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Digital image correlation analysis of crack behavior in a reinforced concrete

beam during a load test

Article  in  Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering · February 2011

DOI: 10.1139/l06-106

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1418

Digital image correlation analysis of crack

behavior in a reinforced concrete beam during a
load test
Michel Küntz, Marc Jolin, Josée Bastien, Fabien Perez, and François Hild

Abstract: A displacement-measuring technique using digital image cross-correlation was applied to study the in situ
behavior of a shear crack in a reinforced concrete beam during a bridge static load test. A numerical approach allowed
measurement of the displacement field at the location of the crack on a 110 mm × 130 mm surface with a resolution
of the order of 10 µm. Results of the analysis indicate that crack loading varies significantly with load position and se-
quence of applications to the structure. These results further indicate that damage cannot be attributed to the repetition
of a single load cycle, as is often the case. The findings should improve the understanding of the fatigue behavior of
reinforced concrete structures under operating conditions.
Key words: displacement field, crack opening displacement, digital image correlation, static loading test, fatigue, dura-
bility, reinforced concrete, monitoring.
Résumé : Une technique d’analyse du champ de déplacement basée sur le principe d’intercorrélation d’images numéri-
ques a été utilisée pour étudier le comportement in situ d’une fissure de cisaillement dans une poutre de béton armé
endommagée au cours d’un essai de chargement statique sur un pont. Une approche numérique d’analyse d’image a
permis de reconstituer l’évolution du champ de déplacement associé à la fissure sur une surface de 110 mm × 130 mm
avec une résolution de l’ordre de 10 µm. Les résultats de l’analyse d’image indiquent que la façon dont la fissure est
sollicitée varie de façon significative en fonction de la position du chargement et de son cheminement sur le tablier du
pont. Ces résultats indiquent que le dommage ne peut être attribué à la répétition d’un seul cycle de charge, comme
c’est souvent le cas. Les informations dégagées devraient contribuer à améliorer la compréhension du comportement en
fatigue des structures de béton armé en conditions de service.
Mots clés : champ de déplacement, ouverture de fissures, corrélation d’images numériques, essai de chargement sta-
tique, rupture en fatigue, durabilité, structures en béton armé, télésurveillance.

Küntz et al. 1425

1. Introduction
The Saint-Marcel bridge is a two-lane reinforced concrete
structure built in 1944. This single-span structure, made of
two cast-in-place beams and a deck, is approximately 23 m
long and 7 m wide and presents a skew of 56° (Fig. 1). A vi-
sual inspection of the bridge carried out in June 1997 identi-
fied a number of damaged elements. These observations
indicated potential concerns for serviceability and structural
safety. In particular, inspectors noted the presence of several
shear cracks, the widest (-1 mm) located in the north beam
near the eastern abutment of the bridge. Since immediate
Received 26 July 2005. Revision accepted 11 July 2006.
Published on the NRC Research Press Web site at
http://cjce.nrc.ca on 24 January 2007.
M. Küntz, M. Jolin1, J. Bastien, and F. Perez. CRIB,
Department of Civil Engineering, Université Laval, Québec
City, QC G1K 7P4, Canada.
F. Hild. LMT-Cachan, ENS de Cachan, CNRS-UMR 8535,
Université Paris 6, F-94235 Cachan CEDEX, France.
Written discussion of this article is welcomed and will be
received by the Editor until 31 March 2007.
1
Corresponding author (e-mail: marc.jolin@gci.ulaval.ca).
Can. J. Civ. Eng. 33: 1418–1425 (2006) doi:10.1139/L06-106
failure was not expected, and taking into account the local
importance of the road, the bridge was posted for load re-
striction and was later reduced to one central traffic lane. To
guarantee user safety and preserve the structural integrity of
the bridge, a complete electronic monitoring system was in-
stalled to assess the structural behavior of the bridge and
monitor the progression of any damage. The sensor system
and the objectives of this remote monitoring program have
recently been described by Savard (2002).
Shear cracks being a main concern of the engineers re-
sponsible for the monitoring, displacement transducers were
attached to five of the main cracks to detect unwanted move-
ments and eventually the early signs of failure. Unfortu-
nately, a single displacement transducer measures only
normal crack displacement (referred to hereinafter as open-
ing), as illustrated in Fig. 2, which means it does not provide
complete information on the real relative displacement of the
crack face under service loads. Consequently, displacements
parallel to the crack plane are not factored into the opening
read by the displacement transducer, possibly missing im-
portant information. The objective of this study is therefore
to gather information reflecting the real loading conditions
of a shear crack under service loads. This first step will pro-
vide information fundamental to the understanding of the
behavior of a damaged member under a complete loading
© 2006 NRC Canada
Küntz et al.
Fig. 1. Geometry of the Saint-Marcel bridge and locations of paths and stop positions for the load test.
Fig. 2. Schematics of the limitations of a single displacement
transducer for the evaluation of displacements along a shear
crack.
cycle and thus hopefully yield new insights to evaluate the
risk of fatigue failure.
Section 2 of the paper describes the field testing proce-
dure. Section 3 summarizes the basic principles of image
correlation, including a description of the equipment and ex-
perimental field procedure used to acquire digital images of
the loaded area. A brief review of the correlation algorithm
1419
applied in the kinematic analysis is also presented. Section 4
presents the displacement measurements for the different
load cases introduced in Sect. 3. A comparison with the dis-
placement transducer measurements is discussed to validate
the image correlation method and estimate the accuracy of
the results. Section 5 summarizes the main contributions of
this displacement analysis to a global understanding of the
behavior of the Saint-Marcel bridge.
2. Field tests
The load tests were carried out by the Quebec Ministry of
Transportation in October 2003. Trucks were placed along
four longitudinal corridors, each with nine regularly spaced
stop positions (Fig. 1). Two dump trucks weighing 247.5 and
256.8 kN were used during the test and were typical ten-
wheelers, with one front axle and two rear axles. Figure 1 il-
lustrates that for path A, the trucks traversed the bridge
structure from west to east over the southern beam. Path C
ran from east to west over the northern beam. Paths B and B′
were centred on the deck, with path B running west to east
and path B′ running east to west. Initially, each path was
traveled by only one truck, and then by two trucks in tan-
dem. The rear truck axle defined the stop positions. Dis-
placements and strains were measured by the different
sensors installed on the structure for each path position and
were recorded for later analysis.
Similar field tests performed on the structure in the au-
tumn of 2001 provided data suggesting that, among the five
shear cracks that have been instrumented (see Fig. 3b), the
largest displacement occurred at crack 5 located at the east
end of the north beam; the crack opening was seen to reach
© 2006 NRC Canada
1420 Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 33, 2006

