H A ND BO O K

H Y D RA U L IC S
FO R TH E SOL UTION O F

H Y DRAULIC PROBL E M S

H O RACE WI AM S KI
LL I NG
“E KB E B A IBB ICA N S OC IE TY CI
VIL E N GINE E RS , P RO F E SS O R 0 !

H Y DRA U L IC E N GINE E RING U NIVE RSITY OF M I

CH IGAN

FIRST E DITIO N

SE C O ND I M P RE SSIO N

M c G RAW H I -
LL BOO K COM PANY , I NC .

2 3 9 W E ST 39TH ST RE E T NE W Y O RK .

L O N DON : H I
LL P U BL I SH I NG CO , LTD .

6 a; 8 BO U VE RI
E ST .
. E . C .

1 91 8
 E NG I
N LI
B RARY
.

CO P YRIG HT, 1 91 8, BY T H E

M AW
CG R -
H IL L BOO K COM P ANY INc , .

TH E M AP L E P RE S S Y O RK PA .
 PRE FACE

I
n a pp lie d H ydrauli cs ra tiona l theo ry must give pla ce to
ex pe r i m e nta l knowle dg e . Though every pa rticle Of flowing
wa te r m oves in accorda nce with definite fixe d la w s su ch l aws ,

a re in t r ic a te a nd i m pe rfe ctly und e r stood I n ma ny i ns ta nces

.

the bas ic fo rm u las use d in hydra ulic com p u ta ti ons a re de

r iv e d f r o m the o re tic a l co nside ra tio ns bu t th e y m ust inv aria bly
,

be c o rre cte d by e xpe rim enta l coe fficie nts a nd fre qu ently the y
be c om e there by so transf o rmed as to b ea r bu t a slight rese m
bla nc e to the origina l f o rm ulas .

M a ny thousa nds of e xperi m e nts on flowi ng W a te r have b ee n

pe rf o rm e d during the last two centuri es the results of which
,

f o rm the b asis of ou r prese nt scienc e of hyd rau lics These

.

e xpe r i m e nt s p rese nt m a ny incong rui ti es and as the y do no t

c ov e r the ra nge of conditions re qu i re d in p ra ctic e it is di ffic u lt

,

to d e vise f rom them a cc u ra te working ru les and form u las .

The hyd rauli c engi nee r is there fo re conf ronte d with the ta sk
of m a ki ng wha t a pp ea rs to be the m ost re asona bl e a pplic a tion

of t he a va il a ble da ta to ea ch p robl e m th a t he e nco unters .

A grea t num ber of e m pi ric a l formulas ha ve b e en devised ,

w hich p r ovide an indire ct m ethod of t ra nsf err ing e xp e rim enta l

resu l ts to p ra ctica l p robl em s . In usi ng su ch f o rmu la s how eve r
, ,

the e nginee r shou ld not lo se sight of the fa ct tha t resu lts

obta ine d by the m will be subj e ct to errors corre sponding to
the disc re p anci es in the e xpe ri m ents on which the fo rm u la s
are b a se d .

T he a ctive inte rest in experi m e nt a l rese arch d uri ng re c ent

y e a r s ha s b een productive of such a ra pidly inc re asing nu m be r
of h yd ra ulic form u la s tha t e ngineers genera lly are not in a
po sition to make critical com pa risons and select those tha t
poss ess the g rea test m erit The re sult has b ee n a tendency
.

to cling to the old and a ccepte d f orm ulas The au thor b elieves
.

tha t u nless the ne we r fo rm ulas h ave a ppa rent advanta ges ove r '

the O ld the la t te r are p re fe rabl e inasm u ch a s the i r pe c u li a ri

,

ties a re k nown a nd it is ea sie r to se le c t coe fficients f or the m ,

v .
vi PRE FACE

but they should be disc arde d as soon as mo re ac c ura te or

si m pl e r form ula s b e co me ava il a bl e .

In this book the older and co m monly a cc epte d fo rmul as a n

given p refe re nce except where a gain in a ccurac y or simplicit:
o r both will result from the adoptio n of ne w fo rm u las o r

me thods The au thor depa rts from sta ndard Am e rican p rac
.

tice in advoc ating the use of the M a nni ng form ula in pla c t

of the Kutte r formu la H e ha s not done this howeve r u nti

.
, ,
'

he has be e n abl e to p rove tha t the two f o rm ula s give p ra c ticall ‘

identica l results by using the same coe fficient New wen .

formula s are also su bm itte d which a re shown to be si m ple .

»

a nd to co nfor m to e xis ting e xp e ri m e nt a l da ta m o re cons iste ntl

'r
.

than othe r formu las E xpone ntial fo rm ul as are a dvoc a te d fo r

.

pipes but a sim plified m ethod of usingthe m is give n in de ta il .

This book is intende d p ri m a rily to assist in the sol ution o f

hyd ra u lic p roblem s I. n pre p a ring the m anusc ript the a u tho r
has conti nually kept in mi nd the t w of old p urpose of se cu rin;
. ,

a n a cc u ra cy consiste nt with the b est e xpe ri m e nts and o f

s implifying c a lc ula tions Thi s has ne c e ssita te d a n ex a mi na tion

.

of a vas t a m ount of data and has resulte d in the p repa ra tion

of a grea t many tables A knowledge of the fundamenta l
.

principles of hydrau lics is presuppose d a nd deriva tio ns hav e

been om itte d except where th e y ha ve a p pe a red necessa ry in ex
pla i ning ne w m e thods It is be lieved tha t the book will b
.

u seful to p ra cti sing e nginee rs a nd to st ud e nts .

In the prep ara tion of tables ca re has b ee n take n to m a ke th en

co rre ct to the la st fig ure and all com pu ta tions and formul a s
have been independently che cked The a u thor will be gratef u
.
’

to those who m ay c all to his a ttention any e rro rs o r o m issions .

A work of this kind is in a la rge m eas u re a re com pi la tion

, ,

of the results of others and a g re a t m any b ook s a nd p ublica

,

tions ha ve necessarily bee n consulte d Reference to such us e

.

has bee n m a de at the p rope r pl a ce in the te xt In the p re p a ra

.

tion of this volume the au thor a ck nowledges as sistance fro m

the follo wing
M r Rob ert E H orton revie wed the ma nusc ript a nd p r oo
. .

a nd ma de m any v a l uabl e criti ci sm s and su gg e stio ns re l a tiv e

to the cha ra cter of m a te ria l a nd scope of the book He ga vc .

the a u tho r f re e a ccess to all of the re co rd s in his o ffic e a nd

many of the d ata c o nt a ined he re i n were obtai ne d f ro m thi s
so urc e . For b eing a ble to p resent the book in its p resent fo rm
 PRE FA CE Vii

the au t hor is, in a la rge

measure , indebted to M r H orton s .
’

helpf u l g
ions
sug est , and he ta kes thi s opport unity to e xp ress

his gra te f ul app rec ia tion .

Pro f e sso r The odore R Runni ng re ndered valuable as sistance

.

in m a t h e m a tica l com p uta tions espe cially in checking the ,

autho r s w eir formula by the me thod of least squa res and in

’

sugges t ing the m e thod em ployed in the c onst ru ction of the

M ann ing fo rmula dia gra m s .

M r C heste r 0 Wisler assi sted in checking formulas a nd

. .

tables a nd in rea ding proof a nd ga ve many va lua ble sugge s ,

tions w h ich were m ade use of in p re pa ring this book .

M r H a rry R Le a ch M r Floyd A Na gle r a nd M r Russe ll

. .
, . .
, .

A Do d g e share d with the a uthor the bulk of the labo r of

.

com p u t ing a nd che cking tabl es re a ding p roof and othe r de t ails , , .

I t ha s o nl y been throu gh the hea rty coo p e ra tion loy alty and , ,

acti v e int e rest of these men tha t the com pletion of thi s vol u m e

at t he p r e sent t ime has bee n ma de possible .

M ess rs . M J O rbeck J B Jewell C N Ward R B

. .
,
. .
, . .
, . .

Sleig h t a nd W O B H enderso n rende re d v a lu a ble assista nc e

’
. .
,

in co m p u ting and checki ng .

HO RACE W KIN G . .

AN N Ans o n M ICH IG AN
, ,

Ja nua ry, 1 91 8 .
 CO NTE NTS
CHAPTE R I
P AGn
HYDRAUL IC U NITs
Hyd ra u lic u nits
Co nve rs ion tables

CHAPTER II
HIDEO BT AT ICS
We ight of wa ter
Atm os phe ric p ressu re
H y d ros ta tic p ressure
H y d ro s ta tic pressu re aga i nst
Pre ssu re on cu rved su rfac es
H y d ros ta tic t ables

C H APTER III

Fu nd amenta l c onsidera tions

Ori fices with full contractio n
Orifices with contractions su pp re sse d
E fi ec ts of ve locity of app ro a ch
Short tu bes
Su b m erge d orifice s
Ga te s
Tables f or orifices and ga te s
CHAPTER IV
SHARP C RE STE D WEIRS
Ge ne r al conside rations
Re c tangula r weirs with free overfall
Pre c a u tions f or a ccu rate u se of sh a rp c reste d we i rs
Su b m e rge d we i rs
V notc h wei rs
-
x CON TE NTS

Trape zoidal wei rs

We irs with c rest not le vel
De term ina tion of me an discharge f rom se vera l

Choice Of weirs f or m a xi mu m acc uracy

Tables for solu tion of weir f ormulas
CHAPTER V

WE IRs NOT SH ARP C RE STE D

Ge ne ral considera tions
Fo rmu l a f or de te rmi ning disch a rge
M odificatio ns of na ppe f o rm
Broa d c reste d we i rs
We irs of triangu l ar motion
We irs of trape zoida l se ction
We i rs of irre gular se ction .

Sub m e rged we i rs and dam s

Falls
Table s of we ir coe ffici ents
CHAPTER VI

FLO W OF WATE R TH RO UGH PI PE S

Fundam ental p rinciple s
Loss of head at entrance to pipe s
Loss of he ad due to friction .

Co m m on form u la s f or friction loss In pipe s

Fo rm u las a dvoc a te d
Discu ssion of pipe fo rmul as
Sol u tion of pipe f o rmu l a s
Othe r losse s in pipes
Critic al velocity
Tables to assist in sol u tion of p ipe p roble ms
CHAPTER VI
I

FL o w O F WATE R IN O PE N C HA NNE LS
Ge ne ral c onsidera tio ns
Form u l a s f or flow of wa te r in O pe n c h a nne l s
Discuss ion of ope n ch anne l f o rmu l a s
 CONTENTS xi

PAG E
Co m pa r ison of Ku tte r, M anning and Baz i n formulas 1 97
Solu ti o n of Ku tte r and Ba z in f o rm ulas
Solu tio n of M anning fo rmula 201
n
Tables to assis t in solu tion of ope n chan el f ormulas 204 .

CHAPTER VIII

[ E AE U RE IIE NT or FL O W ING W ATE R

Ge ne ra l co nsidera tions
Dis tr ibu tion of velocities
Inst ru m ents f or m e asu ring velocity
Disc ha rge m e as u reme nts by cu rre nt me te r
Dis ch a rge me asu re me nts by Pitot tube s
Disc h a rge measu re m e nts by floa ts
Disc ha rge me asu re ments by trave li ng sc ree n
Dis ch a rge m e asu re m ents by colo r m e thod
Disc ha rge m easu re m e nts by Ventu ri m e te r
Disc h a rge m e asu re me nts by che m ic al ga ging
Co ntinu ous stre a m disch a rge re co rds

CHA PTER IX
PBCIAL PROBL E II
s

Bac kwa te r cu rve

Div ide d flow in pipes
Sho rt c a nals with f ree disc h a rge
The m ass dia g ra m f o r stor a ge p roble m s
De te rm ina tion of rese rvoir c a pa city
Use of log a ri th ms

CHAPTER X

iENE RAL RE FE RE NC E TABLE S

ILo ga rithm ic and othe r tables 3 10

APPENDI X A
‘
o mpa riso n of we ir f ormulas with e xpe riments 3 83

A P PENDI X B
bmp a r is o n of Ku t te r, M a nni ng , Ba z i n f or m u las with
Sc o be y s e xpe rim e nts 4 03
’
 -

T A BL E S
i P AGE
1 Convers io n
. o f u n it s o f le ngth . 4
2 Convers io n o f u n it s of we ight
. 4
3 Conve rs ion o f u n it s O f powe r
. a 5
4 I
.nche s in d e c i m a ls o f a foot 5
5 Fac tors f o r c o n v e rs io n of u nits
. 6
6 Weights o f m a te r ia ls u se d I
. n hydrau lic const r uctio n 10
7 Dem ity a n d w e i gh t of wa te r a t d iff ere nt te m pe ra tu re s
. 11
8 Atmos phe r ic p r e s su re s and corres po nding heights of
.

w a te r a n d m e rc u ry columns
Hyd r o s t a t i c p re ss u r e in pou nds pe r s qu a re f oot f o r
d ifi e r e n t h e a d s
10 Hydr o s t a t i c p re ssu re in pounds p e r s qu a re inch f o r
.

di ff e r e n t h e a d s
ll Heads c o r r e s p o nd ing to di ff e
. rent hyd ro st a ti c pre ss u re s

in p o u n d s p e r s qu are i nch .

12 Hyd r o s t a t ic p ressu re s aga ins t d am s

. .

B Dis ta n c e s to c e nte rs of pre ssu re s a ga i nst d a m s

.

ll The o re t i c a l h o rse powe r of one c ubic f oot pe r se co nd o f

.

w a te r f o r h e a ds u p to 1 00f e e t
15 Theo re t ic al kilow a tts of one cu bic foot pe r se co nd of
.

w a t e r f o r he ad s up to 1 00fe e t
16 The o re t ic a l v elo c iti es f or heads u p to 5 fe e t
.

17 Theo re t i c a l ve lo citie s f or he a ds u p to 50f ee t

. .

i8 The o re t ic a l v e locitie s f or he a ds u p to 500fe e t

.

19 H e a d s c o rresp onding to ve locities u p to 1 0 f ee t pe r

.

s e c o nd

ll H e a d s co rre s ponding to velo c itie s u p to 50

. fe e t pe r
s e c o nd

11 Coe mc ie nts of dis cha rge f or ci rc u la r orifice s wi th f ull

o

c o ntr a ction

C o e ffi c ie n t s of di s ch a rg e f or s q u a re o r i fic e s with f u ll
c o ntra ction

Coe fli c ie nts of discha rge f or re cta ngu la r ori fice s with

.

f u ll co ntractio n
xiv TA BLE S
P AG E
Coe ffi cie nts of d ischa rge f or variofis sha pe d o ri fices
with full co ntraction
Coe fficie nts of d ischa rge f or re cta ngu la r o ri fice s with
pa rtia lly su ppre sse d co ntraction
Coe ffi cie nts of dis cha rge f or sharp e dge d su bm e rge d
-

o rific es
Coe fficients of dis ch a rge for su bme rge d o rifice s with
r ounded com e rs

Coe ffi cients of dis charge f or va rious m odels of g a tes

Coe fficients of dis cha rge f o r subm e rged ga tes
Coe ffici ents of discharge f or sub me rge d tu bes
Coe fficients for V notc h we ir form ulas
-

powe rs of num bers

Dis charge o ver we irs withou t ve locity of a pproa ch
Ve locity of app ro ach corre ction f or we irs
Discha rge over we i rs with ve locity of a pp roa ch
Pa rti a l solu tion of su b me rge d wei r fo rmula
Dis charge o ver right angle d V notch we i rs
- -

Discha rge ove r Cipp ole tti we irs

Discha rge over we i rs by the Francis fo rm u la
Thr ee h a lves powe rs of nu m bers
Pe rce ntage Of e rror fro m u se of va rious we irs
Coe ffic ie nts f or b roa d c reste d we irs
Coe fficients f or b ro a d c res te d we irs with rou nde d
u pstre a m co rne r 1 44
Coe fficie nts f or b roa d c re ste d we i rs with incline d c res t 1 4 4
Coe fli cients f or we irs Of t ri a ngu l ar se ction with
ve rtic al u pstre am face and sle ping downstre am
f ac e
Coe fficie nts f or we irs of t ria ngul ar se ction with v e r tic al
u ps t re a m f a ce a nd sloping downs tre a m f a c e

Coe fficients f or we i rs of t ri angu l ar se ction with both

face s incline d
Coe ffic ients f or we irs of tra pe z oida l se ction wi th both

Coe flicients f or we i rs of tra pe zoidal se ction with both

Coe fficients f or wei rs of tra pe z oid al se ction with

u pst ream f a c e i ncli ne d and dow nst re a m f a ce

vertic a l
 TA BL ES xv

Coe fficients f or wieirs

of irregul a r se ction
1 C oe
. ffi ci e nts f o r m ode ls of old C ro to n d a m

Coe ffic ients f or m odels of e xis ti ng d a ms

Loss of he ad a t e ntrance to pipe s
Coe ffic ients f or loss of hea d a t e ntra nce to p ip es

Co e fficients f or Che z y fo rm ula

.

Coe ffic ients f or friction in pipes

I Coe ffi cie nts f or f riction in pipes
. .

L oss of he ad due to friction in pipe s .

i) Solu tio n of pipe formu la diame ter in fe e t

.
,

Solu tio n of pipe fo rm u la dia m e te r in i nches

,

L oss O f he a d due to su dden e nl arge m e nt in pipe s

Coe ffic ie nts f or de te rm ining loss o f he a d due to
su dde n e nla r ge m e nt I n pipe s
Coe flic ie nts for de te r ining l oss of h ea d du e to g ra du a l
m
‘

e nlar ge ment I n pi pe s
L o ss O f he ad du e to sud de n contra ctio ns in pi pes
Co e ffi ci ents f or de te rm ini ng loss of he ad du e to su d de n
co ntr a ct io ns in p i pe s

L o s s of h e ad du e to va lves or O bstru ctions In pipe s

C o e ffici ents f or de te rm i ning loss Of hea d due to va l ve s
o r obs tru ctions I n pipes
Lo s s Of h e a d due to be nds I n pipe s
Coe ffi ci e nts f or de term ining l oss of he ad d ue to be nds
in p ipe s
Lo w e r c ritic a l ve locities
H i g h e r c ritica l ve locities
H o r ton s coe ffi cie nts f or Ku tte r s a nd M a nn ing 8
’ ’ ’

m
f o rm u l as
C o e ffi cients f or Baz in 8 Ope n cha nne lf o u la
’
r

C o m p a ris on of coe ffi cients in Ku tte r s M a nning s

’ ’
,

a nd Baz in s fo rm u las
’

z y c oe ffici e nt fr om Ku tte r s for m u l a

’
”
n C h e

h Ch e z y coe ffic i e nt from Baz in s fo rm u la

e ’

wCo e ffi cients f or M anning s form ula ’

H y d r a u lic ele ments f or pipes flo wing p a rt f u ll

H y d ra u li c e le m ents f or tr ape z oi d al c ana l se c tions
Solu ti o n Of M anning s form u la
’

Dret e rm i na tion Of slope s by M anning s fo rm ul a

’
-

Squ a re roots of deci m al nu m be rs

xvi TA BL ES

Two~thirds powers of num be rs

Thre e eighths powers of num be rs
-

Ra ting ta ble for Pric e m e te rs

Spec ime n stre am dis cha rge ta ble
Spe ci me n b ac kwa te r co m pu ta tions
Spe ci men ta bu l a tion f or m ass dia gra m
E va po r a tions fro m wa te r su rfa ces
Log a rith m s of num be rs
Colog a rith ms of nu m bers
Na tu ra l sines and cosines of angle s
Na tu ral ta ngents and co tangents of a ngle s
Na tu ra l sec ants and cosec ants of angles
Squ a res cu bes squ a re r oots cu be r oots re ciproc a ls
, , , ,

Sq u a re r oots of nu m be rs from 1 000to

C irc u m fe rence s of circles by hundre dths
Are as of ci rcles by hu ndre dths
C irc u mfe re nce s of circles by e ighths .

Are as of circles by e ighths

Co m p a riso n of we i r f orm u las wi th Ba z in s expe ri
’

m ents
Co m p a ra tive disc re p ancie s of we ir f orm u l as
Com p a ris on of we ir formu las with Fte le y and Ste arns
’

e xpe ri m e nts

Com p a r a tive dis c re pa ncies of w e i r f o r m ul as

Co m p a riso n of we ir f o rm u las with Franci s a nd Fte le y

’

a nd St e arns e xpe ri m ents

’

Co m p a ra tive disc re p a ncie s O f we i r f or m u l as

Co m p a r iso n of su b m e r ge d we ir for m u las with Ba z in
Cxpe rime nts

Co m p a riso n of su b m e rge d we i r f ormu l a s wit h Franc is

’

e xpe ri m e nts of 1 883

Com p a riso n Of su bm e rge d we ir f o rm ul as with F te le y

a nd Ste ar ns e xpe r im e nts 3
’

Com p aris on of su b m erge d we ir f orm u las with Fra nc is

’

e xpe rim ents of 1 848

Co m p i
a son o f
r K u tte
’
r s ,M a n n in g’
s , an d Ba z in s’

formu las with Scobey s experiments

’
 H ANDBO O K O F H Y DRAU L ICS

CHAPTER I
H YDRAUL I C U NI TS

Ba s ic U nits .
—I
n the Unite d Sta tes a nd E ngland the th ree
pri m a ry u ni ts u se d as a b asis f or hydrau lic m eas u rem ents a re :
the foot th e pou nd a nd the se cond
, , If not othe rwise sta ted
.

in this v ol u m e th ese units will be u nd e rstoo d

,
I n co u nt ri es .

us ing the m e t ric syste m the co rres ponding u nits a re the m e te r

.

the kilogr a m a nd the se cond Tabl es 1 2 a nd 5 pa ges 4 a nd

.
, ,

6 will ass is t in co nve rti ng o ne syst e m of u nits to the other

, .

Dim e nsio ns s u ch as dia m e te rs of pipes a nd o ri fic es a re f re

,

qu e ntly e xpressed in inches o r f ee t a nd inches bu t these s hou ld

, ,

a lw a y s be ch ang ed to f ee t a nd de ci m a ls of a f oot b ef o re s ubsti

tu ti ng in hyd rau li c fo rm u las Table 4 pa ge 5 m ay be u se d

.
, ,

f o r co n ve rtin g inch es to d e cim a ls of a foot .

U nit s of Volu m e and Flo w — The f ollowing u nits ha ve

.

bee n u se d in the U nited Sta tes to e xp ress res pe ctively volu m es ,

o f w a ter and volum es p er ti m e of flowing wa te r

Volu m es
(a ) Cu bi c fe e t
( b) Ga llons
(c ) Ac re fee t
-

(d ) Cu bic fee t p e r s e cond d a y -

(6 ) I nch es p e r a re a .

Volu mes p er ti m e
(a ) Cu bic fee t p e r se c ond
(b) Cu bic f e e t p er m i nu te
(0) Ga llons p e r m inu te
(d) Ga llons p e r 24 ho u rs
( ) M ine r s i nch es
’
e

( 0 Squ a re inches of wa te r
(g) I nches p e r a re a p e r tim e .

The cubi c f oot is the m ost

conveni ent u nit of volu m e f or
exp ress ing s m a ll q u a ntiti es of w a t e r su ch a s c a p a c iti e s O f t a nks
,

or sm a ll rese r voi rs Wa te r in cities i s comm only sold on

.
, ,

the b as is of the nu m b e r of c u bic f ee t co nsu m e d .

2 HAND B OOK OF HYDRA U LICS
The Uni ted States gallon, which contains 231 c ubic inches or
cubi c feet, is the stand a rd of li qu id m eas u re It is .

com m only used to e xpress volum es in connection with municipal

w a ter supply Re servoi r c a pacities a re f requ ently stated in
.

millions Of g a llo ns .

An acr e f oot O f w a te r is the volu m e re quired to cover an

-

are a of 1 a c re to the d e pth of 1 foot a nd is th erefo re e qual to

c ubic fe et This u nit has been qu ite generally adopted

.

in the i rrigated sectio ns of the Unit ed Sta tes and its u se is

b ecom ing p reva lent th rou ghou t the country One cubic foot .

p e r se co n d flowi n g f o r 2 4 ho u rs e qu a ls a c re feet or 2 -
,

a c re f ee t within an erro r of less th an 1 p er c ent

-
Sinc e hydraulic .

dat a a re neve r a ccu ra te enough to j ustif y the use of a closer

valu e it is c ustom ary to cons ider th a t 1 se cond foot flowing -

f or 24 hou rs e qu a ls 2 a c re f ee t I
-
n the au tho r s opinion t he
.
’

a c re f oot
-
is the m ost convenient u nit f or expressing l a rge
volu m es of w a te r f or the f ollowing reas ons
(a ) It is convenient f or i rriga tion pu rposes since it inclu des
the stand a rd u nit of l and a re a .

(b) It is conveni ent to re du ce the c a p a cities of rese rvoi rs

to this u nit where areas are exp ressed in a cres
,
.

( )
0 It is co nv e n i e n t f o r s to ra ge c a lc u l a tio ns s i nc e it m ay

rea d ily be t ra nsf e r red to or f ro m u nits of flow .

(d) It enables la rge volum es to be exp ressed withou t the use

of e xt re m ely l a rge nu m b ers .

The cu bi c f oot p er s econd da y o r -

s econd f oo t—da y is a volu m e
-

of wa ter equ a l to a flow of 1 cu bic foot p e r second for 24 hou rs

or cubic feet or a pp roxim a tely 2 a c re feet Thi s unit
, ,
-
.

is so m e ti m es u sed in sto ra ge co m pu t a tions .

Inches per a r ea or sim ply i nches dep th is a unit genera lly u sed
in conne ction w ith d r a ina ge a reas Pre cipit a tion a nd e v a po ra
.

tion re co rds a re given in inches the a rea to which the d e pth ,

a ppli es b ei ng fre qu e ntly und e rstood A d epth of 1 inch over

.

a n a re a of 1 a c re is c a ll ed a n a cr e i nch An a c re inch 18 e qu al
-
.
-

to M 2 ac re foot o r 3630 cu bic feet

-
.

A nu m b e r of u nits e xpress ing volu me per ti me a re u s e d in

hyd raulic wo rk The m ost com m on p ra ctice in the U nited
.

Sta tes and Grea t Brita in is to exp ress the volu m e of flo w i ng

wa te r in cubic f eet p er second The abbrevi a ted te rm second f eel
.
-

has b ee n ad opted by the U S Ge ologic a l Su rvey and the U S

. . .

Re cl a m a tion Servic e and is used qu ite genera lly by Am e r ic a] !

enginee rs . n E ngl and I
I ndi a and Au st rali a the te rm cu s ect
,
 HANDBOOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E l — . C O NVE RSI ON or

‘

UNITs or LE NGT H
M e te rs to F ee t

Fe e t to M e te rs

TA L
B E 2 —
. C O NV E RSI O N or U NIT s or WE IG H T
Kilogra m s t o P o u nds Avo i r d u p o is

P o u nds Avo i r d u p o is t o Kilogra m s

 H Y DRAULI C U NITS 5

T ABL E 3 .
— C o NvE RSION o r UNITs or POW E R
Kilo w a t ts to H o rse p o we r

H ors e p o we r to Kilo wa tts

TABLE 4 .
— I
NC H E s AND FRAC TI O NS EX P RE SSE D IN DE CIM AL s
or A FOOT

F ra c ti o ns of i nc he s
H ANDBOOK O F H Y DRAULI
CS
 C UNI
H Y DRAULI TS
HANDBOOK O F H Y DRAULI CS
H Y DRAU L I C U N IT S
10 H AN DB OO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 6.
—AVE RAGE WEIGHT, POU ND S P E R CUBI C FOOT
IN ,

or VARI OUS M ATE RI ALS U SE D IN HY D RA ULIC C ONSTRU CTI O N

The weights of gree n or u nseas oned timbe rs a re 20 t o 4 0p e r ce nt .

g r e a te r .
12 HAND BOOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

lower end of which is im m erse d in wa te r a t se a level the water

, ,

will ris e in the pipe to a height of nea rly 34 fee t .

This p rincipa l is m ade u se of in desig ning sipho ns su ct ion ,

pip es for p u m ps and d raf t tu bes fo r t urbines I n p ra ctic e a

.

perf e ct va c uu m is di ffic u lt to obtain and the height to which

a w a te r col um n m ay with s af e ty be d e pe nde d u po n to ri se
, ,

is a bo u t 7 5 p e r c ent of the the o re tic a l a m o u nt

. .

Table 8 gives m ean a tm os phe ric p ressu res in pounds p er

squa re i nch with co rres po nding he ights of w a ter colu m ns in
,

f ee t a nd h e ights Of m e rc u ry colum ns in inch es f or difie rent

,

e l e v a ti ons above se a l evel in f ee t .

T ABLE 8

H ydr os ta tic Pr e ssur e

The press u re of a flu id a t any po int a cco rding to P as cal s

,
’

la w is no rm a l to the su rfa ce o n which it a cts a nd of e qu a l ih

,

tensity in a ll di rections Wa ter b eing a p erfect fluid confo rm s

.
, ,

rigidly to this law .

The intensity of p reSSI ire on any su b m e rged surfa ce is di re ctly

p rop o rtiona l to the w eight of the fluid and the depth of sub
me rge nce . A sim il a r press u re is e xe rted ag a ins t the sid es and ,

bot to m of a vesse l or reservoi r co nta ining w a te r . The p ress u re

at a ny point in a body of wa te r wi th a f ree su rfa c e is eq u a l to the
m of the pressure of the w a ter above it and the a tm osphe ric
 H YDROSTATI CS 13

p ress u re . I
n p rac tic e
tm ospheric pressure may fre quently
the a
be ne gle cte d as it m ay a c t e qu ally on bo th sides of the su rfa ce
being cons ide re d Thi s is not ne cessarily the c ase how ever
.
, ,

and the e ff ec t of a t m osphe ric pressure shou ld a lw a ys be given

care fu l conside ra tion .

Pr e ssur e on Pia no Surf a c es — Le t Figs 1 2 and 3 re p rese nt .

, ,

su bm e rge d ho riz ontal ve rtic a l and inclined pla nes res p e cti v e ly
, , .

L M in e ac h figure re prese nts the ho ri zontal p roj e ction of a

, ,

pla ne su rface of any sha pe on a vertic al pl ane a t right angles

n atcr Su r f ace

F IG . 1 . FIG . 2 .

to the give n pla ne L M be ing the tru e size of the given su rfa c e
,
’
.

G is t he c enter of gravi ty and R the point of a pplic a tion of the

resul tant p ressu re 31 a nd a: are
. the v e rtic al d is t a nc es f ro m G
and R r es pe ctively to the w a te r su rfa ce y a nd x b e i ng co r re
' ’
,

spond ing dis ta nc es along the i ncline d pl ane m easu red a t right ,

angles to the in terse ction of this plane with the w ater su rfa ce .

The in clined pla ne makes an a ngl e 0 with the v ert ic a l Le t .

A re p resent the area of the su rfa ce k the ra dius of gyra tion ,

abo u t its ho riz onta l a xi s th ro u gh the c ent er of g ra vity P the ,

tota l p ressu re and w the weight of a cu bic unit of wa ter Then . ,

for e a ch pla ne
P
and f o r the inclined plane
P wAy ( 2)
’
008 0 .

Fo r horiz ont al pl ane the point of a pplic a tion of the resultant

a

press u re p asses th ro ugh G the ce nte r of g ra vity of the s u rf a ce

,
.

For a v e rtic a l pla ne

14 HANDBOOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

and for an inclined plane

x = v+

Fig 4 . ho ws the m o re com m on sha pes encountered in

s

hyd raulic p roblems with the ve rtic a l dista nce a: f rom the b ase
,

to the cente r of gr avity G a nd the squ ares of the radii of

, ,

gy r a tion k abou t the ho ri zonta l axes th rou gh the centers of

’
, , ,

gra vity .

Tra pe zo i d

l r lans le Tri ang le Ci rc le Elli pse

z = r 3 = a

w
s ’
k . p r k

H ydrosta tic Pre ssur e s agains t Dams

I
n desi gning da ms hydros ta tic p ressures should be ca re
all

f ully ana ly zed This incl udes :

.

(a ) Static p ressure on u pstrea m and downst rea m fa ces of

da m .

(b) U pwa rd p ressu re a gains t b as e of dam .

(c ) F o r ov e rflow d a m s p ress u re re s
,
u lti ng f ro m the forma
tion of a va c uum beneath the o verfalling shee t .

Pre ssur e a gainst Face s of Dams — Le t Figs 5 and 6 . .

re p res ent c ross sec tions of d a ms

-
D being t he ve rtic a l he ight
,
If the d epth of wa te r p assing over the d a m s bo th in feet .
,
 H Y D ROSTATI CS 15

The pressu re against the face of the da m at a depth 11 is

d
poun s q upaere foot or
r s po u nds p er sq uare inch .

Table 9 pa ge 2 1 gives p ressures in po unds per squ are foot

, , ,

and Ta bl e 1 0 page 22 p ressu res in po unds pe r squ are inch

, ,

for difie re nt h ea ds Table 1 1 pa ge 27 gives heads in fee t

.
, ,

corresp o nding to di ff e re nt p ressu res in po unds per s qu a re inCh .

FIG . 5 . FIG . 6 .

The t o ta l ho rizonta l pressu re is the sa me for a given height ,

of dam and d e pth of w a te r re gardless of the cu rva tu re o r in

,

clina tio n of the f ac e of the dam Le t P ): be the tota l or re .

salta n t p ressu re a ains t the fac e of the da m and P v and P a ,

g ,

res pec tively the ve rtic a l and hori z onta l com ponents of this
,

pressu re Then fo r each c ase indic a ted in Figs 5 and 6

. .
,

P3 (2015! D)8
(6 )
and c a lling d the distance a b ve O the b ase of the da m at which
Pa a cts
H
s D + 211 (7 )
Tables I 2 and 1 3 p a ges 29 and 30 give va lues of P 3 and d
, ,

f o r h e ights of dam fro m 1 to 50f ee t and de pths of ove rflow f ro m

0 to 9 fee t These ta bles m ay also be used f or obtaining P a
.

and d f or othe r su b m erge d surf a ce s .

If the w a te r su rfa ce is at the sa m e eleva tion as the top of the

da m , H 0a nd
P 1; 3 1 2D
.
2
a nd d }§ D
Fo r d a ms with vertic al f ac es the p ressu re has no ver tic al
co m p onent and

PR PH
Fo r da ms with inclined pla ne f a ces , if l is the length f ro m
c res t to b ase of da m ,
P3 3 1 2l(D. 2H )
16 HAND B OOK O F H Y DRAU LI CS

a nd c alling d the distance above the base of the da m

’
, measu re d
a long its f a c e at wh ich P 3 a c ts ,

' d
d
s in 0
a nd whe n H 0
l
3 1 2lD
'
a nd d
3
.

Fo r da m s with c u rved or i rregu la rly sloping u pstream fac es ,

ill ustra ted in Fig 6 P R is the resu ltant of all of the norm a l
.
,

co m ponents a cting on the f a c e of the dam I n su ch c ases P v .

is e qu a l to the a rea a mne m u ltiplie d by a nd it acts ve rti

c a lly downw a rd th rough the cente r of gravity of th is area P H .

a nd d a re the sa m e a s f o r a da m with a ve r tic al u pst re am fa ce .

The i nt e nsity and point of a pplic a tion of P R m ay be readi ly

obta ined by com pleti ng the pa rallelogra m of f o rces .

Upwar d Pr e ssur e unde r Dam s — When a solid m as onry dam .

is b uilt on a rock found a tion the re is a te nd e ncy f o r w a te r to ,

pa ss fro m the pond a bove the da m through se a ms in the ro ck ,

to the b ase of the da m Th ere resu lts an u pwa rd hyd ros ta tic .

p ressu re and ins ide of the point wh e re the resultant of the other
fo rc es a cting on the da m cu ts its b ase it will hav e an overtu m ,

ing eff e ct There is no way to de te rm ine to j ust wha t exte nt

.

such a p ress u re e xis ts bu t it is e vide ntly g rea t e r f or the m o re

se a m y ro cks It is the ref ore a dvisa ble in p re pa ri ng the

.
,

f o unda tion f o r s u ch a da m to re m ove a ll loos e m a te ri al and get ,

down to the bes t rock p ra c tica ble A co m m o n practic e is to .

const ruct a cu t O ff w a ll o f conc re te or m a sonry extending

-

seve ra l f ee t into firm rock ne a r the h ee l of the da m , .

Fig 5 re p r ese nts a com mon type of rei nf o rc ed conc re te

.
-

da m .It cons is ts of a floo r deck a nd b u tt ress es a nd usu a lly , , ,

a c u t o fl w a ll a t the hee l Su ch a d a m m a y o r m ay not be

'
-
.

s u bj e ct e d to ov e r flow When it is req ui re d to withstand .

ove r flo w p rovisio n m u st be m a d e to p rev e nt e rosio n a t the toe

, .

When this type of da m is b u ilt on firm rock the floo r m ay be ,

o m itted With the floo r it is well a da pted to a lm ost any k ind

.

of a n ea rth fou nd a tion The p roble m s of see p a ge and u pw a rd

.

p ress u re on the b ase of a da m of this kind are i m po rtant .

E xpe rim ents we re pe rf o rm ed by Col m a n to de te rm ine con

l

d itio ns a ff e cting u pw a rd p ressu re u nd e r d a m s with pe rm e a ble

foundations I n a m e as u re w a te r pa ssi ng th rou gh ea rth f ollows
.

I B T C O L IIA N :
. . . T he Ac tio n of W a te r u nde r Da m s . Tr a ns . Am er .

Civ E ng . vol 80. p p —

4 2 1 4 83
.
, . . .
 HYDROSTATI CS 17

the laws flow of wa te r th rou gh pip es If wa ter p asses

of t he .

unde r a d a m the re is a grea te r s ta tic p ress u re ne a r the hee l o f

the da m t h an near its toe as there is a loss of hea d du e to f riction

betwee n t hese two points .

Ref e r ring to Fig 5 if F represents the de pt h of wa ter ba ck

.
,

of the d a m in fee t l the b rea dth of the b as e of the d a m in

’
,

feet a nd P“ the total u pwa rd p ressu re in pou nds pe r foot of

,

length of da m the following f o rm u las as shown from Colm an s

, ,
’

expe M e nts a ppe a r saf e f or d ete rm ining u pw a rd p ressu re unde r

,

da ms o n ea rth fo undations
With no cu tb fi at the h ee l of the da m or with ord ina ry
shee t piling

'
3 1 2F l
.

2
W ith an im pe rvious c u t O E -
at the hee l of the dam

The po int of a pplic a tio n of the resu lta nt in e ac h c ase ,

is % l f ro m the hee l of the da m

’
.

W ith a n im pe rvious c ut o ff at b oth the hee l a nd toe of the -

da m the u pward p re ssu re is slightly grea te r th an with a c ut O fl

'
-

a t the h ee l o nly a nd the point of a pplica tio n of P is 11

’
“

f ro m t he h ee l of the d a m .

