Space Fostering Latin American Societies PDF

Southern Space Studies
Series Editor: Annette Froehlich
Annette Froehlich Editor
Space
Fostering Latin
American
Societies
Developing the Latin American
Continent Through Space, Part 3
Series Editor
Annette Froehlich , University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa
Associate Editor
Dirk Heinzmann, Bundeswehr Command and Staff College, Hamburg, Germany
Advisory Editors
Josef Aschbacher, European Space Agency, Paris, France
Rigobert Bayala, National Observatory of Sustainable Development, Ouagadougou,
Burkina Faso
Carlos Caballero León , CP Consult, Lima, Peru
Guy Consolmagno, Vatican Observatory, Castel Gandolfo, Vatican City State
Juan de Dalmau, International Space University, Illkirch-Graffenstaden, France
Driss El Hadani, Royal Center for Remote Sensing of Morocco, Rabat, Morocco
El Hadi Gashut, Regional Center For Remote Sensing of North Africa States, Tunis,
Tunisia
Michelle Hanlon, For All Moonkind, New Canaan, CT, USA
Félix Clementino Menicocci, Argentinean Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Buenos Aires,
Argentina
Sias Mostert, African Association of Remote Sensing of the Environment, Muizenburg,
South Africa
Val Munsami, South African National Space Agency, Silverton, South Africa
Greg Olsen, Entrepreneur-Astronaut, Princeton, NJ, USA
Azzedine Oussedik, Algerian Space Agency, Alger, Algeria
Xavier Pasco, Fondation pour la Recherche Stratégique, Paris, France
Elvira Prado Alegre, Ibero-American Institute of Air and Space Law and Commercial
Aviation, Madrid, Spain
Alejandro J. Román M., Paraguayan Space Agency, Asunción, Paraguay
Fermín Romero Vázquez, Fundacion Acercandote al Universo, Mexico City, Mexico
Kai-Uwe Schrogl, International Institute of Space Law, Paris, France
Dominique Tilmans, YouSpace, Wellin, Belgium
Jean-Jacques Tortora, European Space Policy Institute, Vienna, Austria
Robert van Zyl, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa
The Southern Space Studies series presents analyses of space trends, market
evolutions, policies, strategies and regulations, as well as the related social, economic
and political challenges of space-related activities in the Global South, with a
particular focus on developing countries in Africa and Latin America. Obtaining
inside information from emerging space-faring countries in these regions is pivotal
to establish and strengthen efficient and beneficial cooperation mechanisms in the
space arena, and to gain a deeper understanding of their rapidly evolving space
activities. To this end, the series provides transdisciplinary information for a fruitful
development of space activities in relevant countries and cooperation with
established space-faring nations. It is, therefore, a reference compilation for space
activities in these areas.
The volumes of the series are peer-reviewed.
More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/16025

Annette Froehlich
Editor
Space Fostering Latin

American Societies
Developing the Latin American Continent
Through Space, Part 3
Editor
Annette Froehlich
SpaceLab
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch, South Africa
ISSN 2523-3718 ISSN 2523-3726 (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-030-97958-4 ISBN 978-3-030-97959-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1
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Contents
What is Brazil Doing to Develop Its Commercial Space Program? . . . . . . 1

Ian Grosner, Adriana Simões, and Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro
Communication Satellites in South America: A Perspective
from Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Carlos Caballero León
The Development of CubeSats in Latin America and Their
Challenges on the Design of Thermal Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez, Dafne Gaviria-Arcila,
Carlos Romo-Fuentes, Rafael Guadalupe Chávez-Moreno,
José Alberto Ramírez-Aguilar, and Marcelo López-Parra
Design of Hybrid Coatings by Sol–Gel Process: An Alternative
for Aerospace Use in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Genoveva Hernández-Padrón, Bryanda Guadalupe Reyes-Tesillo,
Jevet Emiliano Damixi López-Campos, Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez,
José Mojica-Gómez, and Víctor Manuel Castaño-Meneses
Launch Opportunities for Pico Satellites from Developing
Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Rosalyn Puma-Guzman and Jorge Soliz
Glass–Ceramic Protective Coating for Satellite System
as a Thermal Insulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Rafael Vargas-Bernal, Ana María Arizmendi-Morquecho,
Jose Martín Herrera-Ramírez, and Bárbara Bermúdez-Reyes
v
What is Brazil Doing to Develop Its
Commercial Space Program?
Ian Grosner , Adriana Simões, and Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro
Abstract Brazil has a long-standing space program, which began in the early 1960s.
This chapter intends to analyze the Brazilian space program in order to identify its
effectiveness and propose measures that support current and future national space
initiatives. Since 2019, several initiatives have been implemented to definitively
place the country in the field of emerging space programs. The following initiatives,
which will be further explored herein, stand out: the creation of the Brazilian Space
Program Development Committee (CDPEB), The Technology Safeguards Agree-
ment (TSA) signed between Brazil and the U.S., the implementation of the Alcân-
tara Space Center (CEA), and the entry of Brazil into the Artemis Accords, among
others. In this chapter, we will use current data and applicable essential legislation
to demonstrate what Brazil has been doing to advance its space program, especially
in the development of commercial space activities, and provide contributions for its
improvement.
1 Introduction
The exploration of space has been discussed for several decades, with governmental
and private initiatives conducting extended studies and launching items into space.
The world has already gone through different—and memorable—phases of the
aerospace industry, such as the space race, landed missions to the Moon, space
stations and space exploration throughout the solar system celestial bodies.
I. Grosner (B)
Brazilian Attorney General Office (AGU), Brasília, Brazil
A. Simões
Mattos Filho, Veiga Filho, Marrey Jr. e Quiroga Advogados, São Paulo, Brazil
e-mail: adriana.simoes@mattosfilho.com.br
M. S. R. Huidobro
Brazilian Bar Association (OAB), Santos, São Paulo, Brazil
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

A. Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Southern Space Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_1
2 I. Grosner et al.
In an ever-evolving society, space exploration is one of the keys to the development

of new technologies and, to allow such space exploration to be conducted, companies
or governments—or both, jointly—have been conducting space programs, which can
be defined as organized efforts to accomplish goals related to space.
Ever since 1960, aligned with the beginning of the discussions over space explo-
ration, Brazil has its own Space Program. Recently, several initiatives have been
conducted and implemented by Brazilian governmental entities to further improve
its presence on the world’s space exploration scene, such as the Brazilian Space
Program Development Committee (CDPEB), the execution of the Technology Safe-
guards Agreement (TSA) with the United States, the Artemis Accords and the
implementation of the Alcântara Space Center (CEA).
Considering the recent trend for space exploration and the changes made to the
Brazilian regulatory scenario, this chapter aims to explore key points of the Brazilian
Space Program, its latest developments and the steps still needed to be taken for a
greater development of space law in Brazil.
2 History of the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA)
Although the international projection of the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) has been
strengthened in the past few years, the first steps to reach the current space center
date back to the late 1970s, when the former Ministry of Aeronautics requested the
reservation of the area for the CLA to the local government, by means of Notice No.
007/GM4/C-033.1
In 1982, the implementation process of the CLA began with the creation of the
Implementation Group for the Alcântara Launch Center, in order to manage the
creation of the CLA itself.2 The CLA inauguration has been accomplished by the
Presidential Decree No. 88,136, of 1983, according to which the aim of the space
center was to “execute and support the launching and tracking activities of aerospace
devices, as well as to perform tests and experiments of interest to the Ministry of
Aeronautics, related to the National Aerospace Development Policy”.3
1 Renata Corrêa Ribeiro, “Aliança tecnológica com a China na área espacial: os 30 anos do
Programa CBERS (1988–2018)”, p. 82, 2019. Presented as doctoral dissertation in Foreign Affairs
at the Brasilia University. https://repositorio.unb.br/bitstream/10482/38674/1/2019_RenataCorr%
C3%AAaRibeiro.pdf. (all websites cited in this publication were last accessed and verified on 15
December 2021).
2 Israel de Oliveira Andrade, Rogério Luiz Veríssimo Cruz, Giovanni Roriz Lyra Hillebrand and
Matheus Augusto Soares, “O Centro de Lançamento de Alcântara: Abertura para o Mercado Inter-
nacional de Satélites e Salvaguardas para a Soberania Nacional”, p. 19, October 2018. http://reposi
torio.ipea.gov.br/bitstream/11058/8897/1/td_2423.pdf.
3 Presidential Decree No. 88,136, of 1 March 1983. www2.camara.leg.br/legin/fed/decret/1980-
1987/decreto-88136-1-marco-1983-438606-publicacaooriginal-1-pe.html.
What is Brazil Doing to Develop Its Commercial Space Program? 3
A few years later, “CLA’s first operation was carried out, in December 1989, when
15 SBAT-70 and 2 SBAT-152 rockets have been launched”.4 Since then, a part of
the territory of the city of Alcântara has been declared to be of public utility by the
Brazilian Federal Government in 1991, for a future expropriation, seeking to use
the area for the operation and logistics of the CLA, as well as the environmental
preservation of the region and the resettlement of the population transferred for
security reasons.5
Over the following decades, the CLA has changed the economic and social
development of the region. The existence of a relevant space center in the country
with several geographical advantages may be identified as one of the factors that
boosted the production of legal norms on space law, and that resulted in significant
achievements to the sector, as it will be demonstrated in the next sections of this
chapter.
For clarification purposes, it is worth mentioning that the above-mentioned CLA,
a Brazilian Air Force unit responsible for the coordination of the site located in the
city of Alcântara, differs from the CEA, a project currently under implementation
and whose initiatives will be exemplified throughout this chapter.
3 General Space Legislation in Brazil
Considering the importance of the space to any country, especially concerning its
sovereignty, the Brazilian Federal Constitution, enacted in 5 October 1988, central-
izes the matters regarding the Brazilian space policy as an attribution of the Union.
As per the Constitution, the Union has the power to explore aerospace navigation,
even though such operation may be conducted indirectly-by means of authoriza-
tion, concession or permit to other entities.6 Moreover, the Union has the exclusive
attribution to legislate on matters regarding space law, air law as well as aerospace
navigation and defense.7
Despite space law being dealt with at constitutional level, Brazil does not have a
general statute on space matters. Instead, the multiple norms regarding the Brazilian
space are sparse and produced gradually. Some of the main rules that integrate the
Brazilian legal framework on the subject will be explained below.
4 Andrade, Cruz, Hillebrand and Soares, “O Centro de Lançamento de Alcântara”, 19.

5 Implementation of the CEA. Brazilian Air Force official website: https://www2.fab.mil.br/cla/
index.php/implantacao2.
6 Brazilian Federal Constitution, of 5 October 1988. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/
constituicao.htm.
7 Ibid.
4 I. Grosner et al.
As rightly put by Ian Grosner and others: “(...) Brazil’s national space legislation
is scarce, and it lacks a general set of provisions to encompass the basic guidelines
for space activities. Brazil is part of four of the UN Treaties: OST (1967); ARRA
(1968); LIAB (1972) and REG (1974)”.8
At the international level, Brazil has assumed important commitments by rati-
fying treaties and/or conventions. Among them, the OST, enacted by the Presidential
Decree No. 64,362, of 17 April 1969,9 stands out. Other important conventions have
also been ratified by Brazil, such as LIAB and REG, enacted by Presidential Decrees
No. 71,989, of 26 March 1973,10 and 5,806, of 19 June 2006,11 respectively.
At the domestic level, the efforts of the national institutions at regulating matters
regarding space activities are evident. In the 1990s, Law No. 8,854, of 10 February
1994,12 was enacted, creating the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB, in the acronym in
Portuguese), a federal civilian autarchy linked to the Presidency of the Republic and
endowed with financial and administrative independence.
Some of the attributions of the AEB are the (i) execution and update of the National
Policy for Development of Space Activities (PNDAE, in the acronym in Portuguese),
(ii) elaboration and update of the National Space Activities Program (PNAE, in
the acronym in Portuguese), (iii) establishment of dialogues with counterparts in
Brazil and abroad, (iv) analysis of proposals and signing of international agreements
and partnerships, (v) encouragement of participation of private entities, scientific
researches and technological development in space activities, and (vi) establishment
of rules and issuance of licenses and permits for space activities.13
In the same year as the creation of the AEB, the Presidential Decree No. 1,332, of
8 December 1994, approved the updated version of the PNDAE, elaborated by the
AEB.14 The importance of the matter consists in recognizing, as the PNDAE does,
the potentialities of the space technology for the achievement of domestic needs,
especially considering the characteristics of Brazil as one of the largest countries
around the globe, its demographic concentration on the Brazilian coast, its rainforests
and extensive national borders, among other aspects.15 Therefore, the PNDAE states
that:
8 Ian Grosner, Petrônio Noronha de Souza, Marcia Alvarenga dos Santos and Suyan Cristina
Malhadas, “Brazilian National Law in Space. How Important is It?”, paper presented at 72nd
International Astronautical Congress (IAC), Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 25–29 October 2021.
9 Presidential Decree No. 64,362, of 17 April 1969. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1950-
1969/D64362.html.
10 Presidential Decree No. 71,989, of 26 March 1973. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1970-
1979/D71989.html.
11 Presidential Decree No. 5,806, of 19 June 2006. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/
2006/decreto/D5806.htm.
12 Federal Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l8854.htm.
13 Ibid.
14 Presidential Decree No. 1,332, of 8 December 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/
1990-1994/d1332.htm.
15 Ibid.
Brazil’s advances in the space sector need to be consolidated and expanded. It requires
completing, maintaining and updating the existing infrastructure, (…) expanding institu-
tional participation in space programs, and creating opportunities for the commercializa-
tion of space products and services. Such institutional participation encompasses both the
governmental and private sectors and, particularly, the Brazilian industrial park.16
The main goals of the PNDAE may be identified as the (i) establishment of
technical-scientific competence in the space sector, seeking autonomy, (ii) develop-
ment of space systems that make available to Brazil the services and information
the country needs or is interested at, and (iii) improvement of the Brazilian produc-
tive sector to promote market competitiveness.17 To pursue such goals, the PNDAE
also establishes several guidelines concerning, for example, the priority of the solu-
tions for domestic challenges, the careful analysis of governmental investments in
the space sector, the international cooperation and the development and diffusion of
space applications.18
Besides the creation of the AEB and the elaboration of the PNDAE, the National
System for the Development of Space Activities (SINDAE, in the acronym in
Portuguese) has been founded by the Presidential Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996,
for purposes of the development of national interest-oriented space activities.19
Considering its organizational attributions, SINDAE congregates several institu-
tions related to the development of space activities, such as the AEB as its main
body, followed by sector bodies, such as the National Institute for Space Research
(INPE, in the acronym in Portuguese).20 Legal representatives of the private sector
are allowed as participant bodies and entities, as well as Ministries and Secretariats
linked to the Presidency of the Republic and representatives of states and munici-
palities appointed by the local Executive Power, whenever they are involved with or
interested in the issues under discussion.21
As it will be deepened in the following sections of this chapter, the Brazilian legal
framework also includes recently-produced norms, such as the Presidential Decree
No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019,22 duly amended in 2021, disposing on the Brazilian
Space Program Development Committee (CDPEB, in the acronym in Portuguese),
and AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 31 August 2021,23 instituting the Brazilian Space
Regulation (REB, in the acronym in Portuguese), which establishes standards for the
Operator’s License for Space Activities and the Launch Authorization in Brazilian
Territory.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Presidential Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/decreto/1996/
d1953.htm.
20 Ibid.
21 Ibid.
22 Presidential Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-2022/
2019/Decreto/D9839.htm#art10.
23 AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 31 August 2021. www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/servicos/licenciamento/por
taria-no-698-de-31-de-agosto-de-2021.
6 I. Grosner et al.
4 The Brazilian Space Program Development Committee

(CDPEB)
The CDPEB is an advisory body to the President of the Republic of Brazil destined
to formulate proposals on: (i) the necessary subsidies to enhance the Brazilian Space
Program; (ii) the development and use of technologies applicable to the Brazilian
Space Sector, in the segments of launching infrastructure, launch vehicles and orbital
and suborbital artefacts; and (iii) supervising the execution of the necessary measures
to enhance the Brazilian Space Program.
It was created by Decree No. 9,279, of 6 February 2018.24 Subsequently, the
CDPEB was restructured under Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019,25 modified by
Decree No. 10.691, of 3 May 2021.26
The CDPEB is composed of the following members:
I Minister of State of the Institutional Security Office of the Presidency of the
Republic, who coordinates it;
II Minister of State of the Civil House of the Presidency of the Republic;
III Minister of State for Defense;
IV Minister of State for Foreign Affairs;
V Minister of State for the Economy;
VI Minister of State for Science, Technology and Innovation;
VII Minister of State for Communications; and
VIII Attorney General of the Union.
The CDPEB may invite:
(a) representatives of other bodies and entities of the Federal Executive Power to
participate in its meetings, with voting rights, whenever the matter discussed is
related to the competencies falling within the attribution of the invited entity;
and
(b) private entities, at the request of any of its members, without voting rights.
The CDPEB will meet, on an ordinary basis, once every four months and, on an
extraordinary basis, whenever there is a need to discuss an urgent matter that falls
within the objectives of the Committee, in both cases, for the call of its Coordinator.
The meeting quorum of the CDPEB is an absolute majority of the members. The
approval quorum is two-thirds of the members present at the meeting. In addition to
the ordinary vote, the Coordinator of the CDPEB will have the casting vote in the
event of a tie.
24 Presidential Decree No. 9,279, of 6 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-

2018/2018/decreto/D9279.htm
25 Presidential Decree No. 9,839, of 14 June 2019. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-2022/
2019/Decreto/D9839.htm#art10
26 Presidential Decree No. 10,691, of 3 May 2021. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2019-2022/
2021/Decreto/D10691.htm#art1
The CDPEB may set up technical groups to prepare studies on:

(a) the development of launch infrastructure and launch vehicles for orbital and
suborbital artefacts;
(b) the development of projects aimed at strengthening the national industry aimed
at the Brazilian Space Sector;
(c) the composition of staff in science and technology careers for the Brazilian
Space Sector;
(d) public policies, social actions and land issues related to areas of the national
territory destined for launching centers installations; and
(e) the proposals for establishing legal frameworks for the Brazilian Space Sector.
The technical groups:
(a) will be composed in the form of resolutions of the CDPEB;
(b) may have a maximum of five members, appointed from among the bodies;
(c) will have a temporary nature and duration not exceeding one year; and
(d) will be limited to three operating simultaneously.
The Executive Secretariat of the Brazilian Space Program Development
Committee will be exercised by the System Coordination Secretariat of the
Institutional Security Office of the Presidency of the Republic.
The participation in the CDPEB and technical groups will be considered a relevant
unpaid provision of public service.
The CDPEB, since its creation, has contributed decisively to a more active and
coordinated space governance among the various governmental actors involved.
Therefore, since its creation, it has acted on several fronts, including the one aimed
at providing conditions for the entire operation of the CEA.
5 Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020
The Brazilian Air Force (FAB), represented by its Air Force Command (COMAER),
and the Brazilian Space Agency (AEB), signed on 5 November 2020, the Cooperation
Agreement No. 01/2020, defining attributions and work processes in the implemen-
tation phase of the future Alcântara Space Center (CEA), in Maranhão state, Brazil.
Signing this Agreement is one of the steps to enable the launch of non-military space
vehicles using the CEA.27
27 Lieutenant Jonathan Jayme, “FAB and AEB sign agreement related to the Alcântara Space
Center: document signed between the Air Force Staff and the Brazilian Space Agency establishes
attributions and work processes in the implementation and operation phases of the CEA”, Air Force
Agency, 11 May 2020, www.fab.mil.br/noticias/mostra/35736/COOPERA%C3%87%C3%83O%
20-%20FAB%20e%20AEB%20assinam%20acordo%20relacionado%20ao%20Centro%20Espa
cial%20de%20Alc%C3%A2ntara
8 I. Grosner et al.
According to the Agreement, the AEB is competent to carry out initial negotiations
with companies, national or foreign, interested in using the goods and services to
launch non-military space vehicles using the CEA.
The cooperation begins the phase of contact with companies interested in using
the facilities in the CEA for activities in the space area. The Agreement establishes
the limits of action of each Institution. The AEB does the initial work, takes care of
licensing, and delivers the process to COMAER to establish the contracts.
Therefore, the obligations of the AEB are to:
• coordinate the dissemination, aiming to attract interested parties in operating in
the CEA;
• coordinate the preparation and implementation of Public Calls for the use of the
CEA, based on the parameters predefined by the Air Force Command;
• receive operators interested in launching from the CEA and carry out the initial
negotiation;
• carry out the licensing process;
• issue operators license;
• issue the release authorization or recognition of authorization issued by another
country;
• coordinate the process of analyzing the proposals, to start the contractual
negotiation;
• assist the Air Force Command in the negotiation and contracting process with
those interested in using the CEA;
• collaborate with accident investigation activities related to space activities at
the CEA; and
• coordinate the activities of licensing, elaboration and updating of safety standards
and inspection of space activities at the CEA.
In turn, the following are COMAER/FAB obligations:
• Define the parameters to be used by the AEB to prepare the Public Call rules;
• Define, through the Department of Aerospace, Science and Technology (DCTA),
the availability of using the CEA and inform the AEB;
• Participate, as an advisory member with the AEB, in the Public Call process for
using the CEA;
• Participate, through the DCTA, in the licensing, drafting and updating of safety
standards and inspection of space activities at the CEA;
• Participate in the process of analyzing the proposals to start the contract
negotiation;
• Based on the proposal analysis process, define the licensed operator(s) that will
initiate the contract negotiation phase;
• Coordinate, through the DCTA, the contractual negotiation for the use of the CEA;
• Sign, through the DCTA, the CEA usage contract; and
• Through the designated Military Organizations, act in the investigation of acci-
dents and incidents that occurred in operations aimed at launching space vehicles
at the CEA.
Fig. 1 Credits: AEB
The term of the Agreement is 36 (thirty-six) months from the date of its signature
and may be extended through an Addendum. Accordingly, this Agreement is valid
for 36 months, with 24 months for the implementation phase and 12 months for the
operation phase.
Figure 1) reveals the phases and the obligations for each part:
6 Public Call I and II
As a result of Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020, described above, AEB made

public calls to present information related to the operation of launching non-military
space vehicles from Brazilian territory.28
The public call has a definition and function delimited by Administrative Law
according to its use in Public Administration performance models. Always used to
publicize the actions of the Public Administration, it is also used to select, in an
impersonal and isonomic manner, proposals and projects for action in partnerships.
The Public Call is provided in Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016 (Legal Frame-
work of Science, Technology and Innovation)29 and Law No. 13,019, of 31 July 2014
(Regulatory Framework of Civil Society Organizations).30
28 Public Call 2. AEB Official website: www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro/cha

mamento-publico-public-call/public-call
29 Federal Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-2018/
2016/lei/l13243.htm
30 Federal Law No. 13,019, of 31 July 2014. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2014/
lei/l13019.htm
10 I. Grosner et al.
The Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018,31 regulation of Law No. 10,973, of 2
December 2004,32 also provides that the public call has the function of reducing the
informational deficit and the asymmetry of information of the Administration in the
field of innovation, science and technology.
6.1 The I Public Call (2020)
The I Public Call was made through Notice AEB No. 02/2020. The legal framework
invoked was: Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994,33 Decree No. 8,868, of 4 October
2016,34 Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996,35 Law No. 10,973, of 2 December
2004,36 amended by Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 201637 and regulated by Decree
No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018,38 and Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020.
The object of the I Public Call was to make available the set of goods and services
used to launch non-military space vehicles from areas occupied by the VLS Plat-
form System (SISPLAT), by the Universal Platform and by the Wind Profiler at the
Alcântara Launch Center (CLA), as well as from aircraft taking off from Alcântara
airport.
Fourteen companies signed up for the notice, nine of which presented final
proposals that were analyzed by FAB. On 28 April 2021, FAB and AEB announced
the result of the I Public Call.39
Four companies selected in the I Public Call to operate the launch of non-military
orbital and suborbital space vehicles from the Alcântara Space Center (CEA) have
already been announced. Three American companies, Hyperion, Orion AST, and
Virgin Orbit, and a Canadian company, C6 Launch, were the winners of the tender,
and they are now moving on to the contractual negotiation phase (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and
5).
2018/2018/decreto/d9283.htm
32 Federal Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2004-2006/
2004/Lei/L10.973.htm
33 Federal Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l8854.htm
34 Presidential Decree No. 8,868, of 4 October 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-
2018/2016/decreto/D8868.htm
d1953.htm
36 Federal Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/
2004/lei/l10.973.htm
37 Federal Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2015-2018/
2016/Lei/L13243.htm#art2
39 www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/assuntos/noticias/first-companies-to-launch-non-governmental-lau
nches-from-the-alcantara-spaceport-announced
Fig. 2 The former Sonda IV

pad
Fig. 3 The suborbital

launchpad (universal
launcher)
The four selected companies will operate at the Alcântara Space Center (CEA),
which should not be confused with the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) - the Air
Force unit that coordinates the physical base, whereas the CEA is a created entity
that virtually manages the means available for granting information, encompasses
Fig. 4 Airport
Fig. 5 TMI (in the middle of the Preparation and Launch Sector)
the resources obtained by the Barreira do Inferno Center (CLBI), such as the tracking
part.40 Below are the aspects that each company will operate:41
40 Alcântara Space Center (CEA) - Perspectives of The Private Segment for Commercial Operations,
OAB Santos, October 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9MRsa3pkHo&t=1860s
41 Planalto, News - Technology: Companies Announced to Participate in Alcântara Center Opera-
tions, Presidency of the Republic (gov.br), April 2021, www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-pla

nalto/noticias/2021/04/anunciadas-empresas-para-participar-de-operacoes-do-centro-de-alcantara
• Hyperion-Spaceport Brasil (U.S.), which will operate the VLS platform system;
• Orion Ast (U.S.), which will act on the suborbital launcher;
• Virgin Orbit (U.S.), which will be responsible for the Alcântara Airport, which
forms part of the base; and
• C6 Launch (Canada), which will operate the Profiler Area that is also a launch
point.
Canadian company C6 Launch has as objective the allocation of small payloads
(nano satellites and CubeSat) inside its launch vehicle to carry out an orbital flight that
will launch the objects to their destination orbit. To achieve its goals, the company
bases its action plan through the establishment of partnerships with local compa-
nies aiming in the future to acquire national components and technologies for the
manufacture of its vehicle in Brazil, in addition it intends to use national labor.42
The American company Virgin Orbit intends to apply its expertise to develop
space activities operating from the Alcântara airport, thus, it will have its Aircraft
that have high technology at a global level. Its performance will be in the following
areas: mobile mission control; trailerized ground support equipment; and Aircraft as
a launch platform.43
The American Company Hyperion—Spaceport Brazil aims to develop, opera-
tionalize and operate infrastructure for the preparation and launch of satellites and
space vehicles in Brazil, in addition to providing commercial spacecraft and space
vehicle launch services; finally, it aims to import and export equipment, materials,
products, services related to its activities and carry out transport operations.44
The companies justifications reflect in the great advance that the Brazilian Space
Program has suffered in recent years, bringing greater security to investors, as well
as the privileged characteristics of the country such as wealth in natural resources,
structure, specialized professionals and especially the strategic location of its Launch
Centers located near the equator line. In general, the aforementioned contributions
and the inclusion of CEA in the global market will reflect in benefits for several key
sectors in Brazil.
6.2 The II Public Call (2021)
The II Public Call was made through Notice AEB No. 07/2021. The legal framework
invoked was: Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994,45 Decree No. 10,469, of 19 August
OAB Santos, October 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9MRsa3pkHo&t=1860s.
43 Ibid.
44 Ibid.
45 Federal Law No. 8,854, of 10 February 1994. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/leis/l8854.htm
Fig. 6 Annex I of the Notice AEB No. 07/2021
2020,46 Decree No. 1,953, of 10 July 1996,47 Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004,48
amended by Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 201649 and regulated by Decree No.
9,283, of 7 February 2018,50 and Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020.
The object of the II Public Call is to make available Union goods and services for
the operationalization of the orbital launch of non-military space vehicles, from area
4, according to the perimeter delimited in the image in Annex I, using the Alcântara
Space Center (CEA) (Fig. 6).
The II Public Call will target the area of the former Alcântara Cyclone Space
(ACS), the Brazil-Ukraine binational joint venture created in 2006. The initiative
was officially cancelled on 16 July 2015. In 2018, the Brazilian government sent the
Provisional Measure No. 858 to the National Congress to extinguish the binational
company. The Provisional Measure was converted into Law No. 13,814, of 17 April
2019.51
46 Presidential Decree No. 10,469, of 19 August 2020. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-
2022/2020/decreto/D10469.htm
d1953.htm
48 Federal Law No. 10,973, of 2 December 2004. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2004-2006/
2004/lei/l10.973.htm
49 Federal Law No. 13,243, of 11 January 2016. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2015-2018/
2016/Lei/L13243.htm#art2
51 Federal Law No. 13,814, of 17 April 2019.
www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-2022/2019/lei/L13814.htm
Area 04 of the CEA (Lat: -2.3033, Long: -44,4007) is located in the area of the
CLA, a military organization of the FAB. The area comprises several buildings in
varying degrees of conservation.
The II Public Call was attended by some companies and is currently in progress.52
7 AEB Ordinance No. 698/2021
As previously mentioned, the AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 31 August 2021,53 has
instituted the REB, divided in two different parts: while Part 154 deals with the proce-
dures and requirements for the issuance of the Operator’s License for conducting
space launch activities from Brazilian territory, Part 255 establishes procedures for
the granting of Launch Authorizations by the AEB.
Although the recently-published standards are not unprecedented—once they
substitute previous norms that have been simultaneously revoked—, major adjust-
ments and updates have been implemented to, among other reasons, bring Brazilian
regulation in line with international standards, especially the relevant norms issued
by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) of the United States of America.
Before explaining the main standards for each procedure established by such new
norms, it is important to state their difference in terms of applicability. While the
Operator’s License seeks to approve the execution of space activities and launch
in Brazil,56 the authorization to conduct the space operation itself from Brazilian
territory is only granted by the Launch Authorization, to which the Operator’s License
is a prerequisite.57
7.1 Operator’s License
The Operator’s License regulation is applicable to legal entities headquartered or

with representatives in Brazil seeking to execute space launches and flight trials.58
Considering that such license is valid for five years and renewable successively for
equal terms, an operator shall demonstrate its qualification during the application
process, which includes legal documents—such as the evidence of (i) head office or
52 Until the closing of this edition.

