvement of the “Speciation” in Environmental Processes. Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany,
manuscript. pp. 169–192.
Burke, I.C., Yonker, C.M., Parton, W.J., Cole, C.V., Schimel, D.S., Flach, K., 1989.
Texture, climate, and cultivation effects on soil organic matter content in U.S.
References Grassland soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53, 800. https://doi.org/10.2136/
sssaj1989.03615995005300030029x.
Buysse, P., Roisin, C., Aubinet, M., 2013. Fifty years of contrasted residue management of
Abbas, F., Ahmad, A., Safeeq, M., Ali, S., Saleem, F., Hammad, H.M., Farhad, W., 2014.
an agricultural crop: impacts on the soil carbon budget and on soil heterotrophic
Changes in precipitation extremes over arid to semiaridand subhumid Punjab,
respiration. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 167, 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Pakistan. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 116, 671–680.
agee.2013.01.006.
Abbas, F., Hammad, H.M., Fahad, S., Cerd� a, A., Rizwan, M., Farhad, W., Ehsan, S.,
Campbell, A., Miles, L., Lysenko, I., Hughes, A., Gibbs, H., 2008. Carbon Storage in
Bakhat, H.F., 2017. Agroforestry: a sustainable environmental practice for carbon
Protected Areas: Technical Report. The United Nations Environment Programme
sequestration under the climate change scenarios – a review. Environ. Sci. Pollut.
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK.
Res. 24, 11177–11191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-8687-0.
Cao, X.H., Long, H.Y., Lei, Q.L., Jian, L.I.U., Zhang, J.Z., Zhang, W.J., Wu, S.X., 2016.
Aertsens, J., De Nocker, L., Gobin, A., 2013. Valuing the carbon sequestration potential
Spatio-temporal variations in organic carbon density and carbon sequestration
for European agriculture. Land Use Pol. 31, 584–594.
potential in the topsoil of Hebei Province, China. J. Integr. Agric. 15, 2627–2638.
Ahlstrom, A., Raupach, M.R., Schurgers, G., Smith, B., Arneth, A., Jung Reichstein, M.,
Cerd�a, A., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Gim� enez-Morera, A., Novara, A., Pulido, M., Kapovi�c-
Canadell, J.G., Friedlingstein, P., Jain, A.K., Kato, E., 2015. The dominant role of
Solomun, M., Keesstra, S.D., 2018a. Policies can help to apply successful strategies to
semi-arid ecosystems in the trend and variability of the land CO2 sink. Science 348,
control soil and water losses. The case of chipped pruned branches (CPB) in
895–905. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa1668.
Mediterranean citrus plantations. Land Use Pol. 75, 734–745.
Akinremi, O.O., McGinn, S.M., McLean, H.D., 1999. Effects of soil temperature and
Cerd�a, A., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Gim�enez-Morera, A., Keesstra, S.D., 2018b. An economic,
moisture on soil respiration in barley and fallow plots. Can. J. Soil Sci. 79, 5–13.
perception and biophysical approach to the use of oat straw as mulch in
https://doi.org/10.4141/S98-023.
Mediterranean rainfed agriculture land. Ecol. Eng. 108, 162–171.
Akpa, S.I., Odeh, I.O., Bishop, T.F., Hartemink, A.E., Amapu, I.Y., 2016. Total soil
Chamizo, S., Rodríguez-Caballero, E., Rom� an, J.R., Cant�
on, Y., 2017. Effects of biocrust
organic carbon and carbon sequestration potential in Nigeria. Geoderma 271,
on soil erosion and organic carbon losses under natural rainfall. Catena 148,
202–215.
117–125.
Alvarez, R., 2005. A review of nitrogen fertilizer and conservation tillage effects on soil
Chan, Y., 2008. Increasing soil organic carbon of agricultural land. Primefact 735, 1–5.
organic carbon storage. Soil Use Manag. 21, 38–52. https://doi.org/10.1079/
Chang, F.C., Ko, C.H., Yang, P.Y., Chen, K.S., Chang, K.H., 2016. Carbon sequestration
SUM2005291.
and substitution potential of subtropical mountain Sugi plantation forests in central
Antoneli, V., Rebinski, E.A., Bednarz, J.A., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Keesstra, S.D., Cerd� a, A.,
Taiwan. J. Clean. Prod. 33, 125–129.
Pulido Fern� andez, M., 2018. Soil erosion induced by the introduction of new pasture
Chaplot, V., Poesen, J., 2012. Sediment, soil organic carbon and runoff delivery at
species in a Faxinal farm of Southern Brazil. Geosci. 8, 166.
various spatial scales. Catena 88, 46–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Austin, A.T., Yahdjian, L., Stark, J.M., Belnap, J., Porporato, A., Norton, U., Ravetta, D.
catena.2011.09.004.
A., Schaeffer, S.M., 2004. Water pulses and biogeochemical cycles in arid and
Chappell, A., Jeffrey, A.B., 2016. Wind erosion reduces soil organic carbon sequestration
semiarid ecosAystems. Oecologia 141, 221–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-
falsely indicating ineffective management practices. Aeolian Res. 22, 107–116.
004-1519-1.
Chatterjee, A., 2013. Annual crop residue production and nutrient replacement costs for
Baker, J.M., Ochsner, T.E., Venterea, R.T., Griffis, T.J., 2007. Tillage and soil carbon
bioenergy feedstock production in United States. Agron. J. 105, 685–692. https://
sequestration—what do we really know? Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 10, 1–5. https://
doi.org/10.2134/agronj2012.0350.
doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.014.
Chen, C.R., Xu, Z.H., Mathers, N.J., 2004. Soil carbon pools in adjacent natural and
Barrow, N.J., Cox, V.C., 1992. The effects of pH and chloride concentration on mercury
plantation forests of subtropical Australia. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68, 282–291.
sorption. II. By a soil. J. Soil Sci. 43, 305–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-
Chengere, A., Lal, R., 1995. Soil degradation by erosion of a typic hapludalf in central
2389.1992.tb00138.x.
Ohio and its rehabilitation. Land Degrad. Dev. 6, 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1002/
Barth�es, B.G., Brunet, D., Ferrer, H., Chotte, J.L., Feller, C., 2006. Determination of total
ldr.3400060404.
carbon and nitrogen content in a range of tropical soils using near infrared
Cogle, A.L., Rao, K.P.C., Yule, D.F., Smith, G.D., George, P.J., Srinivasan, S.T.,
spectroscopy: influence of replication and sample grinding and drying. J. Near
Jangawad, L., 2002. Soil management for Alfi sols in the semiarid tropics: erosion,
Infrares Spectrosc. 14, 341–348.
enrichment ratios and runoff. Soil Use Manag. 18, 10–17.
Batjes, N.H., 1996. Total carbon and nitrogen in the soils of the world. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 47,
Collins, S.L., Sinsabaugh, R.L., Crenshaw, C., Green, L., Porras-Alfaro, A., Stursova, M.,
151–163.
Zeglin, L.H., 2008. Pulse dynamics and microbial processes in arid land ecosystems.
Battany, M.C., Grismer, M.E., 2000. Rainfall runoff and erosion in Napa Valley vineyards:
J. Ecol. 413–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01362.x.
effects of slope, cover and surface roughness. Hydrol. Process. 14, 1289–1304.
Conceiç~ ao, A.A., Funch, L.S., Pirani, J.R., 2007. Reproductive phenology, pollination and
https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(200005)14:7<1289::AID-HYP43>3.0.
seed dispersal syndromes on sandstone outcrop vegetation in the “Chapada
CO;2-R.
Diamantina”, northeastern Brazil: population and community analyses. Braz. J. Bot.
Battin, T.J., Luyssaert, S., Kaplan, L.A., Aufdenkampe, A.K., Richter, A., Tranvik, L.J.,
30, 475–485, 10.159.0/S0100-84042007000300012.
2009. The boundless carbon cycle. Nat. Geosci. 2, 598–600. https://doi.org/
Cragg, R.G., Bardgett, R.D., 2001. How changes in animal diversity within a soil trophic
10.1038/ngeo618.
group influence ecosystem processes. Soil Biol. Biochem. 33, 2073–2081. https://
Bayer, C., Mielniczuk, J., Martin-Neto, L., Ernani, P.R., 2002. Stocks and humification
doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(01)00138-9.
degree of organic matter fractions as affected by no-tillage on a subtropical soil.
Cui, X., Hao, H., He, Z., Stoffella, P.J., Yang, X., 2016. Pyrolysis of wetland biomass
Plant Soil 238, 133–140. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014284329618.
waste: potential for carbon sequestration and water remediation. J. Environ. Manag.
Bayer, C., Martin-Neto, L., Mielniczuk, J., Pavinato, A., Dieckow, J., 2006. Carbon
173, 95–104.
sequestration in two Brazilian Cerrado soils under no-till. Soil Res. 86, 237–245.