O ne i m po rta nt poi nt b rou ght ou t by Col man s inves tiga tion

’

is tha t a cu t ofl to be e ff e ctive in re du c ing u pwa rd p ressu re m us t

'
-

be w a t e r tight -
Shee t pili ng a s o rdina rily d rive n is nev e r wa te r
.

tight a nd for this re as o n a good co nc re te c u t o ff of m ode ra te -

depth wi ll p rob ably be m o re eflective in p reventing upwa rd

'

press u r e th a n a ny am ou nt Of shee t piling .

Va cu u m unde r O verf alling She e t I n c a se the wa t er fa lli ng .

over a da m is co ntained betwee n re ta ining wa lls at the e nds of

the da m in su ch a m a nner as to p re ve nt the entra nc e of a ir
alo ng its downs t re a m fa ce a v a c u u m will t end to fo rm und e r the
,

ove rfa lling sh eet of wa te r The e ff ect of this action is to u n

.

bala nc e the a tm osphe ric p ressu re ou the two Sides of the da m ,

or in oth er wo rds to i nc rease the head on the u ps trea m s ide

,
.

The a m ou nt of unb al anc ed p ressu re w ill be the p re ssu re re

qu i re d to defl ec t the overfalling shee t of w ater from the p a th
it wou ld follow if air were freely adm itte d intoa p a th con
f orm ing to the c re s t of the dam I
n the e xt r e m e c ase the p re ssu re
.

aga i ns t the u p stI e am f a ce of the da m will be i nc r e a sed by a n

o
am u n e ut q a l to 34 f e e t o f w a t e r T his di ffic u l ty m a y be o.
ve r

Q
18 HAND B OOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

come by providing f or the entranc e of air or by so designing the ,

downs trea m face of the da m that there will be no space be

tween it and the overfa lling wa ter .

Pressure on Curve d Surfaces

Unif orm Pr essur e on Cylindrical Surf aces rep rese nts — Fi 7

g .

a c ross se ction of a pip e or cylind er su bj ec ted to a unifo rm

-

interna l hyd rosta tic p ressure and Fig 8 rep resents a sim ila r .

c o
r ss-
sec tion
bj ec ted to a u niform externa l p ressure The
su .

p ressu re at ea ch point on the circ umference is no rm al to the

su rface as indi ca ted by the arr ows The resulta nts of thes e
.

FIG . 7 . FIG . 8 .

norma l p ressu res, on Op pos ite side s of a ny d iame ter, q a re e u al

and in opposite di re ctio ns , and c a use a s t ress in a di re c tion

ta ngent to the ci rc umfere nc e If S be the s tress in pou nds pe r
.

linea r inch h the static he ad of wa te r in fee t and d the dia me te r

,

of the pipe in inches ,

S is tensio n fo r internal p ressu re a nd com pression fo r e xte rna l

p ressu re .

Fo rmula 1 2 m ay be used for co m p u ti ng the te nsion in p ressu re

pipes where h (the head to the c ente r of the pipe ) is large as
c omp are d to d Also f or cylind ric a l tanks having a vertic a l
.

axis a nd f or thin ci rc u la r a rch d ams

, This formul a appli es
.

to a se gment of a c ylinder provided the edges a re rigidly

s uppo rte d .

Uni form Pres sure on Spherical Surfaces If 8 be the stress .

wo unds p e r linea r inch on the su rfa c e of a sphere su bj e cted

20 HAND BOOK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

above the g me nt pl us the weight of

se
“

the se gm ent a nd r the

ra di u s Of the sph e re in i nch es .

If S be the tension in pou nds per li near inch a c ross a

’

m eridio na l ci rc u m fere nc e (a t right a ngles to SS) h the hea d of ,

wa te r in f ee t on P and r the ra di u s Of the sphe re in inches

, ,

I2
Non unif orm Pre ss ur e on Conical Surf aces — Fi 1 0 re p re
-
g .

t
se n s a c ross se ction of a cyli ndric al ta nk wi th a co nic al botto m
-

filled with w a te r At a ny point P the re will be te nsion a long

.

the e le m e nt o f the co ne a nd a lso a t right angl es to it .

If S be the te nsio n in pou nds pe r li near i nch in the di rec tio n

of a n elem e nt of the cone (SS in figu re ) 0the a ngle which any ,

e le m e nt m a k es with the a xi s of the co ne W the to ta l we ight o f

’
,

water above the segment of the c one whose bas e is the circ le ,

i nte rc epted by the ho rizonta l plane th rou gh PP plus the weight

of the se g m ent a nd r the ra dius of the c irc e c ut f ro m t he
’
,
l
cone by this plane ,

If S be the te ns io n in pounds pe r li nea r inch ac ross a n

’

ele m e nt of the co ne , h the he a d of w a t e r in fee t on P , 0the a ngl e

which any e lem ent m ak es with the a xis of the cone and a the
distanc e f rom the a pex of the cone to P ,
ha tan 0

Fro m the bove e qua tion it is evident tha t S will be a m a ximu m

a
’

whe n ha is m a xim um It will be z e ro at D a nd if DB is less

.

than BC the m axim um val ue of S will be at B ’

.

In det e rm ini ng W or W a nd other q u a ntities in the f o re

’

going equa tions it will be found m o re c onvenient to m a k e a

d rawing f rom which the nec essary dim ens ions may be app roxi
m a tely se ale d The resu lts obta ined in this m anner will be
.

su ffici e ntly a cc u ra te f o r o rdina ry p u rposes .

In c a se the conditions of the p roblem a re re ve rsed and t he

p ressu res are a pplied to the opposite or convex sides Of the
su rfa c es the s t resse s will be e qu a l in a m ou nt bu t will be
c o m p re ssion i nstea d of te nsio n .
 H Y DRO ST ATI CS 21

TABLE 9.
—H r DRO STATIC P RE SS U RE IN P O UND S PE R SQ U A RE
FOOT F O R D I FFE RE NT HE A D S
-

W e ig ht Of W a ter P o u nds pe r C u bic F oot

22 HANDBOOK O F H YDRAUL I CS

TABLE - —
1 0 H r DRO STATIC
. P RE SSU RE S IN POUND S PE R SQ U A RE
I N CH r o n DIr rE RE NT HE A D S
W eight of W ater P ounds p er Cubic Feet
 H YDROSTA TI CS 23

TABLE 1 0 (Conti nued )

Hr DRO STATIC P RE SSURE S IN PO UN D S PE R SQ U ARE I NCH FO B
DIPP E RE NT HE AD S
W eight of W ate r P ou nds p e r Cu bic F oo t
24 H ANDBOOK O F H YDRAUL I
CS

TABLE 1 0 ( Continued)
HYDRO STA I
'‘
lC P RE SSU RE S IN PO UND S P E R SQ U A RE I
NCH ro n
I
FFE RE NT H E AD S
I
W eig ht o i W a te r
. P o u nds p e r Cubic Foot
 H YDROSTAT I CS n
2 t

T ABLE 1 0 (Continued)
HrDRO ST ATIC P RE SS URE S IN PO UN DS PE R SQ UA RE I NCH FO I
DIPP E RE NT HE AD S
W e ig ht of W ate r P ou nds pe r C ubic Foo t

. 90!
26 HAN DBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 1 0 (Concluded )
HYD RO STATIC P RE SSURE S IN P O U ND S P E R SQ UARE I NCH FO B
DI FFE RE N T HE AD S
W eight of W ater P ounds p e r C ubi c F oo t
28 HAN DB OO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 1 1 (Conclu ded)

HE AD S IN FE E T C O RRE SPO ND I N G To D I FFE RE NT H YD RO STATIC
P RE SSURE S IN P O UND S PE R SQ UA RE I N CH
W e ig h t of W a te r P o u nds p e r C ubic F oo t
 HYDRO STATIC S 29

TABLE 1 2.
— T OTAL HO RI ZO N TAL H YD RO STA TIC P RE SS U RE S IN
PO UN D S P E R L I NE AL FOOT F O R D A M S W I T H OV E RF L O w
D H e ig ht of da m in f ee t
De p t h of o ve r flo w In f e e t
P P r e ss u r e In o da pe r li ne a l f oo t
( 2 DH i a
H i n f ee t

31 28 1 343
125 624 74 9
281
499
780

8 518
,
1

10, 764 1

1
1
1
1 6 006
. 1
17, 472 18.720 1
2
2
2

.030

60122
,

62 899
.

65 738
,

6040
.3 68 640
.

7 1 604
. 77.220
74 630
. 8037 1 .

77 7 1 9 80652 83 585
. , ,

7 7 875
81 026
84 240
30 HANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

—
T ABLE 1 3 VE RTICAL DI STANCE S ABOVE B ASE To CE NTE
. R!
O F H oRIzO NT AL PRE SSURE F O R DAN S W IT H OVE RFLO W
D height of dam In f ee t
'

.
'

H de p th of over flow In f ee t'

.

- distance above base I n f eet t o ce nter of p ress u re .

2 H
4 -
3 0 4 .

D+2 H )
H in f ee t
 HAND B OOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 14 (Concluded)
T H E O RE TIC A HO RSE P O W E R O F 1 CUBIC FOOT P E R SE C O ND O F
L

W ATE R F O R HE AD S FRO M 0 TO 1 00 FE E T
,
 HYDROSTATI CS 33

TABLE 15

TH E O RE T IC A L K I LOW ATTS O F 1 CUBIC FOOT PE R SE C O ND OF

W ATE R F O R H E AD S FROM 0 To 1 00 FE E T

09 3 1 02 1 10 1 18
l 78 1 86 1 95 203
26 2 27 1 27 9 288
34 7 3 55 3 64 37 2
4 32 4 40 4 49 4 57

5m O2 m
5 “
ml m 6w 62
mc e9 m
7 71
7m 7w
n
!7 79
8m m 8n m
939 94 8 95 6 965
1 024 1 03 3 1 04 1 1 04 9
l 1 09 l 1 17 1 1 26 1 1 3 4
1 1 93 1 202 1 2 10 l 2 19
l 27 8 1 2 86 1 295 1 303

2 64 9 2 6 5 8
2 7 34 2 7 4 2

5 2 903 2 9 1 2
9 2 988 2 996

5 3 064 3 07 2 3 08 1
3 148 3 1 57 3 1 65
3 23 3 3 24 2 3 25 0
3 3 18 3 326 3 3 3 5

8 3 65 6 3 66 5 3 67 3
2 3 7 4 1 3 74 9 3 7 58
7 3 82 6 3 834 3 84 3
34 H ANDBOOK OF H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 15 (Conclud ed )
THE ORE TIC AL KILOW ATTS O F 1 CUBIC FO OT PE R SE C ON D \O F
WATE R FO R H E A DS O
FR M 0 To 1 00 F E E T
36 HAND B OOK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

o
C ntracti n —oThe a re a of c ross se ctio n of a j et is less th an
-

the a re a of the o rific e f ro m which it dis cha rges Whe n a j e t

.

lea ves a n o ri fic e it contrac ts to a sm aller a rea la ter exp a nding ,

and b e co m i ng m o re o r less i rr e gu l a r The se ctio n of m i nim u m

.

a re a is c a lle d the vena contr a cta Le t AD Fig 1 1

.
,
.
,

re p re se nt a se c tio n of a side of a v esse l co nta ini ng

w a te r which p asses th ro u gh a n o ri fic e BC The .

ve na contrac ta is a t E a little over one di a m e te r

,

fro m the inner edge of the w a ll .

The a m o u nt of co nt ra ctio n de pends u pon the

fo rm of the opening Sha rp com ers at the i nner
.

e dge O f the o r i fic e c ause a m a xi m u m co ntr a ction

a nd rou nd e d co rne rs co nf o r m ing to the sh a p e of

a co ntra cti ng j e t c a use the m i ni m u m co nt ra ctio n .

The re are va riou s inte rm ed ia te co nditio ns .

The ra tio of the a re a Of the ve na co ntra ct a to

the a re a of the o ri fic e is c a lle d the coefl
s

icie nt of
contracti on C , Its m e a n v a lu e is a pproxi m a t ely
c.

f or a sh a rp e dged o ri fic e a nd a pp roa ch e s
‘
-
,

u nity f o r a n o ri fic e with rou nd ed co rne rs .

The dis ch a rge f ro m a n o ri fic e is e qu a l to the p rod u ct of t he

a rea of a se ctio n of the j et a t the vena co ntra ct a a nd the m e a n

ve locity o r
,

Q Ca m (3 )
The mea n veloci ty of a lwa ys slightly less than the
j e t is a

th eo re tic a l ve locity The ratio of the m ea n veloc ity to the

.

theo re tic a l velocity is c alled the coeflici ent of veloci ty ,

The nu m e ric a l valu e of C ra nges be tween

o a nd with
a f a i r av e ra ge v a l u e .

E qu a tio n (3 ) m ay be w ritt e n

Q Cc Coa vt

Q Ca v;

(6 )

in which a is the a re a of the o ri fic e a nd C the coe fficie nt o f

disc ha rge .

The coe ffic ie nts of ve loc i ty a nd co nt ra ctio n a re di ffic u lt to

dete rm i ne e xperi m enta lly a nd a re of theo re tic al ra th e r th a n
tical va lue
r
The co e ffici ent of disch a rge m a y be d e term i ne d
.
 ORI FI CES 37

by mea su r ing the qu a ntity of wa ter flowing fro m a n ori fic e o f

known dim e nsio ns in a gi ven tim e and de te rmi ning the ra tio
betwee n t his di sch a rge a nd the th eo re tic a l disch a rge It is .

theref o re t he c oe fli cie nt of disch a rge in which engi nee rs are

partic u la r ly inte res ted This coe fficient has bee n fou nd to
.

vary wi t h t he h ea d a nd the size of the o ri fic e .

The sh a r p e d ged o ri fic e p rovides a n acc u ra te m ea ns Of m e asu r

ing sm a ll qu a ntities of wa te r Orifice s with rou nde d e dges a re
.

freque nt ly u se d in d esign and it is de si rable to h ave coe ffi cie nts

of disc h a rge f o r su ch o r i fic es .

Rect a ngu lar O ri fice s I — n gene ra l the above di sc u ss io n a p

.

plies to a n o r i fic e of a ny Sha pe There is howe ver a fu nda

.
, ,

menta l e rr o r in assu m i ng th a t the hea d on the c e nter of a ny

Wate r Su rf ac e

F IG . 12 — . Re c ta ng u la r o r ific e .

or i fic e not hori zo nta l is the m ea n h ea d Ref e rring to Fig 1 2

, ,
. .

the th e o re tic a l fo rm u la f or dis ch a rge ove r a re ct angu l a r o ri fic e

may be d e riv ed as f ollows
Le t h, be the hea d on the u ppe r edge of the o ri fic e a nd h the
head o n the low er edge The discharge th rou gh any el em enta ry
.

st rip of a rea Ld y at a dis t a nc e y b e low the w a te r su rf a c e is giv e n

by the e qu a tio n
dQ L dy V 27 1}
whic h i nte g ra te d b e twee n the lim its hz a nd h, give s
” ”
Q 34 L V 5 ?) 02 1 hi )
When h; is z ero this equ a tion r—e du c es to
”
Q 33 9 L h r (8 )
which is the th eo re tic al f orm ul a o f discha rge f or a re ct a ngul a r
weIr .

E qu a tion (7 ) gives the the o re tic a l di scha rge f or a re cta ngu l a r

orifi ce .A s im il a r thou gh m o re com plic a ted e xp ressio n wo u ld
i
g ev t he th e o r e tic a l di s c h a r g e th ro u gh c i rc u l a r o r i fic es The .

fo rm u l a
Q LM s / 2 gh
38 HAND B OOK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

in whi c h h is t he h e a d o n the c ente r of the o ri fice m ay be ,

used with ou t a pp re cia bl e e rro r unless hi is sm a ll as co m pa r ed

to M For h,
. M e qu a tion (9) gives resu lts a bou t 1 p er c e nt .

too grea t a nd f or h; 2 M resu lt s a re p e r c e nt too g re a t . .

E qu a tio n (9) is the b ase f orm u l a usu ally em ployed E v en .

f or the lower h ea ds the co rre ctio n nec essa ry m a y be ma de in

a pplying t he dis ch a rge co e fficie nt The act u al wo rking f o rm u la .

f o r dis ch a rg e f rom a re cta ngul ar o ri fic e the sa me as f or a ,

ci rc u lar o ri fic e or o ri fic e of any other sh a pe is therefo re

, , ,

Q 7.7.
aux/2 ( 1 0)

inwhich a is the a re a of opening C the coe fficient

the ,
of d is
charge and h the he ad o n the c e nter O f the o ri fic e .

O ri fice s with Fu ll Contra cti on

M y expe rim e nts to dete rm ine the coe fficie nts of discharge
an

f o r sh arp e dged o ri fic es h ave bee n pe rf o rm e d

-
Table s of .

coe fficie nts of discha rge for squ a re and circ u lar ori fic es whi ch ,

h ave bee n qu ite generally a cc epted by m odern hydrau li cie ns

were publish e d by Ha milton Sm ith Jr in 1 886 These ta bles
1
, .
, .

which were p repare d with g rea t c a re are bas e d u pon expe ri ,

m ents by Po nc ele t and Le bros T G E llis H a milto n Sm ith Jr ,

. .
, , .
,

Julius Weisbac h W C Unwin J B Fra ncis R Steck el

,
. .
, . .
,
.
,

Da rcy a nd Bazin Tables 2 1 a nd 22 pages 54 and 55 a re

.
, ,

r e p rod u ctio ns Sm ith s table s of coe fficients of dis ch a rge

’
of

throu gh ci rc u la r o ri fic es and squ a re o ri fic es re spe c tive ly .

a e r r n n K
L t e xpe i e ts by Ju dd a d i g and Bilto n do not
m n 2 3
,

a ltoge th e r co nfirm the resu lts in Smith s t a bles After a ’

.

c aref ul stu dy of the ea rlier expe rim ents in connection wi th

his own a nd tho se by Ju dd a nd King Bilton concl udes : ,

1 The a ssu m ptio n tha t a co e fficie nt of disch a rge comm on

.

to all o ri fic es f rom 34 inch to 1 2 i nches in di a me te r is rea ch ed

a t a he a d of 1 0 0 f ee t is erro neou s .

2 Th a t in o rder to O bta in co m ple te a nd pe rf e ct co ntractio n

.

a c ert ai n m inim um dia m e te r a nd h ea d a re re q u i red The se .

1 H AM IL TO N SM ITH , JR H y d ra uli cs . p p 5 8—59

. : . .

H ORAC E U J DD
a nd Ro r 8 KI NG : So m e E p er ime nts on the Fr ictio nlees
. x
O rifice From p a p e r rea d bef o re the Amer ica n Ass ocia tion f or the Ad v a nce
.

ment of Scie nce . uly , 1 906 J E ngi neer i ng News , Se p t 27 1 906

. .
, .

3
H . J I BIL TON :
. . C oe fli cie nts of Dis c ha rg e thro ug h Circ ular Ori ficee .

From p a p er rea d be f ore t he Victo rian I

nstitu te of E nginee rs . Ap ril, 1 908 .

ch eeri ng News ,
”
u ly 9 , 1 90J
8 .
 ORI FI CES 39

appear to be a pproxim a te ly 2 54 inches a nd 17 i nches

respec t v e l y i .

3 Th a t o rific es of 2 if inches di am e te r and ove r u nd e r

.
,

heads of 1 7 inch es a nd ove r have a c o mm on coe fi c ie nt of dis ,

charge ly ing be tween

,
and bu t whic h is prob ably a bou t
(s u b j e c t to t he h ea d be ing no t less th a n 2 or 3 di am e te rs ) .

4 Tha t in the c as e of o ri fices sm aller than 2 5 inches in

.

diame te r c ontrac tion is never pe rfec t and c o m ple te u nde r

,

any hea d bu t is su ppresse d mo re a nd m ore as the di am ete r

,

dec reas es ea c h siz e of o ri fic e h avi ng its own co ns ta nt o r

,

norm a l c oe fli c ient of dis c h a rge a nd its o wn c ritic a l hea d

“
.

5 Tha t as the dia m ete r dec reases the no rm a l coe ffici e nt

.
,

increa se s as also the c ritica l head

,
.

6 Th a t in a n infinite ly sma ll ori fice contraction is entire ly

.
,

suppre sse d a nd u nity be co m es the c oe flic ie nt Of disc h arge f or

all h ea d s (su bj e ct to the e flects Of c a pill a rity cohe sio n visc o sity , , ,

tempe ra tu re ,

7 Tha t the disc h a rge of a ci rc ular o ri fic e u nde r a ny given

.

hea d is the sa me whe ther the j et be ho ri zonta l vertic al or a t

, , ,

any int e rm edi a te a ngle .

It is p roba ble tha t with p roper m odi fic a tio n the a bove

comm e nts will a pply to s q u are or re ct a ngu l a r o ri fic es The .

app r o xi m a te c oe fficie nt f or o ri fic e s a bo ve 2 5 i nches in

,

diam e t e r a nd f or hea ds grea ter th an 1 7 i nches can be e asily ,

re m e m b e red .

A ta ble of coe fficients of disch a rge f or re ctangula r o ri fic es

has be e n p re pa re d by Fa nning f ro m experim ents by M iche lotti l
,

Bos su t Re nnie Caste l Le spinass e a nd Ellis Fa nni ng s res u lts

’
.
, , ,

to th ree deci mal plac es are give n in Table 23 page 56 , .

The c oe ffic ients give n a re f or o ri fic es 1 f oot wide and from ,

to 4 fee t hi gh u nde r h ea ds of f ro m to 50f eet .

Ta ble 24 p age 5 7 p repa red by Bov ey f ro m experiments

,
2
,

on o r i fic es of difie re nt s ha pe s h a vi ng the sa m e a re a a s a ci rcl e ,

i nch in dia m ete r gives the e ff ect of sh a pe of ope ning o n the

,

coe ffic ient of discha rge It does not nec essa rily follow tha t a .

si mila r re la tion will hold f o r o ri fic es of l a rg e r a re a s .

Orifice s with Contr a ctio ns Suppr e s se d

Orificeswi th co ntra ctions e ith e r wholly or p a rtially su p

pressed a re not co m m o nly u sed f or m easu ring wate r b e c a u se
J T F ANNING : W t Sup p ly Engin ing p p 205 206
1 . . a er ee r , .
-
.

3 li n ea r T Bovnr . : H y d r a ulics . p . 40
.
40 HAND BOOK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

of the c t i ty whi ch exists in sele cting a p rope r coe ffic i e nt

un er a n

of dis ch a rge .Su ch o ri fic e s however a re Often u se d in d e s ign

, ,

a nd va l u es of these coe ffi cie nts a re i m po r ta nt Unf o rtu na t e ly .

,

a va il abl e e xpe ri m e nt a l da t a do not cov er a s wide a ra ng e o f

co nditio ns as is d esi r abl e .

Table 25 pa ge 58 ha s b ee n p re pa re d f rom resu lts O b ta i ne d

, ,

by Smith f rom e xpe ri m e nts by Lebros Thou gh the o ri fic es

1
.

e xperi m e nt e d u po n w e re s m a ll th ey shou ld f o m a gu id e f o r
r ,

sel e cti ng co e ffici e nt s f o r l a rger o ri fic es It is p rob able tha t .

c oe fficients of discharge f or ori fic e s with co nt ra ctio ns su p

p re ssed will d ec rease slightly a s the si ze of the ope ni ng i nc re ases
the sa m e as f or sh a rp edge d o ri fic es -
I n Ta bl e 2 5 su pp ress ed .

co ntraction m ea ns tha t the side of the cha nnel coi ncid e s with
the e dge o f the o ri fic e a nd p a rtly su pp resse d co nt ra ctio n m e a ns
that the dista nc e betwee n the side of the ch a nnel a nd e dge of
the ori fic e is f oot .

E fi ects of Velocity of Appr oach

I
n the disc ussio n thu s f a r it has be en assum ed tha t w a ter
has b ee n disch a rged f ro m a rese r voi r which is l a rge in c om
parison with the a re a of the ori fic e Wh e n the area of the c ross .

se ctio n of the c ha nnel co ndu cti ng w at e r to the o ri fic e is s m a ll

com pa red to the a rea of the o ri fic e so tha t the re is a n a p p re ,

c iable ve locity of a pp ro a ch the di sch a rge th ro u gh the o ri fic e

,

will be inc re ased .

There a re but f ew expe rim e nts a va il able on the effe c ts of

velocity of a ppro a c h on the disch a rge th rough o ri fic es It ha s .

bee n c u stom ary to co nsid e r tha t the m e asu re d he ad should be

i nc rea se d by the ve locity hea d due to the m ea n velocity in the
ch a nne l of a pp ro a ch This assu m ptio n would proba bly be
.

a pp ro xi m a te ly t ru e if the ve locity of a pp ro a ch were u nif o rm .

The velocity howe ve r is no t u nif o rm in a ll p a rts of the se ctio n

, ,

a nd the ki ne tic e ne rgy of the wa t e r in the ch a nne l is gr e a te r 2

th an it wou ld be f or u ni f o rm v elocity This co nclu sion is .

bo rne ou t by experim ents on veloc ity of a ppro ac h f or we irs .

The f o rm u l a f or discha rge th rou gh a ny o ri fic e with velocity

of a pp ro a ch co r re ctio n m a y be w ritt e n .

1
M
H AM IL T O N S ITH , JR : H y d r a u li cs , p p 6 5 —6 7
. . .

2 S
ee d is c u ss io n by ROB E RT E
‘
H O RTO N , Wa ter Su p p ly
. a nd Irr i ga t io n
P a p er No 200, U S Ge olo g ic a l Su r ve y , p p 1 7—20
. . . .
°

.
 O RI FI CE S
in whi c h 6 is an em pi ric al coe fficient and V is the mean
veloc it y of a pp roa c h Ca lli ng A the a rea of
. the channel of
appro a c h since
,

The e qu a tion m ay be written

3 ( r n
Q Ca \ /2 gh h + .

56
Red u c ing by a m e thod
logous to th a t given on p age 70
a na

for w e irs the gene ra l f o rm u la f o r disch a rge f rom a n ori fic e with

,

veloc ity of a pproa ch b e com es

06 2

2
( 1 3)
E xpe r im e nts
with o ri fic es f or determ ining 8 are not a va il able
but f ro m e xp erim ents on sha rp c reste d w ei rs it app ea rs to -

have a va lue of a bo u t a nd assum i ng thi s valu e f or sh a rp

edge d o r i fic es the f o rm u l a is
,

Q Ca + 32 0 3 2

Short Tu be s

Bor da ’
s hort cylindric al tu be proj e cting in
m ou thpiece is a s

wa r d ly a s sho wn in Fig 1 3 The i nw ard e dge of the tu be

. .

mu s t be re l a tively thi n a nd sh a rp to i nsu re p e rf ect co ntra ction

a nd its l e ngth m us t be su ch a bo u t % d th a t t he j e t will no t to u ch
, ,

the s id e s of the tub e The following a re a ve ra ge coe ffici ents

. .

C C. C,

F IG 1 3
. .
—Bo r d a ’ s F m 1 4 — Sta nd a r d
. .

m o u thp iece . s ho r t tu be .

Sta nda r d Short Tu be s .

— A cyli ndric al tub e , h aving
length a

of f r o m 2 to 3 di a m e t e rs with the i nner end set flush with a

flat w a ll so a s to f o r m a s h ar p co r n e r e d e nt r a n-
c e is co m m o n ly
call e d a standard short tu b e In su ch tub es Fig 1 4 the . ,
.
,

issu ing j et tou ches the sides o f t h e t b

u e a f t l vi g
e r
‘

ea n th e
42 HANDBOOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

inne r fac e and the tube flows full The coefficient of contrac .

tion is co nsidere d uni ty The coe m cient of di sch a rge v a ri e s

. .

f ro m to The m e a n v a lue gene r ally use d is

FIG . l5 . Sho r t tu be p ro
-
Fm . 16 — C o nve r ge nt tu be
. with
j e cting inwa rd . sha r p co r ner a t e n r a ncet .

Sho r t tu bes p roj e cting i nw a rd as shown in Fig 1 5 h a v e .

coe fficients of di sch a rge varying f ro m 07 2 to The ave ra g e

v alue commonly e mploye d is

Fm . l7 —.C o nver g e nt tu be wi th F m 18
. .
—C o nve rgi ng be ll
r o u nd ed c o r ne r a t e ntr a nce . m o u the d ori fice .

Convergent short tu be s a re f ru s trums of co nes as shown in

Figs 1 6 and 1 7
. Fig 1 6 h as the l ar ge r b ase se t flush with
. .

a flat wa ll so as to fo rm a sh a rp co rne re d e nt r a nc e Fig 1 7

-
. .

has the t
e n ra n e c to the tu be slightly ro unde d The sides of .

the tub e m ake an a ngle 0 with the a xis of the co ne .

44 HANDBOOK O F H Y DRAU LI CS

a na rrow g a t the o u tl e t Fig 23 The opening in the ri ng

rin , . .

no zzl e is si m ila r to a sha rp c o rne red o ri fic e which c a u ses a -

contra ctio n of the j e t The sm ooth no z z le m ay te rm i nate in a

.

cylinder with the conic al p a rt c urved as shown in Fig 22 The

,
. .

ring no z zl e w as f ou nd by Free m a n s e x p e ri m e nt s to h ave no

’

pa rtic u la r a dva nt a ge ove r sm ooth no z zles .

The f ollowing a re m e a n va lu es of coe fficie nts o f discha rg e

of sm ooth no zzles as determ ined by Free m an :
Di a m e ter in inch es .
94 1 1% IH 1%

F IG . 21 . F IG . 22 . FIG . 23
Difle re nt sha p e d
'
no z z le s
‘

following a re m ean va l u es of coe fficie nts of dis cha rg e

The
f or ri ng no zz l es a s de te rm ine d f ro m Freem a n s e xpe ri m e nts
’
.

The ra tio of the di a m ete r of op ening to di a m et e r j u st b a ck of

ri ng is given .

Ra tio 0 70. 0 . 95
0 680
. 0 97 5
.

Su bm e r ge d O ri fice s

The dis cha rge throu gh su b m erge d ori fic e s is given by the

f orm ul a
(1 5 )
whe re h is di ff e re nc e in ele vations of wa ter su rfac es abov e
the
a nd be lo w the o r ific e C the co e ffici e nt o f di sch arge and a the
,

area o f the ope ning There a re but f ew expe ri m e nts ava ila bl e
.

f o r d e t er m ining C for sub m erged o ri fic es Wh a t da ta there a re .

indic a t e th at discha rge coe fficients are not grea tly afiec ted by
s u b m e rg e nc e .

Ta bl e 26 p a ge 59 gives c oe fficients of discha rge for subm er ged

, ,

sharp e dge d o ri fic e s of v a rio us dim e nsio ns co m pil ed fro m t he

-

bes t av ail a bl e d a t a Ta ble 27 pa ge 5 9 gi ves c oe fficients of dis

.
, ,

c ha rge f o r a n o ri fic e 1 f o o t s qu a re with rou nde d e dges f r o m ,

e xp e r i m e nts by E lli s .
1

1 Tram Amer Soc Civ E ng

. . . . .
, vol . 6. p . 19
 O RI FI CE S 45

Gate s

Gate s Di s charging Fr e e ly
into re su lts o f e xp e ri —
Air The
.

ments o n m odels of g a tes shown in the Figs 24 a nd 2 5 a r e .

give n by U nwin Table 28 p a ge 60 giving coe fficients of

1
.
, ,

dis ch a r ge f o r va riou s de pths of wa ter a bove the top o f the

ope ni ng s was co m p u te d f ro m U nwin s r esu lts The h e a d o n
’
, .

PLAN

FIG . 24 .
— G a te s dis c ha r ging f r e ely into a ir .

the c e nte r of o rifice in this ta ble m ay be obt ai ne d by a dding

ha lf o f the depth of ope ning to the de pth of wa te r a bove the
top of o rifice .

De te rm inatio n of the coe fficie nt of d isch arge of a sl u ic e g a te

of t he Ar go da m a t Ann Arbo r M ich wa s m a de by Wa rd 2
, .
,

in 1 9 1 6 The g ate is a pp roxi m a t e ly 4 f e e t wide a nd 5 f ee t

.

high The opening is b e twee n conc rete pi ers with b evele d

.

n
Op ening . all s wi de
“

FIG 25 . .
-
G a te s wi th p r o lo ng e d bo tto m s a nd sid es .

n os es The g a te closes o n a b as e 1 f oot above the conc r e te

.

floo r The botto m of the ga t e f o rm ed the u ppe r e dge of the

.

ope nin g Be low the g a te is a c onc re te b a si n

. f e e t d e e p and
20 fe e t long The w at er in the riv e r b elow the da m wh e n the
.

test w as m a de wa s lowe r th an the g a te sill The m e a n hea d .

on t he c e nte r of the ope ning w as a bo u t 8 f e e t Fo r th is h ea d .

the m e a n of severa l ob se r va tio ns g ave a c o e fficie nt of dis ch a rge

of

i W . C . U NW IN : H y d r a u lics . E nc y c lo p e d ia Bri ta nnic a , 1 1th e d i t io n ,

vol . 14 , p . 41 .

3 C . N W ARD : An
. u np u b lis hed t he sis f o r t he U ni v e rs i t y of M ic hi g a n .
46 HAND BOOK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

Submerge d Gate s .
— Su b m e rge d
ga tes a re f reque ntly e n
countered in engineeri ng p ra ctic e Th ey m ay be used f o r
'

eith er inta k es o r sl u ic es Su ch g ates a re subj ect to a v a rie ty

.

of ent ra nc e co nditio ns which a ff e ct the co nt ra ction a nd c o ns e

quently the coe fficie nt of disch a rge The m ost co m m on c a s e .

is whe re the botto m of the op e ni ng is nea rly flush with the floo r
of the stru ctu re and the sides of the ope ning a re flush with t he
piers in which the ga te gu ides are pl a c ed The co ntra ctio n a t .

the sid es a nd botto m of the ope ning will the n be gre a tly re
d uced If the gate rest s o n a sill som ewha t highe r th a n t he
.

floo r of the stru cture or if the g ate gu ides p roj ect beyond th e
sides t he a m ou nt of cont ra ctio n will be inc re ase d There is .

u su a lly co m pl et e c o nt ra c tion a t the top of the op e ni ng Th e

’

.
,

e ffe ct of cont ra ctio n on su ch op eni ngs

.
however appe ars to , ,

dec rease as the siz e of the opening i nc re ases .

Only a f ew e xpe rim e nts on sub m erged ga tes a re a va ila bl e

a nd th e se a re of a ve ry g ene ra l ch ara cte r The p robl e m is a l s o .

complic a ted by the fa ct th a t a standing w av e u su a lly f o rm s

below the ga te and th ere is a qu estion as to the p roper dis tanc e
b elow the ga t e for m easu ring the water su rfa c e el eva tion The -
.

e ngi nee r is usu a lly m o re i nt e rest ed in the e l ev a tio n th a t occ u r s

be low the tu rbulenc e c a used by the sta nding wa ve .

The e xp e ri m ent s b ea ri ng on thi s su bj e ct h ave b ee n dis

c ussed by Pa rk er 1
H e a na lyz e s e xp erim e nt s by Bo rne m a nn
.
,
2

Ch atte rton a nd Bento n

3 ‘
Ch a tt e rto n gives the f ollowi ng
.

form ula f or C f or v a l u es of h below 5 f e e t .

C X 2 54
(1 6 )
Be nto ngives the following f o rm ul a f or hea ds b elow 5 f e et a nd

widths of ga te opening ( 14 ) u p to 1 0 f ee t :
7
1

C W (1 7 )
Form u las ( 1 6) b ase d u po n i ndependent sets o f
a nd (1 7 ) a re

observ ations It w ill be observed that in fo rm ula ( 1 6) C

.

varies only with h and in f orm u l a (1 7 ) it v aries o nly with W .

Resul ts by the two form ula s a gre e qu ite close ly f or heads of 1 _

foot or less bu t di ff e r by f rom 1 0 to 25 p e r c e nt f or the high e r .

hea ds This div ergenc e m ay be a cco u nte d f or by the co ndi

.

1 Pm u r A M o nnmr P a nxs a : C o ntr ol of W a ter , pp : 1 6 4 1 68

-
.

Ci rili noenieu r , vol

2 6 . p 29 7
. . .

x
H y dra ulic E p er ime nts i n the Kis t na Delta .

4 P u nj ab Irr igat i on Bra nch P a p er , No 8 . .

 ORI F I CE S 47

tions nu de r which the experim ents were performed The .

condi tio ns w hi ch will a fiec t the disch a r ge through submerged

'

gates are e xpla i ne d be low a nd these shou ld be give n ca refu l

consid e ra tion in eac h case b ef ore se l ecting a coe fficient of

disc h a r ge .

(a ) The type of co ns t ru c tio n as a ffe cting co ntra ction The .

grea te r the contra ctio n the less the dis cha rge .

(b) The co ndition of cha nnels le ading to a nd f rom the ga te

as a fi e c ting vel ocity of a pp ro ac h a nd velocity of re t re a t .

(c) The he ight of standi ng wave a nd point chose n f or meas u r

ing e l ev a tion of wa te r su rfa c e b elow the ga t e with re fe renc e to
sa me The discha rge coe fficient will be less when the he ad
.

below the g a te is m easured in the trough of the sta ndi ng wave

tha n whe n m easu red fa rther downst rea m be low all tu rbulence .

The h eigh t of standing wave b elow the ga te will inc re ase as the
depth of wa ter dec reases .

Ta ble 29 pa ge 6 1 gives va lu es of the c oe fficie nt of disch a rge

, , ,

C co m p u te d from Chatte rton s a nd Be nton s formul as (f o rmu las

’ ’
,

(1 6) a nd

Su bm e rge d l ube s xpe ri mented on submerged

'‘
.
-
Stewa rt l
e

tubes 4 fee t s qu are with lengths varying fro m , to 1 4 fee t ,

and h ea ds f ro m to f ee t The e ntra nc e co nditions .

incl u ded sha rp e dges a nd various degrees of suppressed con

tra c tio n Roge rs a nd Sm ith have e xtende d the experiments
.

by Ste w a rt to i nclude sh arp e dged tu bes 6 8 and 1 0 inches -

, ,

sq u a re with va ry ing l engths u ndé r hea ds u p to

,
”
fee t .

Roge rs a nd Smith decided f rom the ir inves tiga tion tha t the
2

coe fficie nt of discha rge C va rie d as L D L bei ng the l e ngth of , ,

tu be a nd D the l ength of one sid e of the cross section of the -

tu be a nd was inde pe nde nt of the hea d

,
.

The a u tho r has pr epa re d Table 30 pa ge 62 f ro m the , ,

resu lts of the se e xp e riments assum i ng that the c oe fficie nt

I
of dis charge fo r a ny su bm erg ed tube va r es as i L a nd 1)
?
»

be i ng r espe ctively the l ength of t ube a nd perim e te r of cross

se ctio n of the tube For a squ ar e tu b e p 4D
. It is ,
.

evid e nt t ha t this assu m ptio n m a y be e rr o neo us bu t it a p pea rs

r eas o na bl e a nd as saf e a s a ny in v i ew of the f a ct th a t th ere a re

no e xp eri m e nta l d a ta f or ci rc u lar o r re c ta ng ul a r tub es .