53 AEB Ordinance No. 698, of 2021.
54 REB Part 01, of 31 August 2021. www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/servicos/licenciamento/copy_of_REB_
Parte01LicenadeOperadoragosto2021.pdf.
55 REB Part 02, of 31 August 2021. www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/servicos/licenciamento/copy2_of_REB_
Parte02AutorizaodeLanamentoagosto2021.pdf.
56 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 4.
57 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 6–7.
58 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 5.
legal representation with powers to receive subpoenas and respond administratively

and judicially, and (ii) labor and tax regularity—and technical qualification, provided
by means of proof of aptitude for the proposed activities.59
Associated legal entities and consortiums are entitled to apply for the Operator’s
License as long as they fulfil additional requirements, such as the signature of a
public or private commitment for the constitution of such association or consortium,
as well as the appointment of the leader legal entity of the collective body, which
will be responsible for complying with the duties related to the license issued, even
though joint liability may be admitted.60
The documents necessary for the issuance of the Operator’s License will be subject
to the analysis and judgment of the Special Licensing Commission, designated by
the President of the AEB and integrated by at least three members.61 Considering
that the elaboration of an opinion on the issuance of the Operator’s License is also
an attribution of the commission, as soon as the documents are judged and such
opinion is issued, the administrative process will be submitted to the President of
the AEB, and the license must be granted in up to 30 calendar days following the
Special Licensing Commission’s homologation of the technical note.62
Considering the importance of the subject, especially concerning safety matters,
the AEB may demand the control, monitoring and inspection of the activities carried
out by the licensee while the Operator’s License is still valid, and, to that end, AEB
may hire third parties to provide specialized technical services or sign adjustments
with public or private bodies or entities.63 Since the inspection activities may entitle
the AEB representative to access sensitive information of the licensee, AEB under-
takes, in the new standards, to keep the confidential nature of such data, disclosure
to third parties being prohibited.64
7.2 Launch Authorization
As mentioned above, one of the features of the new standards is the harmoniza-
tion with internationally-recognized regulations. Especially concerning the Launch
Authorization, a specific provision has been added in order to establish that a party
in compliance with the FAA 14 CFR Part 450 (namely the Launch and Reentry
Licensing Requirements) is also complying with the new Brazilian regulation on the
matter, except for some reserved items.65 Therefore, international players already
59 REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 5–6.

60 REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 5–7.
61 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 7.
62 REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 7–8.
63 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 8.
64 REB Part 01, of 2021, p. 9.
65 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 9.
following the relevant FAA guidelines may find it easier to operate in Brazil, making
the domestic space sector more attractive.
Similarly, to the Operator’s License requirements, the Launch Authorization rules
apply to Brazilian legal entities, or entities with representatives in the country, seeking
to conduct private space launch operations from Brazilian territory.66 The rules for
the Launch Authorization also apply to private operations carried out abroad by
Brazilian companies, and do not apply to military launch activities conducted by the
Brazilian Armed Forces, under the responsibility of COMAER.67
Although the Launch Authorization is granted for an indefinite term, some impor-
tant requirements must be fulfilled.68 By way of example, the application for a Launch
Authorization requires the prior obtainment of an Operator’s License, and the autho-
rized party must hire an insurance, which shall cover damages caused to third parties
and to the infrastructure of the public launch center.69 Thus, in case the parameters
required for conducting a duly authorized launch activity are no longer fulfilled or
have changed, it is possible to deduce that the Launch Authorization may be removed
from its holder or revoked.70
The space launch itself will be controlled, monitored and inspected by the Special
Licensing Commission of the AEB, and the commercial information obtained by
the public authorities as a result of such attributions must be kept confidential.71
Although some information are considered confidential, the AEB must also keep
a public record of the Launch Authorizations issued, as well as a registry for the
inscription of specific space objects launched from Brazilian territory.72
Lastly, it is worth mentioning that the new standards bring important provisions
on the elaboration of a flight hazard analysis, in order to assess the likelihood of
eventual hazards and describe measures to mitigate the foreseeable risks associated
with space activities.73 These provisions are particularly relevant, considering that the
authorized party operating space launches is responsible for assuring, for example,
the public and property safety during a launch or reentry.74
Innospace is an aerospace/defense manufacturing and engineering service
providing corporation headquartered in South Korea. As a world leader in hybrid
rocket technology, its developing hybrid rocket powered smallsat launchers to
provide low-cost, low-latency, and reliable launch services in the rapidly expanding
small satmarket. Holding the “Operator’s License” to provide space launches out of
the Alcântara Space Center in Brazil, it will commence commercial launches from
2023.
66 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 7.

67 Ibid.
68 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 8.
69 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 7.
70 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 8 and 118.
71 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 9–10.
72 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 12.
73 REB Part 02, of 2021, pp. 49–50.
74 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 118.
Innospace will operate in Brazil through international cooperation with a focus on

sharing technology seeking to strengthen ties between Brazil and South Korea, there-
fore, negotiations have already been initiated by its representatives with the DCTA.
The company’s objective is to carry out launches by the CEA through three launchers
that the company aims to build, according to updates from its representative, the
company already has licenses to operate.75
8 U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement
Globalization through its technological advances connects contemporary society in

real time regardless of how far away people are. Thus, due to the easy access to
communication, the current scenario of International Relations is marked by the
strengthening of ties between different cultures, forming new partnerships between
Nations in favor of a proactive and collaborative work that aims to benefit both
parties.
Therefore, it is necessary to use the International Cooperation mechanism, which
consists of joining efforts between two or more agents that aim to solve a common
problem, or even to structure projects that have the same purpose. The action
takes place through the establishment of partnerships and international agreements
in various themes that can be applied in different fields, such as State, judicial,
investigative, administrative measures, among others that would be difficult to act
alone.
The Brazilian Government currently has an extremely structured International
Cooperation sector within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that works in the following
areas76 :
• Brazilian Cooperation Agency;
• Educational Cooperation;
• Sports Cooperation;
• Brazilian Humanitarian Cooperation; and
• Technical Cooperation.
In addition to the relevant action in the fields mentioned above, the mechanism
is applied by different national government agencies that work in partnership to
implement a State Policy, as is the case of the joint signature of the Ministry of
Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MRE)
and Ministry of State for Defense, in the partnership signed between Brazil and the
OAB Santos, October 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9MRsa3pkHo&t=1860s.
76 Ministry of Foreign Affairs - International Cooperation, June 2021, www.gov.br/mre/pt-br/ass
untos/cooperacao-internacional.
United States of America (U.S.) in the U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agree-

ment related to the Participation of the United States of America (AST) in Launches
from the Alcântara Space Center (CEA).77
The bilateral agreement signed in March 2019 between Brazil, an important
strategic player in South America, and the United States of America, one of the
great Space-Faring Nations, aims to confirm the commitment to protect the techno-
logical data of both countries. Furthermore, it was agreed that the U.S. authorizes
Brazil to launch rockets and spacecraft, with peaceful purposes, of any nationality
containing American components; in return, Brazil authorizes the use of its Alcân-
tara Space Center as a launching base for space objects from any countries that have
American components, following the agreement model used by some States, such
as: China, Ukraine, Russia, India and New Zealand.78
According to the Brazilian Government, the partnership will boost the growth of
the Brazilian space sector, impacting in axes such as the growth of its national space
industry which will generate new jobs, technological cooperation, the production of
scientific knowledge and high-level research, as well as the recognition of Brazil as
an act player in the space sector. Furthermore, the Government found that79 :
In twenty years, it is estimated that, due to the non-approval of the AST, Brazil lost approxi-
mately US$ 3.9 billion (approximately R$ 15 billion) in revenues from unrealized launches,
considering only 5% of the launches that occurred in the world during this period, in addition
to not developing the technological and regional tourism potential.
The global space market has been growing continuously and is expected to go from the
current US$350 billion a year to reach US$1 trillion a year by 2040.
With the approval of the AST, Brazil can enter this market, even with the conservative
target of occupying 1% of the global space business volume (US$ 10 billion per year from
2040) and will consolidate Brazil as a strong player in the launch segment. Thus, the country
will leverage its entire space program.
Thus, it is evident that Brazil will benefit from the results of the work in different
fields, especially the region adjacent to the CEA, which will have a great development
due to the growing number of activities in the place; in addition, the advantages will
also be extended to the U.S., which will have the best global position for the launch
of its space objects, reaffirming the purpose and effects of the partnership through
International Cooperation.
The Brazil and United States Technology Safeguards Agreement entered into
effect in Brazil through Decree No. 10,220, of 5 February 2020, which presents a
structure of ten articles, which provide guidelines, technical information, duties and
77 Knowing The Deal of Safeguards Technological Brazil And United States - U.S-Brazil Tech-
nology Safeguards Agreement, February 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/public
acoes/acordo-de-salvaguardas-tecnologicas/ast.pdf.
78 Ibid.
79 Knowing The Deal of Safeguards Technological Brazil And United States - U.S-Brazil Tech-
nology Safeguards Agreement, February 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/public

acoes/acordo-de-salvaguardas-tecnologicas/ast.pdf.
obligations on how the partnership and activities should be developed aiming at the
best result for both parties.80
9 Artemis Accords—Space Resources—The Hague

International Space Resources Governance Working
Group
The contemporary scenario in which the space sector is inserted is called New
Space—Space 4.0 and is a clear reflection of globalization and its products that,
with the advancement of technology and industry, allow the development of new
space activities, such as the exploration of space resources.
According to the European Space Agency (ESA), the periods experienced by the
space sector since its formation are divided into four phases and occur in synchrony
with the development of the industry sector81 :
• Space 1.0—marked by the study of astronomy and astrophysics, which had great
contributions from pioneer scientists Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert Goddard
and Hermann Oberth;
• Space 2.0: Cold War period that gave rise to the famous Space Race and the
conquest of the first great feats of the space sector (Sputnik I, Vostok Mission,
Apollo Missions, among others);
• Space 3.0: formation of the International Space Station (ISS), a period marked by
the strong use of the international cooperation instrument; and
• Space 4.0: known as the New Space era, where the performance of new actors in
the space sector beyond the States is a reality. Here, the work is developed through
partnerships and international cooperation between States (Space Agencies and
Space Programs), academia, industry/private sector and civil society as a whole
for the advancement of technology and space activities.
The timeline classifications on the historical evolution of the space sector show
its development in a positive way, activities that were previously just ideas with a
proposal to be implemented in a distant future scenario, today, show as a reality
that is accessible on account of the work developed in cooperation by agents from
different sectors. In the words of the space company Thales Alenia located in France,
the positive effects of the current situation in the space sphere are clear82 :
80 Presidential Decree No. 10,220, of 5 February 2020 - U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards

Agreement, www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-2022/2020/decreto/D10220.htm.
81 European Space Agency – ESA. What is space 4.0? – Ministerial Council 2016, www.esa.int/
About_Us/Ministerial_Council_2016/What_is_space_4.0
82 Thales Alenia - Space 4.0: Unlocking Value Via The Digital Transformation, June 2020, www.
thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/space/news/space-40-unlocking-value-digital-transformation
Up to a few short years ago, space was synonymous with government spending: the high
costs and risks involved made the sector generally inaccessible to private players. Today,
major technology advances and a new entrepreneurial spirit are rapidly shaping a new space
economy. We are seeing the emergence of private companies that discern unrivaled commer-
cial opportunities in space exploration and exploitation thanks to disruptive technologies and
the data revolution.
Faced with a new space economy, one activity that has been developed at an accel-
erated level and which was mentioned by the company Thales is the space resources
exploration, according to The Hague International Space Resources Governance
Working Group,83 the Working Group that was formed by several agents to formu-
late a specific regulatory framework for the aforementioned activity, space resources
and exploration consist of:
• Space resource: an extractable and/or recoverable abiotic resource in situ in outer
space. According to the understanding of the Working Group, this includes mineral
and volatile materials, including water, but excludes (a) satellite orbits; (b) radio
spectrum; and (c) energy from the sun except when collected from unique and
scarce locations.84
• Space resource activity: an activity conducted in outer space for the purpose of
searching for space resources, the recovery of those resources and the extrac-
tion of raw mineral or volatile materials therefrom, including the construction
and operation of associated extraction, recovery, processing and transportation
systems.85
According to Articles 1 and 2 of the OST (1967), an exploration of space including
the Moon and other celestial bodies is allowed to all States, provided that they
aim at peaceful use for the benefit of all humankind and should foster international
cooperation without any type of discrimination; In addition, the activity must take
place in accordance with International Law, respecting the classification of the space
as “Province of All Mankind”, which gave the space the status of “International
Territory” thus not being able to suffer appropriation by proclamation of sovereignty,
by use or occupation of any State.86
Another important observation to be made regarding the analysis of the OST
guidelines, is that due to the status of International Territory, space must be under-
stood as Global Commons, videlicet, the natural resources present in the space
environment are extremely relevant to society, therefore its domain is outside
83 The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group, www.universiteitlei

den.nl/en/law/institute-of-public-law/institute-of-air-space-law/the-hague-space-resources-govern
ance-working-group
84 Building Blocks (BB) – BB 2.1, www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleer
dheid/instituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf
85 Building Blocks (BB) – BB 2.3, www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleer
dheid/instituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf.
86 Outer Space Treaty (OST) - 1967, 27 January 1967, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/
treaties/outerspacetreaty.html.
national jurisdiction and can be accessed by everyone. Furthermore, this classifi-

cation includes the understanding that all activities carried out in the global common
domain space must be reflected in the Benefit Sharing, reaffirming the consonance
with the guidelines and principles of the OST and the United Nations Charter.87
Moreover, The Moon Agreement (1979), one of the five main Space Law Treaties,
specifically regulates the exploration activity on the Moon and other Celestial Bodies
with its guidelines being in line with the OST Principles. Article 6 of the Agreement
directs that the States that take samples of space resources must make these avail-
able to other States, emphasizing the logic of Benefit Sharing. Also in this sense,
Article 11 classifies the Moon and its Resources as “Common Heritage of Mankind”,
thus prohibiting their appropriation by proclamation of sovereignty. In addition, to
develop the activity, Article 11 brings in its item 5 the need for States to draw up
an International Regime establishing the procedures to make the activity functional
according to the objectives listed in item 7 of the same article, and it is noteworthy
that item 7.d again mentions the need for the application of Benefit Sharing, mainly
aiming at the interests and needs of developing countries.88
However, the States never reached an agreement to form the International Regime
proposed by Article 11. Furthermore, the Treaty has only 18 member states, which
ranks as the space agreement with the fewest accessions. The justification for low
adhesion varies according to the understanding and interest of each State, in the same
way, when economic potential of space activities increases the divergence regarding
legal interpretations increases too.89
As much as the main Space Treaties mention about space exploration, their
guidelines do not address the activity in a specific way, thus leaving several gaps
on the theme that once again fosters divergent interpretations. Thus, the United
States of America, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates and Japan sanctioned
national legislation that regulates the development of space resources exploration,
encouraging their industries to develop technology that makes the activity viable.90
In the same vein, the University of Leiden in the Netherlands through its Inter-
national Institute of Air and Space Law, formed The Hague International Space
Resources Governance Working Group in 2015, a working group guided by the
Global Governance mechanism that was attended by several actors from different
branches of the space sector to formulate an international framework called Building
Blocks. The framework presents a structure of 20 articles that aim to guide the activity
of space resources exploration in line with the main Treaties and Principles of Space
87 Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro, International Governance of Space Resources: Regulatory

Perspectives (Master’s Degree Dissertation - University Catholic of Santos), 13 October 2021.
88 Moon Agreement - 1979 (Agreement Governing The Activities of States on the Moon and Other
Celestial Bodies), 5 december 1979, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-

agreement.html

90 Ibid.
Law.91 The acceptance of the material is extremely fruitful generating positive results
in the main discussion forums in the space sector and especially in the Committee
on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).
The space resource exploration is undoubtedly one of the activities that most has
driven the space sector inspiring States and agents to launch missions in the coming
years, such as the Artemis Mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration (NASA) in partnership with other countries through bilateral agreements.
The Artemis Mission was named the twin sister of the Apollo Missions and aims
to continue the program that took the first man to the Moon in 1969, now in the
twenty-first century the goal is to carry out the next Moon landing taking the first
woman and first person of color, as well plain practice the space resource exploration
activity92 :
NASA will land the first woman and first person of color on the Moon, using innovative
technologies to explore more of the lunar surface than ever before. We will collaborate
with commercial and international partners and establish the first long-term presence on the
Moon. Then, we will use what we learn on and around the Moon to take the next giant leap:
sending the first astronauts to Mars.
As mentioned, the logic of the program operates through bilateral agreements

signed between NASA representing the interests of the United States of America
and other States that aim to contribute to the accomplishment of the mission through
international cooperation, the program also established some principles grounded in
the OST that should guide the activity, they are93 :
• Peaceful Exploration: All activities conducted under the Artemis program must
be for peaceful purposes;
• Transparency: Artemis Accords signatories will conduct their activities in a
transparent fashion to avoid confusion and conflicts;
• Interoperability: Nations participating in the Artemis program will strive to
support interoperable systems to enhance safety and sustainability;
• Emergency Assistance: Artemis Accords signatories commit to rendering assis-
tance to personnel in distress;
• Registration of Space Objects: Any nation participating in Artemis must be a
signatory to the Registration Convention or become a signatory with alacrity;
• Release of Scientific Data: Artemis Accords signatories commit to the public
release of scientific information, allowing the whole world to join us on the
Artemis journey;
• Preserving Heritage: Artemis Accords signatories commit to preserving outer
space heritage;
91 Building Blocks (BB): www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleerdheid/ins

tituut-voor-publiekrecht/lucht--en-ruimterecht/space-resources/bb-thissrwg--cover.pdf.
92 National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA, Artemis Accords, 13 October 2020,
www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis/
93 National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA. NASA, International Partners Advance
Cooperation with First Signings of Artemis Accords, 13 October 2020, www.nasa.gov/press-rel

ease/nasa-international-partners-advance-cooperation-with-first-signings-of-artemis-accords
• Space Resources: Extracting and utilizing space resources is key to safe and
sustainable exploration and the Artemis Accords signatories affirm that such
activities should be conducted in compliance with the OST (1967);
• Deconfliction of Activities: The Artemis Accords nations commit to preventing
harmful interference and supporting the principle of due regard, as required by
the OST (1967); and
• Orbital Debris: Artemis Accords countries commit to planning for the safe
disposal of debris.
Sharing the interest in developing the space resources exploration and taking the
next human being to the Moon, 13 countries have already joined the Artemis Accords,
among them Brazil, which in July 2021 joined the cooperation agreement through
the signature of the current President of Brazil, Jair Bolsonaro, and the Minister of
Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI), Marcos Pontes. During the partnership
celebration ceremony, the State representatives uttered the following words: “Brazil
has enormous potential and will show its value now, in this great agreement, in this
Artemis project, not just to take a woman into space, but what we can bring from
space to apply here on Earth. For us, this date is a big step, it is a source of pride for
all of us Brazilians”.94
Brazil was the only country in South America that joined the Artemis Accords so
far, its inclusion in the project is extremely relevant as it is a strategic player in this
region.
Furthermore, it is noteworthy that over the last three years Brazil has invested
heavily in its Brazilian Space Program, which has a structure that has a Launch
Center-Alcântara Launch Center (CLA) located in an extremely privileged position
for the launch of satellites and the Barreira do Inferno Launch Center (CLBI)-and a
National Institute for Space Research (INPE) that has developed relevant products
for the advancement of the space sector, many through international cooperation with
other States.95
Also, aiming to support the development of the country’s national policy, the
Federal Government has invested heavily in the space education sector through the
granting of scholarships in different academic fields (engineering, law, medicine,
astronomy, physics, geology, among others). Thus, in addition to Brazil having super-
qualified professionals in various areas of the space sector, it has an abundant wealth
of natural resources, which helps in the development of activities in the sector, thus
being able to contribute positively to the Artemis Mission.96
94 Brazil joins NASA’s initiative that will take the first woman to the Moon: Cooperation with
the U.S. agency seeks to bring advances to the Brazilian Space Program and train researchers,
15 June 2021, www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-planalto/noticias/2021/06/brasil-adere-a-
iniciativa-da-nasa-que-levara-a-primeira-mulher-a-lua
95 Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI) - Brazilian Space Agency: Brazilian
Space Program, 4 September 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro

96 Ibid.
In view of all the above, we verify that the activity of space resources exploration
is a reality that has been developing at an accelerated level by investment in the space
sector through partnership and international cooperation to make the activity a reality.
The theme has encouraged actors to develop missions and has gained prominence
in the main discussion forums in the space sector, mainly in the Committee on
the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), which in its last meeting at Legal
Subcommittee in 2021 decided to form a specific Working Group to debate the
theme of Space Resources, consolidating the current scenario of New Space.97
10 Concluding Remarks
This chapter addressed the Brazilian Space Policies and their results implemented
through the action of its Space Program (PEB). Therefore, the scientific work began
its approach reporting on the History of the CLA, followed by the theme of General
Space Legislation in Brazil; The Brazilian Space Program Development Committee
(CDPEB); Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020; Public Call I and II; AEB Ordinance
No. 698/2021 (Operator’s License/Launch Authorization); U.S.-Brazil Technology
Safeguards Agreement; concluding with an approach to the Artemis Accords—Space
Resources—The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group.
Faced with the current space themes, it is observed that recent Brazilian efforts
are committed to relevant issues to boost the growth of its space sector, which in
turn reflect in the development of the society that is actually dependent on space
technology to guide from everyday activities to even its trivial axes. Furthermore, it
is evident that Brazil has sought to be inserted in the global space context, since its
practices are in line with the foreign initiatives and policies of relevant Space Faring
Nations, seeking whenever possible to form alliances and work in cooperation.
The Brazilian Government established that space activities comprise a complex
dynamic of aggregation and generation of value, including technological innovations
that demand specific infrastructure, and deliver products with high added value to
society. This process moves other economic chains and generates value in several
markets in the space sector.98
Space applications range from the education sector; economy; technological
development; navigation; meteorology; communications; environmental data; earth
observation and data collection; satellite images for monitoring the traffic, borders
and defense sector; agribusiness; research that results in the improvement of safety
equipment for firefighters, engineering, nutrition, among others; advances in the
medical sector (pressure meter kits, computed tomography, intensive care units,

98 Brazilian Space Agency: Brazilian Space Program - Investments, 06 March 2020, www.gov.br/
aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro/investimentos
among others); clean energy sources (solar panels) and several other benefits that
add great value to the community as a whole.99
Thus, in addition to directly impacting trivial activities and areas, the Brazilian
PEB initiatives are gaining prominence and positive relevance in the main discussion
forums about the space sector, as well as serving as a national and regional reference,
making clear the Brazilian State’s interest to actively participate in a positive and
cooperative way for the progress of the global space sector.
Ian Grosner is an air and space law expert and a Brazilian federal attorney with over 26 years
of unique experience in the public sector. He has a master degree (LL.M.) from the Univer-
sity of Leiden (The Netherlands) in Air & Space Law (2017–2018). Since 2019, he has been
serving as a coordinator at the Legal Affairs Department of the Executive Office of the Pres-
ident of Brazil. He is the current Vice-President of the Chair of Air and Space Law from the
Bar Association of the Federal District in Brazil (OAB/DF). In 2019–2020 he was a member
of the Working Group 12 of the Brazilian Commission for Space Activities, which developed
a draft bill of the Brazilian national space law. He has created, organized and mediated the 1st
and the 2nd Space Law Seminar at Brazilian Bar Association in 2020 and 2021. Also, he gave
the 1st space law course at the Superior School of Lawyers in Brasília (Brazil). Since 2021, he
has been the correspondent of SpaceWatch.Global for Brazil. He is a founding member of IASS-
International Academy of Space Studies. He is a visiting Professor (Space Law) at the Catholic
University of Santos (Brazil). Since 2021, he has been a member of the International Institute of
Space Law-IISL.
Adriana Simões is a partner at Mattos Filho, Veiga Filho, Marrey Jr. e Quiroga Advogados,
based in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. She specializes in aviation law, focusing on contractual
and regulatory matters. She has solid experience in commercial contracts, tax and corporate law
concerning aviation, as well as a substantial knowledge in the regulation issued by the Brazilian
National Civil Aviation Agency (ANAC). Her experience includes drafting purchase and sale
agreements for aircraft and aircraft equipment, aircraft financing and leasing in the commercial
and business aviation sectors. She is a member of the Aviation Working Group (AWG), the Avia-
tion Law Committee and Space Law Committee of the International Bar Association (IBA), the
International Aviation Womens Association (IAWA), as well as the Brazilian Bar Association
Aeronautical Law Commission, São Paulo Section (OAB/SP).
Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro is a Brazilian Lawyer registered at the Brazilian Bar Asso-
ciation (OAB). She holds a Master Degree (LL.M.) in International and Space Law from the
Catholic University of Santos (2019–2021). She is currently Member and Directress of Insti-
tutional Relations of the Research Group on Space Law and Policy at the Catholic University
of Santos, Observer at The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group -
Leiden University, Netherlands (2019) and Observer at the Global Expert Group on Sustainable
Lunar Activities (GEGSLA)-Moon Village Association, Vienna—Austria. Authoress of scientific
articles, book chapters and a thesis on International Law and Space Law published in Brazil and
internationally. Member of the Aeronautical, Airport and Space Law Commission of the Brazilian
Bar Association of the Federal District (OAB-DF). Member of the Brazilian Bar Association
Aeronautical Law Commission, São Paulo Section (OAB/SP). Member of International Law and
Relations Commission of the Brazilian Bar Association of Santos (OAB Santos/SP). Current Chair
of the Space Law Commission of the Brazilian Bar Association of Santos (OAB Santos/SP).
99 Ibid.
Communication Satellites in South
America: A Perspective from Peru
Carlos Caballero León
Abstract Peru entered the space age in 2016 with the launch of the PerúSAT-1 Earth
observation satellite. After five years, this program has proven to be successful and
has allowed the development of new capabilities in the space domain at the national
level. At the same time, the interest is oriented to decide what will be the future
investment projects for the development of new space systems. In this sense, the
development of a communications satellite appears as the first project of national
necessity to be implemented. Therefore, it is interesting to know the experiences of
the countries in the region that have developed their own systems to meet national
needs. This study reviews the experiences of Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, the only
countries that currently have communications satellites in South America, whose
projects have been conducted with their particularities, similarities, and differences.
Likewise, these experiences are compared with the Peruvian situation, to learn lessons
that can guide the formulation of the Peruvian project.
1 Introduction
In September 2016, Peru entered the space age thanks to the launch of the first Peru-
vian government satellite. Since then, PerúSAT-1, an optical-type Earth observation
satellite, has been successfully used by the Peruvian Space Agency (CONIDA).1
PerúSAT-1 turned out to be a strategic decision. It is the most advanced tech-
nology and has been a disruptive solution in the country. It has transformed the
procurement of spatial information to public institutions, has given greater power to
the government in the framework of international relations and has been extremely
profitable.
1Carlos Caballero, et al., “PerúSAT-1 Earth Observation Systems: 2 Years of Success in Orbit and
Preliminary Lessons”, 69th International Astronautical Congress (IAC 2018).
C. Caballero León (B)