Davidson, E.A., Ackerman, I.L., 1993. Changes in soil carbon inventories following
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2005.02.023.
cultivation of previously untilled soils. Biogeochem 20, 161–193.
Beaulieu, E., Godd�eris, Y., Donnadieu, Y., Labat, D., Roelandt, C., 2012. High sensitivity
De Blecourt, M., Brumme, R., Xu, J., Corre, M.D., Veldkamp, E., 2013. Soil carbon stocks
of the continental-weathering carbon dioxide sink to future climate change. Nat.
decrease following conversion of secondary forests to rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
Clim. Change 2, 346–349. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1419.
plantations. PloS One 8, 8–16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069357.
Berhe, A.A., Harte, J., Harden, J.W., Torn, M.S., 2007. The significance of the erosion-
de Moraes S� a, J.C., Cerri, C.C., Lal, R., Dick, W.A., de Cassia Piccolo, M., Feigl, B.E.,
induced terrestrial carbon sink. BioScience 57, 337–347.
2009. Soil organic carbon and fertility interactions affected by a tillage
Bikila, N.G., Tessema, Z.K., Abule, E.G., 2016. Carbon sequestration potentials of semi-
chronosequence in a Brazilian Oxisol. Soil Tillage Res. 104, 56–64. https://doi.org/
arid rangelands under traditional management practices in Borana, Southern
10.1016/j.still.2008.11.007.
Ethiopia. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 223, 108–114.
Derpsch, R., 2005. The extent of conservation agriculture adoption worldwide:
Biswas, S., Bala, S., Mazumdar, A., 2014. Diurnal and seasonal carbon sequestration
implications and impact. In: Proceedings of the Third World Congress on
potential of seven broadleaved species in a mixed deciduous forest in India. Atmos.
Conservation Agriculture: Linking Production, Livelihoods and Conservation,
Environ. 89, 827–834.
pp. 3–7. Nairobi, Kenya. (Accessed October 2005).
Biswas, B., Sarkar, B., Rusmin, R., Naidu, R., 2015. Bioremediation of PAHs and VOCs:
Desjardins, R., Janzen, H., Lemke, R., Riznek, R., 2001. Regional and National Estimates
advances in clay mineral-microbial interaction. Environ. Int. 85, 168–181.
of the Annual Nitrous Oxide Emissions from Agroecosystems in Canada Using the
Blanco-Canqui, H., Schlegel, A.J., Heer, W.F., 2011. Soil-profile distribution of carbon
Revised IPCC Methodology. Agriculture Canada.
and associated properties in no-till along a precipitation gradient in the central Great

11
F. Abbas et al.
Di Prima, S., Rodrigo-Comino, J., Novara, A., Iovino, M., Pirastru, M., Keesstra, S.,
Cerd� a, A., 2018. Soil physical quality of citrus orchards under tillage, herbicide, and
organic managements. Pedosphere 28, 463–477.
Diacono, M., Montemurro, F., 2010. Long-term effects of organic amendments on soil
fertility. A review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 30, 401–422.
Diallo, D., Orange, D., Roose, E., 2004. Influence des pratiques culturales et du type
desols sur les stocks et pertes de carbone par �erosion en zone soudanienne du Mali.
In: Roose, E., De Noni, G., Prat, C., Ganry, F., Bourgeon, G. (Eds.), Gestion de la
Biomasse. Erosion et S� equestration du carbone. French, Montpellier, pp. 193–207.
Diekow, J., Mielniczuk, J., Knicker, H., Bayer, C., Dick, D.P., K€ ogel-Knabner, I., 2005.
Soil C and N stocks as affected by cropping systems and nitrogen fertilisation in a
southern Brazil Acrisol managed under no-tillage for 17 years. Soil Tillage Res. 81,
87–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.05.003.
Dimassi, B., Mary, B., Wylleman, R., Labreuche, J., Couture, D., Piraux, F., Cohan, J.P.,
2014. Long-term effect of contrasted tillage and crop management on soil carbon
dynamics during 41 years. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 188, 134–146. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.agee.2014.02.014.
Dolan, M.S., Clapp, C.E., Allmaras, R.R., Baker, J.M., Molina, J.A.E., 2006. Soil organic
carbon and nitrogen in a Minnesota soil as related to tillage, residue and nitrogen
management. Soil Tillage Res. 89, 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
still.2005.07.015.
Dominy, C.S., Haynes, R.J., Van Antwerpen, R., 2002. Loss of soil organic matter and
related soil properties under long-term sugarcane production on two contrasting
soils. Biol. Fertil. Soils 36, 350–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-002-0538-5.
Doran, J.W., Elliot, t E.T., Paustian, K., 1998. Soil microbial activity, nitrogen cycling,
and long-term changes in organic carbon pools as related to fallow tillage
management. Soil Tillage Res. 49, 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(98)
00150-0.
Drissa, D., Orange, D., Roose, E., 2004. Influence des pratiques culturales et du type de
sols sur les stocks et pertes de carbone par �erosion en zone soudanienne du Mali. In:
Feller, C., Roose, E.J., Stewart, B.A., Barthes, B., Lal, R. (Eds.), Soil Erosion and
Carbon Dynamics. CRC Press, USA, pp. 193–207.
Duan, Z., Liu, X., Qu, J., 1996. Influences of land desertification to atmosphere in China.
Resour. Environ. Arid Reg. 10, 89–93.
Dell, M., Jones, B.F., Olken, B.A., 2008. Climate change and economic growth: evidence
from the last half century. National Bureau of Economic Research available at:
(accessed on 10 January 2020).
Eilers, K.G., Debenport, S., Anderson, S., Fierer, N., 2012. Digging deeper to find unique
microbial communities: the strong effect of depth on the structure of bacterial and
archaeal communities in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 50, 58–65. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.soilbio.2012.03.011.
Faghihinia, M., Afzali, S.F., 2013. Effects of wind erosion on soil organic carbon
dynamics and other soil properties: Dejgah catchment, Farashband County, Shiraz
Province, Iran. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 8, 4452–4459. https://doi.org/10.5897/
AJAR12.2100.
Fan, Z., Lin, S., Zhang, X., Jiang, Z., Yang, K., Jian, D., Chen, Y., Li, J., Chen, Q., Wang, J.,
2014. Conventional flooding irrigation causes an overuse of nitrogen fertilizer and
low nitrogen use efficiency in intensively used solar greenhouse vegetable
production. Agric. Water Manag. 144, 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
agwat.2014.05.010.
FAO, (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), 2010. “Climate-Smart”
Agriculture policies, practices and financing for food security, adaptation and
mitigation. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1881e/i1881e00.pdf. (Accessed 8
February 2017).
FAOSTAT, 2014. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.
fao.org/3/a-i3671e.pdf. (Accessed 6 January 2019).
Farah, B.S.N., Dinnes, D.L., Li, C., Jaynes, D.B., Salas, W., 2008. Modeling
biogeochemical impacts of alternative management practices for a row-crop field in
Iowa. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 123, 30–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
agee.2007.04.004.
Feng, G., Sharratt, B., Young, F., 2011. Soil properties governing soil erosion affected by
cropping systems in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Soil Tillage Res. 111, 168–174.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2010.09.008.
Foley, J., Defries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R., Chapin, F.S.,
Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., Gibbs, H.K., Helkowski, J.H., Holloway, T., Howard, E.,
Kucharik, C.J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J., Prentice, I.C., Ramankutty, N., Snyder, P.K.,
2005. Global consequences of land use. Science 309, 570–574. https://doi.org/
10.1126/science.1111772.
Franzluebbers, A.J., Hons, F.M., Zuberer, D.A., 1995. Soil organic carbon, microbial
biomass, and mineralizable carbon and nitrogen in sorghum. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J 59,
460. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1995.03615995005900020027x.
Freibauer, A., Rounsevell, M.D.A., Smith, P., Verhagen, J., 2004. Carbon sequestration in
the agricultural soils of Europe. Geoderma 21, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
geoderma.2004.01.021. Dmbmgku;rtb86.0O9I.
Frye, W.W., Ebelhar, S.A., Murdock, L.W., Blevins, R.L., 1982. Soil erosion effects on
properties and productivity of two Kentucky soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J 46,
1051–1055. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1982.03615995004600050033x.
Galati, A., Crescimanno, M., Gristina, L., Keesstra, S., Novara, A., 2016. Actual provision
as an alternative criterion to improve the efficiency of payments for ecosystem
services for C sequestration in semiarid vineyards. Agric. Syst. 144, 58–64.
Gao, Z., Sasaki, K., Qiu, X., 2018. Structural memory effect of Mg–Al and Zn–Al layered
double hydroxides in the presence of different natural humic acids: process and
mechanism. Langmuir 34, 5386–5395, 19.
Gathala, M.K., Ladha, J.K., Saharawat, Y.S., Kumar, V., Sharma, P.K., 2011. Effect of
tillage and crop establishment methods on physical properties of a medium-textured
12
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
soil under a seven-year rice-wheat rotation. Soil water management conservation.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 75, 851–1862.