C B ST E W AR
1 . Inv tig ti n f Fl w t h ug h Large Su bm ged O i
. T: es a o o o ro er r

fice s a nd Tubes . Bu lleti n of t he U ni vers it y of W isco nsin No , . 216 .

C Romans a nd T L Sm r n : E xp e ri m e nts with Su bmerg ed Ori fice s

'
3 T . . . .

a nd T u bes E ngi neer i ng N e ws , No v 2 , 1 9 1 6

.
. .
48 HAN DBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E l 6 .
-
Tna Er
'
mAL VE LOCITIE S m FE E T PE R SE CO ND ,
H E ADS r a o u O to 5 F E E T
'

r oa . FRO M TH E FO RM U L A
 ORI FI CE S 49
—
TABL E 1 7 TRE O RE TrcAL VE L o c rE s xN FE E T PE R SE CO ND,
.

F O R H E Ans F RO M 0 To 50 F E E T
. F RO M T E E FO RM U L A
50 HAND B OOK O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E 18.
— TH E O RE TICAL VE Lo c rE s IN FE E T P E R SE COND,
FO R H E ADs F RO M 0 To 500 F E E T F RO M T H E F O RM U L A
.

V 579 :
52 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU LI CS

T ABL E 19 ( Concluded )
TH E O RE TICAL H E ADS IN FE E T CO RRE SPO NDING To VE LO CITIE S
2
‘
”
F ROM O TO 1 0FE E T PE R SE CO ND FRO M TH E FO RM UL A h,
2g
. '
 O RI FI C E S 53

T ABL E —
20 T H E O RE TICAL H E ADS IN FE E T CORRE SPO NDIN G
.

To V E LO CITIE S FROM 0 To 50 FE E T P E R SE CO ND
.

2
”
FRO M TH E FO RM UL A h,
29
54 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABL E 2 1 — S M ITH S CO E FF ICIE NTS

.
’
OF DISCH ARGE F OR

VE RTICAL CIRCU L AR O RIFICE S WITH FU L L CO NTRACTIO N

 O RI FI CE S 55

TABLE 22 .
—SM ITH ’
S CO E FF ICIE NTS OF DISCH ARGE FOR

V E RT ICAL SQ U ARE O RIFICE S W IT H FU L L CO NTRACTIO N

56 HANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABL E — FANNIN G S COE F FICIE NTS OF DISCH ARGE FO R VE R

23 .
’

TICAL RE CTAN GU L AR O RI
FICE S, 1 F oot Wide WITH ,

FU LL CO NTRACTION . H E AD Is M E AS U RE D
To CE NTE R OF O RIFICE
 O RI FI CE S 57

TABLE 24 .
-
C OE m crE NTs o r DISCH ARGE BY BOVE Y , F OR VA
RIO U S SH APE D SH ARP O RIFICE S W ITH CO M P L E TE
-
E DGE D

CO NTRAC TIO N THIS TABL E I NDICATE S TH E E FFE CT

.

O F TH E SH AP E O F O RIFICE S O N TH E CO E F F ICIE NT

O F DI SCH ARG E TH E ARE A O F ORIFICE IN

.

E ACH C AS E W AS SQ U ARE I NCH E S

58 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE 25 COE FFICIE NTS OF DISCH ARGE FO R RE CTANGU L AR

.
-

ORIFICE S WITH PARTIALL Y SU PPRE SSE D CO NTRACTIO NS

H ead in f ee t
Dime ns io ns of
Des cri p tio n of c o ntr a c tio n
ori fice i n f ee t

Co m p le te co ntra ctio n . 65 6 by

Sup p ressed at bo tto m o nly 656 by

Supp resse d on bo th sides only 656 by

Sup p ressed at bo tto m a nd p a rt ly on 6 5 6 by 65 6

one si d e .

Supp resse d a t botto m a nd p art ly on

t wo sid es .

Sup p resse d on botto m a nd t wo si des

Comp le te s u p p r ess i o n
60 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I C S

T ABL E 28 . CO E F F IC IE NTS O F DISCH ARGE F O R M O DE L S A, B

-

C , D E AND F , h a s 24 AND 2 5 PAGE 4 5

, .
 ORI
F I CE S

T ABLE 29.
— C O E FF ICIE NTS OF DISCH ARGE , 0, F OR SUBM E RGE D
GATE S F ROM CH ATTE RTO N S AND BE NTO N s FO RM U L AS
’ ’

Fo rmu las ( 1 6) and p age 4 6

62 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E COE F FICIE NTS or DISCH ARGE , C, F O R SUBM E RGE D

30
.
-

TUBE S CO M P ILE D FROM E xPE RIM E NTs BY STE W ART,

.

AND RO GE RS AND SM I TH L L E N GTH O F

.

T UBE p PE RIM E TE R O F CROSS

.

SE CTION OF TU BE S
 CH APT E R I
V

SH ARP CRE STE D

-
WE I
RS

Any obstruc t on, i

of regular section so pl aced across the ,

o
hanne l of a st rea m tha t water flows ove r it is called a weir , .

i n o r ifice bec omes a we ir wh en its sid es intersec t the su rfa c e

f the wate r the overfalling w ate r the n com i ng i nto co nta ct
I ,

Inly wi th t he two sides and botto m of the ope ning The botto m .

If th is ope ning is termed the crest of the weir The overf a mng
.

heat o f wa te r is comm o nly ca lled the na ppe .

A weir m ay be desig ne d with Sha rp co rners so th at the

wa te r in disc h a rgi ng to u ch es o nly the i nner e dges of the sid es

Ir c res t . I n such cases th ere is a co nt ra c tio n of the na pp e

i mila r to the co nt ra ction of a j e t issuing fro m a n ori fice Th e re .

8 also a c ont rac tio n o r de p ress io n of the wa t e r su rfa c e b egi nni ng

It a dis tance u ps t re am fr om the wei r equ a l to a bou t twic e the

iep th of wa te r p as sing ove r the weir .

When the we ir is so designed tha t the nappe tou ches o nly the
Ip st re a m e dg e of the c r es t it is c a ll e d a s ha r p cr es ted or thi n -

edged weir Sim ilarly if the nappe to uches o nly the u pstrea m
.
,

edge of the sides the we i r is sa id to ha ve end contractio ns When .

there is no contractio n at the sid es of the na ppe the wei r is sa id

to ha ve su pp ressed contra ctions a nd the we i r is c a ll e d a su p
,

pressed weir The m os t comm o n e xa m ple of a su pp ressed wei r

.

is wh e re the cha nne l is of re cta ngul a r c ro ss se ctio n and the -

length of the wei r e qu a ls the width of the cha nnel .

The velocity of a p proach is u su a lly u nderstood to be the m e a n

veloc ity of the wa te r in the cha nnel j u st a bove the wei r ,
The .

velo c ity of retrea t is the m ean velocity of the w a te r in the

cha nnel as it l eaves the w ei r .

Sha rp creste d weirs a re u sed o nly for the purpose of m easu r

-

ing w a te r With we irs not sh a rp c rested the m easu rement of

.
-

wa te r is usua lly thou gh not ne c essa rily a se co ndary co nsidera

tion Overflow da m s a nd spillways f or reservoirs are e x a mples
.

of weir s not sh arp c res te d -

.

Thin e d ged weirs as usu a lly co ns tru cte d have a re cta ngu la r
-
,

63
64 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

t rapezoidal or tri angula r shape Re cta ngular and tra pe z oida l

, .

weirs o rdinarily have level c re sts Tri a ngular weirs should be .

so set th a t th ei r sides m ak e e qu a l angles with the vertic a l .

When the el eva tion of t he water su rfa c e below a w eir is

less th an the elevatio n of its c rest it is c a lled a weir with f ree
overf a ll When the c rest of the weir is below the elevatio n of
.

the lowe r w a te r su rfac e the we ir is sa id to be submer ged o r

W ate r Su rf ace

FIG 26.
— . We ir with fr ee ov e rf a ll . FIG 2 7 . .
—Su bm er e d w e ir
g .

Ref erring to Figs 2 6 . a nd 27 the following nom encla tu re will

be u se d:
For all wei rs
H M ea su re d hea d or diff erence in e l eva tio n betwee n
the c rest of weir a nd the water su rfa c e a bove the
w ei r .

A Are a of se ctio n o f cha nne l o f appro a ch .

W Width of the channel of approach .

P H eight of weir above the bot to m o f the cha nne l of

a pp ro a ch .

Q Dis ch a rge over weir in se cond f e et -

.

V M ean velocity of app roa ch

3
g Acc e lera tion du e to gravity .

h V eloc i ty hea d
29
G De pth of wa ter a bove the w eir P H .

d Are a of sectio n of cha nnel of app ro a ch di vided by

t he length of thewei r .

C, C1, C2, a , 6, etc . E m pi ric al co e fficients .

For su ppr essed weirs:

L M e as u re d l ength of wei r .

d
g G De p th of wa te r a bove the weir .
 SH ARP CRE STE D -
WE I RS 65

F or weirs with end contracti ons

L
’
M d length of weir
eas u re .

L Le ngth of we ir correc te d f o r end co ntrac tio ns .

N Nu m be r of e nd contrac tio ns .

d
g fo r a ny ch annel of a pp roa ch a nd for a

re cta ngula r cha nne l of approa ch .

F or mtbmerged wei r s :
D Depth of bm ergenc e
su .

Z H D The di ff e re nc e in elev atio n o f wa te r

su rfa c e a b ove a nd be low w ei r .

Are a of se c tio n of ch a nnel below the w eir divid e d

by the length of weir .

Rectangular W e ir s wi th Fr e e O verf all

Fu ndam e ntal Consi d er ations —
theo re tic a l discharge
The .

ove r a rec ta ng ular wei r with f re e ove rfa ll (p a g e 37 ) is giv e n by

the f orm ula ’fi

% V 2 g L H Q: ( 1 )
An e m piric al f a cto r co rrespo nding to the coe ffici e nt of disch a rg e
fo r a n o ri fice is usu ally a pplie d to the the o re tic a l fo rmu la Thi s .

coe fficie nt m ay be co nsidered as the p rodu ct of the coe fficie nt s

of v e locity a nd co ntra ctio n Inclu ding this coe fficie nt a nd .

co m bi ning it with \ /2 g which is as su m e d to be a co ns ta nt the

, ,

form u l a m a y be w ritt en
”
Q CL H (2 )
If the a bove e qu a tio n re p rese nte d a cc u rately the la w of the
flow of w a te r over w e i rs t he va lu e of C cou ld be rea dily d e
,

te rm ined e xpe ri m enta lly It is known however th a t C is

.
, ,

net e xa c tly a co nsta nt The p roble m is a lso co m plic a te d by

.

the f a c t tha t the dis charge is a fie c ted by the v elocity of a pp ro a ch ,

the e ff ec t of which is to inc re ase the dis cha rge .

M odern W eir Formulas —M a ny f o rm ulas ha ve b ee n su g

.

geste d f or d e te rm ini ng the dis cha rge ov e r re ct a ngu l a r sh a r p ,

creste d we i rs W ith free ove rf a ll Fo r the m o st p a rt su ch .

jformulas have bee n b ased u pon the expe rim e nts of Fra ncis ‘
,

Fteley a nd Ste a rns a nd Ba z i n 3

’
,
.

J B F RANC I
. . s : L o we ll H y dr uli E x p im e nts Al T n Am a S c er . so ra s . er . oc .

Civ E ng , v ol 1 3 . p 303
. . . . .

Tr a ns Ame r Soc Civ E ng , v ol 1 2

. . . . . . .

3 Anna lee des P onts et Cha us ses s O ctobe r , 1 888 Tra ns la tio n by M ARI
, .

CRAL a nd TRAUT W INE : P r oc . E ng . Clu b, Phila , . Ja nua ry , 1 890 . Als o

Anna lee des P ants at Ghaussees f or 1 894 , l er T rim es tr e .

5
 66 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

follo wing a re the m ore comm only use d weir fo rmulas

The ,

w ritten to i nclu de the velocity of appro ac h co rrectio n

l The Fra ncis f o rmu la f or sharp c re sted weirs with a nd
.
-

withou t e nd co ntra ctio ns

”
Q 3 33L
.
[ (H h) h ] (3 )
When the re are e nd co ntra ctio ns L is to be correc ted by the
“m m“
L L 0 1 NH
’
.
(4 )
2 . The Fteley a nd Stea rns fo rmul a f or s h a rp -
c res e t d wei rs
with a nd witho u t e nd co nt ra ctio ns
%
Q 3 3 1 L (H
. a h) 0007 L
.
(5 )
When the re a re e nd cont ra ctio ns L is to be corre cted by the
“m m“
L L
’
0 1 NH
.
(4 )
a f or su pp resse d weirs a nd f or we i rs wi th e nd

co ntra c tio ns .

3 . The Ba z in f o rm u la f or su pp resse d we i rs
. 405 L H \ /2 gH (6 )
4 . Ly m a n s
diagra m gives di scha rges f o r su pp ressed we i rs
’ l
,

which inclu des velocity of a pp ro a ch corre ctio n The reade r is .

ref erre d to the o rigi na l p u blic a tio n f o r this di a gra m .

The au tho r also su b m it s his fo rmu la f o r sh a rp c rested we i rs -

,

e ithe r with o r witho ut e nd co ntra ctio ns

Q 3 (7 )
Wh en th e re a re end co ntra ctio ns L is to be co rre cte d by the
“m m“
0 1 NH
’
L L .
(4 )
E a ch bove fo rmu las will be disc u ssed in tu rn
of the a .

Th e Francis Formula — U p to the p rese nt tim e the Fra ncis

.

f o rm u l a has b ee n m o re genera lly u se d th an a ny oth e r W e i r

f o rm ul a Fra ncis b ase d his fo rm u la u p o n his e xpe rim e nt s
.
?

at Lowell M ass in 185 2

,
The f ollowing is the a pp roxim a tr
, .

ra nge of co nditio ns u nd e r wh ich the e xp e rim ents were pe rfo r m ed

H ea d . to 1 6 fee t .

Le ngth of we i r a nd fee t
H eight of we i r 2 0 a nd fee t .

Width of cha nnel a nd f ee t

Velocity of a pp ro a ch to
1 P late X X I
, Tr a ns . Am So c Civ E ng
. . . .
, vo l . 77 .

J . B FRA NC Is ; L owe ll
. H y dr aulic E xp erim e nts , p p . 1 03 1 3 5
-
.
68 H AN DBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I CS

The Fteley and Ste arns Formula —Ftele and Stearns, l

.
y
—
1 87 7 7 9 xperim e nted with two sha rp c r ested su pp ress ed
,
e -

wei rs 5 a nd 1 9 f ee t lo ng and
,
a nd f ee h igh resp e ctiv ely .

H ea ds o n the f o rm e r we re ob served u p to app roxi m a t e ly

f eet a nd o n the l a tt e r to
,
fee t The resp e ctiv e v eloc ities .

of a pp ro a ch rea ch e d m a xim u m s of abou t a nd f ee t

p e r se co nd Th e y a.ls o e xp e ri m e nte d o n a w e i r with e nd co n
tra ctio ns fe e t high with le ngths of f ro m to f ee t .

H e a ds o n this w ei r we re re a d u p to ne a rly f ee t the m a xi ,

m u m v elocity of a pp ro a ch b ei ng f ee t p er se co nd .

The F teley a nd Stea rns fo rm u l a (f o rm u l a pa ge 66 )

wa s de rive d fr o m the resu lt s of the abo v e exp eri m e nts co m bi ned
wi th those of Fra ncis The te rm 0007L in the fo rmu l a was
. .

a d de d to m a k e it a g ree w ith th e i r low h ea d e xp e r i m e nts The -

.

l ate r exp eri m e nt s of Ba z i n (see App e ndix A) sho w disch a rges

a pp r oxi m a t e ly 3 p e r c e nt g r e a t e r f o r the low h e a d s th a n w e re
.

obt a ine d by F teley a nd Ste a rns Additional exp e ri m e nts .

a r e need e d to cl e a r u p the a pp a re nt i nc o nsist e nci e s in the

r esu lt s of t hes e two i nv e s tiga to rs .

Th e Ba zin Fo r m ul a — By f a r the m os t co m pl e te wei r e xp e ri

.

m e nt s tha t ha ve y e t b e e n p e rf o rm e d we re thos e of Ba z i n ?

in 1 88 6 Ba z i n e xp e ri m e nte d o n su pp re ssed w ei rs in a co nc re t e
.

ch a nnel with ve rtic a l sid e s 2 meters wid e The h ea d was

, ,
.

m e a s u re d f ee t u p s t re a m f ro m the we i r by m e a ns o f a hook
g a ge T hese e xp e ri me nts we re esp ec ia lly v a lu a bl e in th a t
.

we i rs of se ve ra l h e ights we re u sed a nd the e ff e ct o f velocity o f

a pp ro a ch o n dis ch arg e cou ld be stu di ed The resu lt s of 38 1 .

e xp e ri m e nt s in a ll are giv e n The lo we st h e a d o bse rv e d by

.

Ba zi n was abo u t f eet Below thi s h e a d the re was a te nd e ncy

.

f o r t he na pp e to a dh e re to the d o w ns trea m f a c e o f the we i r .

The f o ll o w i ng is a s u m m a ry of Ba z i n s e xp e ri m e nt s
’

1 Tr a ns Am er . . Soc C
. i v E
. ng , vol 1 2 , p p
. 1.
—1 1
8 . .

3 Anna le s de s P ants at Cha us s ees , O c to ber . 1 88 8 .

 SHARP CRES TE D -
WE I
RS 69

Fro mthese e xpe rime nts Baz in de ri ve d his fo rmu la fo r su p

presse d we i rs H e be ga n his stu dy with the f unda me nta l
.

express io n

Q CIL H 8n
which c orre c ted f or veloc ity of a pp ro a ch becomes

Q “
3 C1 W H a

'

9
.
Q
A dL

Subs titu ti ng f or Q in e q uatio n ( 1 2 ) its a pp roxi ma te val ue in

equa tio n ( 1 0)
0. L E V 27 1?
dL

Subs titu ti ng this valu e of V in e qu a tio n ( 1 1 ) th ere resu l ts the

e xpre ss io n
—
Q I
i 1 a c:

Exp a ndi ng by bi no mi al theo re m a nd neglecti ng all te rm s

the
exc e p t the first two si nc e they will a lwa ys be ve ry s m a ll
qua ntiti es

5)
2

Q = CILH \ /2gH 1 + 7

Or co nside ring the exp ressio n 3 a C: as a co e ffici ent the va lu e

of whi c h is to be dete rmi ned e qu ation (1 3) may be written
,
.

Q CILH «87 17
I
.

f the b ve fo rmula with co nstant va lu es of the two coe ffi

a o ,

cients e xp ress ed acc urat ely the la w of flo w ov er w ei rs the

,

dete rm i na tio n of the value of these coefficients wo uld be a

sim ple m a tte r Bazin found howe ver that co nsta nt values of
.
, ,

eac h coe fficie nt could not be so cho se n as to m ak e r esu lts de

term ined by the form ula a gree with his e xp eri m ent a l d is ch a rges .

Afte r a c a re f ul a na lysis of his expe ri m ents a nd those o f Fteley

and Ste a rns he cho se the followi ng v a l u es re d uced f ro m m e t ric ,

to E nglis h u ni ts :
70 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

m aki ng the com pleted e qua tion (e qu ation p a ge as

l
a re a dy giv en .

Ano ther metho d of co rr ecti ng f or veloci ty o f a pproach is as

follows . The fu ndam enta l we ir f o rmu la witho u t velocity of

a pp ro a ch m ay be w ritte n

CL H V 277?
This f o rm u l a m ay be taken to co nsi st of two p a rts , CL H a nd

CLH m a y be co nsidered the a re a of the openi ng

2
co rre cte d for c rest a nd su rf a e c co ntracti on and x/Z gH the
5
th eo re tic al m ean velocity It a ppea rs mo re re aso na ble to the
.

a u tho r th a t H shou ld be co rr ec te d f o r ve locity of a pp ro a ch

o nly i nsofar as it is the he a d p rod u cing the velocity H in the .

first p a rt of the e qu a tio n ente rs i nto it solely as a fa cto r in the

a re a of the op e ni ng which is no t ch a nge d by ve locity of a p
,

pro a ch U nder this assu m ptio n eq u a tio n

. wh en co rrecte d
,

f or v elocity of a ppro a ch m a y be w ritte n

,

—
Q CIL ] H H 3
a nd s i nc e
V Q /dL (12 )
this val ue of V m ay be substitu te d in e quatio n a nd s olvi ng
f o r Q th ere results
C,L x/ n ’fi

E xp a nding the deno mi na to r of this exp ression by the bi no m i a l

th e o rem and neglecting a ll te rms of the fo u rth power a nd a bove ,

which will always be ve ry sm all qu a ntiti es ,

OIL x/zg m ‘
’

Q z
1

or the e u q ivalent exp ression

Q el m /R H ” l + ez

Which is fo rm of the fo rmu la fo r discha rge over a we i r b a s e d

the
u po n the th eo re tic al f o r mu l a a nd the a bove assum ptio n f o r

velo city of appro a ch .

 SH ARP C RE ST E D -
W E I RS 71

It will be obse rved tha t e q ua tio ns ( 1 4 ) a nd though b ase d

upo n di fi e re nt ass u m ptio ns a re o f the sa m e ge ne ra l fo rm The , .

only di fie r e nc e is in the fa cto rs th a t e nte r i nto the v a lu e of 02

'

which in e ither caSe is e m pi ric a l and m u st be determi ne d by

expe rim e nt By e qu ating the valu es of C2 in the two e qu a tio ns
.

it will be see n tha t fl = 3 a .

Lym an ’
s Diagr am
lts of a ve ry tho rou gh investiga
.
— The re su

tion o f a ll of the ac c epted we ir expe rim e nts ava ilable at the

,

tim e was pu blish ed by Lym an in 1 91 3 In this co nne ctio n

,
l
.

a dia gra m was p re p a re d which gives dis ch a rg es ov e r sh arp

cres te d s u pp resse d wei rs This dia gra m co nf o r ms very .

close ly to the e xp e ri ments o f Francis Fteley a nd Stearns a nd , ,

Ba z in as well as a dditio na l expe ri m ent s by hi m self

,
The .

dia gra m is convenient fo r use bu t is lim ited to heads b elow

fee t .

Th e Author s Form ula — The au thor has i nvestigat e d the

’
.

flo w o f w a te r ove r sh arp c reste d w e i rs u si ng as a b asis the wo rk -

,

a nd e xp e ri m e nts o f Fra ncis Fte ley a nd Stea rns a nd Ba zin , , ,

to de te r m i ne the ex te nt to which existing wei r fo rm u l as a re

co ns is te nt with these e xp erim ents I n co nne ctio n with his .

i nves tig a tion the au tho r derived the fo rmu la which is dis
cuss e d be low Com p a ra tive results by these variou s f or
.

m ula s a re shown in App endix A .

Sta r ting with the e xpressio n

gé
'

Q C . x/i gL H 1 02 "

(1 4 or 21 )
2
7
1

It has a l read y be e n st at e d tha t co nsta nt va lu es of C a nd 0 l 2

cannot be so chosen a s to m a ke this f o rmu la fit the resu lts of

existi ng e xpe ri m e nt a l da t a So m e m odi fic a tio n in f o rm is .

there fo re ne c essa ry Ba z i n s m e thod of a ccom plishi ng this .

’

is giv e n o n p a g e 69 .

Af te r m a ny t ri als a nd a c a re f u l c o m p a riso n with the e xp e ri

ment a l resu lts of Ba zi n Fte ley a nd Ste a rns a nd Fra ncis the , , ,

followi ng v alu es of C1 a nd O in the above e q u a tion were fina lly z

a dopted :

1 RIC H ARD R L r M A N : M e as ure m e nt . of t he F lo w Stre a m s by Ap p r o ve d

of

For ms of W e irs with Ne w F or m ula s ,

a nd Dia gr a m s Tr a ns Am e r So c
. . . .

Civ E ng v ol 77, pp .
—
1 1 89 1 3 3 7 .
. .
, .
72 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

The bove value of C 1 indic a tes th a t the coe fficient of cont rae
a

tion f or sh a rp c reste d wei rs v arie s with H It wi ll be ob

se rved th a t the au thor s va lu e of C: is ve ry ne arly the sa m e a s
’

th at chosen by Ba z in .

U si ng the nom e ncl a tu re given on pa ge 64 and sub s titu ting

the a bo v e v a l u es of Cl a nd 02 in fo rm u l a ( 1 4 o r with
g t he a u tho r s g e nera l f o r m u l a f
’
o r dis ch a r g e ov e r sh a r p
c reste d wei rs both with a nd withou t e nd contra ctions be com es :
, ,

4LH “
Q 33 .
7
1 (7 )

Fo r wei rs with e nd co nt ra ctio ns and esp ecially if the c nanne l ,

o f a p ro a ch is i rre gu l a r the f o rm u l a m a y be m o re co nv e ni e nt
p ,

in the fo rm

Q 3 34L H
.
1
1

Whe n the re a re e nd c o nt ra ctio ns L is to be c o rre cte d by the

“m m“
L L
’
0 1 NH
.
(4 )

The f ollo wi ng is y of co nclusio ns resu lti ngf ro m the

a su m m a r

a u tho r s st u dy of sh arp c rest e d w ei rs a ll of which a re b e li e ve d

’
-
,

to be substa ntia ted by the results shown in Appe ndix A .

1 The a u tho r s f o r mul a (f o rmul a (7 ) o r (7 a ) ) a grees m o re

’
.

closely with the Ba z i n e xp eri m e nts o n su pp resse d weirs than

a ny o f the co m m o nly u se d wei r f o r m u l a s whi c h h a ve b een

disc usse d above (see Appe ndix A Ta bl es 1 02 a nd 1 03 a nd ,

Fig .

2 . The tho r s fo rm u la gives res ults about 2 per ce nt

au
’
.

grea ter th a n those obtai ned by the Fte ley a nd Ste a rns expe ri
m e nts The re is a ve ry a ppa rent inco nsi ste ncy be twee n these
.

e xp e ri m e nt s a nd tho se o f Baz i n esp e ci a lly f o r the low e r h ea ds, ,

a nd i t is im po ssibl e to obt a i n a f o r m u l a which will a g ree with

both sets of experim e nts : The a u tho r has desig ned his f o rmu la
to co nf orm to the resu lts obta i ne d by Ba z in (see Appendix A ,

Tables 1 04 1 05 1 06 a nd 1 07 and Fi gs 90 and

, , .

3 The a u tho r s fo rm u l a gives re su lts a gree ing with the

’
.

Fra ncis e xp eri me nts o n we i rs with e nd co nt ra ctio ns withi n a

m a xi m u m disc re p a ncy of a bou t 2 p e r c e nt In g ene ra l thi s .

disc rep a ncy is but slightly grea ter th a n th at of the Fra nci s
f o rm u l a a ppli e d to the sa m e e xpe rim e nts (see Appe ndix A ,

Tabl e s 1 06 a nd 1 07 a nd Fig , .

4 As a gene ra l fo rm ula appli e d to a ll of the e xp e ri m e nts t he

.
 SH ARP C RE ST E D -
W E I RS 73

au thor s fo rm u la shows
’
close r agree ment tha n e ithe r a m u ch
the Ba z in Fte ley a nd Stea rns or Fra ncis f o rm u las
, .

5 A fo rm ula which do es not re q uir e a se p a ra te co rre ctio n

.

for v e lo c ity of a pp ro ach if not too co m plic a te d m a y be m o re , ,

readily u s e d th a n a f o rm u l a re qu i r i ng su ch a co rr e ctio n The .

autho r s f o rm ula lik e the Ba z i n f orm u la do es no t r equ i re a

’

se para t e co rre ctio n f o r ve loc ity of a pp ro a ch a nd it po ss es se s

adv a nt a g es ov er the Baz i n fo rm u la f ro m the s t a ndpoi nt s o f

ac c u ra cy sim plicity a nd ra nge of a pplic a tio n

, ,
.

A se t of e xp erim ents o n a wei r e xa ctly du plic a t ing the di m e n ,

sio ns of Ba z in s st a nd ard w e i r (2 m et e rs wide a nd f ee t

’

high ) with h ea ds ra nging f ro m to f eet h a ve re c e ntly

( M a y 1 91,
7 ) bee n co m pl e te d by N a gl e r 1 H e a d s w e re m e asu re d .

by m e a ns of h ook gages a nd di scha rges we re de te rm i ne d by

chem ic a l gaging (pa ge Gre a t c a re was t ak e n in co ndu ct
ing these exp e rim e nts a nd th e re is e ve ry indic a tio n of a high
de gree of ac c u rac y in the resu lts A b rief su m m a ry of conclu .

sio ns b as e d u po n the re su lts of Na gl er s e xp e ri m e nts is as f ollows

’
.

1 Nagl er s resu lts a gree with the res u lt s of Ba z i n s exp e ri

’ ’
.

m e nts (be twee n hea ds of a nd f ee t the ra nge of h e a ds ,

co m m o n to ea ch se t of e xperi m e nts ) within a m a xi m u m

di sc re p a ncy of 1 pe r cent a nd a n avera ge dis c re p a ncy of .

p e r c e n t .

2 Nagler s e xpe ri m e nts s how p ra ctic a lly the sa m e d is

’
.

cre p a ncy wit h the Fteley a nd Stea rns e xp e ri m ent s as e xi s ts

be tw ee n the Baz in e xperim e nts a nd Ftele y and Ste a rns

exp e rim e nts .

3 The author s form u la a grees with the Baz in e xp e rim ents

’
.

m u ch clo se r tha n with Nagl e r s e xp er im e nts The a g r e e m e nt

’
.

with Na gle r s e xp erim ents a ppea rs clo se enou gh to j u stify the

’

concl u sion that the a u thor s f orm u la is re lia ble withi n a p rob ’
,

a bl e e rr o r of 1 per c e nt f or hea ds fro m the lo west up to 4 f ee t

.
,
.

The te rm 3 34 LH 1
in the a utho r s form ula (f o m ula (7
.
’
r

o r ( 7 a ) p age 7 2 ) giv e s disch a rges witho u t velocity of a ppr o a ch

corre c t io n The e xp ressio n within the p are nthes es is the f a cto r

.

corre c ting f or ve locity of a pp ro a ch When the a rea of the .

c ha nne l of a pp ro ac h is l a r g e in co m p a riso n with the a rea of

the w e i r openi ng o r f o r ro u gh co m pu t a tio ns the ve locity of

, ,

app ro ac h co rre ctio n m a y be ne gle cte d the f or m u la b eco m i ng ,

Q 3 34L H
.
1
(22 )
1 A Nag le r Ve rific a tio n of the Ba s in W eir F or m ula by H y d ro C he m ic a l
F . .
° -

Gag ings P r oc Am er So c Civ E ng , Ja n , 1 9 1 8

. . . . . . . .
74 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

Table 33, pa ge 98, gives valu es of H “ hea ds fro m

7
for
0 to 2 f ee t with a n i nte rv a l o f f eet , a nd f o r h e a ds fro m 2

to 7 f ee t with a n i nte rva l of f ee t . Ta ble 34 pa ge 1 03 , ,

2

gives valu es of 1 . 56 fo r interva ls 0 diff e ri ng

by To dete rmine the disc h arge with ve locity of
, ap

pro a ch co rrectio n p er linea r foot of we ir H a nd

, ,
7
b eing k nown m u ltiply the discha rge given in Ta ble 33 by the
,

co rre ctive f a cto r given in Tabl e 34 The tota l disch a rge for
'

a we i r of a ny le ngth will be this p rodu ct m u ltiplied by the

,

length of weir co rre cte d fo r e nd co ntra ctio ns if ne c essa ry by

,

the fo rm u l a
OI
NH
'
L L .
(4 )
Table 32 pa ge 93 gives v alu es of H
, , with i nte rv a ls o f 1

f rom 0 to 2 f ee t a nd with i nterv al s of f ro m 2 to 7

f ee t .

Ta ble 35 p a ge 1 04 gives discha rges by the au tho r s fo rm u l a

, ,
’

ove r sh arp c reste d su pp resse d we i rs p er foot of le ngth fo r

-

di ff e re nt h e ights of we i r u nde r h ea ds of f ro m to fee t .

Pr e cauti ons f or Accur ate U s e of Sharp -

cr e ste d W eir s
I
n o rd er to obta i n m o st
cc ura te resu lts f ro m we i r
the a

f o rm u las they shou ld be li m ited in th e i r u se as f a r as pra ctic a bl e

,

to the co nditio ns of the experim e nts o n which they are base d .

The followi ng a r e so m e of the p re c a u tio ns to be obse rve d a nd

co ndi tio ns to be f u l filled .

1 The he a d shou ld be m easu re d fa r enou gh u ps tream f ro m

.

the w ei r to be a bove the e ff ect o f su rf a c e co nt ra ctio n Francis .

a nd Fte le y a nd Ste a rns m e asu re d hea ds 6 fee t and Baz i n ,

f e e t u p st rea m f ro m the we ir E xpe ri m ents seem to i ndi .

c a te tha t no e ff ect of su rfa c e co ntra ction ca n be det ected a t a

dista nce of 2 5 H ba ck o f the we ir a nd f ro m this point u p t o a
.

dis ta nc e of fee t H a ppea rs to be co nstant e xce pti ng i nsofa r

,

as it is a ff e ct e d by the su rf a c e slope ne c essa ry to p rodu c e

velocity in the cha nne l of a ppro a ch As the a utho r s we i r .

’

formu la is b ase d in a la rge m easu re o n Bazin s e xpe ri m e nts it ’

,

ap pea rs th at H sho u ld p ref e ra bly be m e as u re d a t a dista nc e

of a p p roxi ma te ly 1 6 f ee t u pst rea m f ro m the w e i r wh en u s in g

this fo rm u la .

2 Fo r the b est resu lts H s ho u ld be m ea su re d by m ea ns o f

.

hook ga ge in a w e ll o r stilli ng bo x co nne ct e d by a pipe to the

-
76 H AN DBOO KO F H Y DRAUL I CS

f o rm u l a m ay be u sed with m o re a ss u ra nc e f o r we i rs f ro m 1 to
4 f e et high a nd whe re the he a d s are f ro m to f ee t , tho u gh
Na gle r xpe ri m e nts (p a ge 7 3 ) i ndic a te th at the fo rm u la is
’
s e

e q u a lly a cc u ra te u p to h e a ds o f 4 f ee t f o r a we i r f ee t high .

On a cco u nt o f the wide ra ng e of the expe rim e nt s o n which the

au tho r s f o rm u la is b a se d it see m s re a so na bl e to b e li e ve th a t
’

it will p rob ably give s a tisfa ctory re su lts f o r highe r we i rs a nd

g re a te r he a ds th an have yet bee n u se d in a ny expe ri m e nts .

Subm er g e d W e ir s
Whe ii the eleva tio n of wa ter su rfa c e in the cha nnel be low a
we i r is a bo ve the c re st the we i r is sa id to be su b m e rg e d o r
,
-

d ro wne d The p roblem s involve d in d ete rm ini ng discha rges

.

o v e r su b m e rge d we i rs a re co m pli c a t e d a nd h a v e no t b e e n co m

p le te ly i nv estig a t e d T he n o m e n cl a t u r e u.se d in the fo llowi n g

disc ussio n is give n o n p a ges 64 a nd 65 (see Fig _
.

A theo re tic a l f o rm u la fo r dis ch a rge o ve r su b m e rged wei rs

m a y be obta i ne d by dividing the ove rflow i nto two p a rt s the ,

po rtio n a bo ve the level of the lower wat e r su rf a c e bei ng co n

s id e red as a we i r a nd the re m a i nder b e i ng t re a te d a s a su b m e r ge d

o ri fic e The th eo retic al co m bi ne d disch a rge is th en

.

Q val [ 9401
, m a D (H D WI
or since H — D = Z
Q V 2} L x/ z D (24 )
Q (2 5 )
C1 a nd C2 be i ng
pi ric al co e fficie nts whose va lues a re to be
em

d et erm i ned This b as ic fo rm u la was u sed by Fra ncis a nd

.
,

Fte le y a nd St e a rns in obta i ni ng the i r su b m e rge d w ei r f o r m u la s -

.

E x pe ri m e nts o n su b m e rge d we i rs ha v e b ee n pe rf or m e d by
Fr a ncis Fteley a nd St ea rns a nd Ba z in which fo rm the b a sis
'

, , ,

o f seve r a l su b m e r ge d w e i r f o r m u l a s -
.

The Fr a ncis e xpe ri m e nt s of 1 84 8 we re p e rf o rm ed o n a we i r

1

f e e t high The qu a ntity of w at e r which was kept p ra c ti

.
,

c ally c onsta nt wa s m easu red o n a wei r with free ove rfa ll

, .

The m ea sure d h ea d o n the we i r v a ri e d f ro m to f ee t

a nd t he d e pt h o f su b m e rge nc e r a ng ed f ro m to fee t .

I n 1 883 F ra nci s e xpe ri m e nt e d with a we i r

2
f ee t high the ,

dis ch a rge bei ng m easu red by a weir with f re e ove rf all In .

J B F RAN I L w ll H y d uli E xp im nt p 1 02
. . C S: o e ra c er e s. . .

Amer Soc C iv E ng
“
r a ns . . . . .
, v ol . 1 3, p . 3 03 .
 SH ARP CRE ST E D W E I RS
-
77

these xperiments the hea d va ried fro m approxi mately

e

to f ee t a nd the de pth of su b me rgenc e f ro m to fe et .

The Ftele y a nd Ste a rns e xpe rim e nts 1 882 we re pe rf o rm e d

l
, ,

on a we ir fe et high the hea d ra nging f ro m

, to
f ee t a nd the de pth of sub me rge nc e f ro m to f ee t The .

discha rges we re d et e r m i ne d fro m a we i r with f ree ov e rf all .

I n ea ch of the a bove se ts of e xpe ri m e nts the c ro ss se ctio n -

of the ch a nne l be low the w e i r ha d a g rea t e r a re a th a n the

c ross s ectio n of the ch a nne l above the we ir

-
.

Ba z i n e xpe rim e nte d o n su bm erged we i rs

?
m e te rs ,

mete rs ,
m e te rs a nd m e te rs high by co m p a ring the
,

disch a rges ove r these wei rs with disch a rges ove r his sta nd a rd
weir f ee t high These we irs we re co nst ru c te d in a rec
.

ta ngu la r ch annel 2 mete rs wide the le ngth of the wei rs be i ng ,

the sa m e as the width o f the cha nne l The f ollo wi ng t a ble .

gives the approxim ate range of these expe ri ments e xpre sse d
in E nglish u nits :

Be tw ee n lim its e xp resse d in this t able the exp erim e nts

the
cove re d inte rm e di ate v a lu es of H a nd D In a ll 326 e xp e ri .

m e nts a re re co rde d He a ds we re m e asu re d 5 m e te rs u pst re a m

.

a nd 1 1 m e t e rs do wnst re am f ro m the w e ir .