CP Consult, Lima, Peru
e-mail: carloscaballero@cpconsult.com.pe

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_2
28 C. Caballero León
In five years of satellite operation, CONIDA has developed important capabil-

ities to fulfill its new responsibility with satisfaction. There is a team of civilian
and military officials trained in satellite systems. The National Center for Satellite
Image Operations (CNOIS) has been built, to house the ground segment from which
missions are planned, their execution is controlled and the state of health of the
satellite is supervised. An important team of specialists in the treatment of satellite
images has been developed in public institutions, research centers, and universities.
International cooperation agreements have been set up with countries that, like Peru,
have means in space, to share capacities, information, and experiences.
The entry of Peru into this new dimension has aroused, in parallel, a wide interest
in the study of national problems that can be solved through the development of
future investment projects in space systems. In this sense, one of the issues that has
appeared in the first place is the communications satellite.
Given the complexity of its territory, Peru has a significant communications deficit
at the level of rural localities. Even though in recent years US$2.136 million have
been invested in fiber optic network implementation projects, in 2022 there are still
16.180 villages2 that do not have a project to close the connectivity gap.
A communications satellite is essential to connect the population in the vast
national territory. A system of this type can be strategic for economic development,
national defense, and progress across all sectors.
Thus, different institutions such as CONIDA and the College of Engineers of Peru
have promoted events, the publication of articles and studies to discuss the need for
a project to develop a communications satellite.
In this framework, the experiences of the countries in the region having a commu-
nications satellite have drawn attention. To date, Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil are
the only South American countries that have operational communications satellites.3
So, this article aims to present the communications satellite projects undertaken
by these three countries and to compare their situation with that of Peru, to learn
lessons that can be used for a Peruvian project.
2 Office of Multiannual Investment Programming, “Gap Indicators: Percentage of Localities with at

least one Public Entity without Fixed Internet Access Service Coverage”, Ministry of Transport and
Communications, 17 January 2019, http://portal.mtc.gob.pe/estadisticas/inversiones/Indicadores-
de-Brechas-2019.pdf.
3 In 2008 Venezuela put its Simón Bolívar or VeneSAT-1 satellite into orbit, at a cost of US$406
million. Despite having an expected lifetime of 15 years, this satellite was deactivated in 2020, due
to apparent technical problems.
Communication Satellites in South America … 29
2 Argentina and the Program ARSAT
Within the framework of the state policy of universal access to ICTs, the Argentine
Satellite Solutions Company (ARSAT)4 has the strategic role of protecting the geosta-
tionary positions assigned to its country with nationally manufactured satellites,
deploying the Federal Optical Fiber Network (REFEFO), the free of charge Digital
Terrestrial Television Platform, and establishing a National Data Center. These four
activities carried out synergistically have connectivity as a common factor and are
the axes of the Connect 2020–2023 plan announced by President Alberto Fernández
in September 2020.
Currently, ARSAT, a public limited company with state capital, has 719
employees, issues an annual turnover of US$100 million, operates about 35.000 km
of REFEFO, the digital terrestrial TV with 101 digital transmission channels reaching
1,3 million homes, the 4.200 m2 National Data Center with TIER 3 certifica-
tion, and two communications satellites. To consolidate its growth, ARSAT fore-
sees an investment of US$520 million financed mostly by loans from multilateral
organizations.
2.1 Space Business
As satellites are the complement to fiber optics to bring the Internet to rural areas that
are expensive or difficult to reach by terrestrial means, ARSAT has ventured into the
communications satellite business. Thus, the Argentine state company currently oper-
ates two satellites. The ARSAT-1 satellite was launched into space in 2014 at a cost
of US$280 million, with a capacity of 1.152 MHz. The ARSAT-2 was launched into
orbit in 2015 with an investment of US$250 million, with a capacity of 1.584 MHz.
The ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2 are conventional communications satellites, both with
a useful life of 15 years, and operate for commercial purposes at 85% and 97% of
their capacity, respectively. Sales of its satellite capacity in MHz are distributed 73%
to private clients and 27% to state clients.
With its satellites, ARSAT provides satellite capacity and TV, Internet, telephony
and data services with hemispheric coverage in C band, and coverage in North and
South America in Ku band; broadcasting of audio or video to TV or radio stations;
occasional satellite use of data, voice or video for companies, mobile operators
or governments; launch and early orbit phase (LEOP) services to launch and test
geostationary satellites; and Ka band satellite capacity in the Argentine mountain
range, through third-party capacity. Table 1 presents information on ARSAT-1 and
ARSAT-2.
4 Pablo Tognetti, and Martín Fabris, “ARSAT and the Development of the Communication Satellites
Industry in Argentina”, 5 April 2021, presentation at the International Forum Communication
Satellites in South America: Experiences from Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, Lima, Peru.
Table 1 General Information on ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2

ARSAT-1 ARSAT-2
Type Conventional geostationary Conventional geostationary
communications satellite communications satellite
Manufacturer INVAP INVAP
Orbital location 72° W 81° W
Launch vehicle and date Ariane 5, 16 October 2014 Ariane 5, 29 September 2015
Lifetime 15 years 15 years
Power consumption 3.500 W 3.500 W
Launch weight 3t 3t
Coverage area South America North America and South
America
Capacity (bandwidth) 1.152 MHz 1.584 MHz
Cost US$280 million US$250 million
Transponders Ku band: Ku band 12 × 72 MHz
12 × 36 MHz Extended Ku band 8 × 36 MHz
8 × 54 MHz C band 6 × 72 MHz
4 × 72 MHz
Source Own research
2.2 Synergy Between Manufacturer and Satellite Operator
ARSAT has created its satellite communications business thanks to the development
achieved by the Argentine satellite industry. Indeed, since 1996, Argentina has devel-
oped eight satellites, all manufactured in its territory by INVAP,5 the state-owned
high-tech industry, as the main contractor, with the participation of institutions from
its national science and technology system and technology-based SMEs.
In the field of Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites for Earth observation, INVAP has
manufactured four satellites SAC B, A, C and D by order of the Argentine Space
Agency (CONAE), in collaboration with the USA Space Agency (NASA), and two
Argentine Microwave Observation Satellites SAOCOMM 1A and 1B equipped with
a synthetic aperture radar, in collaboration with the Italian Space Agency (ASI). In
the field of communications Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites, INVAP has
manufactured for ARSAT, the already mentioned ARSAT-1 and -2.
For its part, ARSAT executes all the operations of its communications satellites,
including flight dynamics activities and payload configurations. To do this, they have
a team of engineers with more than 20 years of experience in satellite operations,
development, implementation, and final validation of products, more than 200.000
h of proven flight experience, from launch, put into orbit, commissioning, GEO
5 INVAP, “ARSAT Satellites”, www.invap.com.ar/es/espacial-y-gobierno/proyectos-espaciales/sat

elite-arsat.html.
operation, and de-orbiting. The Satellite Control Center (SCC) has its own software
developed by ARSAT to support its missions.
2.3 Second Generation Satellite Plan
The achievements to date allow ARSAT to increase its commitment to the future and
they already plan the development of second-generation satellites. Since 2020, they
have started manufacturing the ARSAT SG-1 satellite, which will be followed by the
ARSAT SG-2 satellite.
The ARSAT SG-1 mission plans to develop a High Throughput Satellite (HTS-
type) with 40 spots in Ka band and electric propulsion, which will provide Internet
services to Argentina with 50 gigabit per second (Gbps) and to Bolivia, Chile, and
Paraguay with 20 Gbps. For this, it is planned to deploy up to 200.000 very small
aperture terminals (VSATs) in Argentina and 80.000 in Bolivia, Chile, and Paraguay
with an estimated basic price of US$50,00 per month.
The ARSAT SG-1 satellite is to be launched into space in the second semester
of 2023 to come into operation at the beginning of 2024. This project has an esti-
mated investment of US$253 million that considers the satellite and terrestrial control
segments, seven ground gateways and 20.000 VSATs for the initial deployment. With
a projected internal rate of return (IRR) of 12,5%, the company expects to recover
the investment in six years and issue a total billing of US$870 million just for the
commercialization of ARSAT SG-1 services, throughout 15 years of its useful life.
2.4 Satellite Communications: A Millionaire Industry
In short, ARSAT is a state company that competes with private operators in the field
of telecommunications in Argentina. Its business includes the operation of commu-
nications satellites, fiber optic networks, data center and digital terrestrial television,
complementary products that are integrated horizontally within the company. At the
same time, thanks to the Argentine space policy, INVAP produces communications
satellites that ARSAT uses for its operation and marketing, with which the country
manages to vertically integrate the products of both companies.
In this way, Argentina has built a virtuous circle in the millionaire communications
satellite industry, which in the case of the future ARSAT SG-1 alone will represent
US$870 million in foreign currency that will remain within the national economy, to
ensure connectivity of the country, develop world-class engineers and technicians,
promote science and technology, and support the growth of a high-tech sector such
as the space industry. Table 2 presents information on ARSAT SG-1.
Table 2 General information on ARSAT SG-1

ARSAT SG-1 project
Type Geostationary communications satellite, HTS multi spot, electrical propulsion
Manufacturer INVAP
Orbital location 81° W
Planned launch Second Semester 2023
Lifetime 15 years
Launch weight 2t
Coverage area Argentina (50 Gbps), Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay (20 Gbps)
Capacity 70 Gbps
Planned cost US$253 million
Source Own research
3 Bolivia and the Tupac Katari-1
The Political Constitution of the Plurinational State of Bolivia adopted in February

2009, in its article 20, establishes that every person has the right, among other basic
services, to universal and equitable access to telecommunications. With the aim of
offering these services to the excluded rural population, which lives in very small
towns with about 100 inhabitants each, the Bolivian Space Agency (ABE) was created
in 2010. At the same time, the National Telecommunications Program for Social
Inclusion (PRONTIS) was created, an entity in charge of the fund created from the
fees imposed on the communications sector to finance rural projects. These projects
were executed by the state-owned National Telecommunications Company Entel
Bolivia.
To have the system that allows small, isolated, remote, and excluded populations to
be connected to the service, in December 2010 a contract was signed with China Great
Wall Industry Corporation (CGWIC) to produce the Tupac Katari-1 (TKSAT-1)6
communications satellite, at a cost of US$302 million. In 2012, the construction of the
Amachuma main ground station in El Alto de La Paz and La Guardia backup station
in Santa Cruz de la Sierra began. On 20 December 2013, from the Xichang teleport in
China, the TKSAT-1 satellite was launched into space, entering commercial service
on 1 April 2014.
6Iván Zambrana, “Túpac Katari Satellite Program”, 5 April 2021, presentation at the International
Forum Communication Satellites in South America: Experiences from Argentina, Bolivia, and
Brazil, Lima, Peru.
3.1 The TKSAT-1
The TKSAT-1, a conventional-type communications satellite, launched into orbit in

2013, is in the orbital position 87,2° West of the geostationary orbit. The TKSAT-1
has been built on a DFH-4 platform, with a 15-year lifetime. Its payload consisting of
five antennas and 30 transponders provides a bandwidth of 1.232 MHz. In C band it
has a bandwidth of 56 MHz with coverage throughout South America. In Ku band it
covers with 792 MHz the territories of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay, and Venezuela, providing fixed satellite services. Exclusively for Bolivia,
in Ku band it provides broadcasting services with 144 MHz and in Ka band with
240 MHz.
The services offered by the TKSAT-1 are satellite segment; direct television to
the home (DTH) with digital TV services and satellite radio; satellite Internet; trans-
mission of data, images, and videos; cellular backhaul; telehealth services, digital
access centers and temporary live broadcasts.
3.2 The Bolivian Space Agency and Its Achievements
ABE is a Bolivian strategic public company created to operate the TKSAT-1. In

practice, ABE is a highly productive and technological SME, with 60 employees, in
charge of the two control stations in Amachuma and La Guardia, and the adminis-
trative commercial office in La Paz. It maintains an annual billing level of around
US$25 million for the commercialization of satellite services.7
Bolivian law does not grant any preference to the national satellite and, on the
contrary, foreign satellites pay less taxes than those paid by TKSAT-1. Despite this,
90% of the space segment currently used in Bolivia comes from its satellite. Likewise,
they have achieved universal access to television by transmitting around 30 TV
channels via satellite without encryption. So, any citizen anywhere in the country
can access the service free of charge through an inexpensive reception kit. On the
other hand, ABE claims that the prices of the satellite services offered in Bolivia
are the lowest in the Andean region, compared to those found in countries such as
Colombia, Ecuador, or Peru, which also puts pressure on foreign providers to lower
their prices or, in the extreme, not to enter the Bolivian market due to the presence
of TKSAT-1.
Given that access to telecommunications is a right established in the Political
Constitution and that rural telecommunications are not commercially profitable, the
Bolivian State provides the financing for the provision of these services. In this sense,
thanks to TKSAT-1, ABE has managed to connect 13.691 localities that concentrate
7 Bolivian Space Agency, “Space Agency raises US$90 million from Túpac Katari satel-
lite services”, www.abe.bo/agencia-espacial-recauda-us-90-millones-servicios-del-satelite-tupac-
katari/.
Table 3 General information

Tupac Katari-1
on Tupac Katari-1
Type Conventional geostationary
communications satellite
Manufacturer China Great Wall Industry
Corporation (CGWIC)
Orbital location 87,2° W
Launch vehicle and date LM.3BE, 20 December 2013
Lifetime 15 years
Launch weight 5,1 t
Coverage area South America
Capacity (bandwidth) 1.232 MHz
Cost US$302 million
Transponders Ku band 26 × 36 MHz
Ka band 2 × 120 MHz
C band 2 × 28 MHz
Source Own research
more than 95% of the population. Given that the satellite is only 70% occupied, they
estimate that they will be able to serve the remaining 5% of population.
3.3 Lessons Learned
ABE asserts that a project of this type is complex due to the number of factors
involved. While the TKSAT-1 was easy to implement thanks to the involvement of
China space industry, ground infrastructure had a more complicated development.
They consider that the political factor was decisive for the success of the project and
that intersectoral coordination has been essential to achieve the goals recorded to
date. Table 3 presents information on TKSAT-1.
4 Brazil and the SGDC-1
The Geostationary Satellite for Defense and Strategic Communications (SGDC)8

was born within a project that involved different public and private institutions in
Brazil: the giant telecommunications company Telebras, the Ministry of Defense,
the Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovation and Communications, the Brazilian
Space Agency (AEB) and the National Institute for Space Research (INPE).
8 Sebastião do Nascimento Neto, “SGDC Project. Brazilian Experience”, 5 April 2021, presen-
tation at the International Forum Communication Satellites in South America: Experiences from
Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil, Lima, Peru.
The SGDC is one of the largest telecommunications projects in Brazil in the

last 20 years and aims to provide high-speed Internet to parts of the country where
telecommunications companies have no commercial interest or technical capacity to
operate, thus promoting digital and social inclusion.
Given the enormous size of the project, it was necessary to have an organization
with the ability to coordinate the effort between the different institutional actors.
For this, in 2012, Visiona Tecnologia Espacial was created, a joint venture between
Embraer Defesa & Segurança and Telebras, dedicated to the integration of space
systems.
In this sense, and to meet the goals of the National Space Activities Program
(PNAE) and the Strategic Space Systems Program (PESE), Visiona Tecnologia
Espacial was contracted in 2013 to be the main contractor for the SGDC Program.
4.1 The SGDC Program
The Geostationary Satellite for Defense and Strategic Communications (SGDC) is

a program of the Federal Government that has three main objectives:
• Reduce the digital divide in Brazil by providing high-quality Internet services to
100% of the national territory as part of the National Broadband Plan.
• Provide sovereign and secure means for strategic communications of the Brazilian
Government and Defense.
• Acquire critical technologies for the Brazilian space industry, allowing the
national industry to assume increasingly important roles in future space programs.
Brazil acquired its Geostationary Defense and Strategic Communications Satellite
SGDC-1 from Thales Alenia Space of France at a cost of US$455 million. With a
lifetime of 18 years, the SGDC-1 was launched into space on 4 May 2017, on the
Ariane 5 rocket from the space center in French Guiana. The SGDC-1 is the first
satellite fully operated and controlled by the federal administration.9
The SGDC-1 is operated by the Brazilian Air Force and by the state company
Telebras. It is located at the 75° West position of the geostationary orbit. The satellite
weighs 5,8 t and is 7 m tall. It is currently the only satellite owned by a country in
South America with HTS-type technology.
It is the first Brazilian satellite designed exclusively for high-speed, high-quality
data transmission. With 58 Gbps of capacity, in the Ka band it covers all its national
territory and its territorial sea (called the Blue Amazon). It also has the X band,
which corresponds to 30% of the satellite capacity, for use in matters of defense and
national sovereignty.
9Telebras, “Geostationary Defense and Strategic Communications Satellite—SGDC”, www.tel

ebras.com.br/telebras-sat/conheca-o-sgdc/.
Given that Telebras operates a 35.000 km fiber optic network at the same time as
the communications satellite, Brazil demonstrates that both technologies are comple-
mentary. The SGDC-1 Ka band is operated by Telebras to meet private demand, while
its X band is operated by the Air Force to exclusively serve the communications of
the Brazilian Armed Forces.
The satellite is enabling the connection of public schools, hospitals, health units
and indigenous communities that did not have this access, thus promoting citizenship
awareness, as well as equality and social justice. The goal is to expand the coverage
of the satellite serving other social programs, optimizing its service capacity.
4.2 Technology Absorption Program
The SGDC project considered the absorption of technologies by the Brazilian teams
that worked with Thales Alenia Space teams, the satellite manufacturer.
In 2016, the Technology Absorption Program was designed by Visiona with the
participation of AEB, INPE, the Ministry of Defense and Telebras. This program
covers all the technologies of construction and operation of the SGDC-1.
The objective of this program was to train professionals for the control and
command of the satellite, as well as to provide technology transfer on topics of
interest to the Brazilian satellite industry.
The issue of technology transfer is of particular importance to Brazil considering
that it has plans to develop its next SGDC-2 satellite. Table 4 presents information
on SGDC-1.
Table 4 General information

SGDC-1
on SGDC-1
Type Geostationary communications
satellite, HTS multi spot
Manufacturer Thales Alenia Space
Orbital location 73,7° W
Launch vehicle and date Ariane 5, 4 May 2017
Lifetime 18 years
Power consumption 12.000 W
Launch weight 5,8 t
Coverage area Brazil, South Atlantic Ocean
Capacity 58 Gbps
Cost US$455 million
Transponders Ka band 50
X band 5
Source Own research
Manufacturer: Túpac Katari-1

CGWIC
15 years
20 December 2013
US$302 Million
1.232 MHz
Manufacturer:
Thales
SGDC-1 18 years
4 May 2017
US$455 million
58 Gbps
ARSAT-1 ARSAT-2 ARSAT SG-1 Project

Manufacturer: INVAP Manufacturer: INVAP Manufacturer: INVAP
15 years 15 years 15 years
16 October 2014 30 September 2015 2023
US$280 million US$250 million US$253 million
1.152 MHz 1.584 MHz 70 Gbps
Fig. 1 Countries with communications satellite in South America. Source Own research
The countries currently having an own communications satellite in South America

are shown in Fig. 1.
5 Peru and the Lack of an Own Satellite
In contrast with Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil that have developed their communi-
cations satellites in South America, Peru does not have an own satellite. To fulfill its
needs, Peruvian government contracts satellite communication services with private
foreign providers.
Peruvian public entities contract satellite communication services independently,
according to their priorities and resources. Contracting in this way turns out to be
inefficient because it prevents from reaching economies of scale. Until 2020, the
effective spending made each year by the Peruvian government, all the public enti-
ties included, to pay the contracted satellite communications services, amounts to
US$21,7 million. In return, the bandwidth received for the effective spending per
year is estimated at 511,158 MHz.10
Nevertheless, the effective spending per year has registered a significant increase
in 2021. Indeed, the Peruvian government has contracted, for the first-time, satellite
10Carlos Caballero León, and Wilfredo Fanola Merino, “Peruvian Government Spending on
Satellite Communications. Foundations for a Communications Satellite Project for Peru”, Space
Fostering Latin American Societies. Southern Space Studies, ed. Annette Froehlich (Cham: Springer,
2020).
communications services for 1.316 premises of public institutions in 1.304 population

centers in the Amazonas, Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali regions, in the so-called
“Conecta Selva” program. The effective annual spending derived from the “Conecta
Selva” contract amounts to US$11,65 million.11 In return, a bandwidth of 200,5 MHz
or the equivalent of 658 megabit per second (Mbps) is received, considering a spectral
efficiency of 3,5 Bits/Hz in data download and 2,5 Bits/Hz in upload.12
In this sense, the current effective spending per year raises to US$33,35 million
with an estimated received bandwidth of 711,658 MHz.13 The amount that Peru
spends every year, projected over a period of 15 years,14 raises to a total of US$500,25
million.
6 Comparison of Different Communication Policies
Countries adopt different policies to ensure connectivity. Argentina, Bolivia, and

Brazil decided to have an own communications satellite. On the other hand, Peru
contracts, in an inefficient manner, satellite communications services to private
providers. So, it is interesting to assess the results of these different policies. To do
this, we can compare the unit cost of Mbps per month resulting from the “Conecta
Selva” contract in Peru, with the analog unit cost resulting from the investment made
by Brazil to develop the SGDC-1 and the planned investment of Argentina for the
ARSAT SG-1 project.
For the Peruvian “Conecta Selva” contract, considering US$11,65 million spent
in one year for 658 Mbps, the unit cost is:
US$11, 65 million
Unit Cost Mbps per month Peru = 658 Mbps
= US$1.475, 43/Mbps/month
12 months
Resulting in a unit cost of US$1.475,43 per Mbps per month for Peru.
The Mbps unit cost of SGDC-1 from Brazil results from considering US$455
million spent for 18 years, with a satellite capacity of 58 Gbps:
US$455 million
Unit Cost Mbps per month Brazil = 58 Gbps
= US$36, 31/Mbps/month
216 months
The unit cost is US$36,31 per Mbps per month for the Brazilian SGDC-1.
11 Contracting of the “Satellite Internet Access Service for Public Institutions of the Amazon,
Loreto, Madre de Dios, and Ucayali Regions - Conecta Selva”, Contract Nº 004-2021-MTC/24,
Lima, Peru, 21 May 2021.
12 International Telecommunication Union, Definition of spectrum use and efficiency of a radio
system (Geneva: International Telecommunication Union, 2017), 33.