Gill, W.R., Vanden Berg, G.E., 1968. Soil Dynamics in Tillage and Traction. US Dept.
Agric., Agric. Res. Serv., Handbook No. 316. US Govt. Print. Office, Washington DC,
pp. 117–210.
Gilley, J.E., Doran, J.W., 1997. Tillage effects on soil erosion potential and soil quality of
a former conservation reserve program site. J. Soil Water Conserv. 52 (3), 184–188.
Girmay, G.B., Singh, R., Jan, N., Borrosen, T., 2009. Runoff and sediment-associated
nutrient losses under different land uses in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. J. Hydrol 376,
70–80.
Go~ni, M.A., Kathleen, C.R., Timothy, I.E., 1998. A reassessment of the sources and
importance of land-derived organic matter in surface sediments from the Gulf of
Mexico. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta 62, 3055–3075. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0016-7037(98)00217-8.
Gonzalez, J.M., Laird, D.A., 2003. Carbon sequestration in clay mineral fractions from
14
C-labeled plant residues. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 67, 1715–1720.
Gonzalo, J., Zewdie, S., Tenkir, E., Moges, Y., 2017. REDDþ and carbon markets: the
Ethiopian process chapter 8. In: Bravo, F., LeMay, V., Jandl, R. (Eds.), Managing
Forest Ecosystems: the Challenge of Climate Change, second ed. Springer
International Publishing Switzerland, p. 161. 978-3-319-28250-3 (eBook).
Greene, R.S.B., Kinnell, P.I.A., Wood, J.T., 1994. Role of plant cover and stock trampling
on runoff and soil-erosion from semi-arid wooded rangelands. Soil Res. 32, 953–973.
https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9940953.
Guang-Lu, Xiao-Ming, P., 2010. Effect of land-use conversion on C and N distribution in
aggregate fractions of soils in the southern Loess Plateau, China. Land Use Pol. 27,
706–712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.09.011.
Guo, L.J., Zhang, Z.S., Wang, D.D., Li, C.F., Cao, C.G., 2015. Effects of short-term
conservation management practices on soil organic carbon fractions and microbial
community composition under a rice-wheat rotation system. Biol. Fertil. Soils 51,
65–75.
Guo, B., Nakama, S., Tian, Q., Pahlevi, N.D., Hu, Z., Sasaki, K., 2019. Suppression
processes of anionic pollutants released from fly ash by various Ca additives.
J. Hazard Mater. 371, 474–483.
Hammad, H.M., Abbas, F., Saeed, S., Fahad, S., Cerd� a, A., Farhad, W., Bernardo, C.C.,
Nasim, W., Mubeen, M., Bakhat, H.F., 2018. Offsetting land degradation through
nitrogen and water management during maize cultivation under arid conditions.
Land Degrad. Dev. 29 (5), 1366–1375. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2933.
Haring, V., Fischer, H., Cadisch, G., Stahr, K., 2013. Implication of erosion on the
assessment of decomposition and humification of soil organic carbon after land use
change in tropical agricultural systems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 65, 158–167. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.04.021.
Harper, R.J., Gilkes, R.J., Hill, M.J., Carter, D.J., 2010. Wind erosion and soil carbon
dynamics in south-western Australia. Aeolian Res. 1, 129–141. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.aeolia.2009.10.003.
Haynes, R.J., 2005. Labile organic matter fractions as central components of the quality
of agricultural soils: an overview. Adv. Agron. 85, 221–268. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0065-2113(04)85005-3.
He, N., Qiang, Yu, Ling, Wu, Yuesi, W., Xingguo, H., 2008. Carbon and nitrogen store and
storage potential as affected by land-use in a Leymus chinensis grassland of northern
China. Soil Biol. Biochem. 40 https://doi.org/10.1016/S1462-9011(99)00012-X,
2952-295.
Heisler-White, J.L., Knapp, A.K., Kelly, E.F., 2008. Increasing precipitation event size
increases aboveground net primary productivity in a semi-arid grassland. Oecologia
158, 129–140. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-008-1116-9.
Helgason, B.L., Walley, F.L., Germida, J.J., 2010. Long-term no-till management affects
microbial biomass but not community composition in Canadian prairie
agroecosytems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 42, 2192–2202.
Hillel, D., Rosenzweig, C., 2011. The role of soils in climate change. In: Handbook of
Climate Change and Agroecosystems, Impacts, Adapt. Mitig, pp. 9–20.
Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, K., Gupta, R., 2008. The role of conservation agriculture in
sustainable agriculture. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. B 363, 543–555.
Huang, S., Sun, Y., Yu, X., Zhang, W., 2016. Interactive effects of temperature and
moisture on CO2 and CH4 production in a paddy soil under long-term different
fertilization regimes. Biol. Fertil. Soils 52, 285–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s00374-015-1075-3.
Hughes, L., 2003. Climate change and Australia: trends, projections and impacts. Austral
Ecol. 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1442-9993.2003.01300.x.
Hutchinson, J.J., Campbell, C.A., Desjardins, R.L., 2007. Some perspectives on carbon
sequestration in agriculture. Agric. For. Meteorol. 142, 288–302. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.agrformet.2006.03.030.
Huxman, T.E., Smith, S.D., 2001. Photosynthesis in an invasive grass and native forb at
elevated CO2 during an El Ni~ no year in the Mojave Desert. Oecologia 128, 193–201.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420100658.
IPCC, 2014. In: O, Pichs-Madruga, R., Sokona, Y., Farahani, E., Kadner, S., Seyboth, K.,
Adler, A., Baum, I., Brunner, S., Eickemeier, P., Kriemann, B., Savolainen, J.,
Schl€omer, S., von Stechow, C., Zwickel, T., Minx, J.C. (Eds.), Climate Change 2014:
Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
Jacinthe, P.A., Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., 2002. Carbon budget and seasonal carbon dioxide
emission from a central Ohio Luvisol as influenced by wheat residue amendment.
Soil Tillage Res. 67, 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00058-2.
Jaiswal, B., Agrawal, M., 2019. Carbon footprints of agriculture sector. Environ. Footp.
Eco-Design Prod. Proc. 81–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7916-1_4.
Janeau, J.L., Gillard, L.C., Grellier, S., Jouquet, P., Le, T.P.Q., Luu, T.N.M., Rochelle-
Newall, E., 2014. Soil erosion, dissolved organic carbon and nutrient losses under
F. Abbas et al.
different land use systems in a small catchment in northern Vietnam. Agric. Water
Manag. 146, 314–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.09.006.
Jarecki, M.K., Lal, R., 2003. Crop management for soil carbon sequestration. Crit. Rev.
Plant Sci. 22, 471–502. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680390253179.
Ji, H., Zhuang, S., Zhu, Z., Zhong, Z., 2015. Soil organic carbon pool and its chemical
composition in Phyllostachy pubescens forests at two altitudes in Jian-ou City, China.
PloS One 10 (12), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146029.
Jin, K., Sleutel, S., Buchan, D., De Neve, S., Cai, D.X., Gabriels, D., Jin, J.Y., 2009.
Changes of soil enzyme activities under different tillage practices in the Chinese
Loess Plateau. Soil Tillage Res. 104, 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
still.2009.02.004.
Jobbagy, E.G., Jackson, R.B., 2000. The vertical distribution of soil organic carbon and
its relation to climate and vegetation. Ecol. Appl. 10, 423–436. https://doi.org/
10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0423:TVDOSO]2.0.CO;2.
K€ampf, I., H€ olzel, N., St€
orrle, M., Broll, G., Kiehl, K., 2016. Potential of temperate
agricultural soils for carbon sequestration: a meta-analysis of land-use effects. Sci.
Total Environ. 566–567, 428–435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2016.05.067.
Kay, B.D., Vanden, B.A.J., 2002. Conservation tillage and depth stratification of porosity
and soil organic matter. Soil Tillage Res. 66, 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0167-1987(02)00019-3.
Keesstra, S.D., Bouma, J., Wallinga, J., Tittonell, P., Smith, P., Cerd� a, A., Bardgett, R.D.,
2016. The significance of soils and soil science towards realization of the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Soil 2, 111–128.
Keesstra, S., Nunes, J., Novara, A., Finger, D., Avelar, D., Kalantari, Z., Cerd� a, A., 2018a.
The superior effect of nature based solutions in land management for enhancing
ecosystem services. Sci. Total Environ. 610, 997–1009.
Keesstra, S., Nunes, J.P., Saco, P., Parsons, T., Poeppl, R., Masselink, R., Cerd� a, A., 2018b.
The way forward: can connectivity be useful to design better measuring and
modelling schemes for water and sediment dynamics? Sci. Total Environ. 644,
1557–1572.