Fr ancis Su bm erge d we r Formui la —

-
Sta rting with the f u nd a .

m e nt a l fo rm u la (f o rm u la fro m hi s expe ri m ents in 1 883

Fra ncis derive d the f ollo wi ng f o rm u la f or disch a rge o v e r
su b m e rge d we i rs

Q L x/Z (H 0 3 8 1 D) ( 2 6 ) . .

Ftele y and Ste arns Subm er g e d w e i r Form ul a — Fro m th e i r-

.

o wn e xpe ri me nts in co nne ctio n with the F ra ncis e xp e r i m e nt s

of 1 84 8 Ft eley a nd St e arns a dopt e d the f o rmu la

,

Q = CL \ / Z

1 Tr a ns Am e r So c Civ E ng , vo l 1 2 p 1 04
. . . . . .
, . .

3 Anna lee des P a nts at Cha u s s ee s f o r 1 89 4 l e r T r im e s tre . p ,

. 24 9 .
78 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I CS

and prep ared the f ollo wing t able of values of C correspondi ng ,

to di ff e re nt values of D/H to acco mpany the fo rm u la :

,

CO E F FICIE NT C, FTE L E Y AND STE ARNs

’
s SUBM E RGE D —
W E IR
FO RM U L A

H er sche l Sub mg e d w eir

er -
Form ul a —
Basi ng his inve stig a
.

tio n o n the exp erim ents of Fra ncis in 1 84 8 and 1 883 and the
1
,

Fteley a nd Ste a rns e xpe ri m ents H e rs ch e l a dopte d the fo rm u la

,

L (NH ) %
Q ( 8)
2

a nd prepared the f ollo wi ng t able of valu esof N co rrespo ndi ng

to diff ere nt values of D/H to a cco m p any the fo rm u la The .

ve locity o f a pp ro a ch co rre ctio n is the sa m e as the Francis

co rre ctio n f or wei rs with f ree ove rf a ll .

CO E F FICIE NT N, H E RS CH E L SUB M E RGE D W E IR FO RM U L A

’
S -

Tr a ns Am e r So c C iv E ng
. . . . .
, vo l
. 14, p . 1 89 .
 SH ARP C RE ST E D -
W E I RS 79

Ba zin Submerge d -
i
we r Formula — The m ethod a dopted by
Baz in in de du cing a f o rm u l a fro m his e xpe riments was to oh
tain co rre ctive f a cto rs to be applied to his fo rmu la for weirs
with f ree overfa ll Ca lling the ra tio of the discharg e of the
.

su b m e rge d w e i r to the dis cha rge of the w eir with f ree ov erfa ll

$ 1
a nd using the no m encl a tu re given on p ages 64 a nd 65 he

de d u c e d t he f o llowing f o r m u las

1 D 1 D 1 D P 1

+ =
§ P 3 P H

I
n g ene r a l f o rm u la (29) s hou ld be u se d for v a lu e s of
z I
gre a te r th an a nd f o rm u la (30) s hou ld be u sed fo r values
less th a n Baz i n plotte d the r e su lt s of his e xp erim e nts

m P
a nd f or co Ord I
nates g d to gi ve cu rves
a rra n e fo r
H
1
si m il a r v a lu es o f
1 3
E qua tio n (29) a nd (30) a re plotte d on a
.

dia g ra m and the resulti ng c urves co m e re m a rkably close to the

m e a n of the e x peri m e nta l v a lu es The ex a ct li m its of applic a
.

tio n of f o rm u l as (29) and (30) m a y be seen f ro m this dia g ra m 1

.

In a l a te r publi c a tio n Ba zi n d e r ive d the f ollo wi ng a p p ro xi

”

m a te gene ral fo rm ul a , a pplic able to all su bmerge d weirs :

a nd co m b ining this f o rm u la with f o rm u la pa ge 66 th ere ,

res u lt s the co m pl e te f o rm u l a f o r disc h a rg e ove r su b m e rged

we ir s

P
1 L H \ / 2 9H

The Author ’
s Su bme rge d -
w e ir Form u a
— l . Sta rting with the
fund a me ntal form u la (pa ge
Q L fi (C1 2 C2D)

1 P la te 8 , Anna lee des P ants Cha u ssees f or 1 894 , l e r Trim e s tr e

at .

3 Anna le e des P o nts et Cha u ssees f or 1 89 8 , l e r Tr i m e s tre . p 2 3 5 . .

 80 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I C S

in a im il ar to that em ployed f or weirs with free ove r

ma nne r s

f a ll the co rre cti on f o r velocity of a pp ro a ch m ay be m a d e to

the he a d c a usi ng m ove m e nt of the wa ter tha t is to the Z o u tside ,

of the p a r e nth es is the Z withi n the p a re nthesis a nd D b eing

,

c o nside red p u re ly a s fa cto rs e nte ri ng i nto the a rea of the o pe n

i ng . The fo rm u l a co rre cte d f o r velocity of app roa ch u si ng ,

the no m e ncl a tu re giv en on p a ge s 64 a nd 65 the n be co mes

Q L (C12 Cap )

or s i nc e V

Q 3 56
Q = L +
9
2 9

I
n m a nne r ide nti ca l with tha t a lre a dy e xpl a i ned fo r w e i rs
a

with fre e ove rf a ll (pa ge by m athe m atic al tra nsf o rm atio n,

f o rm u l a (34 ) m a y be re du c e d to the f o rm

(M 2

L x/ z c an)
‘ ‘

Q (a z 1 c

E qu a tio n (35 ) m a y be co nsid e red th eo retic a l f o rm of

the
fo rm u la f or discha rge ove r a su b m e rge d wei r with velocity of
a pp ro a ch co rre ctio n If this fo rm u l a cor re ctly e xpresse d the
.

la w o f flo w ov er sub m e rged w ei rs v a lues of the co e fficie nts ,

which it c o nta ins cou ld be chose n to fit the av aila bl e e xp e ri

m e nta l d a ta withi n the ra nge o f p rob a bl e e xp e ri m e nt a l e rro r .

This the a u tho r has b ee n u na ble to do bu t by u si ng this fo rm u la ,

a s a b ase a nd m odi f yi ng it a s it a pp ea re d ne c e ssa r y he d e r i ve d

a n e m pi r ic a l f o rm u l a which give s re su lts f a i rly co nco rda nt wit h

a ll of the e xp eri m e nts i nve stig a t e d .

Fra nci s do es no t give the dis ta nce b e lo w the we i r a t whic h

the hea ds o f su b m e rge nc e f o r his e xp eri m e nts of 1 84 8 w e re
, ,

m e asu re d bu t sta t es th a t the y we re m ea su red a

,
“
sho rt dis

ta nc e be low the w ei r In his e xp erim ents of 1 883 he chose a

”
.

dista nc e of 1 8 feet below the weir f or m e a su ring hea ds Fte ley .

a nd Ste a rns m ea su re d h e a d s of sub m e rge nc e 6 fee t b e low t he

wei r a nd Ba zin m a de his m e a su re m ents 36 f ee t below the

we i r .

Th ere is alwa ys a te nde ncy f or a standi ng wave to form b e lo w

a su b m e rge d w ei r The r esu lt o f this is to c a u se a de p re ss io n
.

o f the wa t e r su rf a c e j u st be low t he pl a ce whe r e the ove rf a lli ng

s h ee t joi ns the w a te r o f the lowe r ch a nnel Be low this de p re s .

 SH ARP CRE ST E D -
W E I RS 81

sio n the re is a pili ng up of w a te r a nd tu rbule nce co ntinues for

so m e dis t a nce fa rthe r dow ns t rea m .

It thu s a ppears that co nsiderable uncertainty must result

whe n the he a d of sub m ergenc e is m easu re d where su ch tur
bule nce e xi sts .The a utho r be liev es that in order th at a fo rm ul a
of t he f o rm of equatio n (35 ) m ay be applic able the head of ,

su b m e r ge nc e Sho u ld be measu re d in the t ro u gh of the s ta ndi ng

wa v e tha t is where the lowest wate r su rfa c e oc curs j us t be low

,

the ov e rfa lli ng shee t The diff e re nc e be tween the hea d of

.

wa te r passing over the wei r a nd the depth of su b m ergenc e

m eas u re d in the t rou gh of the sta ndi ng wave is the t ru e he a d
c au si ng disch a rge over the weir Th ere is not in general any .
, ,

e fiec t o f s u b m e r ge nc e u ntil the t ro u gh of the wave rea ch es a n

e le vat ion hi gh e r tha n the c rest of the w ei r .

I t is no t o r dina rily pra ctic abl e however to measure the h e ad , ,

of su bm e rge nce in the trou gh of the sta nding wa ve bec a use of

the di ffic u lty of det erm ini ng the prope r poi nt of m easu re m ent
and t he t e nde ncy of the sta nding wa ve to shif t its pos ition with

changing v a lues of H and D M oreover in p ra ctic a l p roble ms .

,

it is m ore f re q u ently the e lev atio n of the wa ter su rf a c e in the

cha nnel be low the weir afte r the norm al co nditio ns of flow ha ve
bee n e sta b lis h e d tha t is of gre a test im po rta nce A su b m e rge d .

w e ir f orm u la confo rm ing to these co nditio ns of m eas u re m e nt

is the refo re d es ira bl e .

AS the au tho r s f o rm u la is em piric a l no deriva tion ca n be

’

given bu t a bri ef dis cussio n of the li ne of re aso ning a nd steps

,

ta ke n in obta ining it is here give n .

Sta rt i ng with e qu atio n page 80 a nd usi ng the nom e n ,

cla tu re given o n pa ges 64 and 65 ,

W
'

CzD)
’

Q z

The e q u atio n
,
f or t ri al ,
was m odi fied a nd p u t in the fo rm
o"
Q Lz ‘

( CIZ Cab ) C

and th en assum ing th a t the fo rm might be imila r to tha t f or

s

we irs with free overf all it was w ritt en

04 1
Q 3 34L Z
.
-

(z

This e quatio n rese mbles in f o rm e qu atio n (35) a nd m a ke s no

allowa nc e f o r the st andi ng wa v e co nditio ns a t -
the lowe r side
6
82 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

of the When the h ead of subm ergence is m ea sured in

we ir .

the ch a nne l b e low a ll t u rb u l e nc e ca use d by the ove rf a lling

sh ee t,
this hea d will be grea ter tha n whe n it is m ea su re d in
the tro u gh of the sta nding wa ve A f a cto r m a y the ref o re be
.

a dde d to Z to m a ke it e qu a l the v a l u e of Z in the t ro u gh of the

s t a ndi ng wa ve Afte r re pe ate d t ria ls fro m Ba z in s exp eri

.
,
’

m ents the wr ite r f o u nd th a t the q u a ntity by which Z sho u ld

,

be inc r e as ed a pp e a re d to v a ry dire ctly as x/ ZTI D a nd inve rse ly

as x/ d a nd m o d if ying e qu a tio n (37 ) a cco rdingly
;

Q (z 1

whic h m a y be w ritte n

Q 3 34 L Z
.
L ‘7
1 CI 1

(3 9 )
The fa ctor within the firs t p a re nthesis in the above e qu a tion
, ,

will not o rdi na rily e xc ee d u ni ty by m o re th a n 20 p er cent and .

it m ay therefo re be pu t in a nea rly e qu iva lent f orm by wri ting

the e xpo nent i nstea d of exp a ndi ng by the b ino m i al

theo rem a nd negl e cti ng a ll t erm s exc ept the first two The .

e qu a tio n m ay th e n be written

Q 3 34L Z .
1 17-

i C, 1

(4 0)
Va l u e s of bove coe fficients were deriv ed f rom the e xp e ri
the a

m e nta l da ta a nd with these v al u es su bstitu te d the a u tho r s

’
,

f o rm u l a f o r flow ove r su b m e rg e d we irs u sing the nomencl a tu re

,

given on p a ges 64 a nd 65 b eco m e s , ,

Q 3 34L Z .
l
1 1

(4 1 )
If th e re a re end co nt ra ctions the Fra nc is m e thod of co r rec
,

tion (pa ge 67 ) m a y be u sed Fo rm u la (4 1 ) applies to a ll

.

su b m e rg e d re ct a ng u l a r sh a r p c rest e d w e i rs f o a ll channel
-

co nditions It gives r esu lts a g ree ing within a pp ro xim a te ly 3

.

p e r c e nt with the e xpe r im e nt s of F ra ncis Fte ley a nd St e a rns

.
, ,

a nd Ba z in a nd it see m s re as o nable to b e lie ve th a t e u a lly good

, q
re su lts m a y be e xpe ct e d if du e c a re is t a k e n in m aki ng m e a su re
84 H ANDBOO K O F HY DRAUL I CS

The so lutio n o f the f or m u la m ay be sim pli fie d by the use o f

ta bles . Ta ble 33 , p a ge 98 , gives values of

Z 1 47
°

Table 34 , pa g e 1 03, gives va lues of

z
1
g
.

a nd Ta ble 36, p age 1 09, gives valu es of

co rrespo nding to diff e re nt l

va u e s of
g
l 3 a nd
£
7
The di scha r ge
is the p rodu ct of th ese three qu a ntiti es and the le ngth of the
wei r By ca refu l interpola tio n v alu e s m ay be ta ke n f ro m T a ble
.

36 th a t wi ll be a ccu r a t e withi n 1 p e r c e nt of e rro r which is .

,

close eno ugh f o r o rdina ry pu rpo ses whe n the p rob able li m its
in a ccu ra cy o f the f o rm u la are co nside red .

In the f o rm giv e n f o rm u l a (4 1 ) is di re ctly a pplic a ble to

,

proble m s in whi ch the disch arg e ov e r the wei r is to be de

term ine d I n c e rt a i n probl e m s it is d esi r e d to k now the a m o u nt
.

tha t the eleva tio n of water su rf a c e in a ch anne l will be ra ise d

by the co ns t ru ctio n of a su bm e rged w ei r of a given height .

I n thi s c a se Q is give n D is the d e pth of w a te r in the cha nne l

,

m i nu s the h eight of wei r a nd d 1 m ay be rea dily obt a i ned Z is .

u nk now n as a re a l so H a nd d which de p end u po n Z f o r th ei r

,

valu es The f o rm u la ca n b est be solved by assu m i ng su cc es

.

siv e v a lu es f o r Z u ntil a v a lu e is fo u nd which sa tis fies the equ a

tio n By u sing the tables above referred to the su cc ess ive

.

solu tio ns will be m u ch s im pli fied .

A sim il ar m ethod is ne c essa ry in solving p robl em s wh ere it

is des ir e d to d e te rm i ne the he ight of sub m erge d w ei r ne c ess a ry
to ra ise the eleva tio n of wa ter su rfa c e in a cha nnel a given
a m o u nt In this c ase Q a nd Z a re giv en and d and d ; m a y be
.
,

rea dily obt a i ned H and D . H Z a re the o nly u nk nown

quantities a nd the equa tio n m ay be solved by assu m i ng su c
cessiv e v al u es of H With H dete rm i ned the height of w ei r is
.
,

eq u a l to the depth of w at er in the ch a nnel above the w e i r

m i nus H .

V Notch
-
W eir s
V notch
-
we i rs m ay be u sed to a dva nta ge in m e asu ri ng d is
ch a rge s which do no t e xc e e d f ro m 1 5 to 20c u bic f ee t p e r sec o nd .
 SH ARP CRE ST E D -
W E I RS 85

Using t he no m encl a tu re indic a te d in Fig 28, the . theo retic a l

disc ha rge is given by the f o rm u la
—
V Qg L H “

F IG . 28 .
-
V no tc h we ir
-
.

I
f 2 re p res e nts the slope whi ch the si de of the wei r m a kes with
the v e rtic a l th e n
L 2 zH a nd
8
”
Q \ /2 9 zH
T5
Fo r a r ight
gled notch z be co m es u nity a nd com bi ni ng a
-
an

coe flic ie nt
‘
of disch arge with the co ns t a nt pa rt (ass um i ng
g to be a co ns t a nt ) of the a bove e q u a tio n the fo rm u l a f o r dis ,

cha rg e ove r a right a ngl e d V notch w ei r with sha rp e dges m a

y
- -

be wr itte n
”
Q CH (4 5 )
A m o re g e ne ra l f o rm o f this e xp ressio n is
'
Q CH (4 6)
"

The a u tho r has m a de a tho ro u gh investiga tio n1 of the a bove

f o rm u l a bas ed upo n the res ults of exp e ri m ents a t the U niv e rsity
of M ichig an su pple m e nte d by e xp e ri m e nts by Tho m pso n a nd
’ ’
,

Ba rr ‘
. Th o m the U niv e rsity of M ichiga n e xp e ri m e nts the
au tho r ded u ced the followi ng f o rm u la as rep rese nti ng the; me a n ,

of the e xpe ri m e nt al resu l ts :

Q B M
(4 7 )
As the three se ts o f e xpe rim ents a re not e ntire ly co nsiste nt with
e a c h oth e r Ta bl e 3 1 p a ge 86 gi v i ng a su m m a ry of the re sults
, , ,

of a ll of the e xp e ri m e nts i nvestig a t e d is re p rod u ce d .

1 U n i cer si ty of M ichiga n Technic , O c to be r , 1 9 1 6 , p p 1 90 1 95 .

—
.

y of M ichi ga n Technic , O ct o be r , 1 9 1 6 , p 1 9 1
1 U n i ver s i t . .

3 P RO F A E . J M S M S N
TH O P O : P a p e rs i n P hy s ics a nd E ng i ne e ri ng , p 4 6 , .

Ca m b r id g e .

1 J
AM ESBARR: E xp e r im e nts u p o n the Flo w of W ate r ove r Tria ngu la r
Notc hes . E ngi neer i ng Ap ril 8
, a nd 1 5 , 1 91 0 .
86 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

It will be noted in each set of e xp eri ments that the value of

C g rad u ally de c re ases as the h ea d i ncre ases This indi ca te s
.

that an expo nent of H less tha n sho u ld gi ve a m o re nea rly

constant co e fficient Fro m col u mn 7 it will be see n th a t a n

.

e xpo nent of f or the U ni ve rsity of M ichiga n e xp e ri m e nts

g es a nea rly co nst a nt v a lue of C approxi ma tely
i ’
v , as

a l rea dy given in formu l a

T ABL E 3 1
.
— V AL UE S OF COE F FICIE NTS CO M P U T E D F RO M E x
P E RIM E NTS O N RI GH T AN G L E D V N O TCH E D WE I
- -
RS, F O R
’W
FO RM U L AS Q CH CH
’
1 5
AND Q -

Ba r r
'
s

An e xpo nent of xpe rim e nts will give a

f o r Ba r r
’
s e y
ne a rl
cons ta nt coe fficient e qu a l to app roxim a tely
88 H ANDBOO K O F HY DRAULI CS

69 to 7 1 ) hold fo r tria ngula r wei rs the f orm ula with velocity ,

of a pp ro a ch corre ctio n m a y be written approximately

I
I 4

Q 2 52H .
1
I ?
)
in whi ch A is the area of the ch a nnel of a ppro a ch .

There a re but f ew experim enta l da ta f o r discha rge over V

notch w e irs not right a ngl e d Ass u m i ng howeve r the sa m e
-
.
, ,

coe fficie nt of disch a rg e a s f o r right a ngled notches the genera l -

f o rmu l a f o r all V notch wei rs b e co m es

-

2 52zH “7
Q (4 9) .
‘

I n m o st cas es a right a ngle d not ch ca n be used as re ad ily

-

as a ny othe r .It should a l ways be used when p ra ctic able as ,

the f o rmul a of disch a rge f o r su ch wei rs is b ase d u po n m o re

a cc u ra t e e xpe ri m e nt a l k nowledge tha n f or notche s of oth e r

a ngles . The right a ngl e d notch, m o reove r has the advanta g e

-
,

of be ing simpler to co nstru ct .

Tr ape zoidal W e ir s
The discharge ove r a tra p ez oidal we ir is co m mo nly co nsidered
the co m bined disch a rge of a re ct angu l a r w e i r of l e ngth L
'
as ,

Fig 29, a nd a V notch we i r with side slop es

-
i 2 Unde r
fl
. .

FIG 29 -
Tra p e z o id a l we ir
<
. .

this assu m ption , co m (22 ) pages 7 3

a nd

and 85, the f o rm u ove r sh arp c rested tra pe zoida l

-

weirs with e nd co nt ra ctions ,

i ncl udi ng ve locity of a pp ro a ch
co rrect ion be com es
,

Q 3 34L H .
’ 1

'
Q 3 34 H
,
1
(L 07 5zH )
.
(50)
Fo rm u la (50) will u nquestio na bly give too g rea t a dis ch a rge ,
Si nc e the co nt ra ctio ns a t the sid es wi ll be gre a te r f o r a lo ng w ei r

than f or the V no tch

-
we i r . The au tho r su bmi ts the f ollo wi ng
 SH ARP CRE ST E D -
W E I RS 89

f o rm u la fo r trape zoida l weirs with end co nt ra ctio ns and velocity ,

o f a pp ro a ch co rr ectio n whi ch m ust be co nside re d as a ro u gh

,

a pp r oxi m a tio n si nc e it is e nti re ly l a cking in expe rime nt a l

v e r i fic a tion
Q 3 3 4 51 (L
14 7 ’
1

If 2 0 this
q tio n redu ces to the o rdi na ry we ir f o rmu l a
e ua ,

with the Francis co rre ctio n f o r e nd co nt ra ctio ns Fo rm ul a .

( 5 1 ) s hou ld no t be u se d wh e re L i s l ess th an 2H
’
.

Cip pole tti W eir s Fro m a stu dy of the Fr a nci s e xp e ri m e nts

.
-

Cip p o le tti a n Itali a n engi nee r c o nclu de d tha t a v alu e of z

, ,

of wou ld a pproxi m a tely o ff se t the e ff e ct of e nd co ntra e

tio ns of a rectangular wei r a nd give a f o rmu la of the f o rm
CL H ”
Q (2 )
Cip p o letti finally chose a va lu e o f f o r C ha v ing co ncl u d e d ,

tha t the value obta i ne d by Fra nci s was too s m all The .

re as o ns f o r this choic e a re no t cl e a r It is however this v a lue .

, ,

of C which has b ee n q u it e ge nera lly a dopt e d f o r Cip p ole tti we i rs ,

a nd the f o rm u l a which ha s b e e n e xt e nsive ly u se d is

3 3%
’1
7
Q . LH

in wh ich L is the m easu re d l ength of c re st of we i r .

E xp e ri m e nts by Fli nn a nd Dye r a nd oth e rs i ndic a te th a t

1

the v a l ue of C i nc re a se d a s H d e c re ase s su gg esti ng the nee d of ,

e ith e r a gr e a t e r slop e f o r the sid es of the w e i r o r a n e xpo ne nt

of H l ess th a n Table 38 page 1 1 3 gives va lues of Q f or , ,

Cip p o letti wei rs by fo rm u l a

Fo rm u la (52 ) sho uld no t be u s e d whe n a high de gr ee of
acc u ra cy is re qu i re d No m ethod of co rre cti ng f o r ve locity o f
.

a pp ro a ch is su ggest ed It wa s intende d by Cip p ole tti th at

.

the Fra ncI s velocity o f — a pp ro a ch co rre ctio n should be use d

-
.

The a u thor b elieve s th a t his f o rm u l a f o r re ct a ngu la r wei rs ,

writt e n in the fo rm

Q 3 34L H
.
1 -47

will a pply m o re re a dily a nd a ccu ra te ly to Cip p ole tti we i rs th a n

f o r m u la The slopi ng sid es a re i nt ro du c e d so lely to o ff se t

1 A
. D F LIN N a nd C W
. . . D . DY E R: T he C ip p o le tt i T r a p e z o id a l W e ir .

Tr a ns . Am e r So c Civ E ng
. . . .
, vo l . 32 .
90 H ANDBO OK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

the cts of e nd contra ctions a nd the co ndi tio ns be co me si milar

e ff e

to those for a we ir with end contra ctions supp resse d .

Assu m ing f o rm ula a nd the Fra ncis co rre ctio n f or e nd

co ntra ctio ns (f o rm u la in o rd er tha t the slop e o f the sid es

of the Cip p o le tti we i r m ay j ust o ff se t the e ff e ct of e nd co ntra c

tio ns the follo wi ng rela tio n m u st e xist

,

0 7 5 zH
. O 2H .

which is very close to the v a lu e use d by Cip p o letti

W e ir s with Cr e st Not L e ve l

When the crest of a w eir is not level Fig 30 if the i nclina ,

.
,

tio n is Slight the discha rge will be give n qu ite accura tely by
,

the f o rm ul a f o r re ct angu l a r we i rs u si ng the m ea n h ea d H m ,

.

A m o re p recise fo rmu la m a y be obt a ine d fro m the expressio n

F IG . 30— . W e ir wi th cr e s t no t le v e l .

1 -“
Q (1 11 dz

in which
H H1

The lt ing fo rm ula f o r disch a rge ove r

re su a we ir with c rest
i nc lined a nd ve rtica l s ides is
L0 “ H3
12 7 ”
)
. H2 H1

I
f th e re a re e ndco ntra ctio ns L be i ng the ,
’
m ea su red le ngth a nd

L the co rre cted length of wei r

L
’
L =
 92 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I CS

for com p u ti ng the disch a rge the a c tua l discha rge b eing g rea t e r
,

tha n th a t de te r m ine d f ro m the m ea n h e a d whe re the h ea d

v a r i e s co nti nu o u sly in the sa m e di re ctio n b e tw ee n obse r v a tio ns .

This is be c au se the d is cha rge v a r ies f aste r tha n the h ea d .

Choi c e of W e ir f or M axim u m Accura cy

I
n l cti ng a we i r f o r the a ccu ra te m easu rem ent of wa te r
se e ,

ca re sho u ld be t ake n to choose the we i r best a da p ted to the

lly q tity w
'

p a r t ic u la r co nd it io ns U su a . the u a n o f a t e r o r the ,

lim iting qu a ntit ie s if the flow flu ctu ates m ay be determ ined ,

a pp roxi m a t e ly b e f o re b e gi nni ng the m e asu re m e nt The b e st .

wei r f o r the pu rp o se m a y the n be sele cted giving c arefu l ,

consid e ra tion to the f ollo wing im po rta nt p o ints

1 Owing to the t e nd e ncy of the na ppeto adh e re to the dow n
.

st r e a m f a c e we i rs Sho uld not be u se d wh e re the me a su re d

,

he a d is less tha n f ee t .

2 I
. n a ll c as es the l e ng th o f a re ct a ngu la r w e i r shou ld be
a t l e a st th re e tim es the h e a d .

3 The h e a d o n the w e i r sho u ld p ref e ra bly no t be grea te r

.

tha n f e e t .

4 The p e rce nta ge of e rro r in disch a rge re su l ti ng f ro m a

. .

giv e n e rro r in m easu ring he a d de c reas es as the h ea d inc re ases .

Grea te r a ccu ra cy m a y the ref o re be se c u red by sel e cting a

we i r of su ch di m e nsions as to h ave the discha rge occur u nde r
the m a xim um h ea d p ra ctic able su bj e ct to the r e qu i re m ent s of
,

p a ra g ra phs 1 2 a nd 3 a bov e
,
.

Ta ble 4 1 p a ge 1 27 givi ng the perc ent a ge of e rro r in dis cha rg e

, , ,

f or difle rent dis ch a rg es a nd d im ensio ns of w e i rs resu lting fro m ,

v a riou s er ro rs in m e a su r ing h e a d has b ee n p r ep a re d to a ss ist

,

in the se l e ctio n of the b e st we i r f o r a give n pu rpose Of the .

wei rs liste d those given in bold type a re recom m ended The .

ta ble is i nte nde d m e rely a s a gu id e howeve r a nd the engine e r

, ,

mu st u se his j udgm e nt in se le cting a we i r which will b est co n

fo rm to the re qu i rem ents of the f ou r p a ra graphs giv en a bove .

One point b rou ght ou t q u it e clea rly by Ta bl e 4 1 is th a t right

a ngl e d V notch w e i rs a re p refe rabl e to w e i rs of a ny oth er typ e
-

f o r m e a su ri ng dis ch a rge s b e low 1 c ubic f oot p e r se cond a nd ,

th ey a re a t le ast as a ccu ra t e as any o the r w ei r f or discharges

u p t o 1 0cu bic f ee t p e r se co nd They a re the re fo re p a rtic u la rly
.

a da pt e d to the m easu re m e nt of flu ct u a ti ng dis ch a rg e s wh er e

the m a xi m u m dis c h a rge d o e s no t grea tly e xc e e d 1 0 c u bic f e e t

we r se c o nd .
 SH ARP C RE ST E D
-
W E I RS 93

T ABLE 32 . PO W E RS OF NU M BE RS

0130

0562 0567

0621 0627

0746 0752 0797

0
81 1 081 7
0877 0891 0932

0946 0953 0959 0973 10 01

1016 1023 10 30 1073
1087 1 102 1 1 16 1 145
1 160 1 168 1 175 1 190 1205 1 212 1220
1235 1 242 1250 1 265 1 280 1288 1295

2137 2164 21 73 2200

2227 2255 2291
231 9 2346 2356
24 1 1 244 9 2477
2505 2534 254 3 2572

2600 2629 2639 2668

2696 2726 2735 2764
2794 2862
2892 2922 2932
2991 3021 3031 3062

3092 31 22 31 32 31 63
31 9 3224 3234 3265
3296 3327 3337
3431 3473
3504 3536 3546 3578
94 H AND BOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE 32 (Conti nued )

PO W E RS OF NU M BE RS
96 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 32 (Continued )
PO W E RS OF NUM BE RS

ma mz am
aa m1 ae
c c a w wn
am ma mu
w1 a w m“

m5 1 1 9 m om 1
9e 6 me 1 9e 1 ne 1
m 1 a2 m ma 1
9a aa 1 n wn 1
9n2 1 s 7 m s1

2 1815 2 1834 2 1853 2 1872 1891 2

2 20 04 2 2023 2 2042 2 2061 20802
2 2 194 2 22 13 2 2232 2 225 1 22702
2 2384 2 2403 2 2422 2 24 4 1 24602
2 25 74 2 2593 2 2612 2 2631 26502

2 2765 2 2784 2 2803 2 2822 284 1 2

2 2956 2 2976 2 2995 2 3014 3033 2
2 3148 2 3 168 2 3 187 2 3206 3225 2
2 334 1 2 33602 33802 3399 34 18 2
2 3534 2 3553 2 3573 2 35 92 361 1 2

2 3727 2 3747 2 3766 2 3786 3805 2

2 3922 2 394 1 2 39602 3980 3999 2
2 4 1 16 2 4 136 2 4 155 2 4 17 5 4 194 2
2 43 1 1 2 433 1 2 43502 4370 4389 2
2 4507 2 4526 2 4546 2 4565 4585 2

2 7m 2 4 722 2 4 42 2 a 781 2
2 8 m
2 4 91 9 2 4 39 2 n 978 2
2 2 5 1 16 2 5 36 2 s 1 75 2
2 5294 2 53 14 2 5 33 2 s 373 2
2 “92 2 55 12 2 5 31 2 1 fi 71 2
SH ARP C RE STE D
-
WE I RS 97

T ABL E 32 (Concluded )
PO W E RS or NU M BE RS
98 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 33 .
—DISCH ARGECUBIC FE E T PE R SE CO ND PE R
IN
FO OT O F LE NGTH , OVE R SH ARP C RE STE D WE IRS, WITH
-

TY O F APP RO ACH CO RRE CTI

OU T VE LO CI O N, BY TH E

FO RM UL A Q H 1
 SH ARP CRE ST E D
-
WE I RS 99

TABL E 33 ( Continued )
DISCH ARGE IN C UBI
C FE E T PE R SE CO ND PE R FOOT OP LE NGTH ,

OVE R SH ARP -
ORE STE D WE IRS WITH O UT VE L OCITY
,

OP AP PROACH CORRE CTION, BY T FO RM ULA

1 "
Q H .
1 00 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I C S

TABL E 33 (Conti nued )

DISCH ARGE IN CUBI
C FE E T SE CO ND FO O T L E NGTH ,
‘

PE R PE R OF

OVE R SH ARP -
CRE STE D WE IRS , WIT H O U T VE L O CITY
01" AP P RO AC H CO RRECTIO N , BY T H E FO RM U L A
H m
Q
SH H M N JO S H HM O J SBA I
V ’
H -
fl m fll

(m ai m o) 07 m
“ m”,

I
SH I GM G HL SHH O d H VH S
‘
:8LI I
'

67
°

H 88
'

8 0 V Inwu o g
'
56
SI
ONV H J H m . L OS H H O O H OV O H JJV JO AL I
AH NO I
‘ ’
OO IHA '

m O H mAA
.
‘
SH I
HM C HISHH Q -
HH V H S H H AO I
H L O N HI HO mo o d
G NO O HS OIHDQ N I I — IE V L
O q os T
‘
HH J H HJ LHHg
. H O HV H S

IM
SHI G G HL SHH O JH VH S
’ ’ ’
 wm w 83 70 61 ( m3
wu w 83 06 81
ww w 83 9L 81
wm w 8 3 39 81
ww w 83 8 7 81
ww w 33 78 81
mw w 33 61 81
wm w 33 90 81
mn w 33 16 LI
mm w 33 LL LI
mw w z8 8 33 89 LI
ww n 8 e6 8 13 09 LI
mw w 0
0 tL 13 98 LI
mw m8 w 8 13 3 3 LI
wn w o1 . 13 80 LI

wm ww mw 88 13 76 91
wa w wa w 80
9 13 I8 91
w m w w xV w .

88 03 L9 91
wm ww : w 88 O3 89 91
wm ww u 38 03 07 91
O3 93 9 1

6 1 3L 91

w 9L 9 w m m m 6 1 69 91
w 98 9 w m m m
w 96 9 w w m
w L9 0 w La w m
w L1 0 w Ls u m
-

mu fi w £ w w
0
0

w m n w 98 w w
w w9 w w
0
0

wm N w 9 0
w w 0
'
1 3 9 1 8 1 89
m w a w 98 w w '

I3 00 8 1 07
LIL3
'

'
13 78
13 89 L1 7 1
LI1 0
'
13 19
L I88
°

O3 98
03 LI9L
'

61
I
~ 88 w mI0 I8 08 £8
°

03 80 LI89
w n mm
.

I
~ mu 58
°

03 L8 9 1 O9
9 3 I w eV eo ~ 98
.
1 n

7 L w l Iw 7
'

9
-
98 6 1 99 9 1 93
98 w 6 1 07 9 1 3 1
'
O 0
a z 8 0 98
'
61 73 91 66
80
°

61 9 1 L8
26 1 86 Q I7 L
'

81
'
LL 9 1 39
81 39 9 1 67

see : u s J M I so qzflu o'

I

“11 7 §gg g b
°
= V '
IDN I
IO J ‘
H m , AH GN OO HS
am i f!“ OI D
H Q N I SH I
H M I
M HI
'
O JJ I
O O
H EA HO HVH CSI
Q

(WP P
n W D) 88 3 1 37 1
’

1 ,

SO II
IIV HG AH I H OOHCI
NVH
'
’
eO
 W 3 11 ggg b
‘
V II
'
IN H O J
‘
a m . 1 21 911 m m H OL O N
-

A
a m onv -
m w u 11 51 11 0 ( m o otrs a rm
- L3 8 3: ow a c
) N Ia nuv nos x
q
( p p
a n w oot ) L8 m a n ,

8011 11 t l 5 0 H OOHCI
NV H
 C H APTE R V

WE IRS NO T SH ARP CRE STE D -

Wei rs a re f re quently constru cted in cha nnels f o r the pu r

pose oi o bta ining co nt inu ou s re co rds of d isch a rge I n su c h .

c a se s it m a y be v e ry di fficu lt to m a inta in a thi n— e dg ed w e i r ,

du e to d a m a g e fro m floa ting d r if t a nd ice a nd a m o re su b

sta ntial w e i r with a thick e r c re st m a y be a dvi s abl e It is a lso .

of te n conv enient to be able to u se a n e xisting w ei r or ove rflow

da m f or m ea su ring disc ha rge Weirs of va riou s dim e nsions
.
,

a nd s h a p e s a re u se d in hyd ra u lic s t ru ctu r e s a nd in d es ig ni ng

su ch s t ru ctu res it is i m po rt a nt to be abl e to co m u t e a pp ro xi

p
m a te ly the discha rg es ov e r th e se we i rs .

The a m ou nt of wa te r which will p ass ov e r a w e i r no t sh a rp ,

c reste d d epe nds to a la rge e xtent u pon the sha pe of its c rest
, ,

a nd it is ne c e ssa ry to r e so r t to e xp e r i m ent to d e t e rm ine t he

d isch a rge over any p articu l a r sha p e I nasm u ch as the nu m b e r .

of sha p es of we irs is u nlim ited it is not to be e xp ecte d th a t

.
,

e xp e ri m e nt a l da t a a re o r eve r will be av a il a bl e f o r th e m a ll .

Th e re a re a va ila bl e h oweve r the resu lts of sev e ral seri e s o f

, ,

e xpe ri m e nt s o n w e ir s of di ff e rent c ro s s se c tio ns w hic h f u r ni sh -

m u ch va lu a bl e inf o rm a tio n f or d e t e rm ining discha rges ov e r

we irs of the sa m e o r sim ila r sh a p es .

F ormu la f or De termining Di s charg e

The f ollowi ng dis cu ssio n is ba se d u po n the m e thod give n

by H o rto n f o r determ i ning the discha rge ove r we ir s of irre gu l a r
1

se ctio n The b a se fo rm u l a
.

CLH %
Q ( )
1

is a ss u m e d we irs val ue s of
f or a ll , C b e ing d e te rm ine d f ro m
e xp e ri m e nts f o r the di ff e re nt typ e s , a nd a rra nge d in ta bl es to

c o r r espond to di ff e rent v al u es of H .

1 ROBE RT E . HO RTO N : Wa ter Su p p ly a nd Irr iga tio n P a p er No 200, U S

. . .

Ge olo g ica l Sur v e y , p p 5 9—1 34 . .

 WE I RS NOT SH ARP CRE STE D-
1 29
.

Horto n m a de a velocity of a ppro ach correction by adding

2

2 xp
2;
the
to the m easured hea d b efore co mpu ting
im ental results This sam e me thod of co rrecting f or
e er .
his va lu e of C f ro m

velocity of a pp ro a ch shou ld th erefo re be e m ploy ed in u sing the

values of 0 given in the f ollowing t a bl es Fo rmul a ( 1 ) with .

velocity of approach co rrection becom es

Q CL

Following the line of reaso ning given on pa ge 69 f or

sa m e

sharp c rested we i rs and u sing the no m encla t u re giv e n on p a g e

-
,

64 f o rmula (2) m ay be w ritt e n in the a pp roxim a tely equ iva le nt

,

form
‘
CLH 9 C
Q 2
1 2

or if pref e rred
34
0
Q ( 31 11 1 2

Table 4 0 pa ge 1 22 givi ng th ree h alve s powe rs of nu m be rs

, ,
-
,

will assist in the solu tio n of the a bove f o rmu las .