13 Calculations by Carlos Caballero León and Wilfredo Fanola Merino.
14 The regular lifetime of a communications satellite is 15 years.
Fig. 2 Unit cost of Mbps per month for Peru, Brazil, and Argentina. Source Carlos Caballero León
and Wilfredo Fanola Merino research
Finally, for Argentina and the ARSAT SG-1 project, the unit cost results from
calculating US$253 million spent in 15 years, with a capacity of 70 Gbps:
US$253 million
Unit Cost Mbps per month Argentina = 70 Gbps
180 months
= US$20, 1/Mbps/month
The unit cost per Mbps per month is US$20,1/Mbps for the Argentine ARSAT
SG-1 project.
The resulting Mbps per month unit costs are shown in Fig. 2.
The calculations show that because of the different policies adopted, Peru pays
per Mbps per month a rate more than 40 times the unit cost of Brazil and more than
70 times the planned unit cost in the case of the ARSAT SG-1 project of Argentina.
The evidence shows that is far more convenient for a country to develop an own
communications satellite than contract satellite communications services in the inef-
ficient way that Peru does. This also means that Peru has compelling arguments
to seriously consider starting deeper studies on the development of a sovereign
communications satellite.
7 Conclusions
Currently, Argentina, Bolivia, and Brazil are the only countries in South America to
have an own communications satellite.
Operated by ARSAT, Argentina has developed the ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2
conventional communications satellites. The ARSAT SG-1 is an HTS-type project
in execution. All the Argentine satellites are constructed in the country by INVAP.
Bolivia has the Tupac Katari-1, produced by the Chinese CGWIC space industry.
The TKSAT-1 is operated by the Bolivian Space Agency.
The SGDC-1 is operated by Telebras and the Brazilian Air Force. The satellite
was produced by Thales Alenia Space from France.
Peru does not own a communications satellite. To fulfill its satellite communica-
tion needs, public entities contract independently services to private providers, in an
inefficient manner.
Because of the different policies adopted by the countries having or not an own
communications satellite, the resulting unit costs of Mbps per month are different.
Peru pays a Mbps per month unit cost more than 40 times the unit cost of Brazil and
more than 70 times the planned unit cost of the Argentine ARSAT SG-1 project.
The evidence shows that is more convenient for a country to develop an own
communications satellite than contracting satellite communications services. In this
regard, Peru has serious arguments to start studies on the development of a sovereign
communications satellite.
Carlos Caballero León Engineer of Aeronautical Constructions from the École Nationale
Supérieure d’Ingénieurs de Constructions Aéronautique (ENSICA) of Toulouse, France. Grad-
uate in Aerospace Administration Science from the Peruvian Air Force Officers Academy. Master
of Science in Defense and Inter-American Security Sciences from the Inter-American Defense
College of Washington DC, USA. Master of Defense and Security Studies of the Americas from
the National Academy of Political and Strategic Studies of Chile. Specialist in Maintenance of
Radio electronic Systems of the MIG-29 aircraft from the Air Force of Belarus. Peruvian Air
Force Electronic Engineer Major General retired. He has served as Visitor Professor in the Faculty
of Engineering of the Università degli Studi di Salerno, Italia in 2005, and as Professor in the
Faculty of Economic Sciences of the Ricardo Palma University of Lima, Peru in 2016. He has held
the positions of Director of the Aeronautical Technological Higher Education Institute (ESOFA),
Director of Telematics at Peruvian Air Force, General Director of Material Resources of the
Ministry of Defense of Peru, CEO of the Armed Forces Purchasing Agency (ACFFAA), and CEO
of the Peruvian Space Agency (CONIDA). Founder of CP Consult.
The Development of CubeSats in Latin
America and Their Challenges
on the Design of Thermal Control
Systems
Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez , Dafne Gaviria-Arcila ,

Carlos Romo-Fuentes , Rafael Guadalupe Chávez-Moreno ,
José Alberto Ramírez-Aguilar , and Marcelo López-Parra
Abstract From 2011 to 2020, around 1.116 CubeSats between 1,1 and 10 kg were
launched around the world. These spacecrafts were used for remote sensing, tech-
nology development, communications, and scientific applications. For the case of
Mexico, five CubeSats of different sizes were placed in orbit: one 1 U, one 2 U,
two 3 U, and one 6 U. In 2022, another CubeSat 1 U called K-OTO is expected
to be released from the ISS. K-OTO project is an initiative led by the Advanced
Technology Unit (UAT) from UNAM and the Sustainable Development Secretariat
(SEDESU) from the Government of the State of Querétaro, Mexico. Among all the
systems that are been developed for K-OTO is the Thermal Control System (TCS)
that is responsible to maintain the operative temperature range of all the components
within the spacecraft. The purpose of this work is to present all the elements that
need to be considered to design a thermal control for CubeSat. This information can
be used as a TCS guide for the upcoming CubeSat projects in Mexico and Latin
America.
J. A. Ferrer-Pérez (B) · D. Gaviria-Arcila · C. Romo-Fuentes · R. G. Chávez-Moreno ·

J. A. Ramírez-Aguilar · M. López-Parra
Advanced Technology Unit, School of Engineering, UNAM, Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico
e-mail: ferrerp@unam.mx
D. Gaviria-Arcila
e-mail: dafne.gaviria@comunidad.unam.mx
C. Romo-Fuentes
e-mail: carlosrf@unam.mx
R. G. Chávez-Moreno
e-mail: rchavez@comunidad.unam.mx
J. A. Ramírez-Aguilar
e-mail: albert09@unam.mx
M. López-Parra
e-mail: lopezp@unam.mx

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_3
42 J. A. Ferrer-Pérez et al.
1 Introduction
In recent years, the construction of small satellites for space exploration has been
demanding due to their low cost and ease of manufacture. Among those that stand
out are nanosatellites called CubeSats, which weigh around 1–10 kg.1 One of the
main challenges for the construction of these satellites is the miniaturization of the
components and subsystems, including the thermal control system, since all of these
are very small and are subject to large variations in temperature.2
The Thermal Control System (TCS) of a satellite is of great relevance since it
allows regulating temperature changes due to external heat sources such as radiation
from the Sun and other planets, albedo (radiation from the Sun projected on Earth),
and the infrared of the Earth. Keeping temperature changes in a satellite regulated
guarantees the success of the mission, which is why it is of great importance to
design, characterize, manufacture, calibrate and test the thermal control capabilities
and characteristics of a satellite.
There are two types of thermal control technologies: passive and active. Passive
thermal control maintains component temperatures without using powered equip-
ment. Passive systems are typically associated with low cost, volume, weight, and
risk, and so are advantageous to spacecraft with limited, mass, volume, and power,
like SmallSats and especially CubeSats. Active thermal control methods rely on input
power for operation and are more effective in maintaining tighter temperature control
for components with stricter temperature requirements or higher heat loads. Typical
active thermal devices used on large-scale spacecraft include electrical resistance
heaters, cryocoolers, thermoelectric coolers, and fluid loops.
The selection of passive or active control elements depends on the CubeSat
mission where thermal analysis considerations need to be performed along with the
different phases of the space project. Figure 1 presents different activities adapted for
the NPR 7123.1C “NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements”.3 In
combination with the Thermal analysis handbook as a basis.4 The equivalent phases
can be found in ECSS-E-ST-10C “System engineering general requirements” for
the case of ECSS Standards.5 It has paramount importance to mention that NPR
7123.1C needs a Life Cycle document to work with. For the case of a small project
such as CubeSats, NPR 7120.8 “NASA Research and Technology Program and
1 Bryce and Space Technology, SmallSat by the Numbers, 2021, Bryce and Space Technology.
https://brycetech.com/reports, 24 August 2021.
2 NASA, Thermal-control, State-of-the-Art of Small Spacecraft Technology. https://www.nasa.gov/
smallsat-institute/sst-soa/thermal-control, October 2021.

3 NASA, NPR 7123.1C: NASA Systems Engineering Processes and Requirements, NASA
Procedural Requirements, https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?t=NPR&c=7123&s=1B,

February 2020.
4 ECSS, ECSS-E-HB-31-03A—Thermal analysis handbook. European Cooperation for Space
Standardization, https://ecss.nl/home/ecss-e-hb-31-03a-15november2016/, 15 November 2016.

5 ECSS, ECSS-E-ST-10C Rev.1—System engineering general requirements. European Cooper-
ation for Space Standardization, https://ecss.nl/standard/ecss-e-st-10c-rev-1-system-engineering-

general-requirements-15-february-2017/, February 2017.
The Development of CubeSats in Latin America … 43
Phase A Analyse requirements

Concept and Define TCS concept
Perform trade-off
Technology
Assess TRL of TCS products
Development
TRL: Technology Readiness Level

TCS: Thermal Control System
System Requirement Review (SRR)
Define preliminary design of TCS Phase B

Develop thermal models Preliminary Design
Perform calculation for worst hot/cold cases and Technology
Perform and correlate development tests
Completion
Preliminary Design Review (PDR)
Phase C Define final design of TCS

Final Design and Update thermal models
Perform calculations covering all mission cases
Fabrication
Critical Design Review (CDR)
Adapt thermal models for test configuration

Phase D
Perform test prediction
Perform test correlation
System Assembly,
Update flight thermal models with outcomes of test correlation Integration and Test,
Perform analysis in support of production activities Launch
Flight Readiness Review (FRR)
Phase E Adapt thermal models for mission

Perform mission prediction (ground & flight)
Operations and
Perform flight correlation
Sustainment Perform analysis in support of operations
Fig. 1 Thermal analysis in the context of a space project
Project Management Requirements” is recommended.6 For large projects, the life

cycle needs to be adjusted. CubeSats initiatives need to follow a space project method-
ology to avoid setbacks and secure the development of the project from the beginning.
The “NASA Systems Engineering Handbook” is an excellent reference.7
6 NASA, NPR 7120.8A: NASA Research and Technology Program and Project Management
Requirements, NASA Procedural Requirements, https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/displayDir.cfm?t=
NPR&c=7120&s=8A, September 2018.
7 NASA, NASA Systems Engineering Handbook, https://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/nasa-sys
tems-engineering-handbook, 27 January 2020.

Table 1 Chart of the approximate weight of satellites launched into space, according to their
category
Satellite type Mass Animal size comparison
Large > 1.000 kg Rhino
Medium from 500 to 1.000 kg Buffalo
Mini from 100 to 350 kg Lion
Micro from 10 to 100 kg Wolf
Nano from 1 to 10 kg Raccoon
(~ 1 kg per unit) Duck
2 Classification of Satellites
A satellite is an artifact formed by electronic circuits and mechanical systems that

orbit the earth and other celestial bodies. Satellites can be classified by size as shown
in Table 1.8
Satellites can be classified also by their orbit as shown in Table 2.9
Finally, satellites can be classified by their application such as Communi-
cations, Remote Sensing, Navigation, Meteorology, Military, and Research and
Development.10
2.1 What is a CubeSat?
As it was stated before, a CubeSat is a square-shaped miniature satellite (10 cm ×

10 cm × 10 cm), weighing about 1 kg. A CubeSat can be used alone (1 Unit, 1 U)
or in groups of multiple units (maximum 24 Units).11,12 Figure 2 shows different
CubeSat sizes launched until August 2021, where 42,5% are 3 U projects, 13,6% are
6 U projects, and 13,2% are 1 U projects.13
8 Canadian Space Agency, How heavy is a satellite?, Canadian Space Agency, https://asc-csa.gc.
ca/eng/multimedia/search/Image/Watch/7099?search=cubesat-illustrations, 4 December 2017.

9 ESA, Types of orbits, https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Types_of_
orbits, 30 March 2020.

10 Pelton, J.N., Madry, S., Camacho-Lara, S. (Eds.), Handbook of Satellite Applications, Springer
International Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23386-4, 2017.

11 Cappelletti, C., Battistini, S., Malphrus, B. K. (eds.), CubeSat Handbook: From Mission Design
to Operations (1st ed.), Academic Press, https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128178843/cub

esat-handbook, 2021.
12 Canadian Space Agency, What is a CubeSat?, https://asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/satellites/cubesat/what-
is-a-cubesat.asp, 2017.
13 Kulu, E., Nanosats Database Figures, https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, 20 August 2021.
Table 2 Type of orbits

Orbit type Characteristics
Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Altitude of 35.786 km
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) From 160 to 1.000 km
Medium Earth orbit (MEO) Between LEO and GEO
Polar Orbit and Sun-Synchronous Orbit Polar orbits are a type of LEO, as they are at low
(SSO) altitudes between 200 and 1.000 km
Satellites in SSO, traveling over the polar
regions, are synchronous with the Sun. A
satellite in a SSO would usually be at an altitude
of between 600 and 800 km
Transfer Orbits and Geostationary Transfer Transfer Orbits are a special kind of orbit used to
Orbit (GTO) get from one orbit to another. Reaching GEO in
this way is an example of one of the most
common transfer orbits, called GTO
Lagrange Points (L-Points) L-Points are specific points far out in space
where the gravitational fields of Earth and the
Sun combine in such a way that spacecraft that
orbit them remain stable and can thus be
‘anchored’ relative to Earth. If a spacecraft was
launched to other points in space very distant
from Earth, they would naturally fall into an orbit
around the Sun, and those spacecrafts would
soon end up far from Earth, making
communication difficult. Instead, spacecraft
launched to these special L-points stay fixed and
remain close to Earth with minimal effort
without going into a different orbit
Fig. 2 Nanosatellite type launched/not launched as 20 August 2021

2.2 Advantages of CubeSats
CubeSats offers advantages (pros) and disadvantages (cons) versus traditional

satellites.
Pros
• Fast: can be built within two years.
• Cost: far less expensive than large satellites.
• Technology: simple, standard parts available off-the-shelf.
• Design: a simple design for a short mission; no need to use thermal blankets.
• Space debris: none as they burn up in the atmosphere upon re-entry.
Cons
• Scope: limited due to reduced capacity to carry scientific instruments.
• Mission duration: most of them are operational for a period of three to twelve
months.
Although CubeSat projects are less expensive than traditional large satellites, for
the context of the Latin American context, they are complicated to fund. For example,
for a 1 U CubeSat, an estimated conservative budget can be around 500.000 USD.
This considers all the satellite components, software, preliminary environmental test
and ground antenna facilities, clean room, and other expenses.
Launch services and certifications test costs need to be included additionally.
For a public university, this amount of money is prohibited. Nevertheless, there are
International Programs14 such as KiboCube that offer the opportunity to release a 1 U
satellite from the ISS for no cost.15 Therefore, it is also desirable that future missions
in Latin America consider this kind of support to partially fund future CubeSats
projects.
3 CubeSats in the World, Latin America, and Mexico
As it is reported, up to August 2021, there have been launched 1.766 nanosatel-

lites, where 1.634 are CubeSats developed by 79 Countries.16 Figure 3 shows by
country the number of nanosatellites launched, considering CubeSats, PocketQubes,
TubeSats, SunCubes, and ThinSats.
For Latin America, 32 nanosatellites were launched as is shown in Table 3.
14 UNOOSA, Access to Space for All, UNITED NATIONS Office for Outer Space Affairs, https://
www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/index.html, 2021.
15 UNOOSA, Satellite Development Track, Access to Space for All, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/
en/ourwork/access2space4all/SatDev_Track.html, 2021.
16 Kulu, E., Nanosats Database, https://www.nanosats.eu/, 20 August 2021.
Fig. 3 Nanosatellites launched by country as 20 August 2021
Table 3 Number of
Country Number of CubeSats
nanosatellites launched in
Latin America Brazil 8
Mexico 5
Ecuador 4
Peru 4
Argentina 4
Colombia 2
Guatemala 1
Costa Rica 1
Chile 1
Paraguay 1
Uruguay 1
Total 32
For Mexico, the five nanosatellites’ projects are CubeSats of different sizes. In
Table 4 the description of these projects is shown. Note that two of these five space-
crafts were developed for military purposes, two for R&D, and one for remote sensing
applications.17
It is pertinent to mention about the projects described above used commer-
cial components instead of developing all the systems locally. Additionally, only
AztehSat-1 reported the use of NPR 7123.1C and NPR 7120.8 as a progress guide
17Kulu, E., Nanosats Database CubeSats Tables, https://airtable.com/shrbfAxhYJ8AbCo0O, 20

August 2021.
48
Table 4 CubeSats launched by Mexico

Name Organization Year of launch CubeSat type Application Mission objectives and experiment
description
Painani-I SEDENA August 2019 3U Military Carry a low-resolution camera and proposes
a S band downlink using frequency hopping
technology for the images
AztechSat-1 UPAEP December 2019 1U Science, Technology, and Education Communicates with the GlobalStar satellite
constellation to improve the transit of data to
Earth. Promote radio amateur activities such
as listening emergency messages in the
439 MHz frequency and processing them via
winlink system
NanoConnect-2 (SAI-1) ICN-UNAM February 2021 2U Science, Technology and Education The NanoConnect-2 aims to test flight
computers, their power, monitoring systems
and verify that mechanical structures are
working properly. Monitoring data will
arrive at Ground Station, located on the
premises of the Institute of Nuclear Sciences
in Ciudad Universitaria
D2/AtlaCom-1 SpaceJLTZ June, 2021 6U Science, Technology and Education Allow youth to train in the capture, analysis,
and processing of satellite images, while the
first pilot program of its kind in the history
of the country will be carried out, to boost
agricultural productivity
Painani-II SEDENA August 2021 3U Military It will carry a low-resolution camera and
proposes an S band downlink using
frequency hopping technology for the
images
J. A. Ferrer-Pérez et al.
of its space project.18 Moreover, no additional information is available about the

thermal control system employed.
In 2022 it is expected to launch a 1U CubeSat named K’OTO, which means
grasshopper in Otomi Language from the State of Querétaro, Mexico.19 The objective
of the K’OTO is to develop, integrate and release a CubeSat type nanosatellite from
the International Space Station (ISS) for remote sensing low-medium resolution
application. This project is following NPR 7123.1C and NPR 7120.8 where multiple
subsystems have been developed by different groups of students and professors.
Regarding the TCS, analysis has shown that no active control is needed to maintain
the operating temperature ranges. The purpose of the next sections is to present the
required elements to consider in the development of the TCS.
4 Challenges to Develop Satellite Technologies in Latin

America
The development of satellite technologies in Latin America has been affected by

many factors, one of the main challenges is due to the unaffordable cost that the
standard satellites have, and this challenge has been changed since the creation of the
CubeSat concept. However, another important aspect to consider on the slowdown in
the growth of these technologies in Latin America in comparison to the great satellite
developing powers is the lack of creation of space programs during the debt crisis
of the 1980s and the IMF mandated structural adjustment programs. This period is
called the “lost decade”.20 The “lost decade” is the third of the fourth generation of
the creation of space programs in Latin America, which is from 1980 to 2000.
Moreover, during the “lost decade” the Latin American countries took a peaceful
role without any interest to compete with the U.S.–USSR dominance.21 The “lost
decade” is followed by the fourth generation, where it is noticed an evolution of
the creation of space programs involving more countries. Figure 4 shows how in the
fourth generation there are more and more countries looking for their sovereignty and
participation in the space race era. This evolution is observed at the beginning of the
twenty-first century due to the change of the political posture in Latin America and
the formation of international space cooperation and partnerships.22 These alliances
have a huge impact on the development of satellite technologies in the region as well
18 UPAEP, AztechSat-1, https://upaep.mx/aztechsat, 2019.

19 UAT FI-UNAM, Proyecto de Nanosatélite K-OTO, https://www.ingenieria.unam.mx/k-oto/,
2021.
20 Klinger, J.M., A Brief History of Outer Space Cooperation Between Latin America and China,
Journal of Latin American Geography 17(2), pp. 46–83, https://doi.org/10.1353/lag.2018.0022,

2018.
21 Smith, P.H., The Latin American Press and the Space Race, Journal of Inter-American Studies,
6(4), pp. 549–572, https://doi.org/10.2307/165004, 1964.

22 Dos-Santos, B.R., Improving EU-Latin American Space Cooperation-Lessons from the Bilateral
Experience, European Space Policy Institute, ESPI Perspective Series (35), pp. 1–7, 2010.
Fig. 4 Evolution of creation of space programs in Latin America
as the generation of cooperation programs designed to approach the space for all
such as the programs of UNOOSA.
In terms of the design of the Thermal Control System (TCS), some of the main
challenges in the development of Latin American satellites are the analysis and use
of different thermal coatings, as well as the proposal of new methodologies to study
the thermal behavior of the satellite. Very little work has been reported about the TCS
analysis and proposals in the nanosats of Latin American countries. To mention a few
of the data available, the satellite Libertad 2 proposed an in-house code and compare
its results versus the use of ESATAN-TMS.23 In addition, during the development of
the SUCHAI satellite, there is a proposal of the use of generic algorithms to analyze
the TCS using different coatings to implement the most appropriate according to
the mission.24 The satellite NEE-01 PEGASUS uses carbon nanotubes, multilayer
insulation, and a thermal shield to manage the temperature25 and the K’OTO satellite
proposes the use of coatings and embedded panels in the satellite´s faces as a TCS
23 Garzón, A., Villanueva, Y.A., Thermal Analysis of Satellite Libertad 2: a Guide to Cubesat
Temperature Prediction, Journal of Aerospace Technology and management, (10), http://dx.doi.
org/10.5028/jatm.v10.1011, 2018.
24 Escobar, E., Diaz, M., Zagal, J.C., Evolutionary design of a satellite thermal control system:
Real experiments for a CubeSat mission, Applied Thermal Engineering, (105), pp. 490–500, ISSN
1359-4311, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.03.024, 2016.
25 Nader, R., Carbon nanotubes bases thermal distribution and transfer bus system 1U CubeSats
and the space environment attenuation manifold shield, 62nd International Astronautical Congress
2011, pp. 1–8, 2011.
and the use of ANSYS to analyze the thermal behaviour. It is thus of interest to
encourage to report the TCS applications used in Latin American satellites as part
of sharing lessons learned and best practices to bridge the gap in its development.
5 Satellite Subsystems
A satellite is an artifact formed by electronic circuits and mechanical systems that

orbits the Earth and other celestial bodies. Satellites can be used for communica-
tions services, weather prediction and monitoring, Earth observation, navigation,
military applications such as national security, and scientific missions as was stated
before. A satellite can be divided into different systems with specific functions that
impact its operation. These systems are mechanical structure, propulsion, thermal
control, power supply, telemetry-tracking-and-command (TT&C), altitude control
and determination system (ACDS), on-board-computer (OBC), and most impor-
tantly, the instrumentation corresponding to the payload. These systems are consid-
ered depending on the mission of the spacecraft, which means that not all satellites
will have all the systems as a rule (Fig. 5).
The environmental conditions that satellites must endure during the journey from
Earth to space are very diverse and extreme. On Earth, the satellite must withstand
Fig. 5 CubeSat K-OTO explosive diagram showing its systems

Mechanical structure
Thermal control
Communications
Propulsion
ACDS
Payload
OBC
TT&C
Power and energy supply

Interfaces
Mechanical
Data
Thermal
Power
Fig. 6 Satellite systems interfaces where telemetry tracking and command (TT&C), on board
computer (OBC), altitude control and determination system (ACDS)
severe mechanical, acoustic, and vibration conditions, caused by the rocket’s move-
ments at launch. When the satellite is separated from the rocket, the necessary mech-
anisms must be in place to ensure the proper deployment of the satellite and various
components, such as antennas and solar panels that allow the satellite to function.
Finally, once the satellite is in space, it must withstand all the conditions of the space
environment: high-energy particles, ultra-high vacuum conditions, extreme temper-
atures, space debris, micro-meteorites, and dust particles, generating an aggressive
and dangerous environment.
Inside the satellite, the TCS aims to keep the electronic and mechanical compo-
nents of a satellite within operational temperature limits. The main criteria for
designing the thermal control of satellites are the space environment, the heat dissi-
pated by the equipment onboard the satellite, the distribution of thermal dissipation
within the satellite, the operational temperature requirements of all the components,
and the configuration of the satellite (geometry, materials, mounting systems, etc.).26
The main modes of heat transfer in the space environment are radiation and conduc-
tion.27 Convection is present for the case where vehicles or satellites are at a low
altitude (<300 km) where there is a very thin atmosphere that causes drag. Figure 6
26 Silk, E.A., Introduction to Spacecraft Thermal Design, Cambridge University Press, https://doi.
org/10.1017/9781108149914, 2020.
27 Miao, J., Zhong, Q., Zhao, Q., Zhao, X., Spacecraft Thermal Control Technologies, Springer
Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4984-7, 2021.

Table 5 Small sat thermal control challenges

Small sat property Challenge
Low thermal mass The spacecraft is more reactive to changing thermal
environments
Limited external surface area There is less real estate to be allocated to solar cells, designated
radiator area, and/or viewports required for science instruments
Limited volume There is less space for electronic components, science
instruments, and thermal control hardware. Components can be
more thermally coupled
Limited power There is less power available for powered thermal control
technology
shows a block diagram of generalist satellite systems with their interfaces.28 From
this figure is possible to observe that the TCS is connected to all other systems
indicating its importance for spacecrafts.
In addition, there are important challenges to face when a TCS has been developed
because of the restrictions of the dimension of small spacecraft such as CubeSats.
Table 5 summarizes the thermal control challenges as a consequence of the different
small satellite properties.
The major factors driving TCS design are basically:
• spacecraft environment, which drives the thermal loads,
• heat dissipated by the equipment onboard the spacecraft,
• distribution of the thermal dissipation within the spacecraft,
• temperature requirements of the spacecraft components, and
• configuration of the spacecraft with geometry, materials, mounting systems, etc.
6 Thermal Control System and Design Considerations
As it was first stated before, the purpose of a TCS is to manage the range of temper-
ature inside a spacecraft to maintain the operational limits of the components using
the minimum spacecraft resources.29 Since components of each system have their
operational and surviving temperature limits, the energy generation budget needs to
be managed in such a way that surviving temperature limits will not achieve.
Table 6 shows an example of thermal requirements in operational conditions of
common spacecraft equipment. Besides keeping temperatures within ranges, the TCS
aims to minimize temperature gradients according to specified limits and to guarantee
temperature stability for optics, optomechanical devices, or any other component
sensitive to temperature.
28 Tejada-Malpica, E., Diseño y construcción de un propulsor espacial para un micro-satélite, Master

Thesis, UNAM, 2015.
29 Meseguer, J., Pérez-Grande, I., Sanz-Andrés, A., Spacecraft thermal control (1st ed.), Woodhead
Publishing, 2012.
Table 6 Example of thermal requirements

Temperature ranges [Tmin ] °C [Tmax ] °C
Electronics (housing) −10 + 50
Batteries 0 + 20
Solar arrays −100 + 120
Antenna dish −65 + 95
Hidrazine tank + 10 + 50
IR detectors −223 −173
Inactive structure −100 + 100
Temperature gradients
Opto-electronic equipment T < 5 ◦ C
High-resolution cameras T < 0,1 ◦ C
Detectors (CCD) T < 0,01 ◦ C
Temperature stability
Electronics dT /dt < 5 ◦ C/h
Detectors (CCD), during observation periods dT < 0,1 ◦ C
6.1 Space Project Phase A
Thermal analysis needs to be performed along with all the space project phases as
was shown in Fig. 1. During space project Phase A, the following activities can be
followed to analyze requirements, define TCS concept, perform trade-off and assess
Technological Readiness Level (TRL) of TCS products.
During Phase A, the thermal environment conditions need to be studied to deter-
mine the thermal loads over the spacecraft. Figure 7 show different heat ratesover the

satellite, these are direct solar flux qsol , albedo qalb , planet infrared (IR) qplanet

and the emitted radiation from spacecraft to space qsc . Depending on the mission,
the thermal loads change in time and position.
Additionally, a good reference of TRL products can be found in State of the
Art of Small Spacecraft by NASA.30 This report is updated constantly and contains
information on all systems. For the case of TCS, the last information of passive and
active thermal technology can be found in Tables 7 and 8. These tables show the
manufacturer, type of product, and TRL level.
A TCS requirements baseline needs to be placed in the System Requirements
Review (SRR) considering the different modes of operation of the spacecraft. The
task to determine the thermal requirements from the beginning of the mission is
often difficult because the other systems components are not selected yet. Since TCS
30 NASA, State-of-the-Art of Small Spacecraft Technology, https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-instit

ute/sst-soa, October 2021.
Direct solar flux
Planet
infrared
Planet
Fig. 7 Environmental heat fluxes for a planet-orbiting spacecraft
requires as an input the thermal characteristics of each component, the thermal budget
can be defined in the following phases of the project.
Recent research has determined that the use of active TCS in small satellites is
essential since passive TCS for more complicated missions such as interplanetary
ones are not enough to handle high temperatures.
6.2 Space Project Phase B
For space project Phase B, the next activities can be followed: define preliminary
design of TCS, develop thermal models, perform a calculation for worst hot/cold
cases, perform and correlate development tests. Based on the thermal requirements
baseline, space environment thermal loads, and other import mission parameters, it
is possible to create a mathematical model to predict the temperature distribution
within the entire spacecraft. This can be done by solving the energy equation. Since
different hardware configuration is considered along with a space mission, the design
process of the TCS become an iterative process along with the different phases.
Figure 8 shows the design process flowchart for the TCS. The input data are defined
by parameters that can affect the spacecraft thermal performance. Operation modes,
thermal loads, power distribution, geometry, and orbital parameters are part of the
required input. The design parameters consider a different type of thermal control
technology as those shown in Tables 7 and 8. With this information, a mathematical
model can be tailored.
To construct the mathematical model is necessary to consider the thermal loads
from the different heat rates as were shown in Fig. 7. They are defined as:

qsol = αs G s Asat cos θ (1)
Table 7 Passive thermal technology

Manufacturer Product TRL in LEO environments
AZ Technology, MAP, Astral Paint and coatings 7–9
Technology Unlimited, Inc.,
Dunmore Aerospace,
AkzoNobel Aerospace
Coatings, Parker-Lord,
Medtherm
Sheldahl, Dunmore, Aerospace Tapes 7–9
Fabrication & Materials, 3M
Sheldahl, Dunmore, Aerospace MLI materials 7–9
Fabrication & Materials
NASA GSFC, Aerothreads, MLI blanket fabrication 7–9
Aerospace Fabrication &
Materials
Space Dynamics Laboratory, Thermal straps 7–9
Thermal Management
Technologies, Aavid,
Technology Applications, Inc.,
Thermotive Technology
Bergquist, Parker Chomerics, Thermal interface materials and 7–9
Aerospace Fabrication & conductive gaskets
Materials, AIM Products LLC,
Intermark USA, Indium
Corporation, Dow Corning,
NeoGraf, Laird Technologies
Sierra Lobo, Aerospace Sun shields 4–7
Fabrication and Materials
NASA Goddard Space Flight Thermal louvers 7–9
Center (GSFC)
Aerospace Fabrication and Deployable radiators 5–6
Materials, Thermal
Management Technologies
Aavid Thermacore, Inc., Heat pipes 7–9
Advanced Cooling Technology,
Inc., Redwire Space
Thermal Management Phase change materials/thermal 7–9
Technologies, Active Space storage units
Technologies, Advanced
Cooling Technology, Inc
Starsys, Redwire Space Thermal switches 7–9
Thermal Management Multifunctional thermal 4–5
Technologies structures
Table 8 Active thermal systems

Manufacturer Product TRL in LEO environments
Minco Products, Inc., Birk Electrical heaters 7–9
Manufacturing, All Flex Flexible
Circuits, LLC., Fralock, Tayco
Engineering, Inc., Omega
Ricor-USA, Inc., Creare, Cryocoolers 5–6
Sunpower Inc., Northrop
Grumman, NASA Jet Propulsion
Lab, and Lockheed Martin Space
Systems Company
Marlow, TE Technology Inc., Thermoelectric coolers 7–9
Laird (TEC)
Lockheed Martin Fluid loops 4–5
NASA Small Spacecraft Active thermal architecture 4–6
Technology program (ATA)
INPUT DATA GEOMETRICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

MATHEMATICAL
EQUIPMENT ARRANGEMENT
MODEL
Multilayer insulations
Thermophysical
Thermal unions
properties Heaters
Nodes
Radiative coupling Heat pipes
Arrangement External thermal loads
RADIATORS
Dissipation Size and position
MATHEMATICAL
Operating time
THERMAL MODEL
SURFACES
Configuration Thermo-optical
termal model properties
SPACECRAFT
Thermal finishing
Geometry Paint
Thermal loads
Optical Surfaces
Orbit
Attitude
Temperatures
Heat fluxes
New configuration
Requirements: NO
Acceptable?
temperatures, gradients
YES
Valid design
Fig. 8 TCS design process flow chart summarize by Meseguer, J., Pérez-Grande, I., & Sanz-Andrés,
A., Spacecraft thermal control (1st ed.), Woodhead Publishing, 2012

qalb = αs aG s Asat Fsat−P cos φ (2)

qplanet = ε I R Asat Fsat−P σ T p4 (3)

4
qsc = ε I R Asat Fsat−e σ Tsat − Te4 (4)
where
• αs is the solar absorptivity, a is albedo,

• G s is the solar constant of 1.367 W/m2 ,
• Asat is a flat surface, whose normal vector forms an angle θ with the solar rays,
• Fsat−P is the view factor between the spacecraft surface and the planet,
• φ is the solar zenith angle for −π/2 ≤ φ ≤ π/2,
• εIR is the IR emissivity,
• σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
• T p is the planet’s equivalent blackbody temperature,
• Tsat is the average spacecraft temperature, and
• Te is the temperature of the space.
By using the equation from (1) to (4) it will be possible to calculate the spacecraft
average temperature Tsat doing an energy balance. With the Systems Tool Kit (STK)
software it is possible to calculate Tsat easily.31 This first calculation works as a
starting estimate. However, for a real mission, it is necessary to determine Tsat =
Tsat (x, y, z, t). To do this, it is necessary to consider thermal loads and construct a
nodal network (i, jk). This means to discretize the entire spacecraft components in
i nodes as is shown in Fig. 9.32 By doing an energy balance Eq. (5) is derived:
dTi n
4
n

Ci = qsol + qalb + qplanet + qgen + K i j T j − Ti + Ri j T j − Ti4 (5)
dt j=1 j=0
where
• Ci is thermal capacitance, and
• K i j and Ri j are the conductive and radiative links or couplings between nodes
respectively.