Kern, J.S., Johnson, M.G., 1993. Conservation tillage impacts on national soil and
atmospheric carbon levels. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57, 200. https://doi.org/10.2136/
sssaj1993.03615995005700010036x.
Kiluk, K.M., 2014. Impact of Conservation Tillage on Soil Organic Carbon Storagein
Washtenaw County, MI. Thesis of Bachelor of Science University of Michigan.
Kindler, R., Siemens, J., Kaiser, K., Walmsley, D.C., Bernhofer, C., Buchmann, N.,
Cellier, P., Eugster, W., Gleixner, G., Grunwald, T., Heim, A., Ibrom, A., Jones, S.K.,
Jones, M., Klumpp, K., Kutsch, W., Larsen, K.S., Lehuger, S., Loubet, B., Mckenzie, R.,
Moors, E., Osborne, B., Pilegaard, K., Rebmann, C., Saunders, M., Schmidt, M.W.I.,
Schrumpf, M., Seyfferth, J., Skiba, U., Soussana, J.F., Sutton, M.A., Tefs, C.,
Vowinckel, B., Zeeman, M.J., Kaupenjohann, M., 2011. Dissolved carbon leaching
from soil is a crucial component of the net ecosystem carbon balance. Global Change
Biol. 17, 1167–1185. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02282.x.
Ko, C.H., Chaiprapat, S., Kim, L.H., Hadi, P., Hsu, S.C., Leu, S.Y., 2017. Carbon
sequestration potential via energy harvesting from agricultural biomass residues in
Mekong River basin, Southeast Asia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 68, 1051–1062.
Kong, W.D., Zhu, Y.G., Fu, B.J., Marschner, P., He, J.Z., 2006. The veterinary antibiotic
oxytetracycline and Cu influence functional diversity of the soil microbial
community. Environ. Pollut. 143, 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envpol.2005.11.003.
Lackner, K.S., Rogner, H.H., Hoffert, M.I., Lackner, K.S., Holloway, S., Herzog, H.,
Eliasson, B., Kaarstad, O., Chadwick, R.A., Herzog, H.J., Drake, E.M., Yegulalp, T.M.,
Lackner, K.S., Ziock, H.J., Lackner, K.S., Ziock, H.J., Grimes, P., Zeman, F.S., 2003.
Climate change. A guide to CO2 sequestration. Science (New York, N.Y.). 300,
1677–1678. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1079033.
Laird, D.A., Chang, C.W., 2013. Long-term impacts of residue harvesting on soil quality.
Soil Tillage Res. 134, 33–40.
Laird, D.A., Martens, D.A., Kingery, W.L., 2001. Nature of clay–humic complexes in an
agricultural soil: I. Chemical, biochemical, and spectroscopic analyses. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 65, 1413–1418.
Lal, R., 1989. Agroforestry systems and soil surface management of a tropical Alfisol.
Agrofor. Syst. 8, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00159065.
Lal, R., 1995. Erosion-crop productivity relationships for soils of Africa. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J. 59, 661. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1995.03615995005900030004x.
Lal, R., 1998. Soil erosion impact on agronomic productivity and environment quality.
Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 319–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-2689(98)00363-3.
Lal, R., 2003. Soil erosion and the global carbon budget. Environ. Int. 29, 437–450.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-4120(02)00192-7.
Lal, R., 2004a. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food
security. Science (New York, N.Y.). 304, 1623–1627. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.1097396.
Lal, R., 2004b. Soil carbon sequestration impacts on global climate change and food
security. Science 304, 1623–1627. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1097396.
Lal, R., 2005. Forest soils and carbon sequestration. For. Ecol. Manag. 220, 242–258.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2005.08.015.
Lal, R., 2008. Carbon sequestration. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. B 363, 815–830. https://
doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2185.
Lal, R., Bruce, J.P., 1999. The potential of world cropland soils to sequester C and
mitigate the greenhouse effect. Environ. Sci. Pol. 2, 177–185. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S1462-9011(99)00012-X.
Lal, R., Kimble, J.M., 1997. Conservation tillage for carbon sequestration. Nutrient Cycl.
Agroecosyst. 49, 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009794514742.
Lal, R., De Vleeschauwer, D., Malafa Nganje, R., 1980. Changes in properties of a newly
cleared tropical Alfisol as affected by mulching. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J 44, 827–833.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2007.08.008.
13
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
Lassaletta, L., Aguilera, E., 2015. Soil carbon sequestration is a climate stabilization
wedge: comments on Sommer and Bossio (2014). J. Environ. Manag. 153, 48–49.
Lavelle, P., 1988. Earthworm activities and the soil system. Biol. Fertil. Soils 6, 237–251.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00260820.
Lee, S.Y., Chang, H.N., 1993. High cell density cultivation of Escherichia coli W using
sucrose as a carbon source. Biotechnol. Lett. 15, 971–974. https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF00131766.
Letey, J., 1985. Irrigation uniformity as related to optimum crop production additional
research is needed. Irrigat. Sci. 6, 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00262470.
Li, Z., Fang, H., 2016. Impacts of climate change on water erosion: a review. Earth Sci.
Rev. 163, 94–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.10.004.
Li, Z., Song, Z., Parr, J.F., Wang, H., 2013. Occluded C in rice phytoliths: implications to
biogeochemical carbon sequestration. Plant Soil 370, 615–623. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s11104-013-1661-9.
Li, Z., Jiang, Y., Yuan, L., Yi, Z., Wu, C., Liu, Y., Huang, Y., 2014. A highly ordered
meso@ microporous carbon-supported sulfur@ smaller sulfur core–shell structured
cathode for Li–S batteries. ACS Nano 8, 9295–9303. https://doi.org/10.1021/
nn503220h.
Li, S., Li, Y., Li, X., Tian, X., Zhao, A., Wang, S., Wang, S., Shi, J., 2016. Effect of straw
management on carbon sequestration and grain production in a maize-wheat
cropping system in Anthrosol of the Guanzhong Plain. Soil Tillage Res. 157, 43–51.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.11.002.
Liu, C., Lu, M., Cui, J., Li, B., Fang, C., 2014. Effects of straw carbon input on carbon
dynamics in agricultural soils: a meta-analysis. Global Change Biol. 20, 1366–1381.
https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12517.
Liu, C., Liu, Y., Guo, K., Wang, S., Liu, H., Zhao, H., Qiao, X., Hou, D., Li, S., 2016.
Aboveground carbon stock, allocation and sequestration potential during vegetation
recovery in the karst region of southwestern China: a case study at a watershed scale.
Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 235, 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2016.10.003.
Ma, Z., Peng, C., Zhu, Q., Chen, H., Yu, G., Li, W., Zhou, X., Wang, W., Zhang, W., 2012.
Regional drought-induced reduction in the biomass carbon sink of Canada’s boreal
forests. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 109, 2423–2427. https://doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.1111576109.
Lu, F., Wang, X.K., Han, B., Ouyang, Z.Y., Duan, X.N., Zheng, H., Miao, H., 2009. Soil
carbon sequestrations by nitrogen fertilizer application, straw return and no-tillage
in China’s cropland. Glob. Chang. Biol. 15, 281–305.
Ma, W., Li, Z., Ding, K., Huang, J., Nie, X., Zeng, G., Wang, S., Liu, G., 2014. Effect of soil
erosion on dissolved organic carbon redistribution in subtropical red soil under
rainfall simulation. Catena 121, 248–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2014.0
5.017.
Maïga-Yaleu, S., Guiguemde, I., Yacouba, H., Karambiri, H., Olivier, R., Bary, A.,
Ouedraogo, R., Vincent, C., 2013. Soil crusting impact on soil organic carbon losses
by water erosion. Catena 107, 26–34.
Maïga-Yaleu, S.B., Chivenge, P., Yacouba, H., Guiguemde, I., Karambiri, H., Olivier, R.,
Bary, A., Vincent, C., 2015. Impact of sheet erosion mechanisms on organic carbon
losses from crusted soils in the Sahel. Catena 126, 60–67.
Maikhuri, R.K., Semwal, R.L., Rao, K.S., Singh, K., Saxena, K.G., 2000. Growth and
ecological impacts of traditional agroforestry tree species in Central Himalaya, India.
Agrofor. Syst. 48 (3), 257–271.
Mailapalli, D.R., Horwath, W.R., Wallender, W.W., Burger, M., 2012. Infiltration, runoff,
and export of dissolved organic carbon from furrow-irrigated forage fields under
cover crop and no-till management in the arid climate of California. J. Irrigat. Drain.
Eng. 138, 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)IR.1943-4774.0000385.
Malhi, Y., Meir, P., Brown, S., 2002. Forests, carbon and global climate. Royal Soc. 360,
1567–1591. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2002.1020.
Malhi, Y., Phillips, O.L., Lloyd, J., Baker, T., Wright, J., Almeida, S., Killeen, T., 2002. An
international network to monitor the structure, composition and dynamics of
Amazonian forests (RAINFOR). J. Veg. Sci. 13, 439–450. https://doi.org/10.1658/
1100-9233(2002)013[0439:AINTMT]2.0.CO;2.