The a va ila bl e e xpe ri m ents a re not e xtensiv e e nou gh to p ro

vide f o r the d eterm ina tio n of the e ff ec t of velocity of a pp ro a ch
o n w e i rs not sh a rp c r est e d The t a bl es of co e ffi cie nt s in this
-
.

cha pte r p rob a bly a pply m o re a c cu rat e ly wh e re the v elocity

of a pp ro a ch is not high F ro m a co nsid e ra tio n of co nditions

'

for s ha rp c reste d w e irs it a pp e a rs tha t dis ch a rges f or high

‘

-
,

vel oc iti es of a pp ro a ch will be so me what g re a t e r th a n is giv en

,

by fo rm ula
Sin c e e xp eri m ental conditions will seldom be du plic a t ed in
p ra ctic e it is p r ob a bl e tha t e rr o rs m a y re su lt f ro m th e g e ne ra l

use of the coe ffici e nt s giv en in this ch a pte r E xt rem e a ccu ra cy .

,

how e v e r is not a lwa ys nec essa ry in d esi gn wh ere u nc e rta inty

, ,

as t o th e exa ct qu a ntity of wa t er to be p r ovided f or m a y e xi st .

The a vaila bl e da t a will usu a lly be su ffic ie nt f or co m p a ri ng we ir ,

se cti o ns to d e t e rm ine the section whi c h will b e st ful fil c e rt a i n

requ ir e m ent s ; e g the sh a pe of c re st th a t will giv e the m a xi m u m

. .
,

or th e m M um di sc h a rg e u nde r a given h e a d .

Wh en a wei r other than a sha rp c re st ed we ir is to be con

,
-
,

st ru c te d f or m e a su ri ng w a te r a n e x a ct du plic a te of so m e m ode l
,

fo r w hic h e xperim enta l coe fficients ha ve b e en obt a ine d shoul d

be u s e d if po ssible When overflow dam s a re u se d f or ga gi ng
.

9
1 30 H ANDBOO K O F H Y D RAU L I CS

t
s rea ms, coefficients m ay be sel ected from the table f or th e

weir sectio n m o st clo se ly rese m blin g the section in qu estio n

For da ms h aving irre gu la r c rests or if exp e r i ment a l coe m ,

cients ar e not a va l abl e

i f or a m od l rese bl g the da
e m in m i ~
,

m a y be a dvisable to m ak e a f ew discha rge m easu rem ents of th r

strea m a nd d e t e rm ine the va lue s of coe ffici ent s co rre spond ing

to difierent h ea ds throu gh a s wide a range of disch arges a s

possible Judgment and experienc e and an intima te k now l

.

edge of we ir hydr a ulics a re esse ntia l in se le cti ng w e ir c oe ffi

c ients Si m ila r to that re qu i re d in sel e cti ng co e fficients f o r p ip

,
e

and o pe n ch a nnel fo rmul a s

-
.

M odi ficat ons of i the Kappa Form

The probl em of esta blishi ng a fix ed rela tio n between hea d

a nd disch a rge f o r w e i rs not sha rp c re st e d is com plic a te d by
,
-
,

the f a ct tha t the na ppe m a y assu m e a v ar ie ty of fo rm s in p ass ing

over the weir For each modifica tion of na ppe fo rm there i
.

a co rrespo nding cha nge in the rela tion b etw ee n h ea d a nd d is

cha rge The eff ect of this condition is m ore notic eable f o
. .

low hea ds The following is a discu ssion by H o rton on th

.
1
t
‘

e fie c ts of m odi fic a tio n of na pp e fo rm .

The el a bora te inve stiga tio ns of Ba zi n re la tive to the phy s ic ~

of weir discharge set for th cl ea rly the impo rta nc e of ta kin;
into consideratio n the pa rticula r form assu m e d by the na ppe .

This is espe cia lly t rue in we irs of irregular sectio n in which

the re is usu ally mo re oppo rtu nity f or cha nge of fo rm than f o x
a th in e dge d we ir
-
In g ene ra l the na pp e m a y
.

Disch a rge freely tou chi ng o nly the u p stream c rest edg e
,
.

Adhere to top of c rest .

Adhere to downstre a m fa c e of c rest .

Adhe re to both top a nd dow ns t re am fa ce .

Remain d eta ched bu t b ecom e we tt e d u nde rnea th

,
.

. Adhere to top bu t rem a in de ta ched fro m fa c e a nd b e com e

,

w etted unde rnea th .

7 I. n any of the c ases wh ere the na ppe is wette d und e r »

nea th this condition may be repla c e d by a depresse d na pp e ,

ha ving a ir im p risoned undernea th at less tha n atmosphe ric

p ressu re .

1 ROBE RT E . HO RTO N : Water Su p p ly a nd Irrigati on P a p er No 200, U 8

. .

Geologi ca l Survey , p p 60—

61 . .
1 32 H ANDBOO K O F H Y D RAUL I CS

These co e fficie nts inclu de v elocity of a pp roa ch eff ect w hich ,

t end s to m a gnify the i r di ff e re nc e s so m ewh a t The re is hoWever .

, ,

a ra nge of 25 p e r c ent va ria tion in d isch a rge b etween the

.

e xtrem es .

The d epa rtu re in the w e ir coe fficie nt fro m tha t a pplying to

a thi n e dg e d w e i r f o r m o st fo rm s o f we i rs of i rre gul a r se ction
-
, ,

resu l ts f rom so m e p e rm a ne nt m odi fic a tio n of the na pp e fo rm .

We irs with sloping u pstream f ac es reduc e the c re st cont raction ,

b roa d c rested w e i rs cau se a dherenc e of the na ppe to the c rest

-
,

a p ro ns c au se pe rm anent a dherenc e of the napp e to the dow n

st rea m fa c e .

Broa d Cre ste d

-
W eir s
A we i r tha t is a pproxim a tely recta ngula r in c ross sec tion -

is c a ll e d a b roa d c res te d we ir a nd u nless otherwise noted w ill

-
,

be assu m ed to ha ve v e rtic a l fa c es a pl ane l evel c res t a nd Sharp ,

right a ngled
-
co rne rs Fig 3 1 re p rese nts a b ro ad c reste d
. .
-

F ro . 31 — Broa d -
c res te d weir .

we ir ha ving a he ight P a nd a brea dth B The hea d H

'

.
, , ,

Shou ld be m ea su re d a t l e a s t 3 11 u p st re a m fro m the w e i r A .

sho rt di st a nc e a bov e the u pp e r e dg e of the w e i r the w a t e r

s u rf a c e cu rv e s dow nw a rd u ntil a d e pth 8 is rea ch e d whi c h d e pth

re m a i ns ne a rly co nst a nt to a point nea r the lowe r e dg e o f t he

we ir .

U nwin ha s Sho w n tha t the theo retic a l fo rm u la f o r disc h a r g e

l

o ve r a b ro a d c re st e d we i r t ak es the f o rm
-

94
Q CL H (1 )
a nd if the U p st re a m co rne r of the w e i r is ro u nde d su ffici e ntly
to overcom e the e ff e ct s of c res t contra ctio n while the c re s t of
the we ir is incli ne d lightly downw a rd the the ore tic a l va lu e of
s

C is This v al ue is seldom obtained in p ractic e F o r .

i W . C . U N W IN : A T re a tise on H y d ra ulics . p . 1 02 .
 WE I RS NO T SH ARP C RE STE D -
1 33

broad -
c re s te d we irs
othe r w e i rs not sh a rp c rested f o rmu l a
, as f or -
,

p a ge 1 28 is assu m ed and va lues of C co rre sponding to dif

,

f e re nt v a lu e s of B and H m ust be d e te rm i ne d e xpe ri m e nt a lly .

E xpe r i m ents on b roa d c res ted w e irs h a ve bee n pe rform ed

-

by Bl a ckwell Baz in the U S Dee p Wa terwa ys Boa rd a nd

, , . .
,

the U S Geo logica l Su rve y

. . These expe rim ents cover a wide
.

rang e of conditions as to h e a d b rea dth and h eight of weir , ,

.

Co ns ide ra ble dis c rep a ncy exists in the resu lt s of the diffe re nt
exp e r i m e nte rs e spe cia lly for he a d s b e low f e et Fo r hea d s .

from to a bou t f ee t the co e fficient b e co m es m o re u nifo rm

and f or he a d s from
-
fee t to the point wh e re the nappe be com es
deta c he d f rom t he c res t of the weir the coe fficie nt as giv en by
the d ifle re nt e xp eri m ent s is ne a rly consta nt and e qu a l s a p p ro xi
'

ma te ly When the hea d rea ches from one to two tim e s

the br ea dth of the w e ir the na ppe b ec o m es d e ta ch ed a nd the
,

dis cha rge is a pproxima tely e qu al to tha t f or a Sha rp c rested -

we ir The degree of rou ghness of the c rest within re a so nable

.
,

li m its appea rs to ha ve bu t littl e e ff e ct u pon the disc ha rge

, .

I n o rd e r to pu t t he resu lts of the va riou s e xp e rim e nts in a

f o rm conve nie nt f o r u se Tabl e 4 2 pa ge 1 4 3 ha s b e e n p re
, , ,

pa re d by gra phic a lly interpola ting the results of a ll e xpe ri m e nts ,

g i v i n g m o re we ight to those of the U S Ge ologic a l Su rvey . . .

This ta ble should give values of C within the lim its of a ccu ra cy
of t he o rigina l e xp e rim ents Velocity of approa ch co rre ction
.

Shou ld be m ad e by fo rm ula (2) or p age 1 29 Table 4 0 .

,

pa ge 1 22 gives three h alves powers of nu m b ers

,
-
.

M odifications of Broa d cre ste d W e ir s — The e ff e ct of rou nd

-
.

ing the u pst ream co rner of a b road c rest ed we i r ( Fig is to -

.

low er the w eir by dec re asing the c rest co ntra ction I n oth e r .

wor ds rou nding the u pst re am co rner inc reases the disch a rge fo r
,

a giv e n h ead
. Tabl e 43 p age 1 4 4 gives a ré sum é of exp eri
.
, ,

m e nts on this typ e of we ir Fro m a com pa riso n of the se e xp e ri

.

me nts with those f or a b roa d c re ste d we i r with sha rp u pst re am -

corner it a ppe a rs tha t the e ff e ct of rou nding the u pst ream co rner
on a r a diu s of 4 i nch es is to i nc re as e the co e fficie nt C app ro xi
‘

, ,

ma te ly 9 p e r c e nt E xpe rim e nta l da ta f o r d et e rm i ning the

.

e fi ec t of rou nding the co rne r on a ra dius g re a t e r o r l ess th a n 4

'

i nch es a re not a va ilabl e .

Bl a ckwell e xperi me nted with th re e we i rs fee t b roa d h aving

a slightly incline d c res t Fig 33 The e ff ect of incli ning the
,
. .

c re st is no t qu ite cl e a r f ro m t he e xp e ri m e nts bu t a pp e a rs to

slightly i nc rea se the co e ffici e nt o f di sc h a rge The r e su lts of .

1 34 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

these e xpe rim ents a re ra the r inco nsiste nt es pe cia lly f o r lo w ,

hea ds Ta ble 44 pa ge 144 has been ob tained from Bl ackwell s

.
, ,
’

e xp e rim ents .

The co ndition obta ined by sloping the top of a b roa d c reste d -

w e ir is sim il ar to tha t of a tri angular weir with the u ps trea m

f ac e ve rtic a l The coe fficients give n in Ta bles 4 5 a nd 46
.
,

pages 1 44 a nd 1 4 5 will therefore be valua bl e f or se lecting

,

coe ffic ie nts f o r b road c rested we irs with sloping c rests

-
.

Fro 32 —7Broa d c re ste d we ir wi th

. .
-
Fro . 33 — Broa d 0res te d we ir
.
-

u p s tr e a m c or ne r r o u nd e d . wi th slo p ing cres t .

W eir s of Triangu lar Se ction

Fig 34 . p resents the c ross section of a w ei r ha ving the u ppe r

re -

f a c e vertic al a nd the lower fa c e inclined downwa rd ; the two

,

f a c es me eting in a sha rp a ngle whi ch form s the c rest of the

we i r .

Ba z in ha s e xp e ri m e nte d with we i rs of this typ e f ee t ,

high giving variou s slopes to the downstrea m face : The

,

F ro . 3 4 —.Tr ia ng ula r we ir .

coe fficients resulting f ro m those e xpe rim ents a re given in

Table 4 5 pa ge 1 44,
.

It will be obse rved tha t the co e ffici ent f or a given slop e in

eac h c ase show n by the e xp e ri m ents is nea rly co nsta nt f or h e a ds

a bove f ee t It seem s fa ir to a ssu m e th erefo re tha t th ese

.
, ,

valu es cou ld be e xte nde d to higher h eads with reaso na ble

assu ra nc e The a ve ra g e va lu e s of the co efficie nts give n in
.
1 36 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

Coefficients covering the ra nge of Ba z i n s exp eriments are

given in Table 48, page 1 46 Table 4 9 pa ge 1 4 6, gives .

coe fficients resu lting from the experiments by the United

Sta te s Dee p Wa terwa ys Bo a rd .

For w eirs of t ra pe zoidal c ro ss se ctio n with sloping u p stream -

and vertic a l downstream face, Fig 37 there are five series of .

F IG . 37 — Tr a p e z o id a l weir .

e xperi ments by the Unite d Sta tes Deep Wa te rwa ys Board .

All of the m odels f or these e xperim ents were a pproxim a tely

fee t high a nd the bre adth of c res t AB was e ither or

feet The length of all we i rs was

. fe e t .

Tabl e 50 page 1 4 7 gives coe fficients de rived f rom th es e

, ,

e xpe ri m e nt s Disch a rges ove r t ra pe zoid al w e irs shou ld be

.

corre cted fo r velocity of a ppro ach by fo rmula (2) or

W e irs of I
rr e gu lar Se cti on

Figs . 33 to 4 2 inclu sive re present m od els of we irs ex

pe ri
m e nte d u po n by the U S Dee p Wa te rwa ys Bo a rd u nd e r
“

. . ,

P ig AO F ig 41
.

FIGS 38 . To 42 .

the d irection of G W Ra f te r a t the hydraulic labo ra to ry of

. .
,

Co rnell U nive rsity Fro m fou r to se ven e xp e ri me nts w ere

.

ru n on ea ch m od el the ra nge of hea d v a ryi ng a pp ro xim a te l y

,
 WE I RS NOT SH ARP CRE STE D-
1 37

fro m 1 to f ee t . Values of C ta bu la te d f ro m these experi

ments given in Ta ble 5 1 pa ge 1 4 7
a re ,
.

E xpe r im e nt s o n m od e ls of the old Croto n da m (Figs 43 to .

47 inclu s ive) were m a d e at Co rnell U nive rsity in 1 8 99 f or t he ,

K
“
H -n Oh
OM M ms x w 75 -
-

—
h <
I
-
mo —’ i

C
_
anc l
_

Fm . 43 .

Fm . 44 .

F IG . 45 .

F IG . 46 .

F IG . 47 .

c ity of New Yo rk u nde r the direc tio n of J R Fre eman The

, . . .

m od e ls w e re give n diff e re nt de gre e s of rou gh ness to de term ine

the e flec t of rou gh ne ss of c re st on disch a rge Table 52 p a ge
'

,
.

1 4 7 gives the ta bu l a te d results of these e xpe ri m e nts .

1 38 H ANDBOO K or H Y DRAUL I CS

E xperiments for the U 8 Geologic al Su rve y , under the di

. .

re ctio n of Robe rt E H orto n, w ere p erfo rm ed in 1903 at the

.

hydrau lic labo ratory of Co rnell Univ e rsity to de te rm ine the

coe fi cients of discharge of we irs m ode led after various types
of dam s . Figs 48 to 55 inclusiv e show forms of crests of
.

FIG . 48 . FIG . 49 .

'
a - o ss
.

F ro . 51 . FIG . 52 .

—9 % 0

Fro . 55 .

Se c t lo n of

FIG 5 6 . . FIG . 57 .

mode ls p im ented u pon The weirs were all

ex er . fee t high
and e ith er 8 or 1 5 f ee t long The purpose of the exp eri
.

m ents was to enabl e the Ge ological Su rvey to more a ccu ra tely

determine discharges over weirs at gaging sta tions Coe ffi .

cie nts obtained from th ese exp e riment s a re given in Tabl e 53

,

pa ge 1 4 8 .
1 40 H ANDBOO K o r H Y DRAUL I CS

l cte d f or ea ch sh a pe of c rest For som e we i rs the p roble m

se e . .

is s till f a r th er co m plic a ted by the fac t th a t not only the coef .

ficient of discha rge bu t the he ight o f the st a ndi ng wa ve m ay be

a fiec ted by the fo rm of the c res t of the w e ir Wei rs with b ro ad .

fla t crests e ith e r lev el or gently sloping m ay h ave a st a nding

, ,

wav e for m b ef o re the wa te r is f re e fro m the wei r The e ff ec t .

of this co ndition is si milar to redu cing the depth of wa te r in the

channel b elow the wei r This will c a use a higher sta nd ing wave
.

than wo uld fo rm in the na tu ral ch annel and result in a grea ter

dis ch a rge f or a given difiere nce in eleva tion of wate r surfa c es
abov e and b elow the w ei r .

Bazin has exp eri m ented with a nu m b er of models of sub

merged wei rs h avi ng heights of eithe r or fee t Ne lles ‘
.

has p rep are d a n a b s tr a ct of Ba z i n s e xp erim e nts o n b roa d

’

c rested weirs a nd we i rs of tri angu l a r and trap ezoidal c ross

se c tio ns Owing to the di fficu lties referred to above as well
.

a s the ne c essa rily li m ited range of the expe rim ents it is impo s

sible to de velop any wo rking f o rm u la fro m these d a ta E a ch .

typ e of wei r is a p roblem in itself and e ach requ i res a n e x

tensive inv estig atio n cover ing a wide ra nge of conditio ns
, .

Wh en it is co nsidered th at we ir se ctions m a y be co ns tru cte d

in a n i nd e fini te nu m b e r of sha p es it ma y be seen tha t a mos t .

e xtensive se t of expe rim ents will be nec e ssa ry b efo re an u nd er

st a nding of this su bj e c t m ay be e xp e ct e d .

The a u tho r s fo r mu l a f or flow ov er sh a rp c reste d su b m e rg e d

’
-

weirs (f o rmu la pag e 82) using the nom encla t ure giv e n
on p a ge s 64 a nd 6 5 is ,

1 D H 2

Q LZ 1
(1 (1 (4 )
3 7
Fro m dy of B a zi n s exp e ri m ents i t app ea rs th a t all of the
’
a s tu

sy m bols in the a bov e fo rmul a a nd pro b ably a no ther whic h ,

co rre cts f or sha pe of c rest influ e nce the dis ch arge o ve r su b ,

me rged da ms a nd we i rs In the light o f p re sent k nowle dg e .

of the su bj ect howe ver it a pp ea rs i mpo ss ibl e to o u tli ne a ny

, ,

de finite m ethod of p rocedu re .

The au tho r su b m i ts the f ollowi ng a ppr oxim ate rules f o r

dete rmining disch a rges over s ub m erged d a ms a nd we irs not
s h a rp crest e d -

1 Wh e n D is no t g r ea te r th a n O 2H u se t he o rdina ry w e i r
. .
,

f orm ul a Q CL H ”
,choosi ng the p ro pe r va lue of C fro m
,

1 G T . . Na m e: F lo w o ver Subm e r g ed Da ms . Tr a ns . Am er Soc C iv

. . .

E ng .
, vol 4 4 , p p
. . 362—3 8 3 .
 W E I RS NOT SH ARP C RE ST E D -
14 1

Tables 4 2 to 53 inclus ive a nd co rre ction f or ve locity of a pp roa ch

, .

if necessa ry by fo rm u la (2 ) o r pa go 1 29 Va lues of H M .

a re give n in T able 4 0 pa ge 1 22
, .

2 For na rrow weirs h a v ing a crest with a sha rp u pstrea m

.

co rne r o r f o r we i rs of t ria ngu l a r sec tion with the downs tre a m

f ace no t fla tte r th an 2 ho riz o nta l to 1 v e rtic al use fo rm ula ,

3 For wei rs with r ou nd ed c res ts not over 5 feet b roa d

.
,

inc reas e resu lts fro m formu la (4 ) by 1 0 p er c ent .

4 Fo r we i rs with ve ry b roa d c rests o r gently slo p ing dow n

.

st rea m fac es i nc re ase resu l ts fro m fo rm ul a (4 ) by f ro m 1 0 to

,

30 p er c ent o r even m o re
. The nec ess i ty of thi s co rre ctio n is
.

du e la rge ly to the fa ct tha t a st a nding w a ve ma y f orm on the

cres t of the wei r .

In a pplyi ng the a bove ru l es it shou ld be re me m be red tha t D

is the d epth of su b me rgenc e m e asu red b e low all tu rbu le nc e
ca use d by the o verf alling wa ter These rules p rovid e f or an .

a pp ro xi m a te sol u tio n o f all su b m e rged we i r p robl e ms -

.

If it is requ i red f ro m f o rmu la

, to de te r m ine the h eigh t
of da m of a given le ng th nec essa ry to rai se the wate r su rf a c e
,

in a ch a nnel a given h eight the di sch a rge Q b ei ng known Z

, ,

is given a nd the a re as of the ch a nnels a bove a nd be low the

weir a nd the re fo re d and d m ay be d e te r m ined Q m a y be
, 1

co rre c te d if necessa ry by the above ru l es D H Z a nd .

the o nly u nk nown q ua ntity in the e qu a tion is H which m a y be

de te rm ined fro m fo rm u l a (4 ) by su ccessive a pproxi m ations .

A si m ila r m ethod m a y be e m ployed to de term i ne the a m ou nt

which the wate r su rf a c e in a s trea m will be r aised by a su b
me rg ed wei r oi a give n h eight (See di s.c u ss ion p a ge
Fall s

A ca nal or chu te m a y te rm ina te a b ru ptly in s u ch a manne r

as to allow the w a t er to f a ll f reely

over its e nd withou t any red u ction

of its se ction A longi tu di na l se c
.

tio n o f a f all is shown in A Fig 5 9 ,

. .

The c a na l m ay be of a ny c ross
sec tio n ,
the m o re co m m o n fo rms
b ei ng re cta ngu la r o r trap ezoidal,
as s how n in B a nd C Fi g 5 9 ,
. .

The re a re no e xp eri m e nt a l d ata F ro 5 9 — Fa ll . . .

f o r d e te r m ini ng the dis ch a rg e co r

r es po n ndi g to a giv en h e a d H bu t a
,
n a p p roxi m,
a t e s ol u tio n
142 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

may be obtai ne d by c onsidering the fall a wei r whose height

e q u als z e ro In this c ase d in fo rmu la (7 ) (p age 7 2 ) b eco mes
.

e qu al to H and the fo rmu l a f or a f a ll at the end of a ch a nnel of

recta ngu la r cr oss sectio n may be written

-

Q 5 2 1 LH
.
1 ~‘7
(5 )
By assu min g tha t the efiects of co ntraction on the po r tion of
the ch annel a bov e the slo ping sid es will be si mil ar to th a t on the
rest of the ch annel the fo rmula f or f a ll s of t rape zoidal c ro s s
,

s e ctio n b e co mes a pp roxi m a t ely

,

Q 5 21H
.
1
(L 08zH )
.
(6 )
b
b eing the slopes of the sides of the ch annel I
n formul as
H
.

(5) a nd (6) H should be m eas ured at le ast 3H , and u su a lly no t

m ore tha n 1 6 feet above the c rest of the f a ll
, .

The sol u tion of the above fo r mulas will be sim pli fied by the
u se of T abl e 32 p a ge 93 ,
.

Notch Fall s or Drops — I

n cons t ru cting ca na l syst e ms it is
.

frequ ently requi red to d rop the wa ter of a canal to a lower

eleva tion and at the sa me ti me m ainta in a c e rt a in sp e ci fied

F
.
L
l

Fro . 60— Notch f a ll

. or drop .

depth above the drop This may be done by b uilding a b ulk .

head across the ca nal whi ch conta ins a no tch flush with the
,

bo tto m of the cana l Fig 60 re presents su c h a structu re A

. .
,

being a c ross section and B a longitudina l section The b u lk

-
.

hea d ac ross the c anal sectio n a bcd co nta ins the notch af gh .

L is the width of opening at the botto m of the notc h a nd H is

the d epth of wa te r in the canal above the st ru ctu re A and .

a re present resp ectiv ely the c ross se ctio na l a re as of the ch a nne l -

and notch .The followi ng formu las are b ased u po n a s tu dy

of the b est available data but they lack direct experimenta l
ve ri fic a tion .
14 4 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E 43,
— VAL U E S or C IN TH E FO RM U L A, Q CL H ” r oR

M O DE LS or B RO AD CRE STE D WE IRS

-
W ITH
RO U NDE D U PSTRE AM
CO RNE R

TAB L E — VAL U E S C IN FO RM U L A, CL H ’6
44 . or TH E Q
FOR BRO AD CRE STE D
-
WE IRS W ITH CRE STS I
N
C L INE D SL IGH TL Y DO W NW ARD

T ABL E 45 —
VAL U E S or C IN THE F O RM U L A Q
. CL H ” FO R

WE IRS o r TRIANGU L AR CRO SS S E CTIO N W ITH VE RTICAL

-

U P STRE AM F ACE AND SLO PING DO W NST RE AM

F ACE
 WE I RS NOT SH ARP C RE STE D
-
14 5

T ABL E 46 — VAL UE S C IN THE FO RM U L A CL H ”

. or Q
BE IN G TH E M E AN AND E XTE NSIO N OF EX P E RIM E NTAL RE
S U L TS, O N WE IRS O F TRIANGU L AR CRoss -
SE CTION WI
TH

VE RTICAL U PSTRE AM F ACE AND SL O P IN G DOW N

STRE AM FACE TH rs T ABL E SH O U L D BE
.

USE D ONL Y FO R H E ADS ABOV E FOOT

TABLE 47 — VAL U E S C IN FO RM U L A CL H “
. OF TH E Q FOR

WE IRS OF TRIAN O U L AR C RO SS -
SE CTION W ITH BOTH
FACE S I NCLINE D FO R H E ADS ABOVE
. FE E T
U SE TH E V AL U E O F C GI
VE N FOR A H E AD
or FE E T
14 6 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E —
VAL U E 8 OF C IN THE FORM U L A Q CL H ” FO R

WE IRS OF TRAP E zO IDAL CRO SS -

SE CTI
ON WI
TH B OTH
FACE S I NCL INE D T HIS T ABL E I NDICATE S
.

TH AT VAL U E S O F C I NCRE ASE

SL IGH TL Y FO R H E ADS

TABL E — VAL U E S C IN FO RM UL A
OF THE Q FO R

WE IRS OF TRAP E zO IDAL CROSS -

SE CTION

WITH B OTH FACE S

I NCL INE D

1 Se e als o Ta ble 4 9.

2
See also Ta ble 4 8
148 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 53.
— V AL U E S C IN TH E FO RM U L A Q
OF CL H i é
F RO M

E X PE RIM E NTS AT CO RNE L L U NIV E RSITY O N M O DE LS

RE SE M BL IN G E XISTIN G DAM S (EX CE PT TH AT
T HE L AST TW O E X PE RI M E NTS WE RE

M ADE O N ACT U AL DAM S)

 CH APT E R VI

FL OW O F WATE R TH RO UGH PI PE S

—
Fundamental Principl es Fig 61 represents a p ip e line f ed
.

by a reservoir in which the wa te r su rf a c e is m a intained a t a

t
co ns a nt e e l va tion . The di sch arge f ro m the ou tl et P will be

FIG . 61 .

cons ta nt af ter a conditio n of e qu ilib rium has been es tablished .

It is evident th a t the same qu a ntity of wa te r is th en p assing

a ny se ctio n of the pip e If v; and v2 be mean veloci ties a t
.

a ny two se ctio ns M a nd N a nd A; and A2 the respe ctive areas

,

of sections this rela tio n is e xpressed by the equ a tio ns

,

Q Ann

?
“

I!
and v2
3
2

Be rno u lli theo rem is the b asis of all formu l as for determ in
’
s

ing the flow of wa ter thro ugh pip es It as su mes the idea l con.

di tio ns of s t rea m line m otio n a nd no frictio n losses Ref erring .

to Fig 6 1 Bernoulli s th eo rem m ay be e xp ressed by the f ollow

.
’

'
ing equa tio n which re la tio n holds f or any sections of the pip e .

2
01
HT hl
2g 2g

I
n the pplic a tio n of Bernou lli s theo rem to p ractic a l p rob
a
’

l ems a llowanc e m u st be m ade for f riction losses The inner

, .

surf ac e of a pipe a l way s re sis ts the movement of w a te r whi ch ,

1 49
 1 50 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I CS

t c inc reases with the roughness of the m a te ria l of whi ch

re sis a n e

the pipe is const ru cted Obstructions in pipes su ch as va lves

.
,

bends and contractions or enlargements c ause an addi tiona l

,

resista nc e to flow This resis tance has the efiect of redu cing
.

the e fiective hea d a nd su ch lo sses of hea d are comm only spok en

of as frictio n losses .

Berno ulli s theo rem may be correc ted to incl ud e fric tion
’

losses Co nsid ering M and N any two sections of a pipe

.
,

Fig 6 1 if H re p resents the losses due to all c auses b etwee n

.
, a

these sections the e qu ation may be written

,

? 2
v1 02
Z 2 1 Ha
W
“ ”

29

I
f H re p resents l v a tio n betwee n the wa te r
the difiere nce in e e

s u rf a c e in the r e se r voir a nd the o u tle t e nd of the pip e and ,

v the v elo city with which the w a te r lea v es the pip e B e rnou lli s
’

e qu a tio n f o r all losses in the pip e re du c es to

”
v

I
n other wo rds, the tota l hea d qua l to the sum of the los t is e

hea ds and the veloci ty hea d at the point of discharge .

It is now necessa ry to analy ze separately the various f a cto rs

ente ring i nto the te rm H The f ollowing nota tion W ill be use d :
a .

LO SS he a d a t entra nce to pipe

of .

To ta l loss of h e a d du e to fric tion b etwee n wa ter a nd

pipe .

Lo ss of h e a d du e to enl a rge m e nts of pip e .

Lo ss of he a d du e to co nt ra ctions of pipe .

Loss of he a d due to va lves .

Loss of h e ad due to b e nds in pipe .

The co m pl ete e qu a tion f or h ea d lost in a pipe m a y be writte n

Ha (6 )
a nd the e qua tio n f or to ta l hea d is
2 .

H =
(7 )
I
n the bove e qua tion 1) is the velocity a t which the wa ter
a

l eaves the pip e o r if the pip e is Of u nifo rm dia mete r th rou gh

,

o u t it is a lso the ent ranc e v elocity I n lo ng pip es th a t is .

,

p p s h aving a length of 500 di amete rs or m o re H 1 is by f ar

i e ,

he most impo rtant considera tion Fre quently with very lo ng

t
.
 1 52 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I
CS

o
c rne rs andit app roa ch es zero f or a bell m ou th entrance The -
.

ma ximum value of Ko occurs f or an inward proj e cti ng entrance

(p a g e T he fo llo w ing m a y b e t a k en as m ea n v a l u es of
C with corresponding valu es of Ko:

For inward proj e cting entrance , C K0

For sh a rp co rnered ent ranc e
-
C Ko
For slightly o d d entrance
r un e C Ko
For b ell mou th ent ranc e
-
C Ko
Foronveni e nce of reference the above va lues of K0 a re re
c

pea ted in Table 55 pa ge 1 7 1 Table 54 p a ge 1 7 0 gives

, .
, ,

va lu es of lost hea d a t ent rance to pipes co rrespo nding to

velocities of fro m 2 to 30 feet p e r second

Loss of H e ad Du e to Friction

By f ar the most im por tant cons id eratio n in connection with

the flow of w a t er in pip es is the d et e rm ina tio n of the p rop er
a llowa nc e f or f rictio n b etwee n the m ov ing wa t e r a nd the inne r

su rfa c e of the pipe I n the c ase of lo ng pip es this lo ss m a y so

.
,

f ar ex cee d the com bined e ff ect of all other losses as to mak e

the co nsid er ation of the la tter unnec ess a ry All losses Should
.

be inves tiga te d howev er a nd espe c ia lly those due to poo r

, ,

a lignm ent e i the r ho ri z o nt ally or vertic a lly (see loss of h ead du e

to bends p age ,

An inves tiga tion of the loss of h ea d du e to friction in p ip e s

m ust necessarily be b ased u pon e xp e ri mental r ather tha n
theore tic al co nsidera tions A la rge nu m b er of e xperim ents on
.

difle rent kinds of pip e have b ee n p erfo rm e d du ring the p as t

c entu ry t he r esul ts of whic h a re now a v a il a bl e in a m o re o r
,

l ess sa tisf acto ry form It is u nfort u na te th a t th ese e xp erime nts

.

p rese nt m any app are nt inco nsistenci es .

The fa c t th a t the e xisting e xp er i m ent a l d a t a ; whi ch h a ve

bee n ta ken with grea t ca re a nd u su a lly u nder fa vo rable condi
tions gi ve conflicting resu lts em ph asiz es t he f a ct th a t the
,

e ngineer in p ra ctic e is a p t to get resu l ts e qu a lly co nflicting

a nd diffic u lt to e xpl a in .

The one thing tha t the e ngineer shou ld be warned ag a i nst

is the da ng er of a cc ep ting blindly a f o r m u l a which giv es ave r age
resu l ts Wi thou t first a ssu ri ng hi m se lf th a t his co nditio ns are
,

a vera g e co nditio ns Before sele ct ing a f ormu l a f or a given

.

oble m the engine er Shou ld h a ve so m e k nowledge of the dis

“
r
 FL O W O F WATE R T H RO U GH P I PE S 1 53

c rep a ncies xperimenta l da ta on which the formula is

in the e

b ase d in o rd er tha t he m ay understand the po ssible e rro r

a tta ch e d to his result It should a lso be remem bered th at
.

d es igning a pipe too sm all to dis charge a given qua ntity of

w a te r m ay le ad to se rio us inconvenienc e if no t financi a l
loss while a pipe of Slightly la rger dia m eter which p rovides
,

the re qu ired c a p a city m ay no t add m a te ri ally to the cost .

The enginee r should theref o re know the wo rs t conditio n a s well

as t he a v er a ge and b est co ndi tio ns to be exp e cte d in solv ing

a ll pipe p r obl e ms .

It has bee n quite genera lly ac cep ted th at the loss of hea d due
to f r ictio n in a s traight pipe of u nif o rm dia m e te r f ree f r o m ob ,

s tr u ctio ns v a ri es wi th the rou ghness of the inner su rfa ce of the

,

pip e di re ctly as the l ength of the pipe and as so me power O f

, ,

t he dia me ter and ve locity bf wa ter .

T he fo rm u l a which u ntil the last f e w ye a rs has b e en u sed

, ,

a l m os t e xclu sive ly is the Ch e z y f o rm u l a usu a lly w ritt en f or,

p Ip es m the f o rm
,

H1 =
f

H 1 b e ing the f rictio n he ad , Ithe le ngth Of pip e a nd d the di

a m e te r of pip e , a ll e xp resse d in f ee t ; I
) is the v e l o city of wa te r

in f ee t p er se cond , a nd f is a n em pi ric a l co e fficie nt whi ch v a r ie s

wi th theghness of the pip e a nd a lso wi th v a nd d
rou .

The ide a l f orm u l a wou ld e vide n tly e xp ress H 1 as a functio n

o f Z d a nd v with a coe fli cie nt d e p ending f o r its va l ue sole ly on
,

the d e gr ee of ro u gh ness of the pip e This co e fficie nt Shou ld

.

th e n be constant f or all pip es constru cted o f the sa m e m a te ria l .

M any a tte m pts to devis e su ch a f orm ul a h a ve b ee n m a d e bu t ,

wi th indifiere nt su cc ess M ost of the m ore re cent investiga tions

.

h ave b ee n base d upo n the SO calle d e xponential formula written

-

in the form

K b e ing the which va ries with the rou gh ne ss of the

coe fi cie nt

pip e and m and 11 b eing constant e xp o nents

. .

It m a y rea dily be seen by loga rithm ica lly pl otting exp erimenta l
res ults f or di ff e re nt pip es th a t m is no t a co nst ant bu t a pp a r ,

e ntly i nc reas es with the de gre e of roughness of t he pip e ,

being as low as f or very sm oo th pipe s a nd as high as

in c ases of e xt re m e ro u ghness A va lue of . for It app ea rs
1 54 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

to qu ite satisfa ctorily all exp erim&tal results

fit and this v alu e
has been qu i te generally a c cepte d .

Common Formulas f or Friction Loss in Pipe s

Before p roc eeding with the discussion of this su bj e ct the

mo re co mmo nly used fo rmulas for loss of h ea d due to f rictio n
in pip es a re h ere introdu ced The follo wing no mencl a tu re will .

be u sed :

I Le ngth of pipe in fee t .

H1 Loss of head due to friction in length l in feet .

Hj Lo ss of hea d due to fric tio n in 1 000feet of pip e .

d Dia mete r of pipe in feet .

v M ean velocity of wa ter in fee t p er se co nd .

r M ean hydraulic r adi u s

2
s M ean slope of hydraulic gra dient in distanc e co ns id

l
e re d " ‘ ’

I
j K1 K K E mpi ric a l co e fficients
'
, , , , a nd c .

m, a nd n E mpi rical e xpo nents .

The Che zy f ormula

I0 ’

HI j 32
9

which has been ex tens ive ly used f or cast iro n pipes is being -
,

repl a c ed by oth e r fo rmu las : f va ri es with both v and d Fan .

ning s values of f f or st raight sm ooth pip es which h a v e b een

’
,

co mmonly use d are given in Table 56 p age 1 7 1 As o riginally

, , .

p ublish ed Fanning s coe fficients a re one fou rth of the V a lues

’
-

given in Table 56 since he uses r in pla ce of d in the above

f o rmula I n this fo rm Fanni ng s f o rm ula wi th the a c co m p any
.
’
,

ing ta ble of co ef ficients is inte nded to a pply to sm ooth open ,

cha nnels as well as pipes Several fo rmu la s f or d etermining j .

,

which is expressed as a function of v or d h ave b een used in ,

the p as t Amo ng these m a y be mentio ned the fo rmu las of

.

D Aubisson Weisb a ch a nd Darcy La te r inv es tig atio ns have

’
, .

shown howev er th a t sinc e f va ri es wi th both 0 a nd d the Chezy

, ,

f o rmula ca n b est be u se d in conne ction with a ta ble

'

The W illiam s and Ha z en formula exp ressed in the no men ,

clature gi ven above is ,

 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

M Scobe y Formula s for

oritz and W ood Sta ve Pipe s .