The term nj=1 K i j T j − Ti represents the heat conduction contribution, and
n
j=0 Ri j T j − Ti
4 4
the heat radiation. The nonlinear system of equations given
by Eq. (5) can be solved in space and time using Crank-Nicolson method. Also
31 AGI, STK SEET Thermal Model, https://help.agi.com/stk/11.0.1/Content/seet/Sat_Basic_The

rmal.htm, 2021.
32 Poinas, P., Satellite Thermal Control Engineering, European Space Agency, http://www.tak2000.
com/data/Satellite_TC.pdf, 2004.
Fig. 9 Nodal network for a spacecraft
is possible to use specialized commercial software such as Thermal Desktop33 or

ESTAN-TMS.34 Other software can be also used as ANSYS or Solidworks.
To reduce computational time, it is suggested to consider the hot and cold cases.
This means considering the cases when the spacecraft will be at maximum and
minimum temperature. By doing this a steady problem is achieved. When tempera-
ture and heat fluxes are solved, they are compared vs. the initial thermal requirements.
If the results are acceptable, a valid design is then reached. Otherwise, it is neces-
sary to continue iterating as was shown in Fig. 8. Figure 10 shows the temperature
distribution of K-OTO CubeSat using ANSYS.35 Principal findings of this phase are
documented in the Preliminary Design Review (PDR).
6.3 Space Project Phase C
For space project Phase C, the next activities can be followed: define the final design
of TCS, update thermal models, perform calculations covering all mission cases. At
this phase, the thermal requirements of all systems components are well defined.
Therefore, a final design of the TCS is proposed as a result of many iterations to
achieve an acceptable temperature and heat fluxes according to Fig. 7. Depending on
the mission, different passive/active technologies can be used to attain a valid TCS.
33 CRTech, Thermal Desktop, https://www.crtech.com/products/thermal-desktop, 2021.

34 ESATAN-TMS, ESATAN-TMS, https://www.esatan-tms.com/about/about.php, 2021.
35 Gaviria-Arcila, D., Ferrer-Perez, J.A., Chavez-Moreno, R.G., Romo-Fuentes, C., Ramírez-
Aguilar, J.A., Análisis numérico para el sistema térmico del nanosatélite K´OTO, MEMORIAS
DEL XXVII CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL ANUAL DE LA SOMIM, 22 September 2021.
Fig. 10 K-OTO temperature distribution
Principal findings are documented in the Critical Design Review (CDR) prior start
the manufacturing process of the spacecraft.
6.4 Space Project Phase D
For space project Phase D, the next activities can be followed: adapt thermal models
for test configuration, perform test prediction, perform test correlation, update flight
thermal models with outcomes of test correlation, perform analysis in support of
production activities. Note that the main purpose of this Phase D is to perform the
required test of the spacecraft before launch. Depending on the test required, the
temperature margins are different as is shown in Fig. 11.36
A small satellite uses non-traditional risk management and development
approaches to achieve low cost and fast delivery with a small amount of equip-
ment. To achieve these two points, low cost and fast delivery, the satellite design is
based on the use of commercial units not qualified for space use (products known as
COTS), which makes the size of the satellite inherently smaller. The design accepts
a certain level of risk associated with the use of COTS. A certain set of tests is
necessary to ensure the success of the small satellite mission. However, applying the
same requirements and test methods as those applied to traditional large and medium
satellites will negate the low cost and fast delivery advantages of small satellites.
36 ECSS, ECSS-E-ST-31C—Thermal control, European Cooperation for Space Standardization,

https://ecss.nl/standard/ecss-e-st-31c-thermal-control/, 15 November 2008.
Qualification margin
Acceptance margin
Uncertainties
Predicted Calculated Design Acceptance Qualification
Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature Temperature
range range range range range
Thermal control system performance Termal control system requirements
Fig. 11 Temperature margins definition for the TCS
The different tests require special facilities and define which standard will be
followed. For the case of thermal tests such as vacuum and thermal vacuum, vacuum
chambers are often used as base equipment. The National Institute for Space Research
(INPE) from Brazil has the two classes of thermal-vacuum chambers installed in
the Integration and Testing Laboratory (LIT) to test large satellite.37 In Argentina,
the Thermal Testing Laboratory from Teófilo Tabanera Space Center of “Comisión
Nacional de Actividades Espaciales” (CONAE) has capabilities to test different
spacecraft components size.38 The Ecuadorian Space Agency has some facilities
to test their CubeSats.39 In Mexico, the National Laboratory of Space and Automo-
tive Engineering (LN-INGEA)40 has a vacuum chamber of 2 m in diameter times
3,5 m in length projected to test small satellites as shown in Fig. 12.
It has paramount importance that the next mission of CubeSats projected in Latin
America use the available facilities available mention above to continue developing
technological projects.
Speaking about standards to perform the different tests either NASA, ECSS, and
JAXA only to mention a few organizations, that have different test standards available
to consult. For small spacecraft the ISO 19683 “Space systems—Design qualification
and acceptance tests of small spacecraft and units” is a comprehensive test guide that
37 INPE, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, https://www.gov.br/inpe/pt-br, 2021, retrieved

26 November 2021.
38 CONAE, Centro Espacial Teófilo Tabanera, Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales,
Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales, https://www.argentina.gob.ar/ciencia/conae/centros-

y-estaciones/centro-espacial-teofilo-tabanera, 2021, retrieved 26 November 2021.
39 EXA, Agencia Espacial Civil Ecuatoriana, http://exa.ec/index.html, 2021.
40 UAT FI-UNAM, Laboratorio Nacional de Ingeniería Espacial y Automotriz, https://www.ingeni
eria.unam.mx/uat/lniea.php, 2021.
Fig. 12 National Laboratory of Space and Automotive Engineering (LN-INGEA) at State of

Querétaro, Mexico
can be used CubeSats projects.41 Principal findings of this phase are documented in
the Flight Readiness Review (FRR).
6.5 Space Project Phase E
Finally, for space project Phase E, the next activities can be followed: adapt thermal
models for a mission, perform mission prediction (ground and flight), perform flight
correlation, perform analysis in support of operations. This Phase E is devoted when
a satellite is already deployed. For small satellites as CubeSats with passive thermal
technology, the TCS configuration is fixed. Finally, is necessary to mention that
commercial software is available in the market for space project management that
offers support to universities and other academic institutions for free.42 This kind of
software can be useful along with a space mission phases activities.
7 Conclusions
This work presented the principal elements that need to be considered to design a
thermal control system (TCS) for CubeSat. Along with the manuscript, different
information related to the development of the TCS were shown such as space engi-
neering elements to plan various activities for a given mission, theory to construct the
mathematical and numerical models, and location of test facilities in Latin America
to carry out the environmental tests. Also, information about development tools,
41 ISO, ISO 19683:2017 Space systems—Design qualification and acceptance tests of small space-
craft and units, International Organization for Standardization, https://www.iso.org/standard/66008.
html, July 2017.
42 Valispace, Valispace, https://www.valispace.com/, 2021.
international programs to support satellite activities, and statistics about CubeSats

launches were included. The main motivation of this manuscript was to share valu-
able information to readers from Latin America and other parts of the world who
want to explore new endeavors related to CubeSat from the point of view of TCS.
Besides all necessary theoretical and technological elements required to develop a
space mission, it is urgent to continue the convincing campaign to attract more poten-
tial players in Latin America to join efforts to foster the space sector in each country
for the good of the people, creating better conditions for well living and prosperity.
Dr. Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez is associate professor of National University Autonomous

of Mexico-School of Engineering. He received his Ph.D. in Aerospace and Mechanical Engi-
neering from the University of Notre Dame, South Bend in United States. He is part of the
Aerospace Engineering Department and responsible of the Space Propulsion and Thermo-vacuum
lab. This facility belongs to the Space and Automotive Engineering National Laboratory located at
Juriquilla. His current research areas are nano-heat transfer in solid state devices, thermal control,
space propulsion, small satellites and development of space technology.
Dr. Dafne Gaviria-Arcila is a Research Fellow at The Advanced Technology Unit of National
Autonomous University of Mexico. She has been involved on the thermal and fluids analysis for
more than 7 years. She was awarded in 2020 her Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham in
England. As part of her Ph.D. project, she was a recipient of the ZONTA International, Amelia
Earhart Fellowship in 2017. Because of this recognition, she received in 2018 the Honorable
Mention of Carlos Fuentes Award from The Mexican Embassy in the United Kingdom. She has
participated in different activities to influence women to study STEM careers such as mentor,
inspire and empower them. Her story has been featured on the 100 extraordinary Mexicans edition
of the book titled Good Night Stories for Rebel Girls.
Dr. Carlos Romo-Fuentes is associate professor of National University Autonomous of Mexico-

School of Engineering. He received his Ph.D. in Technical Sciences in the Design of Space
Systems considering electromagnetic compatibility criteria from the Aviation Institute of Moscow,
Russia. He is part of the Aerospace Engineering Department and responsible of the Electromag-
netic Compatibility Laboratory. His current research areas are electromagnetic compatibility, certi-
fication tests, space systems and space technology development. Likewise, is the technical respon-
sible of the Space Science and Technology Theme Network from the National Council of Science
and Technology from the Government of Mexico.
Dr. Rafael Guadalupe Chávez-Moreno is assistant professor of National University

Autonomous of Mexico-School of Engineering. He received his Ph.D. in Mechanical Engi-
neering from the School of Engineering-UNAM. He is part of the Aerospace Engineering
Department and responsible of the Model Based on Design lab which belongs to the Space and
Automotive Engineering National Laboratory located at Juriquilla. He is an active member of the
Mexican Society of Mechanical Engineering and the Space Science and Technology Network.
His current research areas include space systems, embedded systems and control systems.
José Alberto Ramírez-Aguilar, Ph.D. is assistant professor of National Autonomous University

of Mexico-School of Engineering. He received his Ph.D. in Technical Sciences in Radio receivers
and microsatellites from the Moscow Aviation Institute—MAI, Russian Federation. He is the
head of the Aerospace Engineering Department and responsible of the Ground Station Laboratory
and Vice chair of the GRULAC of the International Astronautical Federation—IAF. His current
research areas are Radio Frequency and microwave Systems, GNSS, Antennas, TT&C, Nano and
Microsatellites. Likewise, in 2020 was selected for the first Latin American manned space mission
ESAA-01EX SOMINUS AD ASTRA.
Dr. Marcelo López-Parra has a Doctorate Degree in Advanced Manufacturing granted by the
Cranfield Institute of Technology, England. He has taught at bachelor’s and master’s levels for
40 years, having supervised 29 bachelor’s thesis projects, 33 master’s theses, and 9 doctoral theses.
His production includes 65 collaboration joint projects with industry, 152 publications in maga-
zines and conference proceedings and six registered patents. He was awarded the Technology
Development Prize in 2012, State of Nuevo León, Mexico. Dr. López-Parra currently holds top
level 3 within the National Research System. He was a member of the evaluation commission
of the National Research System (S.N.I.), engineering, (2003–07), a member of the technology
evaluation subcommittee in the same S.N.I. (2011–15), and a member of the University UNAM
Council representing the campus of C.U. (2012–2016). Since year 2018 he has been the Head of
the Advanced Technology Unit (UAT) at UNAM, Querétaro’s Campus.
Design of Hybrid Coatings by Sol–Gel
Process: An Alternative for Aerospace
Use in Mexico
Genoveva Hernández-Padrón , Bryanda Guadalupe Reyes-Tesillo,

Jevet Emiliano Damixi López-Campos , Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez ,
José Mojica-Gómez, and Víctor Manuel Castaño-Meneses
Abstract In the present work, a compilation of hybrid coatings with potential

aerospace use in Mexico is made. Research centers that carry out experimental work
in this area are mentioned and a summary of patented works in the United States,
Mexico, and Latin America about coating materials for this sector is also shown.
In particular, our workgroup ventured more than a decade ago, in the preparation
of hybrid anticorrosive coatings obtained by the sol–gel process, tested on different
substrates with aerospace applications. These coatings have been characterized by
different spectroscopic techniques, and their thermal–mechanical behavior has been
studied, as well as corrosion resistance, impact resistance, hardness, adherence, and
compliance with aerospace regulations, giving promising results to be applied in
aeronautical devices as a premise. Following these favorable results, environmental
protection has been undertaken in the sense of recovery of polymeric materials so
G. Hernández-Padrón (B)
Centro de Física Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, Departamento de Nanotecnología, UNAM,
Juriquilla Querétaro, Mexico
e-mail: genoveva@unam.mx
B. G. Reyes-Tesillo · J. E. D. López-Campos
Centro de Física Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, PCeIM, UNAM, Juriquilla Querétaro, Mexico
e-mail: b.reyes@comunidad.unam.mx
J. E. D. López-Campos
e-mail: jevet.lopez@comunidad.unam.mx
J. A. Ferrer-Pérez
Unidad de Tecnología, UNAM, Juriquilla Querétaro, Mexico
e-mail: ferrerop@unam.mx
J. Mojica-Gómez
Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Electroquímica S.C., Pedro Escobedo
Querétaro, Mexico
e-mail: jmojica@cideteq.mx
V. M. Castaño-Meneses
Centro de Física Aplicada Y Tecnología Avanzada, Departamento de Ciencia e Ingeniería de
Materiales, UNAM, Juriquilla Querétaro, Mexico
e-mail: vmcastano@unam.mx

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_4
66 G. Hernández-Padrón et al.
that these materials can be degraded and reduce space debris. This article presents
the challenges and opportunities for the near future of hybrid coatings.
1 Introduction
Expanding our knowledge of the surroundings and the universe exploration has
led humans to develop materials to create artifacts such as spaceships, special suits,
airplanes, etc. For thousands of years, different ancient cultures,1,2 the first successful
flight registered by the Wright brothers (1903), the Moon arrival of Neil Armstrong
(1969) or the first satellite launched Sputnik-1 (1957),3 the aerospace history has been
attached with the development of various materials to be used in this area, opening
an opportunity for research with interdisciplinary groups to join all the knowledge
and create of new materials or improve the existing ones.
In Mexico, the beginning of the aerospace era began in the 1900s, with the great
need to create its technology to compete internationally, with the development of
the Corps of Construction Engineers and the appointment with France to carry out
studies on a military aerostation. Alberto Braniff in 1910, made the first powered
flight in Mexico and Latin America who was the motive for the Mexican Government
to authorize the purchase of five aircraft, for which he sent five Mexicans to study
at the Moisant Aviation School in New York, which would later be known as the
“first five”. The history of aeronautics began to rise in Mexico, with the creation
of different aviation schools and maintenance schools, like the first Aeronautics
Engineering course offered by the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) in 1937,
which led to the present investigation centers.4,5
To continue, we must clarify the difference between the aeronautical and aerospace
approaches. While the latter covers the logistics and design of aircraft and spacecraft
both inside and outside the atmosphere, aeronautics only deals with matters inside
the atmosphere having the Kármán Line as a division (100 km above sea level). It
should be noted that, although the aerospace approach includes aeronautics, the latter
does not disappear thanks to the great air traffic that exists and the logistics that it
entails.
1 Duarte, A., García, A., Sánchez, A., Evolución de los materiales a lo largo del tiempo, (Prezi),
https://prezi.com/fqwlo_zkwf5v/evolucion-de-los-materiales-a-lo-largo-del-tiempo/, 2013.
2 Montero-García, I. A., Arqueología e historia de los volcanes popocatépetl e iztaccíhuatl, méxico,
Revista de Arqueología Americana, n°34, pp. 187–222, 2016.

3 Garrett, L., American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. (A. W. Editor, Editor, & AIAA),
https://www.aiaa.org/about/History-and-Heritage/History-Timeline, 2019.
4 Aguilera, F. E., En pleno vuelo: Los pájaros de acero, Porrúa, 2008.
5 Castillo-Rodríguez, V. A., El puerto Aéreo de la Ciudad de Puebla 1929–1954, Bachelor´s thesis,
2020.
Design of Hybrid Coatings by Sol–Gel Process: An Alternative … 67
Materials always have been a key factor in the evolution of aerospace technology,
seeking specific properties like lightweight, thermal, chemical, and mechanical resis-
tance, to mention a few. Aeronautics and aerospace are two of the most important
areas when talking about the development and progress of materials. The need for
stronger and more lightweight structures or better coatings and paints, allows testing
new processes to create materials that improve the properties of current ones, securing
the correct functioning in the airships in all the operating range.6
The design of materials which can endure all the atmospheric effects at different
altitudes with great manufacturing precision is, without doubt, one of the needs that
researchers want to solve to increase the functioning of space devices and diminish
interstellar junk. In this article this challenge will be introduced and approached with
the research of hybrid coatings, focusing on the application in mexican’s aerospace
studies.
The scientific-technological advance that has occurred in the aerospace sector,
has motivated to accelerate the development of new materials and coatings for
devices and components that can withstand the conditions of their environment (radi-
ation, temperature, pressure, friction and humidity) to which they will be exposed
during their aerospace performance.7 To achieve this, different composite and hybrid
materials have been designed using ceramics, polymers, and/or metals, however,
an essential requirement is not to compromise the weight of the components of
the ships and satellites. This need has led scientists to propose coating materials
that allow protecting the surface of aerospace components with properties such
as anti-corrosive, good adhesion, abrasion-resistant, thermal resistance and thermal
control, flame retardants, conductivity, antifreeze, superhydrophobic, etc. One of the
synthesis methods or processes by which these hybrid materials have been obtained
is the sol–gel process.8 This method allows the combination of the properties of
the organic–inorganic compounds, resulting in new properties that can achieve the
necessary features for their application.
On the other hand, nanotechnology arises as a potential innovative route for many
industrial areas,9 from cosmetics to aerospace, while less attention has been paid to
large scale applications, such as anti-corrosion materials and methods, despite the
plenty of basic research that has been done in areas related to corrosion science and
6 Huang, X., Tepylo, N., Pommier-Budinger, V., Budinger, M., Bonaccurso, E., Villedieu, P.,
Bennani, L., A survey of icephobic coatings and their potential use in a hybrid coating/active ice
protection system for aerospace applications, Progress in Aerospace Sciences, vol. 105, pp. 74–97,
2019.
7 Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Hu, J., Recent advances in the development of aerospace materials, Progress
in Aerospace Sciences, vol. 97, pp. 22–34, 2018.

8 Palma, M. T., Acuña, R. H., Acosta, G. E., Padrón, G. H., Estado del arte del proceso sol–gel en
México, CIENCIA ergo-sum, vol. 17(2), pp. 183–188, 2010.

9 Mehdi, A., Reye, C., Corriu, R., From molecular chemistry to hybrid nanomaterials, Design and
functionalization, Chemical Society Reviews, vol. 40, pp. 563–574, 2011.

Fig. 1 Sol–gel hybrid coating procedure
technology. The challenge, however, is not only to develop novel nanotechnology-

based anticorrosion materials but also to keep in mind the scale of the actual appli-
cation of these nanomaterials, in terms both of cost and usage methodology in the
field.10,11
2 Sol–Gel, One Technology by Design of Hybrid Coatings
Technological advances in coating design have been increasing in recent years, and
it is interesting to know the state of the art of the sol–gel process in this area, being of
particular interest to make a review about the investigations carried out in this area in
different universities, centers, and industries in Mexico. Various developments have
been made in the field of hybrid materials with novel properties, recently for different
sectors including the aerospace industry.12
The sol–gel process (Fig. 1) has acquired much interest in century past for
providing hybrid organic–inorganic materials in which it is possible to control particle
size and shape as well as the final arrangement of the colloidal particles to get
materials endowed of very special microstructural properties.13,14
Sol–gel chemistry, which is mainly based on inorganic polymerization reactions
leading to a macromolecular oxide network, has now provided a route to produce
10 Attia, Y., Sol–gel processing and applications, Springer Science & Business Media, 2012.
11 Hernández-Padrón, G., Lima, R. M., Nava, R., García-Garduño, M. V., Castaño, V. M., Prepa-
ration and characterization of SiO2 -functionalized phenolic resin hybrid materials, Advances in
Polymer Technology: Journal of the Polymer Processing Institute, vol. 21(2), pp. 116–124, 2002.
12 Greene, E., Marine Composites, vol. 2, Maryland, Annapolis: Eric Greene Associates, Inc, 1999.
13 Livage, J., Sanchez, C., Sol–gel chemistry, Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids, vol. 145, pp. 11–19,
1992.
14 Stöber, W., Fink, A., Bohn, E., Controlled growth of monodisperse silica spheres in the micron
size range, Journal of colloid and interface science, vol. 26(1), pp. 62–69, 1968.
organic–inorganic hybrid materials at lower processing temperatures.15 By using

organic materials such as alkoxides as starting components, the incorporation of
inorganic metal oxides such as silica, titania, and zirconia into a variety of polymers,
has been achieved.16,17 The result is a reinforced inorganic-polymer hybrid having
much-improved thermal and dimensional stabilities.18 Organically substituted sili-
cate materials are prepared by sol–gel processing of the alkoxysilanes in which the
(functional) organic group is directly bonded to silica.19,20,21 The organic moieties
retained in the final material can modify or functionalize the oxidic base material.22
Although the high potential of such hybrid materials is becoming more and more
obvious, there have been only very few efforts to prepare inorganic–organic hybrids.
A great advantage of hybrid materials is that inorganic nanoparticles or clusters
with different optical, electronic, magnetic, electrical, etc. properties which can be
incorporated into the organic matrix and create multifunctional materials. Another
advantage of these materials is that they can be handled in a more polymer-like
way due to the higher content of the organic phase, the formation of cross-linked
networks, and the polymerization reactions that can be carried out in situ. The final
properties of hybrid materials depend on the inorganic–organic precursors, but also
the morphology of the phases and the interfacial region between the two components.
In this way, the hybrid material can be applied in the form of thin films to provide
the new properties in an easier and even economical way to the surfaces of different
substrates.
In general, the development of these materials for coatings brings with it the
design of intelligent materials since they can react to the environmental changes to
which they will be exposed. The properties of these coatings strongly depend on the
16 Sanchez, C., Livage, J., Sol–gel chemistry from metal alkoxide precursors, New journal of
chemistry, vol. 14(6–7), pp. 513–521, 1990.

17 McCormick, A., Attia, Y. A., Sol–Gel Processing and Applications, (Y. A. Attia, Ed.) Sol–Gel
Processing and Applications, vol. 3, 1994.

18 Ahmad, Z., Wang, S., Mark, J. E., Preparation and properties of poly
(phenyleneterephthalamide)-silica ceramers with interphase bonding from
aminophenyltrimethoxysilane, MRS Online Proceedings Library, vol. 346(1), pp. 127–134,
1994.
19 Schubert, U., Schwertfeger, F., Hüsing, N., Seyfried, E., Inorganic–Organic Hybrid Aerogels,
MRS Online Proceeding, vol. 346, p. 151, 1994.

20 Hernández, G., Rodríguez, R., Adsorption properties of silica sols modified with thiol groups,
Journal of non-crystalline solids, vol. 246(3), pp. 209–215, 1999.