Maraseni, T.N., Mitchell, C., 2016. An assessment of carbon sequestration potential of
riparian zone of Condamine Catchment, Queensland, Australia. Land Use Pol. 54,
139–146.
Martinez-Mena, M., Lopez, J., María, A., Carolina, B.F., Albaladejo, J., 2008. Effect of
water erosion and cultivation on the soil carbon stock in a semiarid area of South-
East Spain. Soil Tillage Res. 99, 119–129.
Masselink, R., Temme, A.J.A.M., Gim�enez, R., Casalí, J., Keesstra, S.D., 2017. Assessing
hillslope-channel connectivity in an agricultural catchment using rare-earth oxide
tracers and random forests models. Cuadernos Invest. Geogr. 43, 17–39.
Mathew, R.P., Feng, Y., Githinji, L., Ankumah, R., Balkcom, K.S., 2012. Impact of no-
tillage and conventional tillage systems on soil microbial communities. Appl.
Environ. Soil Sci. 10, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/548620.
Mau, R.L., Dijkstra, P., Schwartz, E., Koch, B.J., Hungate, B.A., 2018. Warming induced
changes in soil carbon and nitrogen influence priming responses in four ecosystems.
Appl. Soil Ecol. 124, 110–116.
Mchunu, C., Vincent, C., 2012. Land degradation impact on soil carbon losses through
water erosion and CO 2 emissions. Geoderma 177, 72–79.
Mekonnen, M., Keesstra, S.D., Baartman, J.E., Stroosnijder, L., Maroulis, J., 2017.
Reducing sediment connectivity through man-made and natural sediment sinks in
the Minizr catchment, Northwest Ethiopia. Land Degrad. Dev. 28 (2), 708–717.
Mellilo, J.M., McGuire, A.D., Kicklighter, D.W., Moore, B., Vorosmarty, C.J., Schloss, A.
L., 1993. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature 6,
234–240. https://doi.org/10.1038/363234a0.
Mermut, A.R., Acton, D.F., Eilers, W.D., 1983. Estimation of soil erosion and deposition
by a landscape analysis technique on clay soils in southwestern Saskatchewan. Can.
J. Soil Sci. 63, 727–739.
F. Abbas et al.
Mertia, R.S., Santra, P., Kandpal, B.K., Prasad, R., 2010. Mass–height profile and total
mass transport of wind eroded Aeolian sediments from rangelands of the Indian Thar
Desert. Aeolian Res. 2, 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aeolia.2010.04.002.
Mi, J., Wei, L., Wenhui, Y., Juan, Y., Jianqiang, L., Tao, S., 2014. Carbon sequestration by
Miscanthus energy crops plantations in a broad range semi-arid marginal land in
China. Sci. Total Environ. 496, 373–380.
Milori, D.M.B.P., Martin-Neto, L., Bayer, C., Mielniczuk, J., Bagnato, V.S., 2002.
Humification degree of soil Humic acids determined by fluorescence spectroscopy.
Soil Sci. 167, 739–749. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-200211000-00004.
Mohammad, A.G., Adam, M.A., 2010. The impact of vegetative cover type on runoff and
soil erosion under different land uses. Catena 81, 97–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.catena.2010.01.008.
Monreal, N.L.R., L� opez-Vicente, M., Romero, M.E.N., Ojanguren, R., Ad� an, J.A.L.,
Errea, P., Bellido, N.P., 2018. Catchment based hydrology under post farmland
abandonment scenarios. Cuadernos Invest. Geogr./Geogr. Res. Lett. 44, 503–534.
Morsli, B., Mazour, M., Arabi, M., Roose, E., 2006. Influence of land use, soils, and
cultural practices on erosion, eroded carbon and soil carbon stocks at the plot scale
in the Mediterranean mountains of Northern Algeria. In: Soil Erosion and Carbon
Dynamics. Tailor Francis Group, London, pp. 103–123.
Mrabet, R., 2002. Stratification of soil aggregation and organic matter under
conservation tillage systems in Africa. Soil Tillage Res. 66, 119–128. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00020-X.
Mrabet, R., 2006. Soil quality and carbon sequestration: impacts of no-tillage systems.
Options M� editerran�
eennes: S�erie A. S�eminaires M�editerran�eens 12, 43–55.
Müller-Nedebock, D., Chaplot, V., 2015. Soil carbon losses by sheet erosion: a potentially
critical contribution to the global carbon cycle. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms 40,
1803–1813.
Murphy, B.F., Timbal, B., 2008. A review of recent climate variability and climate change
in southeastern Australia. Int. J. Climatol. 28, 859–879. https://doi.org/10.1002/
joc.1627.
Myers, N., 1993. Gaia: An Atlas of Planet Management. Anchor and Doubleday, Garden
City, NY.
Nearing, M.A., Jetten, V., Baffaut, C., Cerdan, O., Couturier, A., Hernandez, M., Le
Bissonnais, Y., Nichols, M.H., Nunes, J.P., Renschler, C.S., Souch�ere, V., Van
Oost, K., 2005. Modeling response of soil erosion and runoff to changes in
precipitation and cover. Catena 10, 131–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
catena.2005.03.007.
Nishimura, S., Yonemura, S., Sawamoto, S., Shirato, Y., Akiyama, H., Sudo, S., Yagi, K.,
2008. Effect of land use change from paddy rice cultivation to upland crop
cultivation on soil carbon budget of a cropland in Japan. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ.
125, 9–20.
Niu, L., Manxia, C., Xiumei, G., Xiaohua, L., Hongbo, S., Zhaopu, L., Zed, R., 2016.
Carbon sequestration and Jerusalem artichoke biomass under nitrogen applications
in coastal saline zone in the northern region of Jiangsu, China. Sci. Total Environ.
568, 885–890.
Novara, A., Gristina, L., Sala, G., Galati, A., Crescimanno, M., La Mantia, T., 2017a.
Agricultural land abandonment in Mediterranean environment provides ecosystem
services via soil carbon sequestration. Sci. Total Environ. 576, 420–429.
Novara, A., Gristina, L., Sala, G., Galati, A., Crescimanno, M., Cerd� a, A., La Mantia, T.,
2017b. Agricultural land abandonment in Mediterranean environment provides
ecosystem services via soil carbon sequestration. Sci. Total Environ. 576, 420–429.
Oades, J.M., 1995. Krasnozems - organic matter. Aust. J. Soil Res. 33, 43–57.
Ochoa, P.A., Fries, A., Mejía, D., Burneo, J.I., Ruíz-Sinoga, J.D., Cerd� a, A., 2016. Effects
of climate, land cover and topography on soil erosion risk in a semiarid basin of the
Andes. Catena 140, 31–42.
Oelbermann, M., Voroney, R.P., Gordon, A.M., 2004. Carbon sequestration in tropical
and temperate agroforestry systems: a review with examples from Costa Rica and
southern Canada. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 104, 359–377.
Ogle, S.M., Breidt, F.J., Paustian, K., 2005. Agricultural management impacts on soil
organic carbon storage under moist and dry climatic conditions of temperate and
tropical regions. Biogeochem 72, 87–121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-004-
0360-2.
Ohiri, A.C., Ezumah, H.C., 1990. Tillage effects on cassava (Manihot esculenta)
production and some soil properties. Soil Tillage Res. 17, 221–229. https://doi.org/
10.1016/0167-1987(90)90037-E.
Oldeman, R.A.A., 1992. Architectural models, fractals and agroforestry design. Agric.
Ecosyst. Environ. 41, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8809(92)90108-N.
Olson, K.R., Mokma, D.L., Lal, R., Schumacher, T.E., Lindstrom, M.J., 1998. Erosion
impacts on crop yield for selected soils of the North Central United States. Soil Qual.
Soil Erosion 24, 259.
Ontl, T.A., Schulte, L.A., 2012. Soil carbon storage. Nature Education Knowledge 3, 35.
Orchard, J.W., Seward, H., Orchard, J.J., 2013. Results of 2 decades of injury
surveillance and public release of data in the Australian football league. Am. J.
Sports Med. 41 (4), 734–741. https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546513476270.
Pan, G., Li, L., Wu, L., Zhang, X., 2004. Storage and sequestration potential of topsoil
organic carbon in China’s paddy soils. Global Change Biol. 10, 79–92. https://doi.
org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2003.00717.x.
Pandey, D., Agrawal, M., 2014. Carbon footprint estimation in the agriculture sector. In:
Assessment of Carbon Footprint in Different Industrial Sectors, vol. 1. Springer,
Singapore, p. 25e47.
Parr, J., Sullivan, L., Chen, B., Ye, G., Zheng, W., 2010. Carbon bio-sequestration within
the phytoliths of economic bamboo species. Global Change Biol. 16, 2661–2667.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02118.x.