M o ritz in 1 91 1 publishe d the resu lts

1
i nvestiga tio n of of an

wood stave pip e b as e d u po n a study of e xp eri m e nts by hi m self

a nd oth er exp e rim e nts a v a il a bl e a t tha t tim e This investi .

ga tion incl ud e d e xp eri ments on pip es of di a m e te rs v a rying

fro m 4 to 55 % inches M o ritz derived f o rmulas for loss of .

hea d v elocity a nd discha rge which are giv e n below

, , .

Scob ey in 1 91 6 p ublish ed the resu lts of a v ery tho rou gh in

2

v estigatio n on wood s ta ve pip e Scob e y off ered a new set of .

f o rm ulas b as e d upo n all e xpe ri me nts on ro und stave pip e

k nown to him fro m desc ription in engi nee ring liter a tu re a nd ,
”

s uppl e m e nte d by a n e x te nsiv e se t of e xp eri m e nt s in which he

was a ide d by E r ne st C Fo rt ie r Scob e y s f o rmula which is

’
. .

given b elow repre se nts with in an erro r of as of 1 p e r cent the .

m e a n of all the e xp eri m e nts the m a xim u m div ergenc e f o r ,

individu al experi m entsb eing a bou t 30p e r c e nt plu s and mi nu s . .

The M o rit z f o rm ul as f or wood s tav e pip es are

”
I 8
H,
d ” ,

v 1 7 2d
.
o 7 -

HI ‘
M “

Q 1 35 d
.
2 7 -
H/ o sss

The Scobey f o rmu las fo r wood sta ve pipes a re

H; (1 8a )
d l l7
°

04 5“
0 1 62d
.
°
H1 ( 1 8b)
Q 1 2 7 2d
.
zs a
Hf o sss
( 1 86 )

Barnes Formula s I —
n 191 6 Ba rnes p ubli shed the resu l ts of
’ 8 .

a v ery co mp reh ensive investiga tion of the a vaila ble e xp e ri

ments friction in pipes and op en cha nnels As a res ult of
on .

this investiga tio n new fo rmu las were dev el op e d for a nu m b er of

difiere nt k inds of pip e I
n e a ch c ase the f o rm ul a f o r ne w cl ean
.

pipe is given togeth er with a p erc enta ge to be a dde d to Q to

a llow f o r d et erio ra tio n These f o rmul as are as f ollows .

E A M O RITz : Flo w o f W a te r in W ood Sta ve Pip es

1 . .
Tr a ns Ame r . .
.

Soc C iv E ng , v ol 7 4 , p 4 1 1
. . . . . .

2 FR
ED . E
C SC O B Y : T he Flo w o f W a te r i n W ood Sta ve Pip e Bulleti n .

No 3 7 6 , U S De p ar tm e nt of Agricu lt ur e
. . .
.

A . A . BARN E s ; H y d r a ulic Flo w Re vie wed , Sp o n a nd Cha m be r la in

P u blis hers .
 FL O W O F W AT E R T H RO U GH PI PE S

F o r ne w as pha lte d c a s t i ro n pip es -

. Fo r pu rposes of desig n
4 5 p e r c e nt to be a dd e d to Q to a llow
. fo r d ete rio ra tio n .

0 or H1 O OOO4 36
-

d l 45 4
,

F o r ne w un co a ted c a st iro n pipes -

. Add 55 p e r cen t to Q to
.

a llow for d ete rio ra tio n .

M . 95 3
v r
0 600
.

01
‘
HI 000034 3
-

d 1 1 72 ,

F o r new as pha lte d sc rew joint ed rivete d w rou ght i ro n pip es

- -
.

Ad d 33 p e r cent to Q to a llow f o r d e te rio ra tio n

. .

0455 7
v 3 or H1

Fo r ne w asph lt d si ngl i t d wrou ght i ro n a nd

a e e r ve e
- -
t l
s ee

pipes . Add 33 p e r c e nt to Q to a llow f o r d e t e rio ra tio n

. .

v T
o 7 23
or H1 (1 000386
d 1 37 2 .

Fo r ne w asph alted dou ble rive ted wrou ght i ron and - -
s tee l
pipe s . Add 33 p e r c e nt to Q to a llow f o r d eterio ra tio n
. .

v r °
or H1 0 8 46
d .

Fo r
‘

cle a n l ea d pipes . Add 5 p er c ent to Q to. a llO W

°
fo r
de te r io ra tio n .

v 01
‘
Hi 00004 8 6
d i l 4e .

Fo r clea n gl ass pipe s . Add 5 p e r ce n t to Q to a llow

. fo r
deteriora tio n .

O - fif "
v r or H1 ( 1 99)

Fo r ne w s m ooth wood s a t ve pipes . Add 8 p er c e nt . to Q

to a llow f o r d e te rio ra tio n .

S
M “ or H,
v

Fo r new u npl a ned wood t

s av e pip es . Add 8 p er c e nt . to Q
to a llow fo r dete rio ra tio n .

v 1 82 5r.
° or H1
1 58 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

For nea t c ement pipes . Add 6 pe r c e nt to Q to a llow

. f or
d et erio ra tio n .

M “ or H;
v 8

Form ul as Advocate d
The tho r has a dopte d the m ethod sugges ted by
au ,
F C Le a ,
. .

of selecting fo rmulas in pa i rs of the fo rm

I
K “

3;
—
(20)
E l

whi ch cover the u pp er and low er ranges of experim enta l d a ta

f o r ea ch ki nd of pipe The ge nera l fo rmula to exp res s the lo ss .

of hea d due to friction in pip es has b een tak en as

l v 2

X1 (2 1 )
; 2 17 5 2

Sinc e the e xpo nent of v ha s b een shown to v a ry f or d iff e re nt

kinds of pipe it see ms si m pl er to assu m e f o r it a co nst a nt ,

va l ue of 2 a nd to p re p a re a t able of v a lu es o f X v a ryi ng with 1

the rou ghness Of the pip e a nd v elocity of w a ter bu t no t v aryi ng

with d .

Fro m e qu a tio ns (20) a nd (2 1 ) the f ollowi ng r el a tio n b etw ee n

K; and v m ay be obta ined
K1 (22 )
The followi ng e qua tio ns are reco m m end ed by the a utho r as
e xp ress i ng a pp roxi m a t e ly the u ppe r a nd low er lim its of e xp e ri

m enta l v al u es f or the classes of pipes nam ed The first five .

eq u a tio ns which a re giv en by Le a h ave b een veri fied by a

1
,

c areful ex a m ina tion of pra ctica lly all of the a va ilabl e exp eri
m enta l da ta p erta ini ng to the su bj ect The la st two f o rmu las .

have b e en co m pu ted by the au tho r a nd are b ased u po n wha t

a re a pp a rently the m o st reli a ble a v a il a bl e d a t a
2
.

1 F C L E A : H y dra ulics . p 1 3 8
. . . .

3 C D M ARX a nd C B W I
. N G : E p er im e nts o n Flo w o f W a ter i n BF oo t
. . . x -

Steel a nd W o od Pip e Line a t O gde n. U ta h Tr a ns Am e r So c Civ E ng , . . . . . .

vols 4 0 a nd 44
. .

T A NOB . . LE : Flo w of W ate r in W ood Pi p e s . Tr a ns . Ame r So c Civ

. . .

E ng .
, vo l . 49 .

E A M . . O RIIz:
'‘
E xp erim e nts on the Flo w of W a te r in W o od Sta ve Pip e s .

Tr a ns Am er . So c Civ E ng ,
. . . . vol . 74 .

H . D . N W E ELL
: Stu die s of the C oe fli cie nt of F rictio n i n Reinf or ce d
Co ncre te Pip e E ngi neeri ng News M a y 1 , 1 9 1 3 . , .

E
FR D C SC ORE Y : The Flo w o f W a te r in W oo d Sta ve Pip e
. . Bu lleti n
No 3 7 6 . U S De p artm e nt of Agriculture
. . . .
1 60 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

The val u es of K given in Table 57 do not include all k inds

1

no r co nditio ns o f pip e The li s t of pipes giv e n howe v e r is

.
, ,

a bo u t a s e xtensiv e as the a va il a bl e e xpe rim e nt al d a ta w a rra n t .

When it is rem e m b ered tha t othe r thi ngs b eing equ a l the va lu e
, ,

of K1 d ep ends only u pon the d eg ree of rou gh ness of the pip e

it shou ld no t be di fficu lt to de cide to which class the pip e in
qu estion b elo ngs o r whi ch cl ass it m o re closely rese mbles .

The a m o u nt of a llowa nce ne ce ssa ry f o r d e te rio ra tio n m a y

be di fficu lt to de cid e The c a r rying ca pa city of wood e n a nd
.

conc rete pip es cha nges little with age There is a tendency .

f o r d e posits to for m o n the i nne r su rfa c e of i ro n a nd ste e l

pipes which resu lts both ini nc reasi ng the rou ghne ss of the
su rf a c e a nd in d e c r e asing the e fle c tiv e di a m e t e r of the pi p e
'

Su ch de po sits u su a lly t a k e the f o rm of h em i sph eres no t e xc ee d

ing 1 to 1 34 i nch es in di a m e t e r The e fle c t of d ep o si ts is m o re
'

notic ea ble o n pip es of sm a ll dia m e t e r which in e xt re m e c ase s

,

m a y be enti rely bloc k ed .

The d e t erio ra tio n of i ron a nd s tee l pipe s is g re a tly reta rd e d

by a good co a ting of bitu m en or pitch The eff ec tiveness of the.

coa ting dep end s u pon the qu ality of the m a te ri al used and the
c a re tak en to pl a c e it in smoo th even l ayers Only the u n .

co a ted po rtio ns of su ch pipes will be i nc rusted to a ny g re a t

e xtent ,
though a very m inu te hole m ay f o rm the nu cleu s of
a d e po sit .

The m ethod su ggested by Ba rnes (p a g es 1 56 to 1 58 ) of a dding

a ce rt a i n p e rc e nt a g e to Q to allow f or d e te rio ra tio n has a d

vantages I . n so m e wa ys i t wo u ld a pp e a r m o r e co nsis t ent to

a pply a co rre ctio n to the di a m e t e r o f the pip e Sinc e the e ff e ct ,

of co r ro sio n is to re d u c e the eff e ctive di a m e ter It is dou btful .

,

however W he ther the mo re co mm on m e thod of considering

,

the d e te rio ra ti on in se le c ti ng the co e fli cient is not equ a lly

sa ti sf a cto ry .

Discu s si on of Pipe Formulas

The m od e rn tendency is u ndoubtedly to e xpress f rictio n loss

in p ip es by the g enera l f o rmu la

( 0)
2

I
n this f o rm the f o r
m u la has the
dvanta ge of Si m plicity a nd
a

a t the sa m e ti m e it a pp e a rs to co nf o rm to the l a w s of flow as

indica ted by the a vailable e xperi m ents as w ell a s a ny f o rmu la

 FLO W O F WATE R T H RO UGH PI PE S

th a t has y e t b ee n su gges ted .In the la tter reg ard it u nques

tio na bly possesses a dvanta g es over the Che z y fo rmu la .

The g e ne ra l pla n of proce du re has b ee n to sel ec t the experi

m e nts f o r pip es of a ce rta in cl ass a nd by m ea ns of loga rith m ic
plotting to de te rm ine the valu es of K, m and n which bes t
re p r ese nt the m ea n of the e xpe rim e nts u se d . Su ch fo rmulas
m a nif es tly give resu lts which a t the b es t c orrespond o nly to the
m e a ns of exp erirnental v alu es In st udying a ny pa rticu la r set
.

of e x p e ri m ents it will us ua lly be fou nd tha t sev era l v alu es of

the a b ov e cons ta nts m a y be se le cte d which a ppea r to fit the

e xp e r i m e nts e q ua lly w e ll
. This f a ct a cco unts fo r the la rge
nu m b e r of pip e f o rm u la s of this typ e which h a ve b ee n p ro
m u lga ted du r ing the past f e w y ea rs E v ery investiga to r has
.

f ou nd th a t ma ny of the e xp eri m e nta l resu lts wh en plotted fa ll f a r

f r o m the m ea n positio n which m ay be e xp resse d by a ny fo rmu la .

Prob a bly the m ost su cc essf ul a tte m pt to class ify a nd co rre

la te the av ailable pipe experi m ents a nd to d edu ce fro m th em
m ea n working fo rm u las is th a t of Ba rnes (p ag e This
inv es tiga tio n ha s evidently b een co ndu cted with grea t ca re
a nd th o ro u gh ness a nd the resu lting fo rm u l as Show a r e m a rkably

close a greem ent with the g rea te r po rtio n of the e xpe ri m ents .

It do es not a ppe a r qu ite cle a r howeve r why the flow th rou gh

pipes qu i te sim ila r in cha ra cter sho uld app a rently follow wid ely
va ry ing l a ws as indica te d by the div erg ence in e xpo nents

se lec t e d .As a n e x a m pl e it m a y be noted tha t Ba rnes chooses

a n ex po nent f o r d o f f o r si ngle riv e ted pipes a nd de cid es
-

tha t the addition of another ro w of rivets changes the va lu e

of this exp o nent to
The wid e dive rge nc e in e xp eri m e nta l resu lts c a nnot be e x
pla ined on the grounds of expe rim enta l e rror E xperiments .

which h ave been per for m e d with grea t ca re and und er f avo rable
co nditio ns frequ ently fa ll f a r f ro m the m e an valu es de t er m ine d

f rom other exp e rim e nts . It th erefo re a ppears th a t th ere is

danger in defini t ely a cce pting any fo rm u l a or grou p of fo rmulas
designed to give m ean v alu es In u sing the fo rmu l as express
.

ing the a pp roxim a te u ppe r and low er ra nge s of exp e rim ental
val ues or the genera l fo rm u l a (fo rmul a
,
with v alu es of X 1
dete rm ined fro m these formu las the engineer ca n rea dily see
,

the li miting results whi ch ha ve be e n obta i ne d a nd use his dis

cretion in se le cting wha t a ppe a rs to be the m ost re asonable
or safes t v al ue b as ing his de cis io n on the pa rtic ula r co nditions
,

involved in the p roblem .

11
1 62 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I CS

Tho u gh a list of mea n values of KI is incl uded in Ta ble 5 7

the au tho r is oppo sed to u si ng th em indisc ri m ina te ly The .

e ngi nee r sho u ld by a c a ref ul s tu dy of co nditio ns a nd a knowl

,

edge of the ki nd of pip e to be u sed a nd cl a ss of wo rkm a ns hip

to be insisted u pon be able to esti ma te a coe ffici ent f or e a ch

,

i ndividu al case .

Solution of Pipe Formulas

Fo rm u l a (2 1 ) (pa ge cient for the solutio n of a ny

1 58) is su ffi

pipe p roblem involving only the loss of h ead due to frictio n .

For co nv eni enc e this fo rm ul a is h e re repea ted the nomencl a ,

tu re b eing th at given on pa ge 1 54 .

l v 2

K1 (2 1 )
29
The length of pipe o r length co rrespo nd ing to a given loss of
,

hea d is , a lwa ys giv e n Th ere a re three genera l types of

.

p roblem s
1 To d e te rm ine the f riction h e a d ; the dia m e t er o f pip e a nd
.

velocity o r disch a rge be ing given .

Soluti on — H 1 m ay be obt a ine d dire c tlv f ro m fo rm u l a

with the assistanc e of the tables K 13 gi ven In Ta bl e 5 7 .
, ,

1
pa ge 1 72 Valu es of “
m a y be tak en fr om the se cond
d l
.
-

colu m n of Table 60, p a ge 1 7 5, or Ta ble 61 , p a ge 1 78

. Valu es
2

%l (
a re given in Tabl es 19 a nd 20, p a ge s 51 a nd 53 . If
p ref erred the head lost in 1 000 f eet of pipe 1 f oot in dia me te r
,

m ay be ta ken fro m Tabl e 5 9 pa ge 1 74 a nd Ta bles 60 and 6 1 , ,

m ay be u sed to red u c e this loss of h ea d to any oth er dia m ete r .

Fo r a ny oth er le ngth o f pipe m u ltiply the a bov e result by the

l ength in f ee t divid ed by 1 000 .

2 To d e te rm i ne the disch a rge o r v elocity ; the dia m e ter a nd

‘

friction h e a d b eing given .

Solu i on
t — Form u l a (2 1 ) m a y be u se d by first assu m ing a
velocity and choosing a v alu e of K1 co rrespondi ng to the ,

1
a ssu med v elocity f ro m Tabl e 57 , b e i ng t a k en fro m Tabl e
,
d 1 2°
~

60or 61 as befo re After solving . v a new v alu e of K1 m ay for

be se l e cte d from Ta ble 5 7 , and v m a y be de term ined a ga in in
If the se co nd v a lue of v diflers g rea tly from
'

the sa me m a nner .

the firstv alue the e qu a tion m ay be solved

,
a third time though .

wo solu tions a re u su a lly su ffici ent .

1 64 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

K? 1
2

the valu e of d correspondi ng to the value of

}
1
given in

colu mn 5 . Ine corres po nding cross -

se ctiona l a rea of the pipe
q
is given in colum n 4 . Fro m the re a l tio n v
z the ap p ro xi

m a te velocity m ay be d ete rmined a nd a new va lue of X 1 m a y

be selec ted from Tabl e 5 7 A new valu e of of m ay now be
. .

com puted in the sa m e ma nne r as b e fo re .

The a bove p roc ess s hould be re pe a ted until the co m pu te d

val ue of d does no t di ff er su fficie ntly from the ass u me d d to
a ff e ct a pp re cia bly the val u e of K Usu a lly two solu tio ns a re
1.

su ffici ent .

Oth er L o ss e s in Pipe s
I n the co m pl ete solu tion of a pipe probl em it m ay be neces ,

sa ry to cons id e r the v elocity h ea d a nd losses of h ea d othe r th a n

H 1 the loss du e to f rictio n

,
As a l rea dy se t fo rth (pa ges 1 50
.
,

a nd 1 51 ) the tota l hea d is rep rese nted by the e ua tio n

q
H

whi c h m a y also be written

H + K. 2 11
+ K. +
’
t + K.
'
(8)
2g 2g d u ll
29 29 2g 2g 29 .

$
I
n the a bove fo rmula s 23 ,
H o, H I, H 2, etc .
, a nd K K1 K, , ,

K3 , va ry with the velocity Problem s in whi ch the veloc

etc . .

ity a nd dia m eter and l e ngth of pipe a re given to de te rm ine the

total h ea d H m a y be solved di rectly from f o rm u la s (7 and
, ,

Other p roblem s in which v is u nknown m u st be solve d by a

, ,

m e thod of a pp roxim a tions Sinc e the loss f ro m f riction H 1

.
, ,

in nea rly all c ase s grea tly e xc e eds all othe r losses it is usu al to ,

m a k e a firs t solu tion of the p robl e m by ne gle cting all losses

e xc ept H 1 a nd thu s obt ain an a pp r oxi m a t e v a l u e of v to be
,

us e d in f o r m ulas (7 ) o r Su cc e ssi ve s ol u ti o ns should be

m a de until the com pu te d valu e of v doe s not di fle r su flic iently
'

fro m the v u sed in the sol ution to a pp recia bly a ff ect the hea d
losses or the values of the coe flicients u sed .
 FLO W O F W ATE R T H RO UGH PI PE S 1 65

T he m e th od btaining K0 a nd K1 have a l rea dy been ex

of o

p la ine d toge the r with the u se of ta bl e s of v alu es of the se

,

coe ffic ie nts The dete rmina tion of va lues of K K3 K4 and K5

.
,

will no w be tak en u p in o rde r .

Lo s s of H e ad Du e to Su dde n
Gra dual E nlar ge me nts and
Bo rda has investiga te d this m atter theo re tic ally a nd fou nd that
.

the l o ss in pipes due to sudden enlar gement m a y be rep re sente d

by the fo rm ula

in w hi ch H 3 is the lost hea d and v1 a nd v, the velocities in the

s m alle r a nd l a rger pipes resp ec tiv ely .

T is lo
h ss h a s a l been investiga ted experimentally by Bae r
so l
,

Brightm ore ’
Arche r and others These e xpe rim e nts a re
3
, .

f a i rly conco rda nt a nd show tha t Borda s theo re tic al fo rm u l a

’

gives values of H 2 too sm a ll f or the lower velocities a nd sm aller

diff e re nc es in dia meter of the two pipes and too l a rge f o r the
op po site conditions M any com bina tions of pipes were used .
,

in t he e xpe riments be tween the a pp roxim a te lim its of inches

,

a nd 6 i nch es in dia m e ter The m a xi mu m velocity in the sm alle r .

pipe in any of the experiments was abou t 30 f eet per second .

As a result of his expe rim ent s Arche r dedu ced the form ul a ,

IeIe
”I ) .

1 9“

2a
(v1 v3 ) -

This fo rm ula a ppea rs to be as satisfa cto ry as any yet su g

gested It does not hold in the lim it when the a rea of the
.

l a rger pipe b ecom es infinite a nd the to tal velocity h ea d is ,

evidently lost I n su ch c ases the fo rmula gives valu es of H 2

.

I
sl ightly grea ter than 5 f or velocitie s below 3 feet pe r se cond ,
;
from which point it g ra du ally de c re a ses with the velocity to ,
2

a bou t 80 p e r c ent of .

29
—
fo r a velocity of 4 0fe et p e r se cond .

Table 62 p a ge 1 8 1 giv es val u e s of H z f or velocities u p to

, ,

40fee t pe r se co nd with the ra tio of the dia m e t e r of the la rger

pipe to the dia m e te r of the sm all er pipe va rying from to
infini ty This ta bl e was com pu te d by fo rmula (26) f or ratios
.

1 Di ngler ’
s Jou r na l, M a r ch 2 3 , 1 907 .

3 Proc . Inst Civ E ng , vol 1 69 p 3 23

. of . . .
, . .

3 W H . . E
ARC H R : L os s o f H ea d Du e to E nlarge m e nts in Pip es . Tm .

Amer Soc . . . .
—
Civ E ng , vol 7 6 , p p 999 1 026 . . .
1 66 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

of 3l ess a nd f or ra tios from 4 to infinity the values given

or , ,

we re inte rpola ted g ra phic ally b etwee n valu es f rom fo rm ul a (26)

fo r ratio 3 a nd the to ta l velocity he ad f or ra tio infini ty Table .

63 p a ge 1 8 1 gives a co rrespo nding t abl e of K3 f or use in the

, ,

f o rm ul a
2
”
K
B;
L oss es due to gradual h ave been investiga ted by enlargement

Pa rk e r from a stu dy of exp eri ments by Andres Gib so n a nd

1
,

others The fo rmul a su ggested by Andres f or a conic al en

.

la rgement m ay be w ritten :
2
”
B. e
f

in which velocities insmaller and l arger pipes re

v1 and v; are
spe ctively and f is a n e m pi ric al coe fli cie nt de pe nding f o r its

valu e u pon the angle 0 b etw een the sides of the pipe ( 0
doubl e the a ngl e between the a xis of the pipe and its side ) .

Andres gives valu es o f f f or sm all e r va lu es of 0 a nd Gib so n

f or valu es u p to Th eir results a re not enti rely consis tent ,

bu t the a u tho r has used them to plot a m ean curve giving the
resu lts Of And res m o re weight f or the sm all er angl es The .

f ollowing a re results obta ined in this m anner :

10
° ° ° ° °
12
° ° °
2 11
° ° °
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
f . 033 . 036 039 04 2 04 6 050 05 5 066 07 8 090 1 00
. . . . . . . . .

20 30 40 50 60 90
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° °
75
°
0 15 25 35 45
f . 16 . 31 . 4 0y . 49 . 55 . 60 . 64 . 67 . 72 . 72 . 67

Using the bove val u es

a of f T a
,
bl e 64 , pa g e 1 82 , whic h give s
K2 in the f o rm u l a

has been p rep ared v is the ve locity in the smalle r pipe It

. .

will not be p ractic abl e to give a ta bl e of val u es of H 2 for gradu al ,

e nla rg e m ent a s H e in thi s c a se v a ri es with th ree f u nctio ns

,

the a ngl e of the cone the ra tio of di am eter of two pipes and , ,

the v elocity .

Loss of H e a d Du e to Contra ctio ns — M e rrim an suggests the

z
.

1 P um p A . M o nm m n : The Co ntrol o f W ater . pp . 9 —

7 6 800 .

2
M AN S IELD
F M E RRIM AN : Tr e a tis e on H y dr a ulics . p . 1 83 .
 1 68 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

“
Parker has c orrela ted experiments by Sm ith ,Ku ichling and
Weisb ach, the results of which a re fa i rly concordant The .

au tho r ha s plotte d all of these e xperiments gra phic ally a nd

dra wn a m ea n c u rve throu gh them Valu es of K4 taken from .

this cu rve, f or difierent ratios of area of pipe to a re a a t obstruc

tion, a re given in Tabl e 68, page 1 84 Tabl e 67 , pa ge 1 84 , .

gives co rres ponding values of lost head , H I, f or diff e re nt

vel ocities .

Lo s s of H e ad
'

Du e — The loss
of hea d due to be nds
to Bends .

in pipes is co nside re d as the exc ess loss ove r W ha t would occ u r

in a stra ight pipe of the sa m e m a te ria l a nd e qu a l l ength It is .

probabl e tha t the rou ghness of the pipe has som e e fiect u pon
this l oss of hea d bu t p resent d ata a re not su fficient to Show to
wha t e xte nt this is the c ase It is us ual to co nsider the loss .

due to b ends f or a ll k inds of pipes to be a functio n of the veloc ,

ity and ra diu s of the be nd .

M os t investiga to rs ha ve cons idered tha t the loss of he a d

v a ri es with the r a dius of the b end e xp ress ed in pip e di a m e te rs .

In wha t a pp e a rs how eve r to be a ve ry sa tisfac to ry a nalysis

, ,

of the expe rim ents bea ring on thi s subj e ct Full e r shows th a t
z
,

a close r a greem ent wit h a va ila bl e e xpe r i m e nta l d a ta m a y be

obta ined by considering the lost hea d fo r pipes of all diame te rs

to be a function of the radius of the ce nte r li ne of the pipe with
ou t re ga rd to its d i a m e t e r Full e r gives the f o rm ul a
.

H5 00
23 5
(34 )
in which H 5 is the lost hea d in f eet f o r be nds of v is the

velocity in feet p e r second a nd c is a coe fficie nt va ryi ng with

,

the ra dius of the c e nt e r li ne of the pipe Fu ll e r gives a cu rve .

of valu e s of c f o r diff erent radii u p to 60 feet f rom which the ,

f ollo wi ng t abl e was p rep a red .

1 P H I IPL A M O RL E Y PARKE R : Th Co ntrol f W a t

. e o e r, p . 787 .

W . E F U LLE R : Loss o f H e a d in Be nds

. Jou na l of . r New E ngla nd Wa ter
W or ks Associa ti on December 1 91 3
, . .
 FLO W O F WATE R T H RO U GH P I PE S 1 69

Ta ble 69, pa ge bends for dif

185 , giving loss of hea d in 90
°

f e re nt ra dii and ve locities, was com pu t ed fro m

fo rmula (34 )
us ing v a l ues of c conta ined in the a bove ta bl e Tabl e 7 0 p age .
,

1 86 gi ves co rresponding valu es of KI to u se in the fo rm u l a

,
2
0
H5 K5
5
Fo r bends l ess than 90 M
°
le r gives the f l o lowing a pp ro xi

l
Fo r to
oss of head du e 45
°
bends u se th ree f ou r ths th at -
du e
to 90 b ends of the sa m e radi u s
°
.

Fo r loss of h ea d du e to 2 2 5 b ends u se h al f that du e to

°
o ne -

90 be nd s of the sa m e r a dius
°
.

Fo r loss of h ead du e to a Y b ranch ,

use th ree fou rths th a t du e to a tee (z e ro

-

C
. It a ppea rs from Ta bl es 69 a nd 7 0th at
a m inim u m lo ss of hea d occu rs f or radii
of f r o m 4 to 7 fee t . I
n designi ng a pipe
line , howe ver it m ay be fou nd th at the
,

tota l lo ss of h ea d in the pip e line b etwee n F m 62 , .

two giv en poi nts will be l ess by u sing a

cu r ve of g re ate r ra di us du e to sho rte ni ng the l ength of the pip e .

This m ay be see n f rom Fig 62 Assu m ing th at the ra diu s of

. .

the be nd CD is f ro m 4 to 7 f ee t the ra diu s giving the m inim u m

,

e xc ess lo ss of he ad t he b e nd AB h a vi ng a g rea te r radiu s th an

,

CD the tota l lo ss of head in the pipe AB m ay be l ess th an the

,

to t a l l oss of hea d in the pip e ACDB b ecause of its sho r te r

le ngth .

Cri tical Ve l oci ty

U nde r the conditions dis cu sse d in the pre c eding p a ges the
flow of wate r i n pipes has b ee n co ns idered tu rbul ent a nd the ,

loss of hea d du e to f rictio n was f ou nd to v ar y as v n ranging ”

,

from abou t to This law however does not a pply to , ,

very small pipes nor ve ry low V elocities I n su ch c ases the re is .

a v elocity c all e d the cr iti ca l veloci ty below whi ch st ream line

, ,
-
.

flow e xis ts and the loss of h ea d du e to friction va r ies directly as v .

There app ear to be two points of c ritic al velocity ; the lower

c ritic al velocity b eing the velocity b elow which st ream line -

flow always e xists a nd the hi gher c ritic al velocity b eing the

V e locity a bove w hi ch tu rb ule nt flow alwa ys e xis ts Between .

the two c ritic al veloc ities the flow m ay be eit her st ream line or -

tu rbul ent .
 1 70 H ANDBOOK O F H Y DRAUL I CS

knowl edge on this subj ec t is b as ed l argely upon er p et i

Ou r
ments by Reynol ds the results of whi ch a re sum mari z e d in
1
,

the equ atio ns gi ven b elow If v is the lower c ritic al vel ocity . c ,

vs the hi gher c r itic al velocity T the tem pe ratu re of the w a te r ,

in d egree s Centigra de and d the di am eter Of the pip e in f ee t ,

d (1 00336 T
.

Table 7 1 p age 1 87 gi ves the lower c ritic al veloc ities f or

, ,

diff erent t emp era tu res a nd diam ete rs of pip es comp u te d f rom
f ormula (36) and Tabl e 7 2 p age 1 87 giv es the co rr esponding , ,

high er c ritic al velocities com pu ted from f o rm ula (37 The

va lues co nt a ine d in these tabl es m u st be co nsidered as only
ro u gh a ppr oxi m ations as the y a re b as e d u po n a lim ite d rang e

of e xper i ments and Barnes a nd Coker have produ c e d st ream

2
,

line m otion at vel ocities 50p er c ent g reater th an a re given by .

formula (37
'
If v be the velocity (b elow the c ritic al veloc ity ) in feet p er
se co nd d the diam et e r of the pipe in inch es h the frictio n h e a d
, . ,

in f ee t Ithe l ength of pipe in f ee t and T the t em p era tu re of

, ,

wate r in degrees Centig rade the velocity in a pipe where , ,

st rea m line flow exi st s is given by the followi ng fo rmul a by

-

Re ynolds :
36 1 dI h ’
00337 T 000022 1 T )
.
2
(38 )
It will be note d f rom Ta bl es 7 1 a nd 7 2 th at c ritic al velocities
occ u r b elow the velocities in which the enginee r is usu ally
i nte rested .

TABL E 54 — L oss
. OF H E AD, H o, AT E NT RANCE To PIPE S

1 P hi l Tr a ns
. . Roy a l So ciet y . 1 882 a nd 1 89 5 .

3 H . T . BARN E S and E G Co n an: The Flo w

. . of W ater thr oug h Pip es.
P r oc . Royal So ciety of L o ndon, 1 905 .
172 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS
FLO W O F WATE R T H ROU GH P I PE S 173
H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS
 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI C S

TABL E 60 (Conti nued)

ASSIST I
N SOLVING PIP E PROBLE M S . DIAM E TE R
1
FE E T W ITH CORRE SP O NDIN G VAL UE S OF
ug
d°
d
KIQ l
’

ARE AS OF CIRCL E S, AND VAL UE S OF

Hl
CORRE SP O NDING To d IN TH E FO RM U L A,
 FLO W OF WATE R T H ROU GH PI PE S 177

TABLE 60 (Cond u de d)

ASSIST IN So L VING PIPE PROBL E M S . DIAM E TE R

FE E T W ITH CO RRE SP O NDING VAL U E S or (l
o 03 6
-

KIQ ’
l
ARE AS OF CIRCL E S, AND VAL U E S OF
H1
CO RRE SPO NDING To d IN TH E F O RM U L A,
178 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 6 1
.
— To ASSIST IN SO LVING PIPE PRO BLE M S . DI
AM E TE R IN I NCH E S WITH CO RRE SPO NDING V AL U E S o r
K1 ? l3

1 w
d °
ARE AS OF CIRCLE S, AND V AL U E S O F
d H
CO RRE SPO NDING TO d IN TH E FO RM UL A,

KIQ ’
1 80 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 61 (Conc lu ded )

To ASSIST N SO LV I
I NG PIPE PRO BL E M S . DIAM E TE R I
N
1—
IN CH E S W ITH CO RRE SPO N DIN G VAL U E S OF 7 ,g
:
3
KIQ ’
l
ARE AS OF CIRCLE S, AND VAL UE S OF
H1
CO RRE SPO N DIN G To d IN TH E FO R
1
Kq
M U L A, d
HI )
 FLO W O F W ATE R T H RO U GH P I PE S 1 81

T AB L E 62.
— L OS S OF H E AD ( H z) DU E TO SU DDE N E N L ARGE M E NT

IN PIP E S RATIO OF DIAM E TE R OF L ARGE R PIP E

d:
.

TO DIAM E TE R OF SM ALLE R PIP E . v V E LO CITY IN

TABL E 63.
— V AL U E S OF K, FO R DE TE RM ININ G L OSS OF H E AD
DUE TO SU DDE N E NL ARGE M E NT IN PIP E S FRO M TH E FO R

3
2 3
i
M UL A H2 K
ég -

1
RATIO O F L ARGE R PIP E TO

SM AL L E R PIP E . v VE LO CITY IN SM AL L E R PIP E

1 82 H AND BOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 64 — . VAL UE S OF K, FO R DE TE RM INING LOS S OF H E AD

DU E
R
TO GRAD U AL E NL A GE M E NTS IN PIPES FROM TH E

—
i2
FO RM U L A H 3 Xi RATIO DIAM E TE R O P
I or
‘
o

2g
L ARGE R PIPE TO DIAM E TE R OP SM ALLE R PIPE .

ANGLE OF CO NE IS TWICE TH E ANGL E

BE TW E E N TH E AXIS O F TH E CO NE
AND ITS SIDE

TABLE 65 — L O SS
. OF H E AD (H DU E TO SUDDE N C O NTRAC

IN PIP E S RATIO DIAM E TE R L ARGE R

TIO NS .

I OP OF

PIP E TO DIAM E TE R O P SM AL LE R PIPE . v VE L O CITY

IN SM AL L E R PIPE
1 84 H ANDBOO K O F H Y D RAUL I
CS

TABL E 67 -
Lo s s or H E AD (H DU E TO VALVE S OR OBSTRU C

TIO NS IN PIPE S 7
-
RAT IO OF ARE A OF PIP E TO ARE A
11 o
.

or O P E NIN G IN OBSTRU CTIO N . v VE L O CITY OF

W AT E R IN TH E PIPE

TABLE 68 — V AL U E S O F K4 F O R DE TE RM INING LO SS O F H E AD
.

DU E TO OBSTRU CTI O NS IN PIPE S F RO M TH E F O RM U L A

1 A
K;
H4
29 If ,
TH E RATIO OF ARE A OF PIP E

TO ARE A OF OP E NING IN OBSTRU CTIO N

 FL O W OF WATE R T H ROU GH PI PE S 1 85

TABL E 69.
— LOSS OP H E AD, H IN FE E T, DUE To 90 BE N DS
°

N PIPES
I . R TH E RADIU S IN FE E T O R TH E CE NTE R LINE
OF PIPE . V VE LOCITY OF WATE R IN TH E PIPE
1 86 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI C S

T ABLE 70
.
— V AL U E S OF K5 PO R DE TE RM INING TH E LOS S OF

H E AD DU E TO 90
°
BE NDS IN PIPE S PRO M TH E FO RM U L A
2
”
K5 0 TH E VE L O CITY OF WATE R IN TH E
70
PIPE , R T HE RADIU S O F TH E CE NTE R
LINE O R TH E PIP E
 I
CH APTE R VI

FL O W OF WATE R I
N O PE N CH ANNE LS

The flow of water in Open ch annels p resents a probl em e v en

m o re co m plic ate d than the flow of wa t e r in pip es This is du e
.

to a nu m b er Of c au ses am o ng whi ch m ay be m entio ne d the

great variety in sha p e a nd si ze of open co ndu its va ria tio n in ,

m a terials of whi ch or th rou gh w hich the cha nnel s a re co nstru cte d

a nd di fficu lti e s of t a b u l a t ing e xp e ri m e nta l da t a cov e ring so wide

a range of co nditio ns Theo ry O ffers little assista nc e in this

.

connection and worki ng form u las mus t be b ased la rg e ly u pon

the resu lts of e xpe r i me nt a l investiga tio n U nfo r tu na t el y the
.

condition is still f ar ther co m plic a te d by disc rep anci es and

a pp arent i nconsiste nci es in the a v a il abl e e xp e r i m e nt a l d a ta .

F IG 63 — L o ngitu d ina l
. . se c t io n O f O p e n cha nne l.

Fig 63
. p re sents a longit udi nal se ctio n of an op en ch a nnel of
re

a ny c r o ss se ctio n
-
In g ene ral the wa te r su rfa c e will be a p p roxi
.

m a te ly p a ra ll el to the bottom Of t he channel : The w a t er sur

f ac e a t B is a di sta nc e H b elow the el ev a tion of the w a te r sur
f ac e a t A . M otio n of the wa te r is p rodu c e d by gra vity a cting
throu gh the vertic al dist a nc e H I f the re we re no resisti ng
.

f o rc es the velocity of the w a t e r would be co ntinu a lly a cceler

,

ate d the sa m e a s with f a lli ng bodies In this c ase the resisti ng

.

f o rc e is the f rictio n b etwe en the m ovi ng wa t e r a nd the w e tte d

'

'
su rf a c e of the channel H m a y be consid ered as a measu re of
.

t hi s re sist a nc e .

Formul a s f or Fl ow of Water in O pe n Channe l s — Ref e r ring .

to Fig 63 the following no m encl a tu re W ill be u se d

.
,

1 88
 FLO W OF WATE R IN O PE N CH ANNE LS 1 89

a Are a of c ross section of channel in squa re f ee t

-
.

p We tted perimete r o r l ength of wett ed bo rder of c ross

sec tion of ch annel in f ee t .

5 M e an hydra ulic ra diu s in f ee t .

I L e ng th
h of channel co nsidered in fee t
of re ac .

H Di ff e renc e in e lev a tion of wa te r su rf a c es in distanc e I .

s
g , comm only c alled the Slop e of wa t er su rf a e c .

0 M velocity Of water in f ee t p er seco nd

ea n .