21 Hernández-Padrón, G., Hernández-Ortiz, M., Durán-Muñoz, H. A., García-Garduño, M.,
Castaño, V. M., Structure and Optical Properties of Doped SiO2 Mesoporous Glasses, Nanotech-
nology, 2011.
22 Kasemann, R., Schmidt, H., Wintrich, E., A New Type of a Sol–Gel-Derived Inorganic–Organic
Nanocomposite, MRS Online Proceedings Library, vol. 346(1), pp. 915–921, 1994.
Fig. 2 SEM micrographs showing the homogeneus surface for a phenolic resin, b epoxy resin, c
recycled polystyrene and d PMMA hybrids coatings
substrate on which they will be applied and the physical (transparency), chemical
(anticorrosive), and mechanical (wear resistance) requirements for which they are
being developed.
Due to the characteristics of the sol–gel process, resulting coatings can homo-
geneously coat complex surfaces of already manufactured parts23 , and that lead to
research to be applied in different sectors such as electronics for dielectric, aero-
nautical, and automotive for anticorrosive, antifreeze, and hydrophobic, medical for
coatings of surgical utensils, environmental for solar panels, construction for UV-
protectors, anti-fog and self-cleaning windows, etc. Figure 2, shows the homogeneus
distribution of silica particles into the polymeric matrix of the hybrid materials,
using phenolic resin, epoxy resin, recycled polystyrene and polymethylmetacrylate
(PMMA), by scanning electron microscope (SEM).
23Aegerter, M. A., Almeida, R., Soutar, A., Tadanaga, K., Yang, H., Watanabe, T., Coatings made
by sol–gel and chemical nanotechnology, J Sol–Gel Sci Technol, vol. 47, pp. 203–236, 2008.
3 Development of Hybrid Coatings, an Alternative

for Potential Space Applications
The scientific-technological development that we have lived has allowed us to make

use of new materials with special characteristics that in a couple of decades ago would
be, perhaps unimaginable. The coating materials currently used in the aerospace
industry for corrosion protection are based on multilayer paint systems, where
it is required to place different layers, consisting of a chemical conversion layer
containing chromates, later an organic layer with corrosion inhibitors and adhesion
promoters that help between the metal and the paint system, depending on the type
of systems that need to be protected, their successive layers will vary.
Materials science allows the development of a more ecological, economical, and
efficient experimental technique, where a new formulation of materials is designed
for the aerospace sector based on the sol–gel technique. Hereby it is mainly sought to
eliminate the use of chromates and multilayers by eliminating a part of the environ-
mental problems of current systems. The hybrid materials obtained in situ through
the sol–gel process, promise to be a versatile and competitive proposal since they
allow us to design the final properties of the coating from the beginning of the reac-
tion. On the other hand, the process residues are minimal and non-toxic, in addition,
adherence can be generated from the initial chemistry of the organic phase.
The emerging requirements of materials in the aerospace sector have brought
with their proposals for new materials that improve their properties in such a way
that they can meet the needs of the specific application. It is necessary to meet various
requirements such as supporting structural and aerodynamic loads while being inex-
pensive and easy to manufacture. During their lifetime, ship structures must not
crack, corrode, rust, or suffer other forms of damage while operating under adverse
conditions involving high loads, freezing, high temperatures, lightning strikes, hail,
exposure to potentially corrosive fluids as fuel, lubricants, and paint strippers.
As already mentioned, the sol–gel technique has been used to create hybrid coat-
ings and has proven its efficiency on different metallic substrates in various indus-
trial sectors, such as medical, metalworking, automotive, etc. One of the reasons
for proposing hybrid coatings in the aerospace sector is because of the final prop-
erties of the materials such as their thermal, mechanical propiertes, and corrosive
resistance that some authors have evaluated their different tribological and physic-
ochemical properties in hybrid materials and their hydrophobic, anti-icing/de-icing
and anticorrosive.24,25
One consortium of european univerities developed the project GreenGELAIR,
where a hybrid coating was formulated using the sol–gel technique, obtaining a
24 Redondo-Herrero, O., Desarrollo de recubrimientos poliméricos multicapa para aplicaciones

antihielo y deshielo, http://hdl.handle.net/10115/16210, 2019.
2019.
versatile material for its application with a high adhesion between the substrate and
the coating to ensure its durability, as well as maintenance on aircraft fuselages.
Which complied with environmental regulations and standards used in this sector.26
In addition to these published articles, there are some patents on sol–gel coatings
for applications on metallic substrates. Henkel AG & Co. developed a system for anti-
corrosion protective layers by the sol–gel method that is composed of one or more
silanol precursors, an acid to initiate hydrolysis, and an acrylic-based copolymer
with functional organic nitrogen groups.27 Lily Industries, Inc. patented a series of
coatings based on thermosetting resins and UV-cured resins, designed to improve
abrasion resistance.28
In Latin America, including Mexico, research on hybrid coatings synthesized by
the sol–gel process with specific applications in the aerospace sector is being devel-
oped by groups of researchers, aiming to be considered at an industrial level. This
opens an opportunity to test and innovate these hybrid materials in this sector,29,30
in which they expose the current needs of this sector. Currently, there are studies of
hybrid coatings for anticorrosive protection on different substrates showed in Table
1, which is probably the basis of the beginning to be used as coatings in aerospace
systems and since other properties are presented that meet various requirements
necessary for the performance of these systems.
The development of hybrid materials in our work group began two decades ago at
the Centro de Física Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada of the Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México. Having knowledge of the sol–gel process and using different
resins and organic polymers, these investigations began, combining phenolic resin
with silica oxide particles embedded within this matrix. Having as first results, phase
segregation, which led us to propose the combination of the properties of organic and
inorganic polymers in situ, obtaining a better control in the final structural properties
of the new materials from the beginning of the reaction. That is, the materials can
be designed by controlling the experimental conditions, and even nano-hybrids have
been obtained.31
Phenol–formaldehyde resins have been well-known, because of their low cost,
aging resistance, dimensional stability, and high tensile strength, so they are used in
many applications ranging from molding compounds, laminates, to adhesives, etc.
26 Canales sectoriales, Interempresas, (Interempresas), http://www.interempresas.net/MetalMeca

nica/Articulos/119047-Nuevo-sistema-aplicacion-para-recubrimientos-innovadores-sol-gel-para-
sector-aeronautico.html, 2013.
27 Bammel, B. D., McGee, J. D.,Donaldson, G.T., Inorganic composite coatings comprising novel
functionalized acrylics, WO2014140846, 2014.

28 Scarlette, T., Abrasion resistant coatings, WO00/52105, 2000.
29 Guevara-Romero, J. A., Hernández-Melendez, A. H., Desarrollo de recubrimiento anticorrosivo
tipo cerámicos para su uso en la industria aeronáutica, Bachelor’s thesis, Instituto Politécnico
Nacional, Guanajuato, 2016.
30 Palma, M. T., Evaluación anticorrosiva de materiales híbridos preparados vía sol–gel, Master’s
thesis, p. 120, Querétaro, 2010.

31 Hernández-Padrón, G., García-Garduño, M. V., Sol–gel, one technology by produced nanohybrid
with anticorrosive properties, Physics Procedia, vol. 48, pp. 102–108, 2013.
Table 1 Research of hybrid coatings in different substrates

Materials Type of coating References
Aluminum AA2124-T4 GPTMS/APTES 32
AA7075-T6 MMA/SiO2 33
Steels Stainles 316L Epoxy-Functionalized 34
Low Carbon PMMA/Silica 35
Copper SiO2 /Phenolic-formaldehydic 36
Solar Cells Indium- ZnO dopped 37
Special Glass Multilayer TiO2 /SiO2 /TiO2 38
This study consisted of determining the optical properties according to the compo-
sition and size of the particles of the SiO2 . In this hybrid material, the presence
of the resin controls crystal growth influences the transparency and dispersion, thus
reducing aggregation and agglomeration. Finally, the combination of silica and modi-
fied resins matrices by the method herein described allows enhancing the stability of
the material, resulting in a glassy hybrid ceramic-like material with unique properties.
According to the results obtained, it was necessary to chemically modify the
phenolic resin, to obtain a union with the silica particles. The functionalization to
the polymeric matrix resulted in materials with proven anti-corrosive and abrasion
32 Contreras, G. A., Nieves-Barrera, C., Remolina, É. N., Hernández-Barrios, C. A., Liu, Z., Coy,
A. E., Viejo, F., Síntesis y evaluación de recubrimientos híbridos sol–gel base TEOS: GPTMS:
APTES para la protección contra la corrosión de la aleación AA2124-T4 y su material compuesto
AA2124-T4/25% SiCp, Revista Latinoamericana de Metalurgia y Materiales, vol. 35(2), pp. 222–
236, 2015.
33 Reyes-Tesillo, B., Desarrollo de un recubrimiento híbrido via sol–gel con posible uso aeroespa-
cial, Master’s Thesis, p. 125, Querétaro, 2020.

34 Ramírez-Palma, M. T., Hernández-Padrón, G., Gómez, J., Rojas-González, F., Castaño, V. M.,
Nanostructured Epoxy-Based Anticorrosive Coatings, Surface Review and Letters, vol. 27(09),
pp. 195–202, 2020.
35 Caselis, J. V., Rosas, E. R., Meneses, V. C., Hybrid PMMA–Silica Anticorrosive Coatings for
Stainless Steel 316L, Corrosion Engineering, Science and Technology, vol. 47(2), pp. 131–137,
2012.
36 Hernández-Padrón, G., Rojas, F., Castaño, V., Development and testing of anticorrosive
SiO2 /phenolic–formaldehydic resin coatings, Surface and Coatings Technology, vol. 201(3–4),
pp. 1207–1214, 2006.
37 Luna-Arredondo, E. J., Maldonado, A., Asomoza, R., Acosta, D. R., Melendez-Lira, M. A.,
Olvera, M. D., Indium-doped ZnO thin films deposited by the sol–gel technique, Thin Solid Films,
vol. 490(2), pp. 132–136, 2005.
38 Nagamedianova, Z., Ramírez-García, R. E., Flores-Arévalo, S. V., Miki-Yoshida, M., Arroyo-
Ortega, M., Solar heat reflective glass by nanostructured sol–gel multilayer coatings, Optical
Materials, vol. 33(12), pp. 1999–2005, 2011.
Fig. 3 a Photograph of a silica monolith (pH= 3) and b SEM micrograph of a silica monodispersed
material (pH= 11), prepared by sol–gel process
resistance properties on copper substrates. The incorporation of modified phenol–

formaldehyde resin into silica sols does indeed result in promising new properties.39
The results obtained demonstrated that organic–inorganic hybrid materials could
be successfully synthesized from sol–gel processing of silica with the presence
of modified phenolic hybrid. The characterization of the above substrates through
various techniques, including corrosion tests, demonstrated the best performance of
these innovative hybrid materials.
These works were expanded by using another type of matrix, such as chemically
modified epoxy resin to be able to join the silica particles.40 Accordingly, the modi-
fication of an epoxy resin with the inclusion of silica nanoparticles by an in situ
reaction; the aim was to create a truly hybrid-nanostructured material, which would
be able to combine the anticorrosive properties of polymeric and ceramic materials.
Therefore, another research described the synthesis and characterization of a
hybrid material made through the chemical bond of packed monodisperse or nano
spherical silica particles within a functionalized phenol–formaldehyde or epoxy
resins matrix (Fig. 3).41,42 These hybrid compounds constitute a new type of rein-
forced or ceramic materials. In the same line, the mechanical, optical and chemical
41 Hernández-Padrón, G., García-Garduño, M., Canseco, M. A., Castaño, V. M., Nanoparticles-
Based phenol–formaldehyde hybrid resins, Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology, vol. 8(6),
pp. 3142–3145, 2008.
42 Hernández-Padrón, G., Rojas, F., Castaño, V. M., Ordered SiO –(phenolic-formaldehyde resin)
2
in situ nanocomposites, Nanotechnology, vol. 15(1), p. 98, 2004.
properties were determined with the idea to be used as anticorrosion coatings in low
carbon steels43 , and copper44,45,46 , substrates.
Due to the continuing aerospace developments and all the requirements that must
be met to be a candidate in this sector, other hybrids with a polymeric matrix of
methylmethacrylate (MMA) have been investigated47 , and the polystyrene (PS)48 ,
which could be tested as coatings on electronic device components of aerospace
materials. These hybrid materials have been synthesized with SiO2 and TiO2 particles
and nanoparticles with different antifog and self-cleaning properties on glass and
acrylic substrates, anticorrosive on metallic substrates that can be applied as coatings
in different industrial sectors.49
The development of MMA/SiO2 -SH hybrids by sol–gel process, where silica
particles are incorporated into a polymer material with a coupling agent (SH, thiol
group), allows an interaction between the surface groups hydroxyl with polymer
matrix. The incorporation of this particle into to polymeric matrix, allowed to obtain
better performance in the anti-corrosive properties.50
Hybrid materials (Fig. 4) were prepared by incorporating silica nanoparticles
(SiO2 ) into recycled polystyrene matrices (PSR). Recycled polystyrene was func-
tionalized (PSRF) by using abietic acid. The functionalization of the recycled poly-
meric matrix has the purpose of uniting carboxyl with silanol groups in situ during
the sol–gel process. Successfully prepared from recycled polystyrene matrices by
introducing silica particles to the polymer matrix by the sol–gel method assisted by
sonochemistry. The matrix was modified with a carboxyl group, the spectroscopy
43 Palma, M. T., Evaluación anticorrosiva de materiales híbridos preparados vía sol–gel, Master’s
thesis, p.120, Querétaro, 2010.
SiO2/phenolic–formaldehydic resin coatings, Surface and Coatings Technology, vol. 201(3–4),

pp. 1207–1214, 2006.
46 Hernández-Padrón, G., Acosta-Torres, L. S., Rojas-González, F., Castaño, V. M., Anticorrosives,
encapsulates, catalytic supports and other novel nanostructured materials, Bulletin of Materials
Science, vol. 35(7), pp. 1071–1077, 2012.

48 Blanco-Hernández, A., García Contreras, R., Serrano Díaz, P., Hernández-Padrón, G., Study
of the cytotoxicity of nanohybrid films with recycled polystyrene matrix, Mundo nano: Revista
interdisciplinaria en nanociencias y nanotecnología, vol. 11(21), pp. 61–71, 2018.
49 Hernández-Padrón, G., Gómez-Quintero, T., Blanco-Hernández, A., Development antifog
nanohybrid consisting of polystyrene recycled matrix by sol–gel process, In Proceedings of the

Nanotechnology: Technical Proceedings of the NSTI Nanotechnology Conference and Expo, vol.
1, pp. 218–219, 2014.

Fig. 4 Transparent hybrid materials (polymer with SiO2 ): a functionalized phenolic resin, b
functionalized epoxy resin, c polystyrene functionalized and d MMA
characterization thus suggests that there exists an interaction between the carboxyl
group and SiO2 .51
In the field of the reuse of polymeric materials, to counteract their impact on the
environment we used green chemistry, with waste polymers,52 and natural solvents,
with the incorporation of silica and titania nanoparticles for the preparation of hybrid

1, pp. 218–219, 2014.

1, pp. 218–219, 2014.
materials.53,54 This also has an impact on the social sector since these materials can be
used in a circular economy: materials that are created, used, and reused, reducing the
use of raw materials and the waste of polymers, thus creating sustainable materials.
Hybrids of PS and PSR segregated the silica particles on the material surface, while
the functionalized hybrids showed a homogeneous surface, thus improving the visual
transparency of the coatings. The properties of recycled polystyrene analyzed in this
work are comparable to those ascribed to commercial polystyrene with the possibility
that these materials can be used as hydrophobic coatings. Thus, this study proposed
a new alternative to the use of recycled polystyrene matrices based on the approach
presented. The transparency of the hybrid materials is favored by the distribution
of the silica nanoparticles within the polymer matrix. The new properties of these
nanohybrids were compared with hybrid materials traditionally prepared by sol–gel
using toluene as a solvent.55 The use of a natural solvent and sonochemistry opens
a possibility to produce environmentally friendly materials since the incorporation
of silica nanoparticles of different sizes within or on the surface of the polymeric
matrix results in new and interesting properties, thus allowing their application as
coatings on aluminum Al7075-T6 substrates.
An important technique for measuring the water repellency (hydrophobicity) of
the coating is the decrease in contact angle at the interface with the substrate. The
hydrophobicity of the coating was evaluated through the measurement of the respec-
tive contact angle, taking the criterion of the contact angle formed, being less than
40° for a hydrophilic surface, and a contact angle greater than 70° is considered as a
hydrophobic surface.56 The contact angles of recycled polystyrene are very similar
to commercial polystyrene, obtaining satisfactory hydrophobicity results, so these
coatings can be commercially interesting since they can be applied as self-cleaning
coatings, i.e., transparent surfaces.
The results do not present cytotoxicity, with a viability range of 75–103%,
thus showing the viability of using recycled polystyrene films as coatings on glass
substrates, compared to their analogs made with commercial polystyrene. This might
54 Hernández-Padrón, G., Rangel-Miranda, D., Cedillo, G., Blanco-Hernández, A., Incorporation
of nanohybrid films of silica into recycled polystyrene matrix, Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 1, p. 1,
2015.
55 Hernández-Padrón, G., Rangel-Miranda, D., Cedillo, G., Blanco-Hernández, A., Incorporation
of nanohybrid films of silica into recycled polystyrene matrix, Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 1, p. 1,
2015.
56 Howarter, J. A., Youngblood, J. P., Self-cleaning and next generation anti-fog surfaces and
coatings, Macromolecular Rapid Communications, vol. 29(6), pp. 455–466, 2008.

open a new alternative to develop a wide range of these new materials without gener-
ating collateral health effects due to the reuse of this polymer based on the method-
ology proposed in this work.57 Likewise, it is feasible that they can be manufactured
at an industrial level.
The results obtained so far have shown that the prepared hybrid materials are good
candidates for coatings on devices or components in the aerospace sector. The studies
of the present hybrid coatings have improved their mechanical properties, compared
to the requirements to be used in this sector, which opens up a great opportunity
to use MMA with a combination of TiO2 /SiO2 nanoparticles which provide the
properties of protection against UV radiation, thermal, chemical and anticorrosive
resistance58 , anti-fog59 , and hydrophobic, likewise the use of graphene nanoparticles
incorporated into the epoxy resin hybrid, it can be another coating with a possible
application within the aeronautical sector, given its thermal stability.60
The idea of these new materials arises to predict the properties before producing
the material, which leads to further expanding knowledge in hybrid materials.61,62,63
In these papers our research group develop materials, by the sol–gel reaction to
add silica particles functionalized with a polymer matrix, resulting in hybrids of
various functionalized polymeric resins, showing greater corrosion protection.64,65
The functionalization is carried out in the presence of carboxyl groups, which allow
a strong interaction between the polymer chains and the surface of the copper plate
also allowing the formation of a coating film of glass–ceramic. These properties
were determined by different analytical techniques. Based on the results of their

1, pp. 218–219, 2014.
2019.
62 Hernández-Padrón, G., García-Garduño, M., Canseco, M. A., Castaño, V. M., Nanoparticles-
Based phenol–formaldehyde hybrid resins, Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology, vol. 8(6),
pp. 3142–3145, 2008.
63 Zou, H., Wu, S., Shen, J., Polymer/silica nanocomposites: preparation, characterization,
properties, and applications, Chemical reviews, vol. 108(9), pp. 3893–3957, 2008.
64 Zheludkevich, M., Sol–gel coatings for corrosion protection of metals, Journal of Materials
Chemistry, vol. 15, pp. 5099–6011, 2005.

SiO2/phenolic–formaldehydic resin coatings, Surface and Coatings Technology, vol. 201(3–4),

pp. 1207–1214, 2006.
characterization, these materials may be of technological importance as a suitable

control in the design of the experimental conditions, and may further develop a wide
range of these new materials.
The properties of these materials not only depend on their components but also
on their morphology and interfacial properties. This leads to anticipating all the final
properties of the material. Currently, the idea to produce new materials is to predict
the properties before developing a respective material. This fact leads to continuing
expanding knowledge in hybrid materials.
Based on the results obtained in our research and in addition to those of
other colleagues regarding these hybrid coatings,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73 even more
specific applications with similar surface coatings can be proposed to be used in
passive thermal control systems for the protection of the internal components of a
nanosatellite system.
4 Research Centers in Mexico Developing Hybrid

Materials for the Aerospace Sector
The aerospace industry represents a small segment of the global coatings market,
yet it is one of the most complex and important in the world. The nature of its
content requires technological innovation, as well as permanent training of human
resources; confronting extreme conditions such as temperature variations, corrosion,
UV exposure at high altitudes, and many more.
Over the past decade, aerospace coating technology has excelled at increasing
resistance to cracking, achieving better metal protection and corrosion control, as
66 Shen, W., Feng, L., Liu, X., Luo, H., Liu, Z., Tong, P., Zhang, W., Multiwall carbon nanotubes-
reinforced epoxy hybrid coatings with high electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance prepared
via electrostatic spraying, Progress in Organic Coatings, vol. 90, pp. 139–46, 2016.
67 Li, Z., Chen, S., Nambiar, S., Sun, Y., Zhang, M., Zheng, W., Yeow, J. T., PMMA/MWCNT
nanocomposite for proton radiation shielding applications, Nanotechnology, vol. 27(23),

p. 234,001, 2016.
68 Miller, S., Meador, M., Polymer-Layered Silicate Nanocomposites for cryotank applications,
48th AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Conference,

pp. 2007–2322, 2012.
69 Zayat, M., del Monte, F., Morales, M. P., Rosa, G., Guerrero, H., Serna, C. J., Levy, D., Highly
transparent γ -Fe2 O3 /Vycor-glass magnetic nanocomposites exhibiting Faraday rotation, Advanced

Materials, vol. 15(21), pp. 1809–1812, 2003.
70 Bheekhun, N., Talib, A., Rahim, A., Hassan, M. R., Aerogels in Aerospace: An Overview,
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, vol. 18, 2013.

71 United States Patent nº US6077885A, 2000.
72 Tanasa, F., Zanoaga, M., Fiber-reinforced polymer composites as structural materials for
aeronautics, International Conference of Scientific Paper, pp. 1–10, 2013.

73 Herrera-Arroyave, J. E., Diseño estructural de un sistema CubeSat con recubrimiento de barrera
térmica, Master’s Thesis, p. 110, Nuevo León, 2015.

well as reducing time and labor costs, both in the production line and in aircraft
MRO.
Mexico has become a growing market for this type of coatings, since in recent
years it has increased the overall aerospace production, thus allowing it to posi-
tion itself in 14th place in aerospace manufacturing and 6th as a world exporter of
aerospace components.74 In this matter, the National Strategic Plan for the Aerospace
Industry75 , was developed, to form a triple helix between Government, industry, and
academia, seeking not only to reinforce but also to increase the knowledge and
capacities already existing in this sector.
For its part, the Mexican Government continues to seek to attract investment in
this sector, which has allowed the growth of companies that develop and manufacture
different parts of airplanes. Until 2019 there were around 300 national and foreign
companies registered throughout the Republic. Within these states, Querétaro, Baja
California, Mexico City and Chihuahua stand out.76
Companies through the use, generation, absorption of knowledge, and learning
have succeeded to impact the effective management of technology, organizational
performance, improvements in management capacity, and production methods.77
Each company, according to its line of business, is a supplier of various materials,
which is why it has been classified worldwide in three production areas: Manufac-
turing (manufacture and assembly of aircraft components and parts), Maintenance,
Repair, and Overhaul (MRO) and Research and Development (R&D)78 , due to the
main activities of the companies.
Although Mexico has managed to position itself as a supplier in terms of MRO
activities, according to the Secretary of the Economy for the North American region,
unfortunately in the development and innovation of coatings it has had slow progress.
Giving only participation to large industries for the development of coatings used
in the aeronautical sector, however, what is sought by the different universities and
research centers in Mexico, is to gradually position themselves in the forementioned
sector, seeking to develop hybrid coatings to be considered within the aeronautical
industry.
74 Alcántara, V., Tecnología del Plástico, https://www.plastico.com/temas/Mexico,-mercado-en-cre
cimiento-para-los-recubrimientos-en-la-industria-aeronautica, 2016.
75 Mexican Government, Plan Nacional Estratégico de la Industria Aeroespacial, México, https://
www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/58802/Plan_Estrat_gico_de_la_Industria_Aeroespac
ial_junio.pdf, 2010.
76 Canada´s Aerospace Industry, The Impact of Key Global Trends: Aerospace Review, En A.
Arcand (Ed.), The Conference Board of Canada, 2012.

77 Hernández-Chavarria, J., Capacidades tecnológicas y organizacionales de las empresas mexi-
canas participantes en la cadena, Economía Teoría y Práctica, vol. 47, pp. 65–98, 2017.
78 Federación Mexicana de la Industria Aeroespacial (FEMIA), Pro-Aéreo 2012–2020 “Programa
Estratégico de la Industria Aeroespacial”, México, http://www.2006-2012.economia.gob.mx/files/

comunidad_negocios/industria_comercio/proaereo_bueno.pdf, 2020.
Fig. 5 Geographic localization of the Research Centers (CI) in Mexico
R&D and innovation centers stimulate the productivity of industries. Currently, in

Mexico there are 250 centers distributed in the 32 states of the Republic.79,80 Among
these are the aeronautical materials research and development centers indicated in
Fig. 5 and detailed in Fig. 6.
5 Conclusions
The aerospace industry is an environment in which research and the use of new
materials play a priority role. There is still a lot of room to optimize their use and,
above all, for the introduction of nanomaterials, e.g. in aircraft construction.
These hybrid coatings prepared by the sol–gel process have laid the foundation
to be applied in the aerospace sector. This synthesis process has been considered for
its ability to combine the properties of two different types of materials, organic and
inorganic, in addition, to do not allow phase separation between them. By this method,
the final specific properties of the organic–inorganic hybrid can be planned and
79 Archundia Ortiz, L., Hernández Martínez, P., Moreno Blat, J. M., Padilla Monroy, M. J., Peréz
Díaz, R. E., Sandoval Ríos, M., Industria aeroespacial mexicana, Plan Nacional de Vuelo, pp. 7–59,
2014.
80 Espinosa Vinces, M., Esteves Cano, C., Cabrera Padilla, J., Ramírez Maciel, J., Morales Suárez,
R., Hacia una Economía del Conocimiento: Los centros y el ecosistema de investigación, desarrollo
e innovación en México, México: ProMéxico, 2018.
Ciudad de
Chihuahua Nuevo León Querétaro
México
CENTA
CINVESTAV Centro de CIDESI
Entrenamiento GEIQ
en Alta
CIITEC Tecnología CIIA-UANL CINVESTAV
(CENALTEC)
UNAQ
CICATA CIMAV
CENAM
Centro de
CentroNANO InvesƟgación en CIQA UAT-FI, UNAM
Materiales
Avanzados CFATA, UNAM
IIM (CIMAV) CIMAT
CIDETEQ
Fig. 6 Research Centers in Mexico (highlighted ones are having progress in aerospace coatings)
projected for the desired applications. An in situ synthesis methodology of hybrids

has been developed in terms of incorporating the discrete phase into the matrix, so
that the interconnection of the inorganic network develops during polymerization
within the polymeric matrix, forming chemical bonds between the two phases.
Inorganic–organic hybrid composites are rapidly emerging as alternatives to tradi-
tional anti-corrosion materials as they combine the chemical and mechanical prop-
erties of both inorganic and organic components, because such coatings alone do
not have sufficient corrosion protection properties for the density and thickness to
protect a metal surface. This opens a wider scenario to be applied to the aerospace
sector.
Various research centers in Mexico continue to develop research in hybrid
coatings, proposing innovative alternatives to promote the country’s technological
development in this sector.
Genoveva Hernández-Padrón is a Chemical Engineer born in Mexico City. She is a Research

Fellow at the Department of Nanotechnology of the Centro de Física Aplicada y Tecnología Avan-
zada at Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico. She received M.Sc. in 1994 and Ph.D. in
2000 in the field of physical-chemistry of polymers. Her research interests include the study of
anticorrosive properties of thin films as well as the syntheses of functionalized polymer resins,
hybrid materials and sol-gel composites. She is a reviewer for international journals.
Bryanda Guadalupe Reyes-Tesillo is a Chemical Industrial Engineer born in Mexico City. She
received his Master of Materials Science in the line investigation of polymers materials from the
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico. Her research is about coatings hybrid for applica-
tions aeroespacial.
Jevet Emiliano Damixi López-Campos received his Engineering Degree specialized in manu-
facture with honorable mention from the Aeronautical University in Querétaro. He did research
about aerodynamics profiles optimization for wind turbines and his current research area focuses
in hybrid coatings for the aeronautical applications.
Jorge Alfredo Ferrer-Pérez is associate professor of National University Autonomous of

Mexico-School of Engineering. He received his Ph.D. in Aerospace and Mechanical Engi-
neering from the University of Notre Dame, South Bend in United States. He is part of the
Aerospace Engineering Department and responsible of the Space Propulsion and Thermo-vacuum
lab. This facility belongs to the Space and Automotive Engineering National Laboratory located at
Juriquilla. His current research areas are nano-heat transfer in solid state devices, thermal control,
space propulsion, small satellites and development of space technology.
José Mojica-Gómez is a materials technology researcher and professor in Research and Tech-
nological Development in Electrochemical Center. He received his master degree in metallurgy
from Chemistry Faculty of National University Autonomous of Mexico. His technological activ-
ities and research are dedicated to develop corrosion resistance coatings, application processes,
and mechanical and chemical testing for evaluation coatings properties. He belongs to the tech-
nological development department in CIDETEQ.
Víctor Manuel Castaño-Meneses has published around 850 articles in international refereed and
indexed journals, 260 articles in conferences proceedings, 31 book chapters, 8 books and has 38
patents. He has 752 papers presented at conferences and 62 technical reports to various industries.
He has been advisor to over 93 B.Sc., 33 M.Sc. and 73 Ph.D. thesis in Mexico, Peru, Argentina,
Colombia, the USA, Canada, Spain and Germany. His work has received over 17.500 citations.
Launch Opportunities for Pico Satellites
from Developing Countries
Rosalyn Puma-Guzman and Jorge Soliz
Abstract Nowadays, due to the increase of economic accessibility in satellites and

its growing development, many universities and research centers have ventured into
space projects by manufacturing their own satellites and sending them into space.
Even though, these projects have different applications, they all are focused in the
research and development of knowledge. The total cost of a space mission (for pico-
type satellites) is divided approximately into 50% design and construction and 50%
in satellite launch. Unfortunately, not all countries are able to carry out their satel-
lite projects due to economic problems. Hence, this chapter presents a non-profitable
satellite launch alternative which represents a great opportunity for many developing
countries. In this way, the opportunity to carry out free launches is offered by interna-
tional institutions and organizations such as space agencies, and some private compa-
nies. In order to collaborate to those college students’ groups and research centers,
whom are not economically able to finance a rocket to launch their satellites into
space and develop their projects, these launches are cost-free. Thereby, this chapter
specifically focuses on describing the free launch options (opportunity launches).
Mainly, the launch opportunities are planned for picosatellites, light weight (less
than 1 kg) and dimensionally small satellites. Furthermore, due to the low budget
and scarce accessibility of components of developing countries, they commonly use
picosatellites.
R. Puma-Guzman
Industrial Engineering and Systems, Universidad Privada Boliviana, Cochabamba, Bolivia
J. Soliz (B)
Exact Science Department, Universidad Privada Boliviana, Cochabamba, Bolivia
e-mail: jorgesoliz@upb.edu

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_5
86 R. Puma-Guzman and J. Soliz
1 Introduction
1.1 Satellite Classification
Satellites can be classified by their application, character, orbit, and weight. Satellites
according to their application are meteorological satellites, communication satel-
lites, navigation satellites, earth observation satellites and astronomical satellites.
The satellites according to their character are military, governmental and civil. The
satellites according to their orbit; low orbit, medium orbit, geosynchronous orbit,
highly elliptical orbit. The most used classification of satellites is by their mass.1
• Large satellites: > 1.000 kg
• Medium satellites: 500–1.000 kg
• Small satellites: < 500 kg
– Minisatellites: 100–500 kg
– Microsatellites: 10–100 kg
– Nanosatellites: 1–10 kg
– Picosatellites: 100 g to 1 kg
– Femtosatellites: 10–100 g
– Attosatellites: 1–10 g
– Zeptosatellites: 0,1–1 g.
1.2 Picosatellite
A picosatellite (PicoSat) is defined as a satellite with a maximum mass of 1 kg.