Fig. 3. (a) Comparison of the evolution of the opening of the instrumented cracks of the Saint-Marcel bridge measured on path C dur-
ing the 2001 and 2003 load tests. (b) Schematic view of the monitoring system and damage distribution along both girders. All dimen-
sions in millimetres. INT., interior; Pot, potentiometer.

more than 40 µm as the test truck was moving along path C. tests can be found in the reports by Jolin and al. (2003) and
It was then decided to conduct the digital image analysis ex- Perron (2004). The data collected during the 2003 testing
periment on this fracture to maximize the chance of obtain- confirm the observations previously made on crack 5, as
ing reliable data. Note that more detailed data on these 2001 presented in Fig. 3a: the widest opening was once again re-

© 2006 NRC Canada

Küntz et al.
corded along crack 5. The crack is visible on both faces of
the beam, with an average opening of approximately 1 mm
for a slope varying from 55° to 65°. The vertical shifts of the
lines left by the formwork boards on both sides of the crack
indicate that the western block is sagging slightly. The dis-
placement transducer placed on the crack is attached to the
inner face of the beam at a height of 800 mm from the bot-
tom of the girder. It is perpendicular to the crack at a 35°
slope from the horizontal.
3. Image correlation and displacement field
measurement
To gather information on the global behavior of crack 5
under load and to overcome the limitations of a single dis-
placement transducer, CorreliLMT, a contact-free method based
on digital image cross-correlation (Hild et al. 1999, 2002;
Hild 2002), was used to measure the displacement field dur-
ing a static loading test. To the authors’ knowledge, the ex-
periment performed on the Saint-Marcel bridge constitutes
the first application of digital image correlation to assess a
bridge under operating conditions. Until now, this technique
had been used only in laboratory-controlled environments
(Astudillo et al. 2001). The present study validates the appli-
cation of this technique for in situ displacement measure-
ments on a concrete structure under operating conditions.
Schematically, displacement analysis by digital image cor-
relation consists of comparing two pictures of the region of
interest (ROI) acquired at two different instants (in this case,
truck stop positions on the bridge deck). Local displace-
ments are determined at points in the ROI by correlating
small sets of pixels characterized by grey level and relative
location in the image before and after deformation. For sub-
set matching between images, the region of interest must
have a random texture at the pixel scale.
To acquire the images in this experiment, the authors con-
nected a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera with a resolu-
tion of 1024 × 1280 pixels and a dynamic range of 12 bits
(i.e., 212 grey levels) to a laptop computer. The digital cam-
era was anchored to the structure with brackets screwed un-
der the overhang of the slab. Because of the deformation of
the overhang due to applied load, a relative displacement
may occur between the ROI at the surface of the girder and
the camera fixed to the overhang. The software automati-
cally removes rigid body translations, however, so the results
of the strain analysis remain essentially unaffected. The
camera was placed approximately 1 m from the surface of
the beam. At this distance, the ROI was a rectangular
245 mm × 190 mm area located 500 mm from the base of
the beam (Fig. 4). The pixel size was evaluated to be ap-
proximately 0.19 mm × 0.19 mm from both the camera reso-
lution and the ROI area. To prevent out-of-plane distortion
and enable true displacement recording, the image plane of
the ROI was placed perpendicular to the optical axis of the
camera. Because the images were recorded only once the
truck was stationary at stop positions for the various paths
selected for the loading test, no movement of the camera
was expected. All these precautions were aimed at reducing
as much as possible the many sources of perturbations that
may arise from outside service-life conditions.
1421
The images were examined using CorreliLMT. The fast Fou-
rier transform (FFT) algorithm used to compute the correla-
tions is described in detail in Hild et al. (2002) and is not
presented here. Horizontal and vertical displacement (dh and
dv) in the ROI were calculated for subsets of 32 × 32 pixels,
with a shift of 32 pixels between subsets to cover the entire
image without overlap or discontinuity. A subpixel algorithm
decreased the standard uncertainty of the method to less than
2/100 of a pixel using the correlation parameters listed ear-
lier and the ROI shown in Fig. 4. Measured displacement
uncertainty is therefore on the order of a few micrometres,
taking into account the pixel size (0.19 mm) used. In any
case, it is compatible with the anticipated displacements at
the crack location during testing (Fig. 3).
4. Displacement field analysis
An image of the ROI captured by the CCD camera is
shown in Fig. 4 (top right). Unfortunately, the analysis was
limited to the top right area of the image (white rectangle),
i.e., only a third of the original image. The vertical patch of
white paint in the picture did not offer sufficient contrast for
the image analysis to calculate displacements in this zone. A
simple way to prevent this problem in the future would be to
roughen the surface with a stiff bristle brush to improve the