Q av Tota l discharge of cha nnel in second f ee t -

.

d Dia m ete r of ci rcul a r condu its in f e e t .

n C oe fficients of rou ghness in Ku tt e r s a nd M a nning s ’ ’

fo rmul as .

m Coe fficie nt of rou ghne ss in Ba z in s f o rmul a ’

.

f Coe fficie nt of rou ghness in Bis l s fo rmu l a

’
.

t Tem p e r a tu re coe fficient in Bie l s f o rmu l a ’

.

c Coe fficient in Che z y f o rmu l a .

Co e fficient in M anning f o rm u l a
’
s .

The Cha y Formula The ea rliest fo rm ul a fo r de te rm ining

.
-

the flow of wa te r in ope n ch annels (a lso u se d f o r pipes, se e p a ge

1 54 ) was ggested by Chezy in 1 775
su . The Che z y fo rmu l a f o r
open cha nnels is u sually w ritte n
0 ( )
1

This fo rmul a is b ased u po n the a ssu m p tio n that the resista nc e

to flow H va ries di re ctly as the s qu a re of the v e loc ity v a nd
, , , ,

a rea of wett e d su rf a c e p l and i nv e rsely a s the c ro ss se c tio na l

, ,
-

a rea of the ch annel a , .

Fro m the lim ite d da t a avail abl e a t the tim e Che z y b elie ve d ,

c to be co ns t a nt f o r all ch a nnel s co nst ru ct e d of the sa m e cl ass

Of m a te r ial a nd to v a ry o nly with the d e g re e Of rou gh ne ss of

the ch an nel L ate r i nves tig ato rs h a ve co ncl u d e d th a t c is a

.

f unc tio n of r or r a nd s a s well as a co e ffic ie nt who se va lu e de

, ,

pends Upon the de gree of rou ghness of the ch annel a nd ha ve ,

develop ed f o rm u las in a ccorda nc e with this idea .

I n the f o llowing p ag e s a re given a nu m b er of ope n channe l

f orm ulas The list incl u des t he O lder fo r mu l as th a t h a v e r e
. -

ceived co mm o n ac c e pta nc e a nd so m e of the m o re re c e nt f o rm

,

ul as whic h hav e been b ased u pon l ate r com pil a tio ns of e xp e ri

,

ment al da ta .
1 90 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI
CS

The Kutter fo rmu la for dete rmin; ing

ing c in the Chez y fo rmu l a (0 Pu blished by Ganguillet
1

and Ku tte r in 1 869 is co mm o nly c a l le d the Ku tte r fo rm u l a :

,

8 77.
c =

M anning s formula , pu blished

’ 2
in 1 890, gives the followi ng
l
va u e of c in the Chezy fo rmul a :

c :

The com plete M anning

’
s fo rmul a b eing
lf ¥i
=
§ iea 8 14 = Ebei ifii

The e xp ressio n in M a nning

’
s fo rmul a was designed to
m a k e the valu es of n co rrespond to the values of Kutte r s n ’
.

Valu es of n, in Ku tter s f ormul a f or difierent types

’
,
of

ch a nnels as given by the au tho rs of the fo rmul a a re as

f ollows

3 I 0 009 fo r well pl a ne d tim be r

.
-
.

3 I f or nea t c e m e nt .

3 I f or c ement m o rta r with o ne- thi rd san d .

3
I
I
plane d ti mb e r
for un

3 I as hl ar and w e l l l a id b rickwo rk
f or -
.

3 rou gh b rickwo rk
f or
I
I
.

3 I f or rubbl e m aso nry .

3 I f or c ana ls in firm gr avel .

3 I f or c anal s a nd rive rs in good conditio n .

3 f or c ana ls a nd r ive rs with stones and wee ds .

3 f or c anals and rive rs in bad o rder .

The a bove values do not cov er the range of p rese nt p ra ctic e ,

and in m a ny c ases th ey a re not in accordance with the results

of l a te r e xp eri m e nt s A m o re c om pl e te list of valu es of n has
.

GANG UILLE T a nd Rom a : Flow of W a te r in Rivers a nd Other Cha nne ls

1 .

E N J
Tra nsla tio n by H RRI G a nd TRAUT WINE . ohn Wiley and Sons . Pu blis hers .

2 RO BE RT M ANNIN G : Flo w of W a ter in Op e n Cha nnels and Pip es

_
. Tr a ns .

Civ E ng of I
re la nd 1 890, 20
vo
l
. .
. . .
1 92 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULICS

b een prepared by Horton from an examination of the b est 1

a vaila ble e xperiments These values were designed onlv f or

.

u se in Ku tte r s fo rmul a bu t the y will a p ply equally to M anning s

’ ’

f orm ula (see discussio n p ages 1 96 to H o rto n s lis t of

’
,

coe fficie nts has the adv anta ge of giving valu es w hi ch co rrespo nd
to practic ally the entire range of e xp eriments f o r ea ch cl ass of
c ha nnel The au thor does not recommend either Ku tter s
.
’

o r M anning s fo rmu l a f or pip es but th ey are so m etimes u sed

’

f or this pur pose esp ecia lly for l arg e pip es and v alu es of n f or
, ,

diff erent clas ses of pipes m ay be valuable for reference H or .

t on s co m pl e te li st is the refo re given The coe fficients f o r

’
.

comm on cl ay drainage til e h ave b een added by the autho r .

H o rton s v alu es of n with this ad dition a re given in Tabl e 7 3

’
.

The Baz in Formula — The following fo rmula was p roposed

.

by Ba z in in 1 897 Like the Ku tter fo rmula it determ ines a

.

va lue of c in the Chez y f ormu la (0 W ) .

The follow ing values of m a re giv e n by Bazin

'
m f or sm ooth c em ent o r pl ane d wood .

m f or pl anks as hl a r and b rick , ,

.

m f o r ru bble m asonry .

m 1 54 0f or ea rth channels of very regul ar su rf ac e

. .

m f or o rdinary ea r th cha nnel s .

m f o r e xc e ptio nally rou gh channe l s enc u m b e red

with weeds a nd boulders .

The bove list does not inclu de all of the diff erent typ es of
a

channel s t hat are b eing constructe d a t the present tim e The .

valu es of m given are m o reover a verages and off er no clue to

, ,

the ra nge in va ri a tion to be e xp e cted f or a given class of chan

nels Table 7 4 shows the range in valu es of m as de term ined
.

from m easu rem ents of a l a rge nu m b er of channels I t co rre .

spo nds a pp roxi ma tely to H o rto n s ta bl e of v a lu es of n The ’

.

ra nge o f resu lts a gr ees qu ite close ly with the valu es of m as

dete rm ined from the 269 e xperim ents t abul ated by Scob ey
(see Appe ndi x B) .

ROB ERT E . N
H O RTO : Som e Be tter Ku tte r
’
s F or m u la Co effi cients .

l mest i n
g News , Fe b 24 and M a y 4 . 1 9 1 6
-
a . .
 FL O W O F WAT E R IN O PE N C H ANNE L S 1 93

T ABL E 74.
— VAL U E S OF m PO R BA e
’
S FO RM U L A

Bi el ’
s p ro p o se d in 1 907
f ormula , 1
f o r flo w in pipes a nd o pe n
c h a nnel s e xp r e sse d in E nglish u nit s
, ,
m a y be w ritte n
1 8 1 1 rs

—f _

\/ r ( 1 00!
in w hi ch f a nd t are resp ectively c oe fficie nts of rou ghness of the
c h a nne l a nd viscosity of t he wa t e r It is cl a i m ed by the au tho r
.

O f t he f o rm u la tha t it a ppli e s to the flow of oth e r liqu ids a nd

to t he flow o f g ases in pipes .

T he valu es of the coe fficient Of rou ghness a re

f 0 01 8 f or sm ooth bo a rds and w rou ght iro n pip es

.
-
.

f f o r new c ast iro n and sm ooth c e m e nt pip es

-
.

f f o r rou gh bo a rds a nd sm ooth b ric kwo rk .

f f o r sm ooth m aso nry o r b rick cha nnels .

f 0 290fo r ro u gh m aso nry .

f f or c a nals in e a rth and re gul a r strea m s .

‘ Z ci tschr if t Ver ei n deu tsche s IM ani cu r e , M itt he ilu ng e n fi ber Forsoha r

bei te n, H e f t 44 .

13
1 94 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

f f or c anals a nd rivers with stones and weeds .

f f or c ana ls and rivers in bad co ndition .

The coe fficient t v aries with the tem peratu re of the water as
f ollows
°
32 F .
,
t
40 F
°
.
,
t
50 F
°
.
,
1
60 F
°
.
,
t
70 F
°
.
, 1

A la rge nu mber of
ll ed e xponentia l or logarithmic for
so- c a

m ulas f or flow In open channels have b ee n a dvoc ated du ring t he

past f ew yea rs Of these the f ollowing are given
. .

The W illiam s and H a ze n Formula .

0 01 1
- 0 07 0 54
8
. .

205 to 1 85 f or very sm ooth channels .

1 65 to 1 5 5 f or o rdi na ry u npl a ne d pl ank .

1 55 to 1 25 f or o rdina ry se wer c roc k . .

1 5 5 to 1 20f or o rdin a ry b rick se we rs .

1 05 to 7 5 f or o rdina ry ea rth ch annel s .

7 5 to 4 5 for rou gh na tu ral cha nnel s .

Le a formula s f or open c hanne ls gi ve a va rying co e fficie nt

’
s l

and v a ryi ng e xponents f o r the di ff e rent cl asses Of ch annels as

'

f ollows
For sm ooth c hannels l ine d with c e m ent o r pl a ned bo a rds
1 7

Fo r sm ooth cha nnels lined with w l point ed b rick el -

, or conc re te
000005 to 00001 1 )
.

15

For channels lined with as hl ar m asonry o r sm a ll pebbl es

1 96
s (8c )
For channels lined with rubbl e m aso nry large pebbles rock , , , a nd

e xc eptiona lly smooth e a rth ch a nnel s f ree f rom depo sits

1 96
0
.

0
8
i s to
r

1 F C L E A : H y d r a u lics ,
. .
pp . 200—201 .
1 96 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

ock f a c ed ma sonry cha nnels in ceme nt

Fo r r -
. Add 8 p e r c e nt .

to Q to allow f or deter io ra tio n .

v 805 7 05 53 04 “
8 or 3 00001 1 1 2 (90)

Fo r ha m m e r ( 1e d ry m a so nry wate r cou rses . Add 1 0

p er c e nt to Q to allow
. fo r dete rioratio n .

2 000
0 we 0000204 1
v or s (9 h)

Fo r th c a nals in a ve rage wo rking co ndition a nd rivers f ree

ea r

f ro m vegeta tio n NO a dditio n to Q

. .

0 or 8 00002 7 4 6

Di scus si on of O pe n Channe l F ormula s

-

I
n thelight of ou r p rese nt knowle dge it wou ld be di fficu lt to
sa y th a t a ny o ne of the f o r egoi ng f o rm u l as o r se ts of f o rm ul as

poss esses m a rked a dva nt ages fro m the standpoint of a c cu ra cy .

Prob ably a ny of the f o rm u l as in exp erie nc e d h ands will giv e

reaso nably sa t isf a cto ry resu lts a nd yet no one of th e m will p rove

to be inf allibl e u nd e r a ll co nditions In a pplying these f o rm u

.

las to p ra ctic a l p robl e m s the inexp e rie nc e d m a n m a y find his

res u lts eve n m o r e disa ppoi nting .

In a ny of the f o rm ul as list e d e xc epti ng the Ba rne s f o rm u l a s

, ,

it is ne cessa ry to select a co e ffic ie nt re p resenti ng the degree of ,

rou gh ness of the c h a nnel Valu es of this coe ffic ient co rrespo nd
.

ing to the ra ng e of flu ctu a tion of e xpe rim ent al resu lt s a cc o m

p any ea ch of the formu l as From these v a lu es the c oe ffic ie nt
.

b est su ite d to the p a rtic ul a r co nditio ns m ust be sel ec te d If .

the Ba rne s f o rm u l as a re u se d the p robl e m b eco m e s o ne of sel e c t

ing t he f o r m u la co r res po ndi ng to the p r op er typ e o f ch anne l .

Si nc e th ese f o rm u l a s r ep rese nt average co nditio ns th e y do no t

i ndi cate the li m its of v a ria tion in resu lts tha t m a y be e xpec t e d
f rom the i r u s e I n the au tho r s O pi nion this f e a tu re is o bj e c ti o n
.
’

a bl e as poi nte d ou t in conne ctio n with pi p e f o r m u l a s (se e d is

cu ssion p a ge s 1 60 to
,

As a l ready sta t e d it does no t appea r th a t a ny one f o rm u l a ha s

the a dva nt a ge f ro m c o nside r a tio ns of re l a tive a c cu ra cy .
T he .

a doptio n o f a p a rtic u l a r f o r m u l a th e ref o r e b e co m es a m a tt e r of

c o nve nie nc e o r e x p e die ncy Unles s so m e a dv a nt age is to be

.

gaine d the re a pp e a rs to be no rea so n fo r di sc o nti nu i ng the u se of

0 "
Old a nd t rie d f o rm u l a fo r the a do p ti o n o f a m o re re c ent one .
 FL O W O F W AT E R IN O PE N CH ANNEL S 1 97

The xponentia l fo rmu l as have the a dvant a ge of requ i ri ng a

e

s m a ll e r ta bl e Of coe ffici e nt s th a n the olde r fo rm u l a s bu t thi s

f ac t does not sim pl if y the i r solu tion Odd e xponents withou t .

“

co rresponding ta bles of powers of nu mb ers are awkward to

h andl e .

It is im porta nt th at the engineer who deal s f requ ently with

hydrau lic probl e m s should fam iliari ze him sef with so m e p a r
t icu la r fo rm u l a a nd tha t he shou ld t hi nk in t e rm s of th a t f o r
mula in o rde r tha t a c erta in v alu e of co e fficient will ha ve a
de finite m eani ng to him I n thi s co nne ctio n it mu st be a d
.

m itte d th at the engineer will find it m o re conveni ent to h a ve f or

his s pec ia l f orm ul a the fo rm u l a which has comm o n a cc e pta nc e
in his loc ality To the a vera ge Amer ic an engineer Ku tte r s
.
’

n has a very sp ecific m e aning

”
.

The th ree f o rm ulas which ha ve rec eived general ac c ept a nc e

a re the Ku tte r f o rmu l a the Ba zin fo rmu l a and the M anni ng
, ,

fo rmula Of the three f ormu las the Ku tt er f o rmu la has bee n

.

u sed m o st e xt ensiv ely a nd al m ost e xcl u sive ly in t he U nite d

,

Sta t es . In Fra nc e the Ba z in fo rmu l a ha s to a l a rg e e xte nt

re pl a c e d the Ku tte r fo rm u l a In Au st rali a a nd I ndi a the
.

M a nning f o rm ul a has bee n e xte ns ively u se d The f u rther dis .

cu ss ion Of thi s subj ect will be lim it e d to th ese th r ee fo rm u l a s .

Compari sons of Ku tte r, M annin g , and Bazin F ormula s

The f ollow ing discu ssion will be based u pon the hypothesis
th a t e a c h of t he t h ree f orm ul as (form u l as a nd

pa g es 1 90 and 1 92 ) will giv e e qu ally good results in the hands

of e xpe r ienc e d m en a nd tha t no o ne of th e m ha s any a dv antag e
fro m the standpoint of a ccu racy It then b ecom es a qu estion .

Of d e cidi ng on the m o s t su it a ble fo rm u l a f ro m co ns id e ra tio ns of

si m pli city a nd the ad v a nta g es to be ga ine d f ro m u sing the

fo rm ula tha t has been gene ra lly a cc e pted

The Ba zin a nd Ku tter f o rm
.

u la s a re e a ch e xp re ss ions f o r de

te rm ining C i n t he Che z y f o rm u l a (0 pa ge 1 89 In .

the Ba z in fo rm u la c not be ing a f u nction of s has o ne l e ss

, ,

varia bl e t han in the Ku tte r f ormula in which it is a fu nction ,

of bo th 7 a nd s a nd a t a bl e of v alu es of 0 de rive d f rom the

,

Ba zin f o rmu l a (Tabl e 7 7 page 2 1 0) is m ore conde nse d and

,

co nvenie nt f or u se than the co rres ponding ta bl e (Ta bl e 7 6

'

pa ge 207 ) f or Ku tte r s f o rmula In this regard the Ba z i n

’
.
1 98 . H ANDBOOK O F H Y DRAUL I
CS

f o r mul a has dva ntage from the sta ndpoint of sim plicity
an a .

The obj ec tion to adopting the Ba z i n fo rmula by e nginee rs a cc us

to m e d to the Ku tter fo rm ula is tha t it will entai l the ne cess ity
of b e com ing fa m ili ar with a new set Of coe fficie nts .

The c oe fficie nt K Of the M a nning fo rm ul a va ries only with

n a nd thu s possesses a n adva nta g e ove r e ithe r of the othe r f or
m u l as The ev
. ide nt obj ection that the e xponent of 2 3 f or r
add s a co m pli c a tio n m a y be o v e rco m e by the u se of t a bles It .

will be shown later (p ages 200to 203) that with the as sistanc e . ,

of Tabl es 7 9 to 85 inclu siv e the solu tion of p roble ms by the

,

M a nning f o rm u l a m a y be m a de sim pl e r than is possibl e wit h

e ithe r the Ku tte r o r Ba z in fo rm ul as .

The Ku tter fo rmula has b ee n use d almos t e xclus ively in the

U nite d St a tes a nd Am eric a n e nginee rs have bee n accu stom e d
to thi nk of open channels in terms of Ku tte r s They ’

have f or this reason bee n relu ctant to adopt a new f ormu la

i nvolving the nec ess ity of f a miliarizing them selves with a new
se t of co e fficie nts It rem ains to be shown the ref o re tha t the
.
, ,

sa m e n u sed in Ku tt er s a nd M anning s f o rm u l as giv es p rae

’ ’

tically identic al resu lts within the lim its of ou r expe ri m ent a l
k nowledge and throu ghou t the ra nge of ordina ry applic a tion .

This will be shown to be the c ase and the a u tho r b eli eves tha t
the general ad option of the M anning f ormula as a su b s titu te ,

f or the Ku tt e r f o rm u l a will be a st ep in a dv anc e

,
.

Tabl e 7 5 p a ge 204 has bee n prep a red to Show the valu es of

, ,

the coe fficie nt of ro u ghne ss in the th ree fo rm u las which will

g iv e e q u iv al e nt r e s u lts V a l u e s of c i n t h e C he z y f o r

cm )
.
,

mu la (v betwee n the e xtrem e lim its tha t will be

,

e ncou nte re d in p ra ctic e a re Sel ect e d f o r d i ff e rent hyd rauli c

,

r a dii a nd co r re spo nding va lu es of Ku tt e r s n f or va riou s

’
,

slope s and M anni ng s n and Ba z i n s m a re giv en

’ ’
.
,

Thi s ta ble is p a rticul a rly inst ru ctive in show ing the e ff e ct

of slope on the valu e of 0 when determ ined f rom Ku tte r s ’

f o rm ula a nd the conditio ns u nde r which M a nning s a nd Ku t

’

ter s form ul as give app roxim ately the sa m e results

’
.

From a n e xa mi natio n of T able 7 5 it will be see n tha t f o r

ch annels h av ing a hydrau lic radius less tha n u nity Ku tt er s ,
’

11 whe n u se d in M anni ng s fo rm u l a gives hi ghe r v eloc iti es tha n

’

Ku tter s formu la exc e pt f or the smoother cha nnels Fo r

’
,
.

hydraulic radii from 1 to 1 0fee t the ag ree ment b etwe e n Ku tte r s

'
’

a nd M anning s fo rm u l as is ve ry close f o r all ki nds of cha nne l s

’

e
xc ept for the fla ttest slopes For hyd raulic r adii abo ve 1 0
.
200 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

invol ving 3 were omitted altogether and the f o rmul a could be ,

si m pli fie d without d et racting f rom its a cc u r a cy It c e rt a inly .

has not b een de monstra te d tha t the slop e in any wa y e fiects

the va lu e of c in the Chezy f o rm ula a nd it a ppea rs m o r e con
siste nt to u se a f ormiila of the si m ple r form in which t erm s of
,

no p articu l a r signi fic a nc e tha t a r e b as e d u pon the results of

,

u ncerta i n e xp e ri m ent al d a ta do not e xist ,

.

I n o rde r to d et erm ine the com p arativ e va l u es of the co e ffi

cie nte in Ku tte r s M anning s a nd Ba z in s formu las u nde r
’
,
’ ’

act u al wo rking conditio ns the au tho r has had the co m pu ta ,

tions in the experi m e nts liste d by Scobe y f or 269 cha nnels

1
,

e xt ende d to inclu d e M a nnin g s n a nd Ba z in s m The r e sults

’ ’
.

of this wo rk a re given in Ta ble 1 1 2 Appe ndix B It will be , .

se e n th at the a g re e m ent b etwee n M anni ng s n and Ku tte r s n

’ ’

is m ost re m a rk abl e a nd the au tho r su b m its this ta ble a s the

,

best evidenc e th at the two fo rm ulas give r es u lts a greei ng we ll

within the li m its of u nc e rta inty whi ch m u s t exist in selecting
t he p ro pe r va l u e of n f o r all wo rking co ndit ions
, .

I t will be not e d th a t Ba z in s fo rm u l a c a nnot give a val u e of

’

c grea t e r th a n u nl ess m b eco m es ne ga tive Scobe y s ex

’
.

p e riments Show a ne g a tive m in a f e w i nst a nces .

Solution of Ku tte r and Bazin Formula s —The solu tio n o f .

ea ch f o rm u l a will be si m pli fie d by the u se of ta bl es Tabl e 7 6 .

,

page 207 giv es valu es of c by the Ku tte r fo rm ul a correspo nding

,

to diff e rent val ues o f s r a nd 71 Tabl e 77 page 2 1 0 gi ve s ,

.
,

val u es of c by the Ba z i n f o rmu l a c o rr e spo ndi ng to di ff e re n t

v a l u es of r a nd m With the va lu e Of c determ ined by eithe r

.

O f th ese t abl e s the Che zy f o rm ul a

’7
= c v 1s (1 )
ma y be dily solved Ta ble 83 p age 224 conta i ning the
re a .
, ,

s q u are r oot s of de ci m al nu m be rs will assist in the op e ra tio n .

7 f o r t r a p e z oid a l se ctio ns a nd ci rc u l a r se gm e nt s m a y be Obt a i ne d

f rom Tabl es 7 9 a nd 80r espectively p ages 21 1 a nd 2 1 2 Th e re ,

.

a re t hree ge ne r a l typ e s of p r obl e m s the m e t hod s of s olvi ng ,

which a re given below 71 is given in eac h ca se . .

1 The c ross s e c tio nal dim ensio ns a nd slop e of c h a nne l a r e

.
-

given ; to obta i n 0 or Q .

Solution — Co m pu te r f ro m t he re l a t io n r
. a /p o r O bta i n

1 FR ED C SCO B
. E Y: T he Flo w of W a te r in I
rr ig a tio n C ha nne ls . Bulle t i n
No 1 94 U S De p a rt me nt
. , . . of Ag ric u lt u r e .
 FLO W O F W ATE R IN O PE N C H ANN E LS 2 01

it f r om Tabl e 7 9 or 80 . Tak e 0 r f om Ta bl e 7 5 or 76
. Solv e
f or v a nd desired Q
if Q is av .

2 The ve locity a nd dim ens ions of c ross s ection of ch annel

.
-

a re give n ; to ob ta in 3 .

Sol ion
ut — C om pu te 9 o r t a ke it f rom Ta bl e 7 9 o r 80 Ta k e
'
.

0 f r o m T able 7 5 o r 7 6 ( If Ku tte r s for m u l a is us e d a pp rox

’

im a te v a l u e of 8 m ust be as su m e d ) I
f p refer re d the Che z y .

fo rmu l a m a y be w ritten
3 :

from which 8 m a y be obta ined I f Ku tter s f o rm u la is u sed a

’
.
,

se cond solu tio n m a y be re qu i re d if the a ssu m e d 8 do e s no t

a gr ee a pp roxi m a t e ly w ith t he c o m pu t e d s .

3 The di sch ar ge a nd Slope a r e given ; to obta in di m e nsions

.

of c ross s e c tion of c ha nne l

-
.

Soluti on — The pr opo rt iona l di m ensions m u st be give n ; a s

f o r e x a m pl e the cha nnel is to be of se m i c i rcu l a r se ction flowing
t hree— f o u rths f u ll o r tra p e z oid al se ction with side slopes of
,

2 to 1 a nd botto m wi dth thre e tim es the de pth of w a te r .

Co ns ide ring the l a tte r c ase let D re p re se nt the depth of wa te r

,
.

The n f rom Tabl e 80it is see n tha t r 3D Fro m Ta bl e 7 6 .

se l e ct a v a lu e of 0 corre s po ndi ng to a n a ssu m e d va l u e of r .

9
Als o f o r this e xa m ple 1) Q a.
-
By su b stitu ti ng the Che z y
315 2

form ula w ritten in t e rm s of known qu a ntitie s a nd

m a y now be
D a nd the result ing e qu a tion m a y be solve d f o r D .

A si m il a r p roc e ss m a y be f ollowe d f o r c h a nne ls of segm e nt a l

c i rc u l a r se ctio n u s ing Tabl e 7 9 in pl a c e of T a bl e 80
,
.

Solu ti on of M anning F ormul a — The solu tion of this form ula

w ill be Sim pli fie d by the u se of t a bl es The a ppli c a tio n of .

T a bles 8 1 82 and 85 p ag es 2 1 5 222 a nd 227 is e xpl a ine d

, , , ,

b e low Ta bles 83 a nd 84 p a ge s 22 4 a nd 225 will a ssis t in

.
, ,

e v a l u a ti ng 3 34 and r % The c o e fficie nt 71 m a y be a pplie d

.

di re ctl or Tabl e 7 8 p a ge 2 1 0 m a y be u sed if desi re d For

y
, ,
.

conveni ence of ref erenc e the M anni ng f o rmul a is here re pe a te d .

0
n

The m ethod of s ol i g
v n th
the g re e e ne r a l typ oe s of han pen c
-

nel p ro ble m s is i ndic a te d be low 17 . . is giv e n in e ac h c ase .

202 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI
CS

1 . The tional dimensions and slope of c hannel are

c ow s ec
r -

given ; to obtain 0 or Q .

Sciatic a — Co m pu te r or obtain it from Tabl es 7 9 or 80 pa g es ,

2 1 1 and 21 2 From Ta bl e 8 1 pa ge 215 find the valu e of no

.
, ,

co rres pondi ng to this 7 and the give n s

‘
Divide the tabula ted .

valu e of rw by n to obtain v . I
f Q is desired Q a
as.

2 . velocity and dimensions of c ross section of channel

The -

a re given ; to obtain 8 .

—
Solution For solving pr obl em s of this type the M anning
.

formu la may be conveniently e xpressed in the form

8
(M ) ’

2 208214 6

Valu es of 2 a re given in Tabl e 82 To determine 8 .

m ultiply the ta bula ted v a lu e by (a v) 1

Approxima te values .

of 8 may be Obta ine d by interpola tion from Ta ble 81 .

3 The disc h arge and slope a re given ; to obta in di mensions of

.

c ross section of channel

-
Two gene ral c ases will be des c r ib ed
. .

Solution f or Cana ls of Tr a pezoidal Section — Referring to the

section shown in Fig 64 . .

Let b be the bottom width

of c anal and D the depth of
wa ter Also let clD 2 .

and b/D These two

F IG 64 — C a nal sec tion
. .
r a tio s m u st be giv en
.
to
com ple te the p roblem Als o .

r c D in whi ch c is the fa cto r ta k en f rom Ta bl e 80

, , , The , .

e qu a tion f or D m a y now be e xp resse d

Table 85 p age 227 gives

, , powers of nu mbers Afte r D .

has bee n de term i ned b m a y , be obta ine d from the re l a tio n

For exam ple it

is requ i red to find the bottom width of a
,

c ana l , whe re Q 300 se cond feet, s the side slo p es

-

of the ca na l a re to be 2 to 1 and the depth of wa te r in the c a na l

is to be one thi rd of the bottom width

-
71 is tak enas .

From the above da ta y 3 and z 2 From Table 8 0 .

2 04 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE ’

75 .
—CO M P ARISO N OF CO E FFICIE NTS OF RO U G H NE SS
KU TTE R S ’
, M ANNING S
’
AND BAz IN ’
S F O RM U L AS
 FL O W O F W ATE R IN O P E N CH ANNE L S 205
'

TABL E 7 5 (Continued )
C O M P ARISO N OF CO E FF ICIE NT S OF RO U GH NE SS IN KUTTE R S
’
,

M AN N IN G
’
S AN D BAzIN ’
s FO RM UL AS
206 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 7 5 ( Concluded )

CO M P ARISON OF CO E FF ICIE NTS OF RO U GH NE SS I

N KUTTE R S
’
,

M ANNING
’
S AND BAzIN ’
S FO RM U L AS
 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I C S

TABLE 7 6 (Continued )

VAL U E S OF 0 F RO M KUTTE R S
’
FO RM U L A FO R USE IN TH E

CH E zY FO RM U L A v cxffi
 FLO W O F W ATE R IN O PE N CH ANNE L S 209

TABLE 7 6 (Conclud ed)

VALUE S 0 F RO M KUTTE R S ’
FO RM U LA USE IN
‘

OF F OR THE
—
CHE zY FO RM U L A v C\ / rs

N O T E — Fo r slo p e s
.
gr e a te r t ha n . 01 c re m ai ns p ra c tica lly c o ns t a nt .
2 10 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 77.
— VAL UE S or 0 F RO M BAzIN s FORM U LA
’
FOR USE IN
THE CHE zY FO RM U L A 0 M r}

TABL E 78.
— VAL U E S OF K IN M ANNING
’
S FO RM U LA CO RRE

SF O NDING To DIFFE RE NT VAL U E S OF 11 . K

. 0325

. 037 5

. 027 5
212 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE —
80 FO R
. DE TE RM ININ G H YDRAU L IC RADIU S , r, FO R
TRAP E zo rDAL CH AN NE L S OF VARIO U S SIDE SLO P E S
dept h of w a te r
Let a: a nd c ,
botto m width of channe l b
ta bu l a te d v alu e The n r
. oz D
 FLO W O F WAT E R IN O PE N C H AN NE L S 21 3

T ABL E 8 0 (Conti nued)

FO R DE TE RM ININ G H YDRAU L IC RADIU S r , ,
FO R TRAP E zO IDAL
CH ANNE L S O F VARIO U S SIDE SL O P E S

Le t 1: t a bu l a t e d
l
va u e . The n 7
214 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E 80 (Concluded)
FO R DE TE RM ININ G H YDRAU L IC RADIU S r F O R TRAPE zO IDAL
, ,

C H ANN E L S O F VARIO U S SIDE SL O PE S

d epth of w ate r

v a lu e . Th en r
Sid eslo p es o f c ha nnel , r a ti o o f ho ri z ont a l t o ve r t i c a l

4 93 5 26

4 28 470
216 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

T ABL E 81 (Conti nu ed )
VAL U E S or as CO RRE SPO NDING To DIF F E RE N T V AL U E S OF

r AN D 8 IN M A NNING s FO RM U L A, v r i fle ”
n
To d eterm i ne 0, divide the tab ula te d valu es by n
 FLO W O F WATE R IN O PE N C H AN NE L S 21 7

T ABL E 81 ( Co nti nued )

V AL U E S O F nu CO RRE SPO NDING To DIF F E RE NT VAL U E S OF

r AND 8 IN M AN NING s F O RM U L A, v ri s”
T
To de te rm ine divide the t ab u la te d va lu es by n
 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABL E 8 1 (Conti nued)

VAL U E S or no CORRE SPO NDIN G To DIFFE RE NT VAL U E S OF

r AND 3 IN M ANNING S FO RM U L A, v r 8
u
n
To de termine 0, divide the tabu l a ted valu es by n

r hy dr a u lic ra di u s in f ee t

. 001 1

. 03 1 6

. 0025

. 007 5
22 0 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABL E 81 (Continu ed )
V AL U E S OF nv CORRE S P O N DING To DIF F E RE NT V AL U E S OF

r AND 3 IN M ANNIN G
’
S FO RM U L A, 0 r ’i s
”

To de term ine 0, div ide the t a b u l a te d l

va ue s by n

r hy d ra u lic ra d i us i n f ee t

00055

4 062 4 1 33
 FL O W O F W AT E R IN O PE N C H ANNE L S 22 1

T ABL E 81 ( Conc lu ded )

V AL U E S or no C O RRE S PO N DIN G To DIF FE RE NT V AL U E S OF

1
r AN D 8 IN M ANNING
’
S F O RM U L A, v r
3 s
‘
6
n
To de te rm i ne 0, divide t he t a bul ate d l
va u e s by n
222 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

1
TABLE 82 — V ALU E S OF CO RRE SP O NDING TO DIF
2 2082 7 95
.

F E RE NT VAL U E S or r, FO R DE TE RM INING TH E SL O PE OF

OP E N C H ANNE L S BY M ANNING
’
S F O RM U L A

To determ ine 8, m ultiply the ta bu la ted l

va u e co rrespond
ing to r by (no) 2
224 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABL E 83.
— SOU ARE RO O TS OF DE CIM AL NU M BE RS
FLO W O F W AT E R I
N O PE N C H ANNE LS 22

TABLE 84 .
—TW O -
TH I
RDS
‘

POW E RS OF NU M BE RS

000 04 6 07 4 1 17 1 53 1 70 1 86
215 229 24 3 29 5 307 3 19
34 2 353 36 4 4 07 4 18
4 48 4 58 4 68 506 515 525
54 3 552 56 1 596 604 6 13

6 30 6 38
711 7 19
7 88 7 96
8 62 8 69
939

007 1
l
l
-

07 2 1
‘

i
-
i

t
- 1 36 1
H 1 97 1
257 1
‘

t
-

t
- 3 16 1
u
-
I 3 74 1
- 4 30 1
u
- 4 85 1
u
-t 5 39 1
s
- 593 1
n
-
64 5 1
n
- 69 7 1
n
-
n 747 l
-u 7 97 1

84 7 1
n
n 89 6 1 900
a 944 1
n
-
r 992 1
o
t 03 8 2

N 08 5 2
N 131 2
M 1 76 2
N 22 1 2
N 265 2 27 9 2

» 3 10 2 314 2 323 2 33 1 2 33 6 34 0
e
t 353 2 3 58 2 375 2 37 9 384
o
r 397 2 4 01 2 4 18 2 4 22 4 27
w4 3 5 2 4 39 2 444 2 4 52 2 461 2 4 65 4 69
e 4 7 8 2 4 82 2
r 4 86 2 495 2 503 2 507 51 1
226 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABL E 84 (Concluded )
Two-
T HIRDS POW E RS OF NUM BE RS
2 28 H ANDBOO K O F H Y D RAU L I C S

TABL E 85 ( Conti nued )

THRE E -
E IGHTHS PO W E RS OF NU M BE RS
FL O W O F W ATE R IN O PE N CH ANNE LS 229

TABLE 85 (Conclud ed )
T H RE E - E IGHTH S PO W E RS OF NU M BE RS
2 30 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

AGRAM FO R SOLUTI
DI ON

NG S FO RM ULA
MANNI ’

v r l
‘ ‘

at
Fo r Se we rs a nd Sma ll

r l a yera nus Rad i u s F eet

- -

DIAG RAM 1 .

( See no te d ia g r a m
 23 2 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I C S

(b)
— vi
Direct di sch arge m e thods ;
-

Gra m etric
o

I .

O
l Vol u m etric .

O
a
g Wei rs .

h
t Orifices .

fl
S M et e rs .

G Che m ic a l gaging
Gravi m et ric volu m et ric m ethods of measu ring wa ter
a nd ,

which re qu ire the d eterm ination of the we ight or v olu m e of

w ater flowing in a give n ti m e a re ad a pted p rim a rily to e xp eri ,

m e nt al wo r k in l abo r a to ries or to the m e a su rem ent of com p a ra

t ively sm a ll qu antiti es of wa t e r a nd will not be di scu ssed The .

m e thods of m ea su r ing wa te r with o ri fic es or w e i rs is expl a ine d

in the ch a pte rs u nde r the se he a dings The oth e r m e thod s .

liste d a bo ve a re e xpl a i ne d in the following p a ge s . .

Velo ci ty a r ea methods i nvolv e the det e rm i na t io n of the m e a n

-

veloc ity of the w ater and with the c ro ss se ctional a rea of the
,
-

cha nnel known the disch arge e qu al s the p rodu ct of the two
factors The c olo r a nd t raveling sc reen m ethods p rov ide f o r
.

t he det e rm ina tio n of the m e a n v elocity f ro m a Single ob se r va

t io n. The c u rre nt m e t e r a nd Pitot tu b e giv e v e loc iti e s in
only one point in the c ro ss se ction a t a ti m e a nd floats gi ve the
-

me an velocity in a li m it e d a rea of t he c ro ss se c tio n -

.

The cu rrent m ete r is g e ne r a lly p re f e rre d f o r m easu ring w a te r

in op en ch a nnel s and is u se d a lm o st e xclu siv e ly f o r riv e rs
,
.

Be fo r e stu dying in de t a il the di ff e rent m e thods of m e asu re m e nt

a k nowl edge of the dist rib u tion of velo c iti e s in the c ro ss

sectio n of a ch a nne l is e sse nti al .

Di stribu tion of Vel ociti e s

The reis u su a lly a notic e a ble l a ck of un if o rm ity in the d istr i
bu tion of ve lo c ities in op e n cha nnel s a nd e sp e c i a lly tho se of

i rregula r section The u ppe r . Sk e t c h in Fig 66 re p ro du c e d

.
,

from U S Geologic al Su rve y Wa ter Su pp ly P a per No 305 is a

. . .
,

t ypic al e xa m pl e The nu m bers in the c ro ss se ctio n i ndic ate

.
-

velociti es ln fee t p e r se co nd f rom which li nes o f e qu al ve lo city

a re d r a w n In ge ne ra l th e se li nes f ollow qu itmwe ll d e fine d
.
,
-

l aws which can be b est u nde rstood fro m a stu dy of vertica l

v elo citgy p u rvr
es .

y gi tical ve locity curve s a re obt a ine d by t a king ve loc iti es in a

“ s w
i m alo ng a v e r tic al li ne be ginni ng a f e w inches be lo w the
“

,
 M E ASU RE M E NT OF FLO W I NG WAT E R 233

f c
sur a e and continu ing at inte rvals of about 6 inches or 1 foot ,

the la s t ve locity b e i ng ta ken as close to the bed of the s t ream

as pra ctic a bl e The velocitie s thu s t aken a re plo tted o n c ross '
.

sectio n p a pe r with de pths as o rdi na tes a nd veloc iti es as ah

scissas a sm ooth cu rve b e ing d raw n as near ly as ma b

, y e .