Currently many platforms are used for PicoSats, among the most employed are the
CubeSats, PocketQubes, TubeSats, SunCubes.2
1.2.1 CubeSats
A CubeSat is a square-shaped miniature satellite, weighing about 1 kg. A CubeSat

can be of 1 Unit or groups of multiple units:
• 1 U CubeSat is 10 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm.
1 Kulu Erik, Nanosats Database, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1
October 2021.
October 2021.
Launch Opportunities for Pico Satellites … 87
Fig. 1 Graphical expression of CubeSats sizes from 1 to 16 U (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8
August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021)
Fig. 2 PocketQube (Brian Benchoff, “PocketQubes: even smaller than a CubeSat”, 2 October 2013,
https://hackaday.com/2013/10/02/pocketqubes-even-smaller-than-a-cubesat/, accessed 3 October
2021)
Smallest existing CubeSat design is 0,25 U and largest is 27 U (Fig. 1).3
1.2.2 PocketQubes
PocketQube is a square-shaped miniature satellite (cube of 5 × 5 × 5 cm), one eighth

the volume of a 1 U CubeSat (see Fig. 2) and can have different configurations:
3 Ibid.
Fig. 3 TubeSats by Gauss (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.
eu/cubesat, accessed 1 October 2021)
• 1p is 5 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm (mass 250 g)
• 2p is 5 cm × 5 cm × 10 cm (mass 500 g)
• 3p is 5 cm × 5 cm × 15 cm (mass 750 g).
There are two types of PocketQubes: MRFOD and CubeSat dispenser compat-
ible.4
1.2.3 TubeSat
TubeSats are tube-shaped satellites with an 8,9 cm diameter, 12,7 cm length and
0,75 kg weight (see Fig. 3). TubeSat have a launch cost comparable to a 1 U CubeSat.5
1.2.4 SunCubes
SunCubes are designed to make satellites even more affordable and are square-shaped
miniature satellites with a 3 cm length. 1F SunCube has the size of 3 × 3 × 3 cm and
where 3F measures 3 × 3 × 9 cm (see Fig. 4). Goal is to make satellites even more

October 2021.
5 Ibid.
Fig. 4 Example of an 1F
SunCube (Kulu Erik,
“Nanosats Database”, 8
August 2021, https://www.
nanosats.eu/cubesat,
accessed 1 October 2021)
affordable. A 1 U CubeSat might fit up to 27 single 1F SunCubes.6 First SunCubes

will be likely be launched from satellites with other primary missions.
1.3 Launches
The launches of PicoSats and small satellites have increased exponentially in recent
years due to the low cost of development as well as that of the launch. The projections
show that the trend as shown in Fig. 5 will be the same in the coming years.
The increase in space projects of small satellites, mainly NanoSats and PicoSats,
caused emerging countries to enter the space sector and each year this trend tends to
continue (Fig. 6).
1.4 Organizations
The new actors in the space field are private companies, such as BLUE ORIGIN,
SPACE X, among others, as well as universities and research centers around the
world as shown in Fig. 7.
Universities and research centers, in emerging countries, are interested in
acquiring space-related knowledge in order to be able to venture into new technolo-
gies. Due to the development of space projects in these countries, a new generation of
professionals is emerging. Many of them created companies dedicated to the devel-
opment of satellite components as well as to the creation of their own space missions.
Consequentially, this contributes to their technological development and, hence, to
their general development.
6Kulu Erik, Nanosats Database, 08 August 2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/cubesat, accessed 1

October 2021.
Fig. 5 Total NanoSats and CubeSats launched (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021,
https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, accessed 3 October 2021)
Fig. 6 All NanoSats and CubeSats by locations (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August 2021,
https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, accessed 3 October 2021)
Fig. 7 All NanoSats and CubeSats by organizations (Kulu Erik, “Nanosats Database”, 8 August
2021, https://www.nanosats.eu/#figures, accessed 4 October 2021)
Figure 7 shows the number of launched and unlaunched projects for NanoSats and
PicoSats developed by different entities. Surprisingly, it can be seen that universities
and private companies are the ones leading the way in these projects.
2 Research Applications
With NanoSats and PicoSats space projects, the technological benefits, that were
traditionally exclusively reserved for large companies or space agencies with vast
financial resources, have been democratized and became accessible to all companies,
universities, and research centers of all types and sizes.
Once a NanoSat is developed, tested and ready for operations, it must be placed
in orbit. Currently, there are multiple launching options, involving the shared use
of government agency rockets, private company launchers, or the establishment of
logistic links with the International Space Station (ISS). These options are discussed
later.
NanoSats and PicoSats occupy relatively small space volumes and have a light
weight. These characteristics makes of them easily loadable into a spacecraft.
Furthermore, they represent a low-cost solution for emerging space nations.
2.1 Emerging Space Nations
The space sector has recently been witnessing a growth in the nations embracing
space activities for the first time. This growth is mainly associated to emerging
socio-economic opportunities discovered in the sector. These entities have come to
be known as “emerging space nations”.
2.2 Current Launch Opportunities
The current opportunities for launch of NanoSats and PicoSats to Low Earth Orbit
(LEO) are distributed among the categories of dedicated launch, launch as part of a
rideshare agreement (secondary payload) or cluster launch, and by piggyback.
2.2.1 Dedicated Launch
For payloads in the minisatellite and microsatellite class with a higher budget, a
number of vehicles are available for dedicated launch. However, the typical specific
launch cost of these vehicles is often greater than their medium and intermediate
lift counterparts, and the payload may not use up the full capacity of the vehicle.
Therefore, the payload operator may not be able to economically justify the use of
the launch vehicle.
The clear advantage of a dedicated launch however, is that the destination orbit
of the payload can be selected to best fit the mission, and the date of launch can be
chosen to coincide with the payload development and mission operation schedule. For
NanoSats and PicoSats systems in particular those designed and built by educational
institutions, the cost of dedicated launch usually far exceeds what can be afforded by
the system budget. They are therefore generally restricted to rideshare or piggyback
launch.7
2.2.2 Rideshare and Cluster Launch
Rideshare missions are a type of multiple-manifested launch, where a number of

similarly sized payloads share a single vehicle, launched to a mutually agreeable
orbit. These missions are typically offered by launch service providers, or can be
arranged by launch brokers in order to reduce the launch cost of each individual
payload.
7R. Puma-Guzman, J. Soliz, “Launch Management of a Nanosatellite for Bolivia”, in: Annette
Froehlich (ed.), Space Fostering Latin American Societies, Developing the Latin American
Continent Through Space, Part 2, Springer, 2021, pp. 87–103.
In the case of rideshare launches, the total payload capacity of the vehicle can be
used up, reducing the launch cost for each satellite. However, due to the multiple-
manifestation of payloads, the date is subject to the proposed development schedule
of all the payloads, and as such, can be affected by delays from multiple sources.
The destination orbit will be similarly determined by the satellite operators, likely
resulting in a non-optimal inclination and/or altitude for all the payloads.8
2.2.3 Piggyback Launch
A piggyback launch opportunity allows for the launch of a satellite as a secondary

payload, using up available excess volume and mass on a commissioned vehicle.
The destination orbit and launch schedule is determined by the requirements of the
primary payload.
In a piggyback mission the deployment of the primary payload will not be compro-
mised by the secondary payload. Additionally, the insurance costs for secondary
payloads may require additional cover for damage to the primary payload.
If the primary payload is much more valuable than the secondary one(s), then the
cost of this insurance may be prohibitive. These costs can be somewhat mitigated
by using certified launch adapters, as previously discussed, to isolate the secondary
payloads from the launch vehicle and primary payload.9
2.3 Launch Opportunity
Opportunity launches are free launches offered by space agencies or private

companies in order to collaborate with academic or research projects.
The opportunity launches of space agencies such as NASA or ESA, unfortunately,
are mostly destined for projects in the United States and countries of the European
Union respectively, for this reason the opportunities to get opportunity launches are
very few for emerging space countries. It is worth mentioning that most emerging
countries do not have their own launchers, so they depend on the help of more
developed countries to launch their satellites into space.
The opportunity launches are rideshare and piggyback types. These types of
launches are mainly made for low weight satellites, such as PicoSats, although there
are some free launch options for NanoSats.
Organizations that have free launch options are listed below.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
2.3.1 NASA
NASA’s CubeSat Launch Initiative provides opportunities for small satellite payloads
built by universities, high schools and non-profit organizations to fly on upcoming
launches. Through innovative technology partnerships, NASA provides these
CubeSat developers a low-cost pathway to conduct scientific investigations and tech-
nology demonstrations in space, thus enabling students, teachers and faculty to obtain
hands-on flight hardware development experience.10
2.3.2 United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs Cooperation
The goal of Access to Space for All by the United Nations Office for Outer Space
Affairs (UNOOSA) is to provide research and orbital opportunities to access space
and to ensure that the benefits of space, in particular for sustainable development,
are truly accessible to all. Several agreements were found in this purpose.
Avio S.p.A. (Avio)—Accessing Space with VEGA-C
Under Access to Space for All, UNOOSA and Avio S.p.A. (Avio) have joined forces
at the 74th Session of the UN General Assembly to announce an agreement to coop-
erate on providing institutions from UN Member States, in particular developing
countries, with the opportunity to apply to use, free of charge, satellite slots for 1 U
CubeSat or aggregates using a Vega-C rocket as launch vehicle.
The mission will be open to all Member States of the UN, and developing countries
are particularly encouraged to participate.11
Airbus Defence and Space GmbH—Accessing Space with the ISS

Bartolomeo Platform
UNOOSA is partnering with Airbus Defence and Space GmbH to offer UN Member
States the opportunity to accommodate a payload on the Airbus Bartolomeo external
platform on the ISS. The mission will be open to all Member States of the UN,
and developing countries are particularly encouraged to participate. The platform
will accommodate and operate payloads provided by institutions in the participating
countries. This mission is devoted to addressing the UN Sustainable Development
Goals.12
10 For more information: https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/home/CubeSats_initiative.

11 For more information: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/Vega-C/
Vega-C_Round1.html.
12 For more information: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/Bartolomeo/
Bartolomeo_Round1.html.
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency—Accessing Space with the ISS

Japanese Experiment Module KiboCUBE
The UN/Japan Cooperation Programme on CubeSat Deployment from the ISS

Japanese Experiment Module (Kibo) KiboCUBE is a programme of the UNOOSA in
collaboration with the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), which started
in 2015. KiboCUBE is the dedicated collaboration for utilizing the ISS Kibo for the
world. KiboCUBE aims to provide educational or research institutions from devel-
oping countries of UN membership with opportunities to deploy, from the ISS Kibo,
CubeSats which they develop and manufacture.
The deployment of CubeSats from ISS is easier than the direct deployment by a
launch vehicle thanks to the lower vibration environment during launch.13
2.3.3 Competitions
• The International Astronautics Federation (IAF) offers within a competition the

free launch of a CubeSat-type satellite. Although this competition is not held
every year it helps non-profit projects to be launched into space. The first prize of
the competition is the free launch service, in the bases of the competition it takes
into account the benefit that the project generates to emerging countries as well
as the planning of the space mission and the fulfillment of the project schedule.14
• ARIANESPACE is launching a contest for satellite projects by space technology
startups, labs or universities, in conjunction with the Viva Technology 2021
(VivaTech) innovation show. The winner will get a free launch of their satel-
lite on an ARIANESPACE rideshare mission. The main selection criterion will
be the satellite’s mission, which should improve life on Earth or advance human
knowledge. ARIANESPACE, the European launch services company, is orga-
nizing a contest in conjunction with the VivaTech international innovation show.
First prize will be a spot on a rideshare mission operated by ARIANESPACE, to
orbit the winning CubeSat-sized satellite.15
• In an effort to encourage more students to enter the aerospace field, United Launch
Alliance (ULA) offer free rides to orbit for small satellites built by universities.
• ULA, a partnership between the Boeing Co., and Lockheed Martin, provide up to
twelve berths on an Atlas 5 rocket for university teams that have CubeSats with
experimental payloads. They are used for low-cost experiments or to test new
technologies that may end up on larger spacecraft. The two launches slated so far
13 For more information: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/access2space4all/KiboCUBE/

KiboCUBE_Index.html.
14 For more information: http://gklaunch.ru/en/news/sapienza-university-of-rome-wins-free-1u-
cubesat-launch.
15 For more information: https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/arianespace-offers-ticket-
into-space-startup-or-lab.
will have berths for up to 24 CubeSats in a special carrier that is located in the
second stage of the rocket.16
2.4 Mission Phases and Reviews
According to the ECSS standard, a space mission consists of the following phases17 :
• Phase 0—Mission analysis/needs identification
• Phase A—Feasibility
• Phase B—Preliminary Definition
• Phase C—Detailed Definition
• Phase D—Qualification and Production
• Phase E—Utilization
• Phase F—Disposal
A typical project life cycle is illustrated in Fig. 8 where the phases mentioned
Fig. 8 Typical project life cycle (European Space Agency, “Space Project Management”, Stras-
bourg, France 2009)
16 For more information: https://spaceflightnow.com/2015/11/19/ula-says-it-will-launch-some-cub

esats-for-free.
17 European Space Agency, Space Project Management, Strasbourg, France, 2009.
above with their respective revisions are shown.

• MDR: Mission Definition Review
• PRR: Preliminary Requirements Review
• SRR: System Requirements Review
• PDR: Preliminary Design Review
• CDR: Critical Design Review
• QR: Qualification Review
• AR: Acceptance Review
• ORR: Operational Readiness Review
• FRR: Flight Readiness Review
• LRR: Launch Readiness Review
• PFAR: Flight Acceptance Review
The reviews ensure that the phases of the space mission are correctly executed.
This section will focus on Phase D reviews. This Phase D covers the assembly and
laboratory tests valid for the satellite to be accepted for placement in a launcher.18
2.4.1 Phase D Qualification and Production
Major Tasks
• Complete qualification testing and associated verification activities.

• Complete manufacturing, assembly and testing of flight hardware/software and
associated ground support hardware/software.
• Complete the interoperability testing between the space and ground segment.
• Prepare acceptance data package.19
Associated Reviews
There are three project reviews associated with Phase D

• The Qualification Review (QR) held during the course of the phase.
• The Acceptance Review (AR) held at the end of the phase. The outcome of this
review is used to judge the readiness of the product for delivery.
• The Operational Readiness Review (ORR), held at the end of the phase.20
2.4.2 Qualification Review
The primary objectives of this Qualification Review (QR) are:

19 Ibid.
• To confirm that the verification process has demonstrated that the design, including
margins, meets the applicable requirements.
• To verify that the verification record is complete at this and all lower levels in the
customer-supplier chain.
• To verify the acceptability of all waivers and deviations.
Where development encompasses the production of one or several recurring
products, the QR is completed by a functional configuration verification during
which:
• The first article configuration is analyzed from the viewpoint of reproducibility.
• The production master files for the series productions are released.
• The series production go-ahead file is accepted by the customer.21
2.4.3 Acceptance Review
The primary objectives of this Acceptance Review (AR) are:

• To confirm that the verification process has demonstrated that the product is free
of workmanship errors and is ready for subsequent operational use.
• To verify that the acceptance verification record is complete at this and all lower
levels in the customer-supplier chain.
• To verify that all deliverable products are available per the approved deliverable
items list.
• To verify the “as-built” product and its constituent components against the required
“as designed” product and its constituent components.
• To verify the acceptability of all waivers and deviations.
• To verify that the Acceptance Data Package is complete.
• To authorize delivery of the product.
• To release the certificate of acceptance.22
2.4.4 Operational Readiness Review
The primary objectives of this Operational Readiness Review (ORR) are:

• To verify readiness of the operational procedures and their compatibility with the
flight system.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
• To verify readiness of the operations teams.

• To accept and release the ground segment for operations.23
3 Conclusions
Despite launch opportunity problems, the future for developing countries in small
satellites is rosy. The change in mentality to the utility of small satellites was by no
means a small change. Developing the technology for smaller systems is only the
first step to enabling their implementation. Small satellite programmes require that
new organizational thinking be put in place. Cultural changes are needed as well,
both in the corporate sense and in attitudes of satellite builders.
Acquiring launches for projects developed in emerging countries is more impor-
tant due to the increase in projects. The more developed countries such as space
agencies and large companies should collaborate with the less developed countries, to
contribute to the technological development of emerging countries. Having more free
launches for academic space projects is a necessity to continue with the development
of space technology.
Rosalyn Puma-Guzman is an Industrial Engineer and Systems of “Universidad Privada Boli-

viana” (UPB), Bolivia. She works on Sur Aerospace (space and aeronautics projects company
in Bolivia) on the event organization and project management section. She has experience in
space outreach events. She worked on the organization of the first CanSat Bolivia Contest and in
CubeSat satellite projects for different universities. She is currently working on her final degree
project at UPB, concerning space systems, focused on satellite subsystems and the management
of space projects.
Jorge Soliz is a Mechanical Engineer with a Ph.D. degree in “Aerospace Science and Tech-
nology,” and a MSc degree in “Aerospace Engineering” from Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya,
España. He worked on projects such as Galactic Suite (space hotel), on space mission analysis;
UPCSAT 1, first satellite of the Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya (PicoSat, CubeSat 1U);
SSETI, “Student Space Exploration and Technology Initiative”, on design and construction of
satellites (sponsored by European Space Agency), as well as several research projects in Astro-
dynamics, and design of Nano and Picosat. Currently, he is professor at Universidad Privada
Boliviana (UPB), Bolivia, at the Exact Science Department.
23 Ibid.
Glass–Ceramic Protective Coating
for Satellite System as a Thermal
Insulator
Rafael Vargas-Bernal , Ana María Arizmendi-Morquecho ,

Jose Martín Herrera-Ramírez , and Bárbara Bermúdez-Reyes
Abstract CubeSat nanosatellite systems are thought to offer an accessible plat-

form for upper atmospheric and low orbit aerospace investigations. They enable the
development and testing of the performance of new materials and their production
techniques, as well as the design and improvement of structures. Ceramic coatings
are used as optical filters and thermal insulators when to apply to some aircraft
components. The mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of the substrate
are improved by a composed thin glass–ceramic coating reinforced with ceramic
nanoparticles. In this chapter, a glass–ceramic coating comprising a SiO2 matrix
enhanced with TiO2 nanoparticles is described. This coating was deposited on an
experimental 1/3U CubeSat made of Al6061-T6 alloy using the sol–gel process. A
meteorological balloon was used to lift the unit to a height of 32.000 m. Before and
after the flight, the nanohardness and Young’s modulus of the coating were evalu-
ated, and its morphology was examined using scanning electron microscopy. The
absorbance and reflectance of the coating were measured by UV/VIS spectroscopy.
The exterior and interior temperatures of the 1/3U CubeSat were also measured,
whose difference was an astounding two degrees.
R. Vargas-Bernal
Departamento de Ingeniería en Materiales, Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Irapuato, Irapuato,
Guanajuato, Mexico
e-mail: rafael.vb@irapuato.tecnm.mx
A. M. Arizmendi-Morquecho
Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados, Apodaca, Nuevo León, México
e-mail: ana.arizmendi@cimav.edu.mx
J. M. Herrera-Ramírez
Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Laboratorio Nacional de
Nanotecnología, Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
e-mail: martin.herrera@cimav.edu.mx
B. Bermúdez-Reyes (B)
Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California,
Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico
e-mail: barbara.bermudez.reyes@uabc.edu.mx
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97959-1_6
102 R. Vargas-Bernal et al.
1 Introduction
Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) are used in space missions that require hyper-
sonic atmospheric entry into a planetary system.1 The purpose of such a device
is to protect the spacecraft from the atmospheric frictional external heat load that
these high temperatures impose. A TPS lowers the transmission of heat into the
spacecraft from the hot surroundings and ionized bow shock layer, reducing the
temperature restrictions of the payload. It is required to create materials that have a
high average reflectance throughout a wide range of wavelengths to develop these
systems. Broadband, highly reflective, and dielectric materials with greater optical
and thermal properties than their constituents must be used in the design.
Glass–ceramic coatings have long been utilized in aerospace and space thermal
protection systems, such as re-entry vehicles (e.g., the Space Shuttle Orbiter).2
Other applications include preventing thermal damage to the combustion chamber of
engines during operation.3 They protect hypersonic motors against oxidation caused
by the heat breakdown of propellants, which produces atomic oxygen, other chemi-
cals, and residues.4 Deposition techniques for these systems include laser ablation,
thermal spraying, and radiofrequency (RF) sputtering, among others.5 Ceramic coat-
ings are employed in the above-mentioned applications due to properties such as
density and thermal stability of materials, which are subjected to temperatures above
2.000 °C.6 Polymers with optical properties like Kapton, or impact-resistant mate-
rials like Kevlar, are utilized for satellite thermal protection.7 Because of their good
resistance to high temperature and radiation, ceramics could be a suitable choice for
1 G. Christidis, U. Koch, E. Poloni, E. de Leo, B. Cheng, S.M. Koepfli, A. Dorodnyy, F. Bouville,

Y. Fedoryshyn, V. Shklover, and J. Leuthold. Broadband, High-Temperature Stable Reflector
for Aeroespace Thermal Radiation Protection, ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces, 2020, 12:
pp. 9925–9934.
2 T.E. Steyer. Shaping the Future of Ceramics for Aerospace Applications, International Journal
of Applied Ceramic Technology, 2013, 10: pp. 389–394.

3 R.A. Miller. Thermal Barrier Coatings for Aircraft Engines: History and Directions, Journal of
Thermal Spray Technology, 1997, 6: p. 35.

4 N.P. Padture. Advanced Structural Ceramics in Aerospace Propulsion, Nature Materials, 15 pp.,
2016, 804–809.
5 V. Kumar, K. Balasubramanian. Progress Update on Failure Mechanism of Advanced Thermal
Barrier Coating: A Review, Progress in Organic Coatings, 2016, 90: pp. 54–82.
6 A. Jankowiak, J.F. Justin, Ultra-High Temperature Ceramics for Aerospace Applications, In
Proceedings of ODAS 2014, Cologne, Germany. 11–13 June 2014.

7 G. Czeremuszkin, M.R. Wertheimer, J. Cerny, J.E. Klemberg-Sapieha, and L. Martinu, Plasma-
Deposited Coatings for the Protection of Spacecraft Materials against Atomic Oxygen Erosion, in
J. I. Kleiman and R.C. Tennyson (ed.), Protection of Materials and Structures from the Low Earth
Orbit Space Environment: Proceedings of ICPMSE-3, Third International Space Conference, held
in Toronto, Canada, 25–26 April 1996, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1999, pp. 139–153.
Glass–Ceramic Protective Coating for Satellite System … 103
the thermal protection of satellite systems.8 Screen printing, sol–gel, casting, and
other methods are used to apply a ceramic coating. Ceramics have the benefit of
being able to be treated as tridimensional solids, coatings, and thin films.9
Structures, coatings, tribology, structural health monitoring, electromagnetic
shielding, and shape memory are all applications where polymeric and ceramic mate-
rials shine.10 Mechanical, thermal, electrical, chemical, and bio-degradable capabil-
ities are all important in aircraft applications. Chemical properties like as corrosion
resistance or passivity are crucial. Aside from reduced weight, aircraft structures
must meet mechanical design requirements such as strength, stiffness, fatigue resis-
tance, impact resistance, and scratch resistance. Low solar absorption, low radia-
tion resistance, high thermal emissivity, and tunable electrical conductivity are also
advantages. Aerospace components are exposed to a variety of conditions, including
changes in humidity and temperature. Jet fuel, deicing fluids, and hydraulic fluids
all meet them. Coatings must be able to survive lightning strikes, ultraviolet (UV)
exposure, and degradation from 500 miles per hour dust impacts. A primer and a
topcoat are commonly used in aeronautical coatings. The primer offers adhesion
and corrosion protection to the substrate. For a decent appearance, the topcoat must
have a matte finish, flexibility, durability, chemical resistance, corrosion protection,
and a consistent color. Glass–ceramics are brittle and easily fractured materials.
Ceramics are not appropriate for most aircraft components because they are sensi-
tive to vibration and fatigue. Ceramics, on the other hand, are hard, inert, and stable
at greater temperatures. Ceramic materials have been given a lot of thought in terms
of stiffness. A ductile phase is introduced to ceramics to avoid fracture and improve
fracture strength and toughness. Ceramic materials such as Al2 O3 , TiO2 , SiO2 , ZrO2
can be used to develop applications with multifunctional properties and specifically
in coatings operating as dielectric layers, and anti-reflective coatings.11
CubeSats, which were originally designed as student-led initiatives at universities
and research institutions, today offer a unique possibility to gain access to space
fast and at a low cost.12 CubeSats are conventional, miniature satellites made up of
numerous identical pieces measuring as a multitude of one unit (1U) with roughly
11,35 × 10 × 10 cm and 1,33 kg) and consuming very little power (usually less
than a few Watts). Hundreds of CubeSats have already been launched to address
scientific, educational, technological, and commercial requirements. The creation of
lighter and stronger materials suitable for the space environment has been aided by
8 See Footnote 7.
9 C.J. Brinker, G.W. Scherer, Sol–Gel Science: The Physics and Chemistry of Sol–Gel Processing,
San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1990, pp. 746–780.
10 V.T. Rathod, J.S. Kumar, and A. Jain, Polymer and ceramic Nanocomposites for Aerospace
Applications, Applied Nanoscience, 2017, 7: pp. 519–548.

11 R. Subasri, and K.R.C. Soma Raju, Multifunctional Sol–Gel Nanocomposite Coatings for
Aerospace, Energy, and Strategic Applications: Challenges and Perspectives, in Yashwant R.