Pathak, H., Byjesh, K., Chakrabarti, B., Aggarwal, P.K., 2011. Potential and cost of carbon
sequestration in Indian agriculture: estimates from long-term field experiments.
Field Crop. Res. 120, 102–111.
14
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
Paul, E.A., Follett, R.F., Leavitt, S.W., Halvorson, A., Peterson, G.A., Lyon, D.J., 1997.
Radiocarbon dating for determination of soil organic matter pool sizes and
dynamics. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J 61, 1058–1067. https://doi.org/10.2136/
sssaj1997.03615995006100040011x.
Paul, E.A., Collins, H.P., Leavitt, S.W., 2001. Dynamics of resistant soil carbon of
Midwestern agricultural soils measured by naturally occurring 14 C abundance.
Geoderma 104, 239–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-7061(01)00083-0.
Pausch, J., Kuzyakov, Y., 2018. Carbon input by roots into the soil: quantification of
rhizodeposition from root to ecosystem scale. Global Change Biol. 24, 1–12.
Paustian, K., Parton, W., Persson, J., 1992. Modeling soil organic-matter in organic-
amended and nitrogen-fertilized long-term plots. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J 56, 476–488.
Paustian, K., Six, J., Elliott, E., Hunt, H., 2000. Management options for reducing CO2
emissions from agricultural soils. Biogeochem 48, 147–163. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10584-005-5951-y.
Pei, S., Hua, F., Changgui, W., 2008. Changes in soil properties and vegetation following
exclosure and grazing in degraded Alxa desert steppe of Inner Mongolia, China.
Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 124, 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2007.08.008.
Pellegrini, A.F., Ahlstr€om, A., Hobbie, S.E., Reich, P.B., Nieradzik, L.P., Staver, A.C.,
Jackson, R.B., 2018. Fire frequency drives decadal changes in soil carbon and
nitrogen and ecosystem productivity. Nature 553, 194.
Poeplau, C., Don, A., 2015. Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils via cultivation of
cover crops–A meta-analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 200, 33–41.
Polyakov, V., Lal, R., 2004. Modeling soil organic matter dynamics as affected by soil
water erosion. Environ. Int. 10, 547–556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
envint.2003.10.011.
Post, W.M., Kwon, K.C., 2000. Soil carbon sequestration and land-use change: processes
and potential. Global Change Biol. 6, 317–327. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-
2486.2000.00308.x.
Post, W.M., Mann, L.K., 1990. Changes in soil organic carbon and nitrogen as a result of
cultivation. Soils Greenh. Eff. 6, 401–406. https://doi.org/10.3334/CDIAC/tcm.006.
Post, W.M., Emanuel, W.R., Zinke, P.J., Stangenberger, A.G., 1982. Soil carbon pools and
world life zones. Nature 298, 156–159. https://doi.org/10.1038/298156a0.
Prove, B.G., Loch, R.J., Foley, J.L., Anderson, V.J., Younger, D.R., 1990. Improvements in
aggregation and infiltration characteristics of a krasnozem under maize with direct
drill and stubble retention. Soil Res. 28, 577–590. https://doi.org/10.1071/
SR9900577.
Puttock, A., Macleod, C.J., Bol, R., Sessford, P., Dungait, J., Brazier, R.E., 2013. Changes
in ecosystem structure, function and hydrological connectivity control water, soil
and carbon losses in semi-arid grass to woody vegetation transitions. Earth Surf.
Process. Landforms 38, 1602–1611. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3455.
Qi, F., Kuppusamy, S., Naidu, R., Bolan, N.S., Ok, Y.S., Lamb, D., Li, Y., Yu, L., Semple, K.
T., Wang, H., 2017. Pyrogenic carbon and its role in contaminant immobilization in
soils. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 795–876.
Qiu, R., Zou, Z., Zhao, Z., Zhang, W., Zhang, T., Dong, H., Wei, X., 2009. Removal of
trace and major metals by soil washing with Na2EDTA and oxalate. J. Soils
Sediments 10, 45–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-009-0083-z.
Quinkenstein, A., Jochheim, H., 2016. Assessing the carbon sequestration potential of
poplar and black locust short rotation coppices on mine reclamation sites in Eastern
Germany–Model development and application. J. Environ. Manag. 168, 53–66.
Quinton, J.N., Catt, J.A., Wood, G.A., Steer, J., 2006. Soil carbon losses by water erosion:
experimentation and modeling at field and national scales in the UK. Agric. Ecosyst.
Environ. 112, 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2005.07.005.
Raskin, L., Capman, W.C., Sharp, R., Poulsen, L.K., Stahl, D.A., 1997. Molecular ecology
of gastrointestinal ecosystems. Gastrointestinal Microb. 2, 243–298.
Reynolds, M., Dreccer, F., Trethowan, R., 2007. Drought-adaptive traits derived from
wheat wild relatives and landraces. J. Exp. Bot. 12, 177–186. https://doi.org/
10.1093/jxb/erl250.
Rochelle-Newall, E., Hulot, F.D., Janeau, J.L., Merroune, A., 2014. CDOM fluorescence as
a proxy of DOC concentration in natural waters: a comparison of four contrasting
tropical systems. Environ. Monit. Assess. 186, 589–596. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10661-013-3401-2.
Rodrígo-Comino, J., 2018. Five decades of soil erosion research in “terroir”. The State-of-
the-Art. Earth Sci. Rev. 179, 436–447.
Rodrígo-Comino, J., Senciales, J.M., Cerd� a, A., Brevik, E.C., 2018. The multidisciplinary
origin of soil geography: a review. Earth Sci. Rev. 177, 114–123.
Rodriguez Rodriguez, A., Guerra, A., Arbelo, C., Mora, J.L., Gorrin, S.P., Armas, C., 2004.
Forms of eroded soil organic carbon in andosols of the Canary Islands (Spain).
Geoderma 121, 205–219.
Rytter, R.M., Rytter, L., H€ ogbom, L., 2015. Carbon sequestration in willow (Salix spp.)
plantations on former arable land estimated by repeated field sampling and C budget
calculation. Biomass Bioenergy 83, 483–492.
Santra, P., Mertia, P.S., Narain, P., 2006. Land degradation through wind erosion in Thar
Desert-Issues and research priorities. Ind. J. Soil Conserv 34, 214.
Santra, P., Mertia, R.S., Kumawat, R.N., Sinha, N.K., Andh, R.M., 2013. Loss of soil
carbon and nitrogen through wind erosion in the Indian Thar Desert. J. Agric. Phys.
13, 13–21.
Schimel, D.S., Braswell, B.H., Holland, E.A., McKeown, R., Ojima, D.S., Painter, T.H.,
Parton, W.J., Townsend, A.R., 1994. Climatic, edaphic, and biotic controls over
storage and turnover of carbon in soils. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 8, 279–293.
https://doi.org/10.1029/94GB00993.
Schimel, D., Melillo, J., Tian, H., McGuire, A.D., Kicklighter, D., Kittel, T.,
Rosenbloom, N., Running, S., Thornton, P., Ojima, D., Parton, W., Kelly, R.,
Sykes, M., Neilson, R., Rizzo, B., 2000. Contribution of increasing CO2 and climate to
carbon storage by ecosystems in the United States. Science 287, 2004–2006. https://
doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5460.2004.
F. Abbas et al.
Schmidt, M.W.I., Torn, M.S., Abiven, S., Dittmar, T., Guggenberger, G., Janssens, I.A.,
Kleber, M., K€ ogel-Knabner, I., Lehmann, J., Manning, D.A.C., Nannipieri, P.,
Rasse, D.P., Weiner, S., Trumbore, S.E., 2011. Persistence of soil organic matter as an
ecosystem property. Nature 478, 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10386.
Senthilkumar, S., Basso, B., Kravchenko, A.N., Robertson, G.P., 2009. Contemporary
evidence of soil carbon loss in the U.S. corn belt. Soil Sci. Am. J. 73, 2078–2086.
https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2009.0044.
Sharma, N.K., Singh, R.J., Mandal, D., Kumar, A., Alam, N.M., Keesstra, S., 2017.
Increasing farmer’s income and reducing soil erosion using intercropping in rainfed
maize-wheat rotation of Himalaya, India. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 247, 43–53.
Shi, X.Z., Wang, H.J., Yu, D.S., Weindorf, D.C., Cheng, X.F., Pan, X.Z., Sun, W.X., Chen, J.
M., 2009. Potential for soil carbon sequestration of eroded areas in subtropical
China. Soil Tillage Res. 105, 322–327.
Shi, J.B., Meng, M., Shao, J.J., Zhang, K.G., Zhang, Q.H., Jiang, G.B., 2013. Spatial
distribution of mercury in topsoil from five regions of China. Environ. Sci. Pollut.
Res. 20, 1756–1761.