randomness of texture at the centre of the image. Since only
displacements are considered, the resolution of the correla-
tion algorithm was estimated with a correlation parameter
named ZOI, which has a size equal to 32 × 32 pixels, with a
shift of 32 pixels between two neighbouring ZOIs. Applying
a constant displacement of 0.5 pixels artificially in both di-
rections by using the shift–modulation property of Fourier
transforms (Hild et al. 1999), the average difference gives an
evaluation of the error and the standard deviation of the cor-
responding resolution. Bergonnier et al. (2005) have shown
that the displacement resolution is half that reached when
the prescribed displacement is equal to 0.5 pixels. With this
approach, the resolution is equal to 1.4 × 10–2 pixels for the
ROI of Fig. 4. Since the size of a pixel is about 0.19 mm ×
0.19 mm, this yields a spatial resolution of about 1.4 µm.
As an example of what CorreliLMT allows, the vertical com-
ponent dv of the displacement field calculated for each stop
position for the load test on path C is shown in Fig. 5. The
initial non-deformed image (i.e., before the truck was on the
deck) was chosen as the reference frame to calculate all the
displacement maps of Fig. 5, i.e., the reference image is free
of any deformation due to the presence of the testing load.
This representation allows for a rapid and simple visualiza-
tion of the relative displacements of the two beam segments
delimited by the crack as a function of truck position on the
structure. The displacement increment between two contour
lines is 0.04 pixels, i.e., approximately 8 µm, which is far
above the spatial resolution of 1.4 µm evaluated for this ex-
periment. The numbers labeling each displacement map re-
fer to the stop position of the truck on the deck. Because
loading path C was from east to west, the first stop of the
loading truck corresponds to stop position C9 on the deck
(see Fig. 1a). The last picture, labeled finish, represents the
residual displacement field after the testing vehicle has left
the deck: this illustrates the level of noise of the correlation
technique that can actually be expected for this specific ex-
© 2006 NRC Canada
1422
Fig. 4. Equipment set-up and region of interest (white box) recorded by the CCD camera in place.
periment. The very small displacement gradients found on
both sides of the crack indicate that the motion is almost en-
tirely localized on the crack front. We can therefore charac-
terize the problem as one of discontinuous rigid translation.
Relative displacements of the blocks delimited by the
crack were evaluated all along path C by comparing the rela-
tive movements of two points A and B selected on each side
of the crack, as seen in the first frame (stop position 9) of
Fig. 5. To validate the correlation analysis estimates, we
used the calculated vertical and horizontal displacements dv
and dh to evaluate the normal crack opening that would be
recorded by a displacement transducer perpendicular to the
crack at this location. The result is compared with the real
data collected by displacement transducer 5 for the same
load test (Fig. 6). Since the displacement transducer records
a crack opening as a negative displacement and a closure as
positive, our calculated displacements will be positive up-
ward and eastward. The measured and calculated normal
opening curves present minimal differences at each stop po-
sition (2.5 µm). We thus have confirmation that the image
correlation technique provides reliable information, with less
than 10 µm uncertainty in this particular experiment. It
should be mentioned, however, that the maximum calculated
displacement is smaller than, and does not exactly coincide
with, the maximum measured displacement (truck stop posi-
tions C7 and C8). Similar discrepancies were noted for paths
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 33, 2006
B and B′. The reason for these discrepancies has not yet
been fully explained. It should be remembered, however,
that the displacement transducer is placed on the other beam
face on a crack segment located slightly above the studied
zone. Since the geometry of the crack is far more complex
than a perfect plane crossing the girder at a fixed and con-
stant angle, at least part of the difference between calculated
and measured amplitudes may be attributed to variations in
the opening along and through the crack.
Figure 7 shows the relative horizontal and vertical dis-
placements for the two selected points A and B. Each vector
represents the relative displacement of the western block
compared with its initial nondeformed state, assuming the
eastern block to be motionless. Maximum opening occurs
when the truck is located over the crack (stop positions C7
and C8). The crack then starts to close horizontally beyond
its equilibrium position as the truck moves towards the west-
ern end of the structure (positions C6 to C2). This horizontal
closing motion appears to prevent slip along the fracture
plane, and the western block remains shifted downwards
during most of the test. The load effect on the crack opening
decreases when the truck approaches the western end of the
bridge, as expected with a shear crack. The diagram suggests
that the crack does not return to its exact initial position
when the truck exits from the bridge. The last recorded dis-
placements are small and close to the analysis accuracy and
© 2006 NRC Canada
Küntz et al. 1423