Mahajan and Roy Johnson (ed.), Handbook of Advanced Ceramics and Composites: Defense,
Security, Aerospace and Energy Applications, Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2020, pp. 1413–1442.
12 F. Arneodo, A. Di Giovanni, and P. Marpu, A Review of Requirements for Gamma Radiation
Detection in Space using CubeSats, Applied Sciences, 2021, 11: p. 2659.

technological advancements that have resulted in the miniaturization of components.

Using CubeSats as a platform gives up new opportunities for low-cost testing of
novel satellite sensing and testing systems. CubeSat-type satellite structures provide
a low-cost platform for aerospace experiments, such as structural design, payload,
materials, communication, antennas, and so on.13
In this research, a glass–ceramic coating to protect satellite systems was devel-
oped, which was made using the sol–gel process with the addition of ceramic nanopar-
ticles, with the advantage that no special conditions (high temperature, vacuum, etc.)
were needed to obtain a well-controlled thickness and homogeneous coating. Good
thermal properties are expected with the use of ceramic nanoparticles. The chapter has
been divided as follows: Sect. 1 presents the introduction pointing out the relevance
of the development of coatings for satellites such as CubeSats. A brief description
of space weather is provided in Sect. 2. In Sect. 3, an introduction to meta-materials,
the materials that are the object of study of this application, is presented. The mate-
rials and procedures used for the development of these glass–ceramic materials are
described in Sect. 4. In Sect. 5 the analysis of the results and their discussion are
carried out. Finally, in Sect. 6, the conclusions of this work are presented.
2 Space Weather
Space weather is the real-time measurement and analysis of the sun and its inter-
planetary, magnetosphere, atmosphere, and surface interaction, which has an impact
on infrastructure, technology, and society.14 Unfortunately, space weather causes
negative effects on Earth’s technological systems, some of which are: radiation dose
that degrades microelectronics and materials, unique effects of energetic particles,
the electrical charge in insulating materials, and electrostatic discharges.15 The fore-
going implies damage and interference to aircraft, satellites, communication systems,
terrestrial electrical networks, oil, and gas pipelines, etc. In the case of satellites, they
are susceptible to space weather, especially to cosmic radiation, presenting opera-
tional anomalies in the communication, navigation, and remote perception systems,16
due to damages in the payload and materials.
13 A. Huang, S. Janson, H. Helvajian, A Mass-Producible Glass/Ceramic Micropropulsion Unit for

a Co-Orbiting Satellite Assistant (COSA) Mission, in H. Helvajian and S. Janson (Eds.), Small
Satellites: Past, Present and Future, AIAA/The Aerospace Press, 2009, pp. 559–593.
14 Space Weather Impacts on Climate, Space Weather Prediction Center, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/impacts/space-weather-impacts-climate,

(review on 25 October 2021).
15 J.L. Roeder and V.K. Jordanovab, Space Weather Effects and Prediction, in V.K. Jorndanova, R.
Ilie and M.W. Chen (ed.), Ring Current Investigations: The Quest for Space Weather Prediction,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2020, pp. 245–269.
16 D.N. Baker, Satellite Anomalies due to Space Storms, In I.A. Daglis (ed.), Space Storms and
Space Weather Hazards, NATO Science Series (Series II: Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry),
Vol. 38, Springer, Dordrecht, 2001, pp. 285–287.
Table 1 Space weather causes and effects on satellite materials

Space weather causes Effects on satellites materials
Total ionizing doses (TID) Degradation of microelectronics materials
Displacement damage dose (DDD) Degradation of optical components materials
Degradation of solar cells
Single-event effects (SEE) Data corruption
Noise on images
System shut down
Electronics components damage
Surface erosion Degradation of thermal, electric, and optical properties
Degradation of structural integrity
Surface charging Biasing of instruments readings
Power drains
Physical damage
Internal changing Biasing of instruments readings
Electrical discharge
Physical damage
Structure impacts Structural damage
Decompression
Satellite drags Torques
Orbital decay
Therefore, the materials that make up the satellites are subject to the effects of
cosmic radiation, as shown in Table 1.17
According to Table 1, most of the materials used in the manufacture of satellite
systems degrade and are reflected in the operability. Therefore, materials for space
use must have a good tolerance to cosmic radiation and have barriers, cladding, or
coatings that protect the entire system from the effects of cosmic radiation.18,19 Table
2 shows some materials resistant to cosmic radiation.
Currently, silica in the glass phase is used to embed the circuits of the useful
charge.20 It is for this reason that this work deals with a protective coating of a
glass matrix resistant to cosmic radiation and thermal changes for a satellite system.
17 Y. Zheng, N.Y. Ganushkina, P. Jiggens, I. Jun, M. Meier, J.I. Minow, T.P. O’Brien, D. Pitchford, Y.
Shprits, W.K. Tobiska, M.A. Xapsos, T.B. Guild, J.E. Mazur, and M.M. Kuznetsova, Space Radiation
and Plasma Effects on Satellites and Aviation: Quantities and Metrics for Tracking Performance of
Space Weather Environment Models, Space Weather, 2019, 17: pp. 1384–1403.
18 E. Poiré, H. Richards, and W. Peruzzini, Materials Exposure in Low Earth Orbit 2 (Meleo 2):
An Update, in J.I. Kleiman and R.C. Tennyson (ed.), Protection of Materials and Structures from
the Low Earth Orbit Space Environment: Proceedings of ICPMSE-3, Third International Space
Conference, held in Toronto, Canada, 25–26 April 1996. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1999, pp. 189–201.
19 W.Q. Lohmeyer and K. Cahoy, Space Weather Radiation Effects on Geostationary Satellite
Solid-State Power Amplifiers, Space Weather, 2013, 11: pp. 476–488.

20 Y. Liu, and X. Zhang, Metamaterials: A New Frontier of Science and Technology, Chem. Soc.
Rev., 2011, 40: pp. 2494–3507.

Table 2 Materials resistant to cosmic radiation

Material Doses (rad)
Nylon 105 –106
Silver-Teflon 106 –107
Neoprene 106 –107
Natural Caucho 106 –107
Mylar 107 –108
Polyethylene 107 –108
Silicon grease 108 –109
Kapton 109 –1010
Carbon 109 –1010
Optical glass (silica) 5 × 108 to 5 × 1010
Molten glass (silica) 109 –1010
Quartz 109 –1010
Note 1 rad = 100 erg/g (absorbed radiation dose)
Consequently, this work uses a vitreous matrix as a protective coating resistant to

cosmic radiation and thermal changes for satellite systems.
3 Meta-Materials
Meta-materials are smart materials with a wide range of physical properties that
distinguish them from one another, therefore there is no such thing as a definition for
them. However, they all have one thing in common: they are artificially created. This
means they are manufactured by people and are not found in nature. The extraor-
dinary electromagnetic properties of these materials are due to their structure and
arrangement rather than their composition. This is comparable to what happens with
graphite, diamond, and graphene, which are all made of carbon but have highly
distinct properties due to their individual structures. One of the features that mate-
rials can differ in is their refractive index, which can be negative. As a result, these
materials are extremely important in optics and electromagnetism. At certain wave-
lengths, these materials can make objects more visible or invisible. The wavelength
of the light determines whether it is UV, infrared (IR), or visible (VIS). For example,
if you make a fabric with meta-materials that covers an apple at the visible wave-
length, the apple will vanish from view and one will see what’s on the other side.
Negative refractive index, sub-diffraction limited imaging, high optical activity in
chiral materials, meta-atom interaction, and transformation optics are some of the
fascinating phenomena and applications related to metamaterials.
Electrical permittivity (ε) and magnetic permeability (μ) are the two funda-
mental factors in electromagnetism that characterize a medium’s electromagnetic
Fig. 1 Classification of materials according to their electromagnetic properties
property. Permittivity (permeability) is a physical property that defines how an elec-

tric (magnetic) field influences a medium and is affected by it. It is determined by
a material’s ability to polarize in response to an electric (magnetic) field. Figure 1
summarizes all conceivable material classes based on electromagnetic properties.
The materials in Quadrant I (in the upper right region) have both positive permit-
tivity and permeability, which includes most dielectric materials. Metals, ferroelectric
materials, and doped semiconductors in Quadrant II may have negative permittivity
at certain frequencies (below the plasma frequency). Quadrant IV includes ferrite
materials with negative permeability, although their magnetic response fades rapidly
above microwave frequencies. Quadrant III is the most intriguing, as both permit-
tivity and permeability are negative at the same time. There is no such material in
nature.
Optical meta-materials are materials not occurring naturally with a negative refrac-
tive index.21 They are composed of self-assembled elements that are smaller than
the wavelength of IR, UV and VIS light and interact with it interestingly. These can
be used in super-resolution imaging or cloaking and are difficult to make because
they must have a wavelength less than 100 nm or smaller for working with visible
wavelengths. In the design of meta-materials that operate as plasmonic waveguides
21J.B. Pendry, and D. Smith, Reversing Light with Negative Refraction, Physics Today, 2004, 57:
pp. 37–43.
Fig. 2 Uncoated 1/3U

CubeSat structure
in the VIS and UV spectral range, ceramic materials such as titanium oxides (TiO2 )
and silicon oxide (SiO2 ) are being used.22,23
4 Materials and Procedures
4.1 First Stage: Conditioning of the CubeSat
A experimental CubeSat construction as 1/3U CubeSat (approximately 0,34 cm ×

10 cm × 10 cm and 0,4 kg) made of Al6061-T6 alloy was built. This material is
considered appropriate for use in aircraft components since it has excellent joining
characteristics and good acceptance of coatings. Besides, it combines good work-
ability and high resistance to corrosion, in addition to being widely available. The
artificial aging and heat treatment solution (T6) provides the alloy with relatively
high strength. As can be observed in Fig. 2, the 1/3U CubeSat was superficially
22 R. Maas, E. Verhagen, J. Parsons, and A. Polman, Negative Refractive Index and Higher-Order
Harmonics in Layered Metallodielectric Optical Metamaterials, ACS Photonics, 2014, 1: pp. 670–
676.
23 B. Gholipour, D. Piccinotti, A. Karvounis, K.F. MacDonald, and N.I. Zheludev, Reconfigurable
Ultraviolet and High-Energy Visible Dielectric Metamaterials, Nano Letters, 2019, 19: pp. 1643–
1648.
polished with SiC emery paper up to grit 2.000 and then using a 1-µm diamond
paste to get a mirror finishing.
The proposed glass–ceramic coating was deposited on Al6061-T6 alloy using a
dip-coating sol–gel process. The raw materials used in the coating synthesis were
tetraethyl orthosilicate (Sigma Aldrich), ethylic absolute alcohol (Baker), and deion-
ized water in a 4:4:1 ratio, with 5 vol.% HNO3 as a catalyst. As a particulate rein-
forcing material, 3 wt% of hydrophilic titania (TiO2 ) nanoparticles were added. To
achieve a thin and homogeneous layer, the coating was deposited using the dip-
coating technique at a removal rate of 0.25 mm/min. The coating was dried at
180 °C and then sintered at 300 °C using a conventional muffle. The absorbance and
reflectance of the coating were measured by UV/VIS in the range of 300–700 nm
using an Evolution 220 UV–VIS spectrophotometer from Thermo Scientific with an
integration sphere ISA 220. The surface morphology and quality of the coating were
examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) using a JEOL JSM-6510LV
microscope; high vacuum and secondary electrons at 10.000× magnifications were
used. The hardness and Young’s modulus were determined using a CSM Instruments-
NHT2 Nanoindenter with a Berkovich diamond tip and the Oliver-Pharr method; a
load of 5 mN, a loading/unloading rate of 10 mN/min, and a dwell time of 2 s were
used.
4.2 Second Stage: Installation of the CubeSat Sensors
The temperature of the 1/3U CubeSat was measured using thermistors with a
measuring accuracy of 0.5 °C. The sensors were distributed as follows: one placed
inside, another suspended in the center, and the other two attached to two of the
lateral faces (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Sensors array with coating on a 1/3 U CubeSat

4.3 Third Stage: The Flight of the CubeSat
The experiment was carried out with a latex meteorological balloon with a load
capacity of up to 3 kg; the balloon had a maximum diameter of 12 m before bursting.
A conventional radio amateurs system (Automatic Packet Reporting System, APRS)
was utilized to track the payload in flight and recover it. The 1/3U CubeSat was
placed external to the main load to measure the outside and inside temperatures,
causing no interference with other subsequent experiments carried out throughout
the flight (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Before the flight: the main cargo, and the 1/3U CubeSat
Fig. 5 UV/VIS spectra of SiO2 -TiO2
5 Results and Discussion
Before clamping the temperature sensors into the structure, the surface of the SiO2 -
TiO2 composed coating was characterized to determine its homogeneity and unifor-
mity. The coating seemed translucent at first inspection, giving the entire structure a
mirror-like aspect.
Figure 5 depicts a graph of the SiO2 -TiO2 coating absorbance and reflectance
UV/VIS spectra, which reveal that the silica matrix is transparent in the range of 300–
700 nm, with broadband of 410 and 625 nm corresponding to the TiO2 nanoparticles.
According to these results, the coating behaves like a Metamaterial Perfect Absorber
(MPA). Fu et al. state that this spectral behavior correlates to a transparent MPA,
with the MPA signal increasing as more layers of the coating are applied.24
Figure 6a depicts a micrograph of the coating surface before the flight, which
was a homogeneously applied clean surface of Al6061-T6 inclusions visible in the
background. However, the coating is not visible in this mode, hence a chemical
mapping image (Fig. 6b) was acquired, which illustrates the distribution of the TiO2
nanoparticles in the SiO2 matrix. Figure 6c shows the surface of the coating after
peeling off the Kapton tape that held the external sensors during the flight, which is
found to be homogeneous and with some Kapton tape residues. Figure 6d shows the
corresponding chemical mapping image, which presents TiO2 nanoparticles scattered
into the SiO2 matrix, verifying that the coating was homogeneously applied to the
Al6061-T6 substrate. The coating has a thickness of 1 µm, Young’s modulus of
24S.M. Fu, Y.K. Zhong, M.H. Tu, B.R. Chen, and A. Lin, A Fully Functionalized Metamaterial
Perfect Absorber with Simple Design and Implementation, Scientific Reports, 2016, 6: p. 36244.
Fig. 6 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of a the coating surface and b the chemical
mapping coating before the flight, and c the coating surface and d the chemical mapping coating
after the flight
217.02 GPa, and a nanohardness of 1.72 GPa. Comparing these values with those of
the Al6061-T6 substrate (E = 70 GPa, nanohardness = 1.3 GPa), it is evident that
the glass–ceramic coating improved the mechanical properties of the system.
Osborne et al. found that the application of noncolored or transparent glass–
ceramic coatings on aluminum alloys for aerospace applications showed out to be
homogeneous and with good adherence to substrates.25 Voevodin et al. discovered
that thin non-crystalline coatings with nanoparticle reinforcement act as encapsu-
lating materials on metal substrates with an abrupt interface, stating that this protects
the metal from the environment, collisions, and high failure resistance due to laminar
25J.H. Osborne, K.Y. Blohowiak, S.R. Taylor, C. Hunter, G. Bierwagon, B. Carlson, D. Bernard,
and M.S. Donley, Testing and Evaluation of Nonchromated Coating Systems for Aerospace
Applications, Progress in Organic Coatings, 2001, 41: pp. 217–225.
Fig. 7 Temperature versus time graph recorded throughout the flight of 1/3U CubSat
deflections.26 On the other hand, Herrera-Arroyave et al. found that a thin amor-
phous silica-based ceramic coating (glass) acts mechanically as if it were a part of
the metallic substrate.27 .
Figure 7 depicts a graph of the temperature as a function of the time, which
was acquired throughout the flight the 1/3U CubeSat performed up to 32.000 m.
The outdoor sensors recorded a temperature of −59 °C, while the internal sensor
recorded a temperature of −57 °C. As a result, the inner part of the system is only
2 °C warmer than the outside environment. This evidence that the developed coating
was effective in isolating the system.
According to Monteverde et al., ceramics for high-temperature applications are
used in aerospace re-entry and hypersonic vehicles, due to their hardness, high emis-
sivity, and resilience to thermal shocks.28 On the other hand, Cao et al. discovered
that thin silica coatings have a high coefficient of thermal expansion, good adhesion,
26 A.A. Voevodin, and J.S. Zabinski, Nanocomposite and Nanostructured Tribological Materials
for Space Applications, Composite Science and Technology, 2005, 65: pp. 741–748.
27 J.E. Herrera-Arroyave, B. Bermúdez-Reyes, J.A. Ferrer-Pérez, and A. Colín, Cubesat System
Structural Design, Proceedings of the 67th International Astronautical Congress, IAC 2016,
Guadalajara, Jalisco, 26–30 September 2016.
28 F. Monteverde, A. Bellosi, and L. Scatteia, Processing and Properties of Ultra-High Temperature
Ceramics for Space Applications, Materials Science and Engineering A, 2008, 485: pp. 415–421.
and low porosity, allowing aerospace systems to be isolated from the outside temper-
ature.29 For solar applications, Pettit and Brinker developed silica-based coatings
obtained by the sol–gel process, which operate as a thermal barrier coating.30 They
discovered that a coating applied on a noncolored or darkened metallic substrate led
the temperature to be a few degrees lower than the ambient temperature.
One of the advantages of glass–ceramic coatings with TiO2 nanoparticle rein-
forcement is that they are transparent, have good resistance to impacts, and have
chiral optical properties that allow negative refractive indices, characteristic of meta-
materials.31 On the other hand, the sol–gel technique is a process that allows the incor-
poration of functionalized and non-functionalized nanometric ceramic materials,
which makes the vitreous matrix versatile for various applications such as coating.32
As they are transparent coatings, the incorporated nanoparticles confer mechanical
properties that allow coupling with the mechanical properties of the substrate as armor
and electromagnetics shielding.33 According to the above, a composite meta-material
(metal-ceramic or ceramic-ceramic, etc.) can transfer mechanical properties through
spaces between materials (abrupt interfaces).34 It should be noted that the interface
between the SiO2 -TiO2 coating and the substrate is abrupt (the coating encapsu-
lates the substrate), and according to the simulation of the mechanical compres-
sion of the coating on the satellite structure, it behaves the same as the substrate.
Regarding the application of meta-materials in the space area, they are used as noise
attenuators (vibrations), dissipators of variable thermal fluxes to protect the payload
(passive thermal systems and circuit embedders) and in stress-assisted corrosion
in components subjected to extreme vibrations and environments.35 As for thermal
meta-materials type for space, the application can be a cloak (eliminating thermal
gradient), concentrator (increasing heat flux), rotator (change of direction of temper-
ature gradient), and camouflage (make one object appear to have another property)
and then depend on the material application technique, composition, and thermal
29 X.Q. Cao, R. Vassen, and D. Stoever, Ceramic Materials for Thermal Barrier Coatings, Journal
of the European Ceramic Society, 2004, 24: pp. 1–10.
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Nature Materials, 2012, 11: pp. 460–467.
32 G. Gorni, J.J. Velázquez, J. Mosa, R. Balda, J. Fernández, A. Durán, and Y. Castro, Transparent
Glass–Ceramics Produced by Sol–Gel: A Suitable Alternative for Photonic Materials, Materials,

2018, 11(2): p. 212.
33 P.J. Patel, G.A. Gilde, P.G. Dehmer, and J.W. McCauley, “Transparent ceramics for armor and
EM window applications,” in Proc. SPIE 4102, Inorganic Optical Materials II, San Diego, CA,
United States, 25 October 2000.
34 M. Bayindir, K. Aydin, E. Ozbay, P. Markos, and C.M. Soukoulis, Transmission Properties of
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35 I. Bashir, and M. Carley, Development of 3D Boundary Element Method for the Simulation
of Acoustic Metamaterials/Metasurfaces, in Mean Flow for Aerospace Applications, International

Journal of Aeroacoustics, 2020, 19(6–8): pp. 324–346.
environment conditions (conduction, convection, or radiation).36 According to the

results obtained from the experimental suborbital flight that was carried out, the
coating was reported as a cloak-type meta-material, due to the small temperature
gradient that was recorded.
6 Conclusions
A transparent coating based on a glass–ceramic reinforced with TiO2 ceramic

nanoparticles was successfully deposited on Al6061-T6 alloy. The coating showed to
have a very good performance, which was validated through mechanical and thermal
properties before, during, and after the flight of the device. Both Young’s modulus
and hardness of the substrate of Al6061-T6 were increased with the application
of the coating. The difference in temperature between the exterior and interior of
the 1/3U CubeSat structure was found to be 2 °C. This indicates that the devel-
oped coating has good thermal performance, especially taking into account that the
aluminum substrate used is a good thermal conductor and that there were no other
coatings or coloration on the substrate. As a consequence, it has been determined that
a glass–ceramic coating reinforced with TiO2 nanoparticles might be employed as a
thermal shock protective coating in aerospace applications. However, more testing
and improvements to the MPA signal are required to have conclusive results.
7 Future Work
As work in the future, it is intended to make multilayer coatings to increase the MPA
signal. Wear tests (tribological) will be carried out to know the resistance to friction
wear. It is considered to perform vibration, thermal vacuum, and electromagnetic
compatibility tests at a payload in which the glass–ceramic coating reinforced with
TiO2 nanoparticles is applied to a solid-wall CubeSat-type structure to determine the
thermal meta-material could be.
Acknowledgements The authors thank Mexican Service Gondola (CSM) that was in charge of
the flight and Remtronic Telecominicaciones Company for providing the facilities for the flight
in León City. Thanks are also due to the Guanajuato State Amateur Radio Club for its invaluable
support for the successful accomplishment of this mission, as well as to the National Space Science
and Technology Thematic Network (REDCyTE). They are also grateful to the following people for
their technical support in obtaining and characterizing the coating: Dr. Edgar Cruz-Valeriano from
CINVESTAV-Qro and Dr. Pedro Pizá Ruiz from CIMAV-Chihuahua.
36 S.R. Sklan, and B. Li, Thermal Metamaterials: Functions and Prospects,e Natl. Sci. Rev., 2018,
5(2): pp. 138–141.

Dr. Rafael Vargas-Bernal received his D.Sc. in Electronic Engineering from the INAOE,
Tonantzintla, Puebla, Mexico, in 2000. He is associate professor in the Materials Engineering
Department from Instituto Tecnológico Superior de Irapuato, in Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico. He
is a researcher of the National System of Researchers from Mexico with level I. Also, he belongs
to the research group called “Advanced Materials Applied to Engineering”. He has been a reviewer
in journals for RSC, Elsevier, Wiley, MDPI, Hindawi, and IEEE. He has published 13 articles
in indexed journals and 32 chapters in books. His areas of interest are nanomaterials, aerospace
materials, composites, and gas sensors.
Dr. Ana Arizmendi has a M.Sc. in Commercialization of Science and Technology (CIMAV-
University of Texas, USA joint program) and a Ph.D. in Sciences in Metallurgical and Ceramic
Engineering from CINVESTAV-IPN Mexico. Since 2008 she has been working at Advanced
Materials Research Center (CIMAV Monterrey) as a full-time researcher. Her main research lines
the design, synthesis, and characterization of metal matrix nanocomposites and nanostructured
coatings with emphasis on industrial applications. Her current activities include the development
of frontier and applied research projects in Materials Science and Nanotechnology, authorship of
scientific papers and the formation of specialized human resources.
Dr. Jose Martin Herrera-Ramirez accomplished a B.Sc. in Military Industrial Engineering,

an MSc in Metallurgical Engineering and a Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering. He
worked at General Directorate of Military Industry, holding various positions including the head
of the Applied Research Center and Technology Development for the Military Industry. Then he
joined Research Center for Advanced Materials as a full-time researcher. He holds the distinc-
tion of National Researcher Level II (SNI-CONACYT). His current research focuses mainly on
the development of metallic alloys and composites. He has authored around 130 publications and
supervised doctoral, master, and bachelor thesis.
Dr. Barbara Bermudez-Reyes studied her Ph.D. in Metallurgy Science and Materials Science in
IIM-UMSNH. Shue Acomplisher MSc. In Materials Sciences by CINIVESTAV-Qro. She is full-
time research professor at Autonomous University of Baja California. She was General Secretary
of the University Space Engineering Consortium-Mexico Chapter for the period 2014–2019 and
She is member of Space Science and Technology Network. She has collaborated in projects with
Mexican Air Force and has evaluated projects of Mexican Naval Research Institute. She holds the
distinction of National Researcher Lever I. Her research line is aerospace materials and structures.

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Southern Space Studies

Series Editor: Annette Froehlich

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/16025

Space Fostering Latin

ISSN 2523-3718 ISSN 2523-3726 (electronic)

What is Brazil Doing to Develop Its Commercial Space Program? . . . . . . 1

Ian Grosner , Adriana Simões, and Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

In an ever-evolving society, space exploration is one of the keys to the development

2 History of the Alcântara Launch Center (CLA)

3 General Space Legislation in Brazil

4 Andrade, Cruz, Hillebrand and Soares, “O Centro de Lançamento de Alcântara”, 19.

4 The Brazilian Space Program Development Committee

24 Presidential Decree No. 9,279, of 6 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-

The CDPEB may set up technical groups to prepare studies on:

5 Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020

Fig. 1 Credits: AEB

6 Public Call I and II

As a result of Cooperation Agreement No. 01/2020, described above, AEB made

28 Public Call 2. AEB Official website: www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro/cha

6.1 The I Public Call (2020)

31 Presidential Decree No. 9,283, of 7 February 2018. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2015-

Fig. 2 The former Sonda IV

Fig. 3 The suborbital

tions, Presidency of the Republic (gov.br), April 2021, www.gov.br/planalto/pt-br/acompanhe-o-pla

6.2 The II Public Call (2021)

Fig. 6 Annex I of the Notice AEB No. 07/2021

46 Presidential Decree No. 10,469, of 19 August 2020. www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2019-

7 AEB Ordinance No. 698/2021

7.1 Operator’s License

The Operator’s License regulation is applicable to legal entities headquartered or

52 Until the closing of this edition.

legal representation with powers to receive subpoenas and respond administratively

7.2 Launch Authorization

59 REB Part 01, of 2021, pp. 5–6.

66 REB Part 02, of 2021, p. 7.

Innospace will operate in Brazil through international cooperation with a focus on

8 U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agreement

Globalization through its technological advances connects contemporary society in

United States of America (U.S.) in the U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards Agree-

nology Safeguards Agreement, February 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/centrais-de-conteudo/public

9 Artemis Accords—Space Resources—The Hague

80 Presidential Decree No. 10,220, of 5 February 2020 - U.S.-Brazil Technology Safeguards

83 The Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group, www.universiteitlei

national jurisdiction and can be accessed by everyone. Furthermore, this classifi-

87 Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro, International Governance of Space Resources: Regulatory

Celestial Bodies), 5 december 1979, www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/moon-

Perspectives (Master’s Degree Dissertation - University Catholic of Santos), 13 October 2021.

As mentioned, the logic of the program operates through bilateral agreements

91 Building Blocks (BB): www.universiteitleiden.nl/binaries/content/assets/rechtsgeleerdheid/ins

Cooperation with First Signings of Artemis Accords, 13 October 2020, www.nasa.gov/press-rel

Space Program, 4 September 2020, www.gov.br/aeb/pt-br/programa-espacial-brasileiro

97 Marina Stephanie Ramos Huidobro, International Governance of Space Resources: Regulatory

Carlos Caballero León

C. Caballero León (B)

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 27

In five years of satellite operation, CONIDA has developed important capabil-

2 Office of Multiannual Investment Programming, “Gap Indicators: Percentage of Localities with at

2 Argentina and the Program ARSAT

2.1 Space Business

Table 1 General Information on ARSAT-1 and ARSAT-2

2.2 Synergy Between Manufacturer and Satellite Operator

5 INVAP, “ARSAT Satellites”, www.invap.com.ar/es/espacial-y-gobierno/proyectos-espaciales/sat