Singh, B.R., Lal, R., 2005. The potential of soil carbon sequestration through improved
management practices in Norway. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 7, 161–184. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s10668-003-6372-6.
Six, J., Elliott, E.T., Paustian, K., 2000. Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate
formation: a mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 32, 2099–2103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(00)00179-6.
Six, J., Conant, R.T., Paul, E.A., Paustian, K., 2002a. Stabilization mechanisms of soil
organic matter: implications for C-saturation of soils. Plant Soil 23, 155–176.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016125726789.
Six, J., Feller, C., Denef, K., Ogle, S.M., Sa, J.C.D., Albrecht, A., 2002b. Soil organic
matter, biota and aggregation in temperate and tropical soils – effects of no-tillage.
Agronomie 22, 755–775. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2002043.
Smit, B., Skinner, M.W., 2002. Adaptation Options in agriculture to climate change: a
typology. Mitigat. Adapt Strat. Glob Chag. 7, 85–114. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:
1015862228270.
Smith, P., Fang, C., 2010. A warm response by soils. Nature 464, 499. https://doi.org/
10.1038/nature10386.
Smith, P., Powlson, D.S., Glendining, M.J., Smith, J.U., 1998. Preliminary estimates of
the potential for carbon mitigation in European soils through no-till farming. Global
Change Biol. 4, 679–685. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.1998.00185.x.
Smith, S.V., Renwick, W.H., Buddemeier, R.W., Crossland, C.J., 2001. Budgets of soil
erosion and deposition for sediments and sedimentary organic carbon across the
conterminous United States. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 697–707. https://doi.org/
10.1029/2000GB001341.
Smith, R., Renton, M., Reid, N., 2017. Growth and carbon sequestration by remnant
Eucalyptus camaldulensis woodlands in semi-arid Australia during La Ni~ na
conditions. Agric. For. Meteorol. 232, 704–710.
Sommer, R., Bossio, D., 2014. Dynamics and climate change mitigation potential of soil
organic carbon sequestration. J. Environ. Manag. 144, 83–87.
Song, Z., Hailong, W., James, P.S., Zimin, L., Peikun, J., 2012. Plant impact on the
coupled terrestrial biogeochemical cycles of silicon and carbon: implications for
biogeochemical carbon sequestration. Earth Sci. Rev. 115, 319–331. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.09.006.
Soussana, J.F., Tallec, T., Blanfort, V., 2010. Mitigating the greenhouse gas balance of
ruminant production systems through carbon sequestration in grasslands. Animal 4,
334–350.
Sperow, M., 2016. Estimating carbon sequestration potential on US agricultural topsoils.
Soil Tillage Res. 155, 390–400.
Spracklen, D.V., Righelato, R., 2016. Carbon storage and sequestration of re-growing
montane forests in southern Ecuador. Forest Ecol. Manag. 364, 139–144.
Srivastava, P., Sharma, Y.K., Singh, N., 2014. Soil carbon sequestration potential of
Jatropha curcas L. growing in varying soil conditions. Ecol. Eng. 68, 155–166.
Stallard, R.F., 1998. Terrestrial sedimentation and the carbon cycle: coupling weathering
and erosion to carbon burial. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 12, 231–257. https://doi.
org/10.1029/98GB00741.
Stocker, B., Roth, R., Joos, F., 2013. Multiple greenhouse-gas feedbacks from the land
biosphere under future climate change scenarios. Climatic Change 3, 666–672.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1864.
Sun, Z., Yan, Z., Yao, J., Beitler, E., Zhu, Y., Tour, J.M., 2010. Growth of graphene from
solid carbon sources. Nature 468, 549–552. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09579.
Sutton, R., Sposito, G., Diallo, M.S., Schulten, H.R., 2005. Molecular simulation of a
model of dissolved organic matter. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 24, 1902–1911. https://
doi.org/10.1897/04-567r.1.
Takimoto, A., Nair, P.R., Nair, V.D., 2008. Carbon stock and sequestration potential of
traditional and improved agroforestry systems in the West African Sahel. Agric.
Ecosyst. Environ. 125, 159–166.
Talmon, Y., Sternberg, M., Grünzweig, J.M., 2011. Impact of rainfall manipulations and
biotic controls on soil respiration in Mediterranean and desert ecosystems along an
aridity gradient. Global Change Biol. 17, 1108–1118. https://doi.org/10.1111/
j.1365-2486.2010.02285.x.
Tang, H., Jianjun, Q., Eric, V.R., Changsheng, L., 2006. Estimations of soil organic carbon
storage in cropland of China based on DNDC model. Geoderma 134, 200–206.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2005.10.005.
Tang, K., Zhan, J.C., Yang, H.R., Huang, W.D., 2010. Changes of resveratrol and
antioxidant enzymes during UV-induced plant defense response in peanut seedlings.
J. Plant Physiol. 167, 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jplph.2009.07.011.
Tanner, S., Katra, I., Haim, A., Zaady, E., 2016. Short-term soil loss by eolian erosion in
response to different rain-fed agricultural practices. Soil Tillage Res. 155, 149–156.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.08.008.
15
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
Taschetto, A.S., England, M.H., 2009. El Ni~ no Modoki impacts on Australian rainfall.
J. Clim. 22, 3167–3174. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2589.1.
Thangata, P.H., Hildebrand, P.E., 2012. Carbon stock and sequestration potential of
agroforestry systems in smallholder agroecosystems of sub-Saharan Africa:
mechanisms for ‘reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation’
(REDDþ). Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 158, 172–183.
Tifafi, M., Guenet, B., Hatt�e, C., 2018. Large differences in global and regional total soil
carbon stock estimates based on SoilGrids, HWSD, and NCSCD: Intercomparison and
evaluation based on field data from USA, England, Wales, and France. Glob.
Biogeochem. Cycles 321, 42–56.
Tiwary, B.K., Bihani, S., Kumar, A., Chakraborty, R., Ghosh, R., 2015. The in vitro
cytotoxic activity of ethno-pharmacological important plants of Darjeeling district of
West Bengal against different human cancer cell lines. BMC Compl. Alternative Med.
15, 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-015-0543-5.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), 1997. In: B€ ottcher, Harri€
et, Clarke, Robin
(Eds.), Brezet, Han, et al. Ecodesign: a Promising Approach to Sustainable
Production and Consumption.
Unger, S., M� aguas, C., Pereira, J.S., David, T.S., Werner, C., 2012. Interpreting post-
drought rewetting effects on soil and ecosystem carbon dynamics in a Mediterranean
oak savannah. Agric. For. Meteorol. 154–155, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
agrformet.2011.10.007.
Uri, N.D., 1999. Factors affecting the use of conservation tillage in the United States.
Water Air Soil Pollut. 116, 621–638.
USDA, ERS, 2010. “No-till” farming is a growing practice. Economic Information Bulletin
No. 70. US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service.
USDA, NRCS, 2011. NRCS conservation practice Standard - residue and tillage
management, No till/Strip till/direct seed Code 329. National Handbook of
conservation practices. US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources
Conservation Service.
Vaezi, A.R., Abbasi, M., Keesstra, S., Cerd� a, A., 2017. Assessment of soil particle
erodibility and sediment trapping using check dams in small semi-arid catchments.
Catena 157, 227–240.
Valentin, C., Agus, F., Alamban, R., Boosaner, A., Bricquet, J.P., Chaplot, V., De
Guzman, T., De Rouw, A., Janeau, J.L., Orange, D., Phachomphonh, K., 2008. Runoff
and sediment losses from 27 upland catchments in Southeast Asia: impact of rapid
land use changes and conservation practices. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 128, 225–238.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.06.004.
Valentini, R., Matteucci, G., Dolman, A.J., Schulze, E.D., Rebmann, C., Moors, E.J.,
Granier, A., Gross, P., Jensen, N.O., Pilegaard, K., Lindroth, A., Grelle, A.,
Bernhofer, C., Grünwald, T., Aubinet, M., Ceulemans, R., Kowalski, A.S., Vesala, T.,
Rannik, U., Berbigier, P., Loustau, D., Gudmundsson, J., Thorgeirsson, H., Ibrom, A.,
Morgenstern, K., Clement, R., 2000. Respiration as the main determinant of carbon
balance in European forests. Nature 404, 861–865. https://doi.org/10.1038/
35009084.
VandenBygaart, A.J., Gregorich, E.G., Angers, D.A., 2003. Influence of agricultural
management on soil organic carbon: a compendium and assessment of Canadian
studies. Can. J. Soil Sci. 83, 363–380. https://doi.org/10.4141/S03-009.
Vicente-Vicente, J.L., García-Ruiz, R., Francaviglia, R., Aguilera, E., Smith, P., 2016. Soil
carbon sequestration rates under Mediterranean woody crops using recommended
management practices: a meta-analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 235, 204–214.
