Phonological rules and phonological processes

Phonological processes are the changes segments undergo. They can be represented by means
of rules.
A phonological Rule is a formal way of expressing a systematic phonological process. They
use phonetic notation or distinctive features or both. Phonological rules look like this:
/basic allophone/ → [restricted allophone] / Environment
For example, the processes involved in the alternation between [p] & [ph] is ‘aspiration’. In
English, a voiceless stop is aspirated when it occurs in word-initial position before a stressed
vowel (not following [s]). Aspiration is represented as the following: (rule)
- cont + syll
- voice [+ aspirated] / # ___ + stress
- del rel

Explanation of the notation used in a phonological rule:

# represents word-initial position (i.e. the first sound segment of a word).
# represents word final position.
s means that the segment occurs after / s/.
C means that the segment occurs before a consonant.
V V means that the segment occurs between two vowels and the vowel to the right is a stressed
(accented vowel).
V V means that the segment occurs between two vowels and the vowel to the right is unstressed
vowel.
A ϕ/ V
This rule can be read as follows: the segment A is dropped or omitted when it occurs before a vowel.
Φ A/C
This rule can be read as follows: A is inserted when it occurs after a consonant.

An alternation is the phenomenon of a phoneme or morpheme exhibiting variation in

its phonological realization. The variation may be conditioned by the phonological or morphological
environment in which the morpheme finds itself.

Phonetically conditioned alternation

Consider : photograph [ 'fəʊtəgra:f]
Photography [fə'tɒgrəfɪ]
Photographic [ˌfəʊtəg'ræfɪk]

When we look at the transcriptions, we find that there is an alternation between the vowels / əʊ,
a:, ɒ, æ/ on the one hand and the schwa / ə/ on the other. When a syllable has either main or secondary
stress, then we get one of / əʊ, a:, ɒ, æ/, but when it receives no stress, we have / ə/ instead. All this
means that the distribution of schwa and the other vowels is governed by a phonological rule.
A simple way to represent such a rule is as a phonological process, in which one sound is
changed into another sound under certain circumstances. We represent the process by means of an
arrow: / əʊ, a:, ɒ, æ/ (when unstressed ) / ə/

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 This rule will now apply to derive the representations in (1). These representations, which show
the way the word is actually pronounced, are called surface forms or surface representations or SR)
Then, we can say that the words photograph, photography and photographic have a basic or
underlying form (also called an underlying representation or UR)
photograph [ 'fəʊtɒgra:f]
Photography [fəʊ'tɒgra:fɪ]
Photographic [ˌfəʊtɒg'rafɪk]

The phonological process we have just been discussing is called vowel reduction
//fəʊ'tɒgra:fɪ // UR

ə ə
[fə'tɒgrəfɪ] SR

Phonologically conditioned alternation

An example of a phonologically conditioned alternation is the English plural marker commonly
spelled s or e. This morpheme is pronounced /s/, /z/, or /ɨz/, depending on the nature of the preceding
sound.
1-If the preceding sound is a sibilant consonant (one of /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, or /dʒ/), the plural marker
takes the form /ɨz/.
• mass /ˈmæs/, plural masses /ˈmæsɨz/
2-Otherwise, if the preceding sound is voiceless, the plural marker takes the likewise voiceless form /s/.
• mop /ˈmɒp/, plural mops /ˈmɒps/
3-Otherwise, the preceding sound is voiced, and the plural marker takes the likewise voiced form /z/.
• dog /ˈdɒɡ/, plural dogs /ˈdɒɡz/

Morphologically conditioned alternation

French has an example of morphologically conditioned alternation. The feminine form of
many adjectives ends in a consonant sound that is missing in the masculine form. In spelling, the
feminine ends in a silent e, while the masculine ends in a silent consonant letter:
• masculine petit [pəti], feminine petite [pətit] "small"
Consider the following data: is it phonologically, phonetically or morphologically conditioned?
in+legal = illegal il -l
in+relevant = irrelevant ir-r
in+possible = impossible im-p
in+credible = i credible i -k
intolerant = in-t

nasal place assimilation

alternation of the form of the prefix in- suggests that there is a phonologically active property called
nasal place of articulation
/n/ becomes bilabial before bilabials
becomes lateral before laterals
becomes velar before velars

We say / n / takes the same place of articulation as the following consonant.