Fig. 5. Vertical component of displacement dv obtained from the calculated displacement field for the successive stop positions on path
C. Two points A and B were selected for the quantitative analysis of relative displacement between the two beam segments delimited
by the crack, identified in the first frame.

Fig. 6. Comparison between the crack opening measured by dis- Fig. 7. Relative horizontal (dh) and vertical (dv) movement be-
placement transducer 5 and the opening evaluated from the hori- tween the two beam segments on both sides of the crack.
zontal (dh) and vertical (dv) displacement obtained from the
calculated displacement field.

data indeed indicate that the maximum amplitude of normal

uncertainty, however. Hence, it remains difficult at this stage
to determine whether these vectors represent true residual
displacements.
The information in Fig. 7 is summarized in Fig. 8 along
with the results for load paths B and B′. The displacements
calculated for path A traversing the southern beam are too
close to the measurement resolution for this experiment and
are therefore not presented. The displacement transducer
displacement does not exceed 10 µm on the crack. Let us re-
member that the northern beam where the crack is located is
the least stressed for this path. For path C, displacement di-
rection and amplitude vary continuously with truck move-
ment. The motion of the western block, which can be
reconstituted schematically from Fig. 8, traces a clockwise
trajectory that is roughly circular compared to that of the
eastern block, which is assumed as motionless, during which
tension, shearing, and compression combine in variable pro-
© 2006 NRC Canada
1424
Fig. 8. Net relative displacements obtained from the calculated displacement field along the crack for the various stop positions of
paths C, B, and B′ (note skewed grid lines parallel to the crack).
portions. The displacements recorded between stops C5 and
C2 indicate that the crack has reclosed. This motion suggests
that an axial load in compression develops in the beam dur-
ing the truck movement. This analysis was repeated for the
images acquired for paths B and B′ (Fig. 8). For path B′
driven from east to west (Fig. 8), the passage of the truck
causes a simultaneous opening and shearing movement
along the crack, which reaches its maximum amplitude
when the truck is roughly vertical with respect to the dam-
aged zone (position C8). The crack gradually recloses and
rapidly regains equilibrium position at stop position C6. The
displacement sequence along the crack is therefore much
simpler along this path: it is in fact comparable to what we
would obtain if we applied cyclic vertical fixed loads to the
beam. Path B starts at the western end of the structure, i.e.,
at some distance from the crack. For this path, the horizontal
(tension) and vertical (shear) movements definitely appear
more uncoupled. The east end of the western beam segment
initially oscillates in the vertical plane along the crack (stop
positions C1, C2). The crack recloses during the three fol-
lowing stops. When the vehicle approaches the crack, the
load applied entirely to the east end of the western beam
Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 33, 2006
segment induces a large vertical displacement, with a conse-
quent large shear displacement along the crack. When the
truck crosses the damaged area, the end of the western block
rises and the crack opens (positions C8, C9) and finally re-
gains its initial position when the truck exits the bridge (stop
C10).
5. Discussion
The analysis of the displacement field reported here pro-
vides detailed information about the crack kinematics in re-
sponse to the applied load and an understanding of the
nature and distribution of the loads in the damaged girder.
The fatigue damage of the northern beam at the location of
the investigated crack cannot be attributed to the repetition
of a simple and monotonic load cycle, as is generally as-
sumed during laboratory tests. First, block movements on
both sides of the crack were seen to vary significantly from
one path to another; second and most importantly, load se-
quence on the structure (truck enters from either east or
west) also has important consequences in terms of crack be-
havior (Fig. 8). At this stage, however, it is impossible to
© 2006 NRC Canada
Küntz et al.
evaluate the consequences of these multiple loading regimes