Virto, I., Barr�
e, P., Burlot, A., Chenu, C., 2012. Carbon input differences as the main
factor explaining the variability in soil organic C storage in no-tilled compared to
inversion tilled agro-systems. Biogeochemistry 108, 17–26. https://doi.org/
10.1007/s10533-011-9600-4.
Visser, M.E., Both, C., 2005. Shifts in phenology due to global climate change: the need
for a yardstick. Proc. Royal Soc. B 272, 2561–2569. https://doi.org/10.1098/
rspb.2005.3356.
Vorosmarty, C.J., 2000. Global water resources: vulnerability from climate change and
population growth. Science 289, 284–288. https://doi.org/10.1126/
science.289.5477.284.
Walker, S.M., Desanker, P.V., 2004. The impact of land use on soil carbon in Miombo
Woodlands of Malawi. For. Ecol. Manag. 203, 345–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foreco.2004.08.004.
Wallace, J., 2000. Increasing agricultural water use efficiency to meet future food
production. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 82, 105–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-
8809(00)00220-6.
Walmsley, A., Cerd� a, A., 2017. Soil macrofauna and organic matter in irrigated orchards
under Mediterranean climate. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 33, 247–257.
Wander, M.M., Drinkwater, L.E., 2000. Fostering soil stewardship through soil quality
assessment. Appl. Soil Ecol. 15 (1), 61–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393
(00)00072-X.
Wang, A., Holladay, S.D., Wolf, D.C., Ahmed, S.A., Robertson, J.L., 2006. Reproductive
and developmental toxicity of arsenic in rodents: a review. Int. J. Toxicol. 25,
319–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/10915810600840776.
Wang, Y.F., Liu, L., Shangguan, Z.P., 2017. Carbon storage and carbon sequestration
potential under the grain for green program in Henan Province China. Ecol. Eng.
100, 147–156.
Wang, G.C., Wang, E.L., Huang, Y., Xu, J.J., 2014. Soil Carbon sequestration potential as
affected by management practices in Northern China: a simulation study.
Pedosphere 24, 529–543.
Weltzin, J.F., Loik, M.E., Schwinning, S., Williams, D.G., Fay, P.A., Haddad, B.M.,
Harte, J., Huxman, T.E., Knapp, A.K., Lin, G., Pockman, W.T., Shaw, M.R., Small, E.
E., Smith, M.D., Smith, S.D., Tissue, D.T., Zak, J.C., 2003. Assessing the response of
terrestrial ecosystems to potential changes in precipitation. BioScience 53, 941.
https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[0941:ATROTE]2.0.CO;2.
F. Abbas et al.
Wen, Y.L., Xiao, J., Li, H., Shen, Q.R., Ran, W., Zhou, Q.S., Yu, G.H., He, X.H., 2014.
Longterm fertilization practices alter aluminum fractions and coordinate state in soil
colloids. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 78, 2083–2089.
Wendling, B., Jucksch, I., Mendonça, E.S., Alvarenga, R.C., 2010. Organic-matter pools
of soil under pines and annual cultures. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 41,
1707–1722. https://doi.org/10.1080/00103624.2010.489135.
West, T.O., Marland, G., 2002. A synthesis of carbon sequestration, carbon emissions,
and net carbon flux in agriculture: comparing tillage practices in the United States.
Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 91, 217–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0167-8809(01)
00233-x.
West, T.O., Post, W.M., 2002. Soil organic carbon sequestration rates by tillage and
croprotation: a global data analysis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J 66, 1930–1946.
Whittinghill, K.A., Hobbie, S.E., 2011. Effects of pH and calcium on soil organic matter
dynamics in Alaskan tundra. Biogeochem 111, 569–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s10533-011-9688-6.
Wiesmeier, M., Hübner, R., Sp€ orlein, P., Geuß, U., Hangen, E., Reischl, A., Schilling, B.,
von Lützow, M., K€ ogel-Knabner, I., 2014. Carbon sequestration potential of soils in
southeast Germany derived from stable soil organic carbon saturation. Global
Change Biol. 20, 653–665. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12384.
Windeatt, J.H., Ross, A.B., Williams, P.T., Forster, P.M., Nahil, M.A., Singh, S., 2014.
Characteristics of biochars from crop residues: potential for carbon sequestration and
soil amendment. J. Environ. Manag. 146, 189–197.
World Health Organization (WHO), 2006. Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater,
Excreta and Gray Water. Wastewater and Excreta Use in Aquaculture. Wastewater
and Excreta Use in Aquaculture Switzerland, Geneva, pp. 1–140.
Worrall, F., Davies, H., Bhogal, A., Lilly, A., Evans, M., Turner, K., Burt, T.,
Barraclough, D., Smith, P., Merrington, G., 2012. The flux of DOC from the UK -
predicting the role of soils, land use and net watershed losses. J. Hydrol. 448,
149–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.04.053.
Wu, Z., Dijkstra, P., Koch, G.W., Pe~ nuelas, J., Hungate, B.A., 2011. Responses of
terrestrial ecosystems to temperature and precipitation change: a meta-analysis of
experimental manipulation. Global Change Biol. 17, 927–942. https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02302.x.
Xu, X., Zhou, Y., Ruan, H., Luo, Y., Wang, J., 2010. Temperature sensitivity increases
with soil organic carbon recalcitrance along an elevational gradient in the Wuyi
Mountains, China. Soil Biol. Biochem. 42, 1811–1815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
soilbio.2010.06.021.
Xu, M., Lou, Y., Sun, X., Wang, W., Baniyamuddin, M., Zhao, K., 2011. Soil organic
carbon active fractions as early indicators for total carbon change under straw
incorporation. Biol. Fertil. Soils 47, 745–752. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00374-011-
0579-8.
Xu, J., Grumbine, R.E., Becksch€ afer, P., 2014. Landscape transformation through the use
of ecological and socioeconomic indicators in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China,
16
Journal of Environmental Management 268 (2020) 110319
Mekong Region. Ecol. Indicat. 36, 749–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ecolind.2012.08.023.
Yan, X., Cai, Z., Wang, S., Smith, P., 2011. Direct measurement of soil organic carbon
content change in the croplands of China. Global Change Biol. 17, 1487–1496.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02286.x.
Yan, Z., Jones, P.D., Davies, T.D., Moberg, A., Bergstr€ om, H., Camuffo, D., Cocheo, C.,
Maugeri, M., Demar� ee, G.R., Verhoeve, T., Thoen, E., 2002. Trends of extreme
temperatures in Europe and China based on daily observations. In: Improved
Understanding of Past Climatic Variability from Early Daily European Instrumental
Sources. Sprin. Netherl., pp. 355–392
Yan, Y., Tian, J., Fan, M., Zhang, F., Li, X., Christie, P., Chen, H., Lee, J., Kuzyakov, Y.,
Six, J., 2012. Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen in intensively managed arable
soils. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 150, 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
agee.2012.01.024.
Yan, H., Wang, C., Niu, Z., Liu, Z., Zhang, Y., 2002. Remote sensing estimation of wind
erosion: application to Asia dust. J. Soil Water Conserv China 16, 120–123.
Yang, X.M., Drury, C.F., Wander, M.M., Kay, B.D., 2008. Evaluating the effect of tillage
on carbon sequestration using the minimum detectable difference concept.
Pedosphere 18, 421–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1002-0160(08)60033-8.
Yang, X., Ren, W., Sun, B., Zhang, S., 2012. Effects of contrasting soil management
regimes on total and labile soil organic carbon fractions in a loess soil in China.
Geoderma 177, 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2012.01.033.
Yu, Z.C., 2012. Northern peat land carbon stocks and dynamics: a review. Biogeosciences
4071–4085. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-4071-2012.
Yu, P., Li, Q., Jia, H., Zheng, W., Wang, M., Zhou, D., 2013. Carbon stocks and storage
potential as affected by vegetation in the Songnen grassland of northeast China.
Quat. Int. 306, 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2013.05.053.
Zahra, S.I., Abbas, F., Ishaq, W., Ibrahim, M., Hammad, H.M., Akram, B., Salik, M.R.,
2016. Carbon sequestration potential of soils under maize production in irrigated
agriculture of the Punjab province of Pakistan. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 26, 706–715.
Zanatta, J.A., Salton, J., 2010. Soil carbon sequestration affected by no-tillage and
integrated crop-livestock systems in Midwestern Brazil. In: 19th World Congress of
Soil Science.
Zhang, Z., Christopher, B.C., Zhenshan, X., Shoungzheng, T., Xianguo, L., 2016.
Regulating effects of climate, net primary productivity, and nitrogen on carbon
sequestration rates in temperate wetlands, Northeast China. Ecol. Indicat. 70,
114–124.
Zhang, L., Zhuang, Q., He, Y., Liu, Y., Yu, D., Zhao, Q., Shi, X., Xing, S., Wang, G., 2016.
Toward optimal soil organic carbon sequestration with effects of agricultural
management practices and climate change in Tai-Lake paddy soils of China.
Geoderma 275, 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.04.001.