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Phonological processes can also be categorized into different types:

1-Assimilation is when a sound becomes more like a neighboring sound with respect to some phonetic
property. For example:
Place assimilation in nasals
I can ask [ɑɪkæn æsk] I can bake [ɑɪkæm beɪk] I can go[ɑɪkæŋgoʊ]
I can see [ɑɪkæn si] I can play [ɑɪkæm pleɪ] I can come[ɑɪkæŋkʌm]
The nasal has the same place of articulation as the stop following it:
/n/ [m] / __C[labial]
/n/ [ŋ] / __ C[velar]
/n/ [n] / elsewhere

For example, the phonological rule that captures a native speaker’s intuition about the pronunciation
patterns in place assimilation above can be expressed as follows:
An alveolar nasal assimilates or acquires the place of articulation of the plosive that immediately
follows it in the word.
Or
An alveolar nasal takes on the place of articulation of a plosive that follows it in the same word.

2-Dissimilation is a rule where two close or adjacent sounds become less alike with respect to some
property. For example, Greek stops
Manner dissimilation in stops
/epta/ [efta] ‘seven’
/ktizma/ [xtizma] ‘building’
Note: [x] is a voiceless velar fricative
[C[stop] ] [C[fricative]] / __ C[stop]
A stop becomes a fricative when followed by another stop.
E.g. [fɪfθs] fifths becomes [fɪfts]
/θ/ [t] / [fricative] ___

3-Insertion ( epenthesis) is when a sound appears in the surface phonetic form which was not in the
underlying phonemic form.
Insertion of voiceless stops
/dænØs/ [dænts] ‘dance’
/strɛŋØɵ/ [strɛŋkɵ] ‘strength
/hæmØstər/ [hæmpstər] ‘hamster’
/Ø/ [C [voiceless stop]] /[ + nasal] [+ continuant]
A voiceless stop is inserted between a nasal and a voiceless fricative. The inserted stop has the same
place of articulation as the following nasal.

4-Deletion is when a sound which is present in the underlying phonemic form is not expressed at all in
the surface phonetic form. The deletion of /h/
‘He handed her his hat’
/hi hændəd hər hɪz hæt/
[hi hændəd Øər Øɪz hæt]
/h/ [Ø] / [-stressed ]. /h/ is deleted in unstressed syllables

5-Metathesis occurs when there is a change in order of sounds. Metathesis of a consonant and a vowel.
/danat kviali/ [dantakviali] ‘millipede’
/ukar ppalu/[ukrappalu] ‘index finger’
/ukar lavan/[ukarlavan] ‘thumb’
/VC/ [CV] / three consecutive Cs
When there are three consecutive consonants, the first consonant switches positions with the preceding
vowel.

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5-Strengthening (fortition) occurs when a sound becomes stronger. Greater force, strong sound
(voiceless).

English Aspiration
[C[voiceless stops]] [C[aspirated]] / # [stress]__
Voiceless stops become aspirated at the beginning of stressed syllables.
Aspirated stops are considered stronger because the duration of voicelessness is much longer than in
unaspirated stops.

6-Weakening (lenition) is when a sound becomes weaker. Lesser force, weak sound (voiced).
English Flapping: Flap is a rapid movement of the tongue tip from a retracted vertical position to a
horizontal position, during which the tongue brushes the alveolar ridge.
[C[alveolar oral stop]] [ɾ]/ V [stress] __ V[unstress]
An alveolar oral stop /t/ or /d/ becomes a flap when it occurs after a stressed V and before an unstressed
V. The flap is weaker because it is shorter and obstructs air less than the alveolar stops
e.g /t/ becomes voiced between two vowels. Latter and writer are pronounced like ladder and rider.