on the fatigue resistance limits of the beam. In any case, fu-
ture investigations of fatigue damage mechanisms in rein-
forced concrete elements should take into account the
variability of the loading modes applied to a given structural
element under actual operating conditions to better evaluate
structural lifespan and rupture risk.
The analysis presented in Figs. 7 and 8 also provides evi-
dence of a horizontal displacement involving the occasional
crack closure beyond its rest position for certain stop posi-
tions. This strongly suggests that an axial compressive force
develops along the girder as load is applied, which suggests
that the girder may be partially restrained about the longitu-
dinal axis. A previous visual inspection of the structure iden-
tified certain problematic conditions in the girder supports
(Savard 2002; Perron 2004), and blocking of the girder on
its supports was definitely confirmed during the same load
test: an analysis of vibrating-wire strain gage data along
three distinct sections (one at the centre and two others close
to the beam ends, see Fig. 3) shows that a negative bending
moment develops at the ends of the girder above the abut-
ments.
The results of the experiment conducted on the Saint-
Marcel bridge demonstrate the interest of the image correla-
tion technique for a kinematic analysis of a loaded element.
Image capture requires little equipment (i.e., essentially a
high-definition digital camera), and the observed surface it-
self requires little preparation (in this case, no preparation at
all). Certain improvements, primarily regarding image acqui-
sition, would enable a significant decrease in measurement
uncertainty. The algorithms developed in the software used
in this study have been proven to be very effective. The
quality of the final results, in terms of uncertainty, depends
mainly on the care taken at the image capture stage. The
camera should be fixed to prevent any distortion associated
with displacements between the ROI and the anchor point.
With increasing improvements in the capacities of the CCD
cameras available on the market, larger surfaces could be an-
alyzed with a greater accuracy, offering damage distribution
maps of bridge segments, for example (see the work by
Claire et al. 2004).
Lastly, the displacement analysis underlines the opera-
tional limits of a single displacement transducer used to re-
motely monitor shear crack behavior in a reinforced concrete
element. In fact, a single displacement transducer does not
capture tangential displacement along the crack: the use of
two displacement transducers oriented at 90° to each other is
at least required. Two coupled transducers can only provide
a single displacement vector, whereas the correlation image
technique gives access to a complete displacement field on a
quite large surface around the crack in a single shot.
6. Conclusion
Digital image correlation analysis of displacements was
applied to study the mechanical behavior of a shear crack in
a reinforced concrete beam in response to complete load cy-
cles during static load tests. The analysis of displacement
data revealed that the crack behavior varies significantly
with load sequence, in this case truck direction and position
as it crosses the bridge. The measured displacements suggest
View publication stats
1425
different combinations of tension, compression, and shear in
variable proportions for different load positions and paths,
which result in quite a contrast in mechanical response. It
appears that fatigue behavior and damage in a reinforced
concrete element under service loads are probably the result
of complex combinations of cyclic loads, of which this pre-
liminary study provides an example. This information
should contribute to a deeper understanding of fatigue be-
havior in reinforced concrete structures under service loads
and to definitions of new experimental protocols for labora-
tory investigations of these processes.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Marc Savard and Jean François
Laflamme of the Ministère des Transports du Québec for
their invaluable help and cooperation. Thanks are also due to
Hakim Ould-Slimane for his assistance in the field and
Derek Oliveira for his help in preparing the manuscript. This
work was supported by Fonds Québécois de la Recherche
sur la Nature et la Technologie (FQRNT) and the Ministère
des Transports du Québec.
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