Di stance s in Fee t
50 60 70 80 90 10 0 110 120 130 1 40 150

H o ri z o nt al Di vi s ions Re p re s e nt 1 Foo t p e r Sec o nd V e lo c ity

F IG 66 — Dis tribu tio n

. . of v e locitie s in Op e n cha nne l .

th rou gh these points The velocity at a ny depth may then be

.

s c al e d f ro m this c u rve the m ea n ve loc ity b eing e qu al to the

,

a rea i ncl ud ed b e twee n t he ve rtical a xis and the c u r ve and the

ho rizonta l lines a t top and bottom of the curve divided by the ,

de pth of wa te r .
234 H ANDBOO K O F H YDRAUL I CS

Fig 66 h ws examples of ve rtic al velocity cu rves M any

. s o .

su ch cu rves have b ee n m a de by the Uni te d St a tes Ge ologic al

Sur ve y f or num erou s st re a m s from a stu dy of which the follow

,

ing fund a m enta l p r incipl es ha ve b ee n de du cted :

1 The m a ximum ve locity oc cu rs a t a dis ta nce below the
.

s urfa c e e qu al to a bo ut 5 to 25 p e r c ent of the d e pth of the .

strea m the p er c ent i nc re asing as the de pth of the st rea m in

, .

c reases For shallow st rea ms with rou gh beds the thread of

.

m axi mu m velocity lies ve ry near to the su rfa ce .

Di stance s in Foot

H ori zontal Divi si ons Re pr esent 1 Foot p e r Second Ve loc ity

FIG 67 — Dis tr ibu tio n o f

. . v e loc i tie s in ice -
t
co v e r e d s r e am s .

2 . The ver tic al velocity cur ve a pproximates a pa rabol a ,

whose a xis is ho rizontal a nd p asse s throu gh the po int of m a xi

m um velocity .

3 . The m ean velocity in a vertical within a m aximu m er r o r

,

of a bou t 3 p er c ent . and a n a ve rage e rro r of 1 p e r c ent oc cu rs .

,
a t depth .
23 6 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

The p ropeller s ha ped wheels are believed to be m ore a ccura te

- '

f or me as u ring tu rb u le nt wa t e r sinc e they ar e not a ff ec te d to the

sa m e e xt ent by e ddi es a nd c ross c u rr e nt s whil e the cu p m e te rs -
,

a re a ff ecte d e qu a lly by cu rrent s f rom a ny direction It is prob .

able howeve r th a t a ny of t he sta nd a rd m ak es of cu rre nt m e te rs

, ,

when p rop erly u se d u nde r c o nditio ns to which th ey a re su ited

, ,

will giv e re su lts a c cu r a te e nou gh f o r o rd ina r y s t rea m — ga ging

wo rk .

Th e re a re th ree diff erent m akes of cu rrent m ete rs th at have

—
bee n e xte nsive ly u sed in the Unite d St ates the Price m ete r ,

the Ot t me ter a nd the H as kell m e te r Of these the Pric e .

,

m e ter ha s c u ps a tta che d to a whee l W ith a ve rtic al a xis a nd ,

the othe r two ha ve W heel s of the sc rew p rop ell e r type W hich -

revol v e on a ho ri z ont a l a xis .

The Pr ic e me t e r has b een a dopte d by the Wa te r Resou e

l

Bra nch of the U S Geologic al Su rvey f o r its strea m g a ging

. .
-

wo rk a nd is m ore e xtensively u sed f o r this pu rpose tha n any

othe r m ete r Both el ect ric a nd a cou stic Pric e m e te rs a re
.

m anu f a ctu re d .

The Ott m e te r ha s re ce ntly be e n u se d in m a king tu rbine

2

tests with satisf ac t ory resu lts .

The H askell m et e r ha s b ee n u se d e xt e ns i ve ly by the U S

3 -
. .

Lake Su r v e y f o r ga gi ng the l a rg e r iv e rs Of t he Grea t L a k es

dra i nage syst em a nd it a ppea rs to be pa rt icul a rly well a da pte d

,

to this cl ass of wo rk .

Rating th e Curr ent M e te r — Bef o r e a cu rrent m eter ca n be .

u se d it is ne c e ssa r y to es t a bli sh a r e l a tio n be tw ee n nu m b e r of

,

revolu tio ns a nd ve locity of wa t e r by m oving the m e t er th rou gh

still w a t e r at a know n ra t e a nd de t e rm i ni ng the nu m b e r of

re vo lu tio ns in a gi ve n ti m e This ope ra tion is called rat ing.

the m e te r A m e t e r m a y be ra te d f rom a bo a t m ovi ng a t a

.

u nif o rm ra t e in still wa t e r bu t it is be tt e r to h av e this wo rk done

at a p r op erly e qu ipp e d r a ti ng st a tio n A m et e r shou ld be

r a te d wh en ne w a nd a t l e a st o nce a y ea r th ere afte r a nd a f te r ,

a ny a c cide nt to the m e t e r o r a lte ra tio n of p ar ts tha t will be

likely to ch ange its ra ting .

The ob se rv a tio ns fro m a cu r re nt m e ter ra ting give v elo c ities

in f ee t p e r sec o nd wi t h c o rrespo nding revol u tio ns p e r se cond .

1
M W
a nu f a c t ur e d a nd s o ld L E G u r le y Tr oy N Y
by . . .
, , . .

Sold in U nite d Sta te s by Ke u ff e l dz E sse r Co Ne w Y o r k

‘

2
.
, .

8 M a nuf a c t ure d by E S Ritc hie dz So ns Broo kli ne M ass

. .
. . .
 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FLO W I NG W ATE R 23 7

These val u es li re usu ally plotte d on ordinary c ross s ec tio n -

p ap er and the sm ooth line or lines p assing throu gh thei r m e an

,

pos ition is c all ed the rati ng cu rve A ra ting cu r ve f or a s m all

.

P ric e e l ect ric m e t e r is shown in Fig 68 Rating cu rves f o r all

. .

m a kes Of cu rrent m et e rs plot a s st ra ight lines a nd it is ch a ra c

t e rist ic of su c h cu rves th a t th e re is a b r ea k in the li ne at a
point u su ally correspo nding to a velocity of from 4 to 6 feet
p e r se cond .

Ve loc ity in F ee t p er Se cond

F IG 6 8 — T y p ic a l
. . r a t i ng c u r v e f or c u r re nt m e te r .

From the rating cu rve a r a ti ng ta ble is p rep ared which giv es ,

ve locities co rresponding to diffe rent rates of revolu tio n o f t he

W h e el
. Ta ble 86 is a ra ting table pu blishe d by W L E . . .

Gu rl ey . t Is the m ean of the rati ngs of ten sm all el ect ric

m e te rs (Pa tt e rns Nos 6 1 7 a nd 6 1 8) a nd is cl a i m e d by t he
.

m a kers to give valu es f or a ny m e te r of si m ilar p a tt e rn in goo d

Orde r within a n e rror of 1 pe r c ent
,
. .
238 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E 86.
— AP PRO x IM ATE RATING T ABL E FOR PRICE M E T E RS
NO S 6 1 7 , 6 1 8,
. 62 1 6 23 AND 624 V E L O CITI
, , ,
ES IN FE E T
PE R SE CO ND C O RRE SP O NDING TO DIF F E RE NT TIM E S
AND NU M BE RS OF RE V O L U TIO NS .

Pitot tu bes a re espe ci ally a da pted to the m e asu rem ent of

veloc itie s in pipes, a nd m a y be u se d f or m e asu ring ve locities , in
pipes and open channels tha t a re too ,

high to be conveniently m easu red with

cu rr ent m e ters I n its sim pl est fo rm
.

the P itot tu b e is a pipe bent to a right

a ngl e as show n in Fig 69 Whe n the
’

. .

sho rt er le g is poi nte d a ga inst t he cu r

re nt the w ate r w ill r ise a d ista nc e

,
2

e qu al to the velocity head or h

g
;
It has b een sho wn by e xperiment
tha t this rela tion holds rigidly .

The re a re pra ctic al di fficulties in the way O f using the Pito t tu b e

its sim pl es t f o rm sinc e the dis ta nc e w hic h the w a te r in th e
,
 24 0 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

A surf ace flo at m ay be any obj ect floating near the su rf acé and
to su fficient de pth to p a rta ke of the m otio n of the u p pe r fila
m ents T he m e an velocity in the ve rtic al will v a ry f rom a bou t
.

80 p e r c ent of the ob se rved su rf ace ve locity f or the sh a llowest

.

st rea m s to 95 pe r c e nt f or v e ry d ee p st rea m s
. Su rf a ce floa ts .

should not be u sed whe n the re is su fficie nt wind to a ff e ct the i r

m ove m ent .

A su bsurface floa t consists of a sm all su rf ace flo a t conne cte d

'

by a fine line to a l a rger flo a t which is we ighted to rem a in sub,

m e rged a nd k ee p the line t au t withou t d raw ing dow n the su rf ac e

floa t The su b m e rged float b eing l a rge the e ff ect of the su rf a c e
.
,

flo at is u su ally neglected To get the m ean velocity in the .

ve rtic al directly f ro m this com bination the su bm e rged floa t

shou ld be su b m e rge d to a bo u t o f the m e a n d e pth of t he

st rea m along t he p a th follow e d by the flo a t This floa t has .

littl e valu e f o r st rea m gaging pu rp os es It is so m etim es u sed

-
.

f o r de term ining the velocity a nd di re ct io n of su bsu rf ace cu rre nts

in la k es h a rbo rs a nd ot he r l a rge bodies of w a te r
, , .

Rod flea ts a re m a de f ro m woode n pol es o r hollow tin c yli nders

we ighted a t o ne end so as to c au se them to floa t in a n u p right
position with the u nwe ighte d e nd abov e the wa ter su rfa c e .

Th ey sh ou ld be sub m erged as mu ch as p oss ibl e withou t co m ing

in conta ct W ith the botto m of the ch annel Rod flo a ts are .

u su ally a ssu m e d to giv e direc tly the m e a n ve locity in the ve r tic al .

They are u sed m or e sa tisf a cto rily in a rti fic ia l cha nnels or na tu ,

ral st rea m s of re gu l a r se ct ion .

As t he re su lt O f a n e xte nsive e xpe rim e nta l i nve stiga tion in

which the flow in a wood en flu m e de te rm ined f ro m rod floa t ,

m e a s u re m e nts wa s com p a red with the dis cha rge ove r a sh ar p

,

c reste d we i r Fra ncis ded u c e d the f ollowing re la tio n be tween

l
,

the m ea n v elocity in the ve rtic a l se c tio n a lo ng the pa th of a

ro d flo a t a nd the v e locity o f the flo a t :

v v, ( 1 01 2.

in which 0 is the m e an velocity in the ve rtic al 0 is the m ea n , .

v elocity of the rod flo a t d is the de pth of w a t er and d is the

'
, ,

dist a nc e f ro m the botto m of the floa t to the be d of the ch a nnel .

The a bove re l atio n p rob a bly a ppli es m o re a cc u ra t ely f o r sm a ll

v a l u es of d /d and sho u ld not be u sed wh e re d is g re a te r t h a n
' '

0 25 d
. .

1
J . B F RA N C IS IL owe ll H y d ra u lic E xp e rim e nts ,
.
p . 1 95 .
 M E ASURE M E NT OF FL O W I NG W AT E R 24 1

Discharge M easure ments by Current M e te r

'

C u rr ent m ete r m easu re m e nt s m ay be m a de

-
f ro m a b ridge a ,

c a r s u s pe nde d f r om a c abl ew a y , o r a bo a t , o r if the stream is

s m a ll e n ou gh the ga ging m ay be m ade by wa ding .

T he firs t st e p is to assum e a pe rm a ne nt i ni ti al refe rence po int

an d m a rk O ff dis t a nc e s u su ally 5 o r 1 0f e e t alo ng the b ridge or
, ,

ca b l e wa y or a spe c ia l line st re tch ed a c ro ss the ch annel For .

sm a ll st rea m s wh e re the ga g ing is m a de by w a ding a cloth t a pe

, ,

is s o m eti m es s tre tche d a c ro ss the st rea m fro m the initia l poi nt .

So u ndings a re th e n t a ken a nd cu rr ent m e t e r m e asurem e nts a re

-

m a d e to de te rm ine the d e pths a nd m ea n velociti es in v e rtic a l

lin e s a t diff e r ent poi nts along the c ro ss s e ction of the cha nnel
-
.

Po ints of m easu re m ent a re so cho sen tha t the m e a n of the ve

lo c it ies in two a dj a c e nt vertic a l lines will give a pp roxim ately
th e m ea n v eloc ity of the po rtio n of the c ro ss sectio n of the -

ch a nnel between them The m ea n velocity in a ve rtic al

.

(see p a ge s 2 3 2 to 235 ) m a y be obt a i ne d by one of the followi ng

m e t hods :
1 By plotting vertic a l veloc ity cu rves
. .

2 By ta king the veloc ity a t

. depth .

3 By the m ea n of v elocitie s a t
. a nd depth .

4 By i nte g r a tio n ; t ha t is m ovi ng the m e te r slowly a nd at a

.
,

u nif o rm ra te f rom the su rf a c e of the w a t e r to the botto m of the

cha nnel and b a ck a ga in noting the ti me and nu mb er of revolu

,

tions of the m e ter This m ethod is not recom me nded f or

.

ine xpe rienced ob serve rs .

5 By t a k ing a ve locity near the su rf a c e of the s t re a m a nd

.

a pplyi ng a co rre cti v e f a cto r (f r o m to to red u ce to

m e a n ve loc ity This app roxi m a te m ethod mus t so m etimes be
.

re s o r t e d to wh en the cu rre nt is s o sw if t a s to m a ke m e a su re

m e nts a t t he d e pths re qu i red by a ny of the a bove m e thods

'

i m p ra ctic a ble .

I f d ; a nd dz rep rese nt the depths of w a te r a t two a dj a ce nt

ve rtic a ls W here velocities have b ee n ob se rved 01 and 02 the ,

res p ec tive m ea n ve loc ities a nd l the dista nc e b etw e en the

ve rt ic a l s the dis ch ar ge of the portio n of the c ro ss sectio n of
,
-

the channel b etwe en the v e rtic a ls is

(2)

and the tot al discharge of the stream is the su m of su c h terms f o r

:

the entire c ross section of the stream

-
.

16
24 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

o
P in s t of m easu re m e nt a l ong t he cros s se c t io n of th
- e ch a n ne l
s ho u ld be se l e cte d a t a b ru pt ch an ges in v e l oc ity or th e p r o fil e

of the bottom Wh ere conditions a re f air ly uniform it is

.

custo m a ry to m ak e m ea sure ment s at e qu a l d ist anc es a p ar t It .

is u su ally nec essa ry to t ak e one or two m easurements cl ose to

bo th edges of the cha nnel .

CU RR E N T M E TER NOT ES

fi fflfi
l i sten
f
/g . Gage h ight
e .
“ g Zé . . I
nes n
.

ODSM NH ON S

No h
S eets, Co mp by fi
. lfl
- . Chic M ake notes on back
24 4 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

Dischar ge M e asure ments by Floats

.

Before b eginning a disch a rge dete rm ina tion by m ea ns O f

floats (pa ge 239) it is nec e ssa ry to sele c t a u nif o rm rea ch of ch a n
nel and la y ou t two c ro ss sectio ns of the st re a m f rom sa y 1 0
-
0 to , ,

300 fee t a pa rt which will m a rk the pla c es of b eginning a nd

e nding flo a t ob se rv a tio ns .

,
Fi g 7 2 illu
. st rates a g r a phic al m e thod desc rib ed by U nw in l

f or t a king ob se rva tio ns and m a king co m pu t a tio ns Two .

c ross sections a re sel ecte d L distanc e ap a rt Line s m a rk e d

-
.

with tags eve ry 1 0 fee t or at som e other conve nient inter va l

,

F IG . 72 .

m a y be st retched a c ross the st ream ove r these se ctions So u nd .

i ngs to get d at a f or plotting the c ross sec tions a re then m a d e -

.

As m a ny flo a t m easu re m e nt s as des ired ma y be obta ine d , O b

se rve rs ta king the ti m e r e qu i re d f or the flo a ts to p ass b e tw ee n

the c o ctions and noting the pla c e whe re the floa ts pa ss

r ss s e-

over ea ch se ction .

From these Ob servations a dia g ra m sim il a r to Fig 72 m a y be .

prepa red The c ross sections a re plotted to su itable sca le a nd

.
-

t he c ha nnel is divided into e q u al se ctions by dott ed l ines The .

p aths of the floa ts are shown by f ull lines The st ra ight line AB .

is ha lf wa y be twee n the wa ter su rfac e line s of the t wo c ro ss se c

- -

tions From the point where the full li nes r ep rese nti ng the
.
,

1 W . C . N:
U NW I A Tre a tis e on H y d r a ulics . p . 28 6 .
 M E ASURE M E NT OF FL O W I NG WATE R 24 5

th s of the floa ts cut AB verticals a re dropped on which th e

pa ,

obse r ve d veloc ities f or each flo a t c orrec te d by the proper c oe fli

,

cie nt to re d u c e to m ean velocity a re plotted to a convenie nt

,

sc a l e
. The line AGB which connects the po ints thu s obta ined
is the m ean velocity line-
The m ean ve lo cities f or Se ctions I
.
,

I II
,
I
I etc a re fou nd by scaling the o rdina tes in the m iddl e
,
.
, ,

of t hese se ctions betw ee n l ines AB a nd A03

,
The d isch a rge .

in a ny se ctio n is given by the p rodu ct of the a vera ge and a r eas

and m ea n ve locities The following ta ble illu stra tes a m ethod
.

of k ee ping com pu ta tions .

14 1 2
.

T o ta l

Di schar ge M ea s ur e m e nts by Traveling Scre en

The ve li g sc ree n method of m easuring flowing wa te r is

tra n -

Ad a pted o nly to ope n channels of very regul a r c ross—

se ctio n .
24 6 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

This method requ ire s qu ite e labo ra te p re pa ra tions bu t whe n

the app a ra tu s is o nc e installe d it m ay be u sed f or as many ob
se rvations a s desire d .

A very l ight c anvas sc reen va rnishe d to insu re imperm e a

,

bility is su sp e nded by a sti ff fram e f rom a whee led c a rria ge

,

m ounted on tracks al ong the ed ges o f the channel The rate .

of m ovem ent of the sc reen mu st nec essarily be the m ean ve locity

of the w a ter A sm all c ra ck abou t
. inch shou ld be p ro
, ,

v ided b etween the sc ree n and the sid es and bottom of the ch a n

nel to insu re f reedom of m ovem e nt The distanc e throu gh .

whi ch the sc reen m oves is lim ited to the rea ch of u nifo rm

st ra ight se ction The velocity of the sc ree n is u su ally d et er
.

m ined el ectric ally .

A sim il a r m e thod is someti mes e m ployed in which the sc ree n

is su spend e d fr om floa ts p rope rly w eighte d to p rovide the r ight
,

cleara nc e between the sc ree n and the bottom of the ch annel .

Theo retic ally a co rre ction shou ld be a pplied to provide f o r

l ea k age a rou nd the sc reen The erro r int rodu c ed by ne gle ct ing
.

thi s co rr ection is how eve r very sm all

, The area of the w a te r
, .

c ross section shou ld be c a refully ta k en The disch a rge will

-
.

be the p roduc t of this area and the velocity of the sc reen .

Di schar ge M ea sure ments by Color M e th od

This m e thod has been em ployed f or m easu ri ng the velocity

in pip es The p roc e ss co nsis t s of inj e cting a solu tion of colo ring
.

m a tt e r co m m only flu o rescein into the pipe a nd ob serving the

, ,

ti m e re qu ired f o r it to m ove throu gh a k nown di st a nce The .

p a rticl es of colo ring m a tte r will u su ally re m a in w ithin a p rism

h aving a l ength e qu al to 1 p er c ent of the dist a nc e traveled . .

The e xpla na tio n of this phe nom enon lies in the f a ct tha t in ,

tu rbule nt w ater there is a continu al c rosswis e a s well as longi

tu dina l m ov em ent of the pa rticles This indic at es tha t in
.

ge ne ra l all p a rticles of w a te r are m oving through the pipe with

the sa m e longitu dina l velocity .

The colo ring m atte r m a y be introdu c ed at the inta k e of t he

pipe o it can be inj ected by a fo rc e pu m p or gun into the pipe
r 1

at a ny poi nt The se co nd point of ob se rva tio n which must be

.

a t the o u tl et of the pi p e shou ld be a t a dista nc e at l e as t 20 0

tim es the m ea n v elocity in f ee t p e r seco nd from the pl ace wh e re
l
A g u n f or i nj e c ting co lo ring m a tte r i nto p ip es is de s cribed in U . S De.

p ar tmont of Agri cultur e Bu lleti n No 37 6 by FRE D C Soone r

. . .
24 8 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

and bottom bases e qua l . bases a re connected a nd

The sma er ll
form wha t is c alled the throa t of the m eter whil e the l a rge r
bas es co nnect to the pipe The dire ction of flow thro ugh t he
.

m ete r is f rom the shorte r to the lo nger section Two pie zo m e te r .

tu b es a re shown in the figure at the throat and entrance to t he

mete r .

— z 100d

FIG 7 3 — V e ntu r i m e te r
. . .

Le t h; and p resent the height a bove the a xis of the m ete r

h, re
'

to which the wa te r ris es in the pie zom e ter tu bes at the e nt ranc e
a nd th ro a t of the m e te r re sp e ctive ly and let 01 d ; and a ; a nd , ,

v2 dz a nd 02 be the co rre spo ndi ng ve lociti es d ia m et e rs a nd

, , ,

a reas at the two pl a c es Then from Be rnoulli s theo re m ’

.
,

negl ec ting f riction

2

29
and s inc e
Q a i vi G ave

the fo rmula f or discharge t hrou gh a Ventu ri m e te r incl u ding

the e m piric al coe flic ient c b ec om es ,

“m“
/
w 2g(hx
\/ a i
2 3
02

or e x p ressed in t e rm s of di am eter
01rd d
2 2
! z
V 20011 ha)

Fo r m e te rs ha ving a definite ratio of inlet to t hroa t d ia me t e r

1

dz
a nd pu tting

formul a (5 ) ma y be w ritte n
 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FLO WI NG WATE R 24 9

The following ta ble gives valu es of R with co rrespo nding valu es

of K .

R 2

The will depend u pon the roughness of the inte rio r

va lu e o f 0

su rfa c e of the m e te r For cl ea n c ast i ron the value of 0 will

.

usu a lly r ange fr o m to

V e ntu ri m e te rs are m a nuf actu red f or perm anent install s
1
.

ti o ns with the pie zometer tu b es conne cted to a n a u to m a tic

rec o rdi ng i nst rum ent which r egis t e rs on a Cha rt Re c o rde r
“

Dia l a cont inu ou s graphic rec o rd of t he rate of flow th rou gh

the m e t e r A Register Cou nte r Di al shows the tota l volu m e
“
.
”

of flow th rou gh the m e te r in cu bic fee t g allo ns or po unds and , ,

an
“
Indic a to r Dial shows the p resent rate of flow .

Di scharge M ea sur e m e nts by Che mical Ga ging ’

Ch i hyd rom e try or chem ic al gaging consists of dete r

em -

m in ing d is c ha rges by int rodu c ing a che m ic a l at a know n ra te

into flowing wa te r a nd determ ining the qu a ntity of the chem ic a l
,

in t he st rea m a t a se ction f a r e nou gh dow nst re a m to i nsu re a

tho rou gh m ixtu re of the che m ic a l with the w a te r to be m e asu re d .

Co m m o n sa lt ( Na Cl) is the che mic a l u su ally e m ployed a nd ,

c h e m ic a l g a ging is f re qu e ntly refe r re d to as the s a lt solu ti on -

method Fo r co nve nienc e the salt is di ssolved in w ate r to fo rm

.

a brine b efo re b e i ng i nt r odu c e d i nto the st re am .

Le t Q re p resent the di sc harge of the st re a m in sec ond f e e t If -

.

w pou nds p e r sec o nd of sa lt a re int rodu ce d a nd aft e r tho rou gh ,

m ixtu re a sa m ple t ak en from the st rea m shows tha t 1 pound of

wa te r conta ins n pou nds of salt then ,

11)
1 1 w
1 62 4 n .

The ve form u la is not readily a pplic a bl e owing to the f act

a bo ,

tha t se vera l fac to rs e nte r into the de te rm ina tion of n whic h com
plic a t e the probl em The w ate rs of natu ral stre a ms us u ally
.

M a nu f a c t u r ed by the Build e rs I
ro n Fo u ndr y , P ro vide nce , R I . .

3 Fo r a f ull dis c uss io n of this s u b e ct

j se e B F Gno a r : Che m i H y dr o m e try
. .
' -

a nd Pr ec ise T ur bine Tes ting .Tr a ns Am er So c Civ E ng , v ol 80, p 9 5 1

. . . . . . . .

Also F A NAG LE R:. . Ve ri ficatio n o f Baz i n W ei r For m u la bv H y d r o

Che m ica l G agi ng P r oc Am e r Soc C i v E ng
. . . . . .
, Ja n .
, 1 9 18 .
 25 0 H ANDBOO K OF H YDRAULI CS

containan initial qua ntity of salt in solu tion which mus t be ,

considered in m a king a c orrect g aging .

The m ethod of Spec ial Dil u tio ns and Bal ance d E va pora
“ ”

tions will be desc ribed I

”
n this method a sp ec ial dilu tion of
.

-
the sa lt solu tion sa m pl e with t he nat u ral w a te r of the st rea m
-
,

is p re pared This special d ilu tion shou ld contain as nea rly

.
,

as c an be d e te rm ined the sam e qu antity of sa lt pe r u nit volu m e

,

as the sa m pl e t a ken from the ch annel a ft er salt ha s b ee n

introdu c ed .

There are three sets of sampl es to be exa m ined as follows

1 The dose d st rea m w a te r ; th a t is the wa te r of the st ream
.
,

a fte r sa lt has b een intr odu c e d and the salt has b ec o me tho r

ou ghly m ixe d with the water of the st ream .

2 The salt solu tion sa m pl e ; tha t is the b rine which is p re

.
-
,

pa re d to be int rodu c e d into the stre am .

3 The spe cia l dilu tion ; tha t is the m ixtu re of the salt solu
.
,

tion with the na tu ral stream wa ter prepa re d in the labora to ry

,
.

By this me thod it is not ne c essa ry to a na lyz e the na tu ra l

st rea m w a t e r as the e ff e ct of the sa lt which it cont a i ns is elim i
,

nated in the co m pu ta tions .

A sa tu rat ed solu tio n of salt a nd w a te r cont a ins abou t 20

pounds of sa lt p er cubic foot of w ater It is usu ally desi r .

a ble to ha ve the b rine which is to be int rodu c e d into the w a te r as

conc ent ra ted as po ssibl e in o rder to redu c e the size of the m ixing
ta nk A satu ra te d sol u tion is ina dvisa bl e o w ing to the te nd
.

ency of the salt to c ryst a lli ze a t t he e dge of the t a nk bu t a sol u ,

tion co nsisting of 1 6 pounds of salt per c ubic foo t of w a te r will

be sa tisfa cto ry .

Salt solu tion shoul d be a dde d tothe stream a t su ch a ra t e a s

to inc rease its sa lt content by a t least pou nds p er c u bic
foot a nd u nde r no circu mstances should the initial salt conte nt
e xc ee d 25 p e r c ent of the salt co nt ent of the do se d w a te r
. Fo r .

e xa m pl e a st re a m h a ving a n a pp roxi m ate dis ch a rg e of 1 0

,
0 se c
o nd fee t shoul d ha v e salt a dded a t the ra te of at l east
-
pou nds
p er seco nd a nd if the na tu ral s tream wa te r cont a ined sa y
pou nds of salt p er cubic foot the sa lt should be a dded at a m ini
m u m ra te of p o und s p e r se cond .

For obt a ining the m a ximu m a ccuracy in m aking chem ic a l

t es ts the m ethod of b alanc ed e va pora tion should be u sed This .

requ i res t ha t the d osed st rea m wa te r and t he spe ci al di lu tion

sa m pl es be ev a pora t ed and th a t the salt solu tio n sam pl e be -

dilu t ed u ntil ea ch contains, as nea rly as can be estim ate d t he

"

,
25 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

fac e of the wa ter will hasten eva porat ion From 5 to 10 hou rs .

will be requ ired to evap o ra te a 500c u bic c entime te r sam ple

-
,

dependi ng upon the hu m idi ty of the a ir a nd the su cc ess in p ro

du c ing a rti fici a l a ir cu rr e nts . Aft er the sa m ple ha s e nti re ly
ru n o u t the se p a ra to ry f u nne l should be w a sh e d with dist ill ed

wa t e r which shou ld a lso be e v a po ra ted

, The e va po r a tio n
.

s hou ld cont inu e u ntil a bou t 1 0cu bic c enti m et ers rem a i n in t h e

c asse rol e.

Sa m ples of both the do se d st rea m wa te r and specia l dilu tio ns

a re e v a po ra t ed in this m a nne r . The conte nts of a l O c u bic -

c e nti m e t e r pip e tt e of the dil u tio ns of t he sa lt sol u tion sa m pl e a re

-

e m ptie d di re ctly into a c a sse rol e The three sam ple s ar e n o w

.

re a dy f or the che m ic al te st o r tit ra tio n .

T ating Sam pl e s
itr —.The rea ge nt u se d in the s a lt ana ly si s is
silve r nit r a te which is di ss olve d in di stille d wa te r in s om e s ta nd
,

a rd p ropo rtions It is essentia l tha t a su fficie nt qu a ntity of

.

this solu tion be p rep a re d a t one tim e to m a ke all of the te sts

,

re qui re d f o r one di scha r ge m e a su re m e nt The sil v e r nit r a te

.

solu tio n s hou ld be k ept in a d a rk c olo re d bottl e a nd be pla c ed

-

in a da rk clo se t to p rev e nt a ction by light The st rength of .

sol u tio n f o r co ndu cting the t est s ho u ld no t be le ss th a n a bou t

gram s of chemi cally p u re silve r nit ra te to 1 lite r of distill e d

wa t e r.

A pot assiu m bichrom a te solu tio n having a conc e nt ra tio n

of 50g ra m s p e r lite r m a y be u se d to indi c a t e the e nd p oi nt in t he

reac tio ns of the silve r nit ra t e u po n the sodiu m c hlo ride Abo u t .

6 or 7 d rops of this solu tio n will be su fi cie nt f o r sam pl e sof t he

st re ngth of tho se de sc rib e d a bove .

The tit ra tion of the a bove sam pl es re qu i res abou t 50 cu bic

c entim et e rs of the silver nitra te solu tion A 100cu bic c enti .
-

m e te r bu ret te co nta ini ng m o re of the silve r nitra te solu tion tha n

will be re qu ired fo r a test is pl a ce d a bove the c asse role c onta in
ing the sa m ple to be a na lyz e d and a n ini tial rea di ng of t he
,
,

bu rette is ta ken One d rop of pot a ss iu m bichrom a te is a dd e d

.

to the initia l sa m pl e a nd silve r nit rate solu tion is a dm itte d f ro m

the bu re tte at the ra t e of a bou t 4 drops p e r sec o nd u ntil the e nd
of the re a ctio n is ne ar ly r ea che d . The sa m pl e shou ld be s ti r r ed
continu ou sly with a gla ss rod and 1 dr op of pota ssium bich r o
m a te sho u ld be a dde d f o r ea ch 1 0cu bic c e nti m ete rs of the silv e r
nit ra te s olu tion . As the e nd of the reaction a pp roa c hes the ra te ,

of a d m itting s ilv e r nit r a t e shou ld be r e du c e d to a bou t 1 d r o

p in
2 seco nds . The pot a ss iu m bich ro m a te give s the s am pl e a y e l
 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FL O W I NG W AT E R 2 53

low olo r which is replaced by a pe rm anent o range tinge when

c , .

the e nd of the reac tio n is rea ched This m ea ns tha t the poi nt .

has be e n re a c he d whe re the silver nit rate adm itte d has j us t neu
tral iz e d a ll of the sa lt in the sa m ple A final rea ding of the .

bu r e tte should be m a de a t this point The a m ou nt of silve r ni .

tra t e use d is a m easu re of the qua ntity of salt cont a ine d in the
sa m ple Som e di ffic ulty m a y be e xp e rie nce d a t first in detect
.

ing the e nd of the rea ction as the cha nge in colo r is not ve ry
ma r k ed bu t with a little e xpe rience this point m a y be dete r
,

mi n e d with c o ns ide ra bl e a ccu racy I t is i m p o rta nt tha t a bou t .

the s a m e a m ou nt of silv e r nit ra te a nd the sa m e a m ou nt o f pote s

siu m bich ro m ate shou ld be u se d in m a ki ng all of the t es t s f o r a

sin gle dis c ha rge m easu re m e nt .

T he f ollowing is a lis t of t he p rincip a l l a bo rat o ry a pp a ratu s

1b al a nc e with w e ights sensitive to 1 m illig ra m , .

l rou gh sca l es f or we ighing salt .

1 f ou r u nit e va po ra to r
-
.

4 lite r se p a ra to ry fu nnel s
-
.

l 1 00c u bic ce nti m e te r bu re tte

-
.

8 nu m b e r 3 c asse rol es .

1 l lite r volu m e t r ic fl as k
-
.

l 500c u bic c e nti m e te r volu m et r ic fl as k

-
.

l 1 00c u bic c enti m e te r v ol u m et ric fl a sk

-
.

1 therm o m e te r .

2 l O c u bic c e ntim e te r pip e ttes

-
.

3 l lit e r flasks
-
.

2 5 l ga llon bottl es f o r sa m ple s

-
.

5 l qu a rt bottle s
-
.

The q ua ntiti e s of salt silv e r nit ra te a nd potassiu m bich ro

,

ma te th a t w ill be ne c essa ry will de pe nd u po n the flow of the

str ea m a nd the nu mb e r of m eas u re m e nt s to be m a d e
,
A bottl e .

of hydr ochlo r ic ac id sho uld be k ept o n h a nd f o r cl e a ni ng c a sse r

oles ,
but c a re shou ld be t ak en to w as h a w a y all t r a c e s o f t he
ac id f r o m the c asse rol e s b ef o re u s ing th e m f o r a ne w t e s t .

De te rmination of Di schar ge — The f ollowing nom encl a tu re is .

o Discharge of the s t rea m in se co nd f ee t -

.

s
I
I
Disc ha rge of s alt solu tion in se co nd f ee t -
.

r
'
Ra tio o f volu m e of na tu ral str ea m wa t e r to l
vo u m e o f

sa lt l tio n in the
so u spe cia l dilu tion .
 2 54 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULICS

Ra tio of volume of total m ixtu re to volu m e of sal t solu

tion in the specia l dilu tion .

Volu m e of silve r ni tra te solu tion re qu i red to tit rate a

unit vol u me of the salt solu tion sam pl e-
In othe r .

wo rds if the u ni t volu m e is 1 liter t the di fferenc e ,

b etween initial a nd final readings of the bu rette f or the

silve r nit ra t e solu t ion mu ltiplie d by the r a tio of dilu

tion of the salt s olu tion sa m ple mu ltiplied by 1 000 and

-

di vided by the volu m e in cu bic c entim e te rs of the

sa m pl e di sch arg e d i nto the c asse rol e .

Volu m e of silver nit ra te solu tion re qu i red to titrate a

u nit vol u m e of the do se d st rea m sam ple Or f o r u nit .
,

of 1 lite r t di fferenc e be tween initial and final rea d

,

ings of bu rette m ultiplied by 1 000 and divided by the

a ctu a l volu m e in c u bic c e ntim e te rs disc h a rge d into the

sep a ra to ry fu nne l f o r e v a po ra tio n .

Volum e of silver nit ra te solu tion re qu ired to tit rate a

.

u nit volu m e of the spe cia l di lu tion Or sim il a r to tz

.
, ,
'
i s di ff e renc e of b u rette re adings m ultipli ed by 1 000
a nd div ide d by the a ctu al volu m e in c u bic c entim e te rs

disch a rged into the sep ara to ry fu nnel f or eva po ra tion .

discharge of the st rea m is given by the following e qu a

I+ R

The a bove formula is a c cu rate e nou gh for o rdinary wo rk .

Whe re g rea t refine m e nt is desi re d a shr ink a ge coe fficient m a y

be applie d to co rre ct f o r sh rink age of volu m e c au se d by m ixing
two salt solu tions of diff e rent densities Su ch co rrections how
.
,

e ve r will no t o rdina rily e fie ct the fina l disch a r e m o re th a n a

'

, g
s m all f ra ctio n of 1 p e r c e nt All fla sks pip e tt es e tc u se d f o r
.
, , .
,

m ea su ring volu m es should be c alib ra t ed with g rea t c a re a t dif

f e rent te m p e ra tu res
. Whe re grea t p recision is re qu i re d a ll
volu met ric m e a su rem ents shou ld be co rrecte d f o r te m pe ra tu r e
by redu cing all v olu m e s to volu m es at som e p a rticu la r te m pe ra
tu re O rdi na r ily howeve r if c a re is ta ken to m a k e a ll m e a su r e
.
, ,

m e nts at as ne a rly a u niform te m pe ra tu re as po ss ibl e su c h c o r

r e c ti ons will no t be ne c essa ry If the va riation in t em pe ra tu r e
.

d u ring a t est is no t m o re tha n 20 F the e rro r introdu c e d into

°
.

t he resu lts by ne gle c ting tem pe ra tu re co rrec tions will not be

25 6 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

is dissolved the sol ution passe s th rough the valve A and a 40

mesh sc reen S to the disc har ge ta nk The eleva tio n of t he sur
.

f ac e in the discharge t ank is m ainta ined at the eleva tion of the

fixe d hook K by ha nd regul ation of the v alve A The v alve 0 .

is set by t ri al to the p rop er ra te of disc ha rge by noti ng the

,

tim e requ ire d to fill a c arefully calibra ted vessel The valve .

as thu s set is l eft u nch a nge d u ntil the e nd of the m easu r e m ent .

For a depth of 2 feet in the discha rge tank the e lev a tion of the
su rfa c e of the solution m a y v a ry feet withou t a flect ing the
'

disch arge at G by mo re than 1 per cent The re should be no

’
.

di fficu lty in regul ating this el eva tion within f eet .

A co ntinu ou s sam ple of the sa lt sol utio n m a y be t ak en f r o m a

sm a ll p e rfo ra tio n in the s ide of e ithe r t a nk The sam p le of .

natu ra l strea m wa te r shou ld be t a k en a bove the point wh e r e the

sa lt solu tio n is i nt rodu c e d a nd du ri ng t he pe r iod th a t it is

b eing introdu ce d The dose d stream sam ple shou ld be t aken

.

f ar e nou gh downs tre am a nd a fte r su fi c ient l a pse of tim e from

the tim e of b eginning dos ing to insu re a th o ,
rou gh m ixtu re of

the m a xim u m qu a ntity of sa lt tha t the st rea m shou ld c a rry .

These sam pl es should p re f e r ably be continu ou s sa m pl es r e quit

ing so m e little ti m e to secu re An air ti ght c an co nt a i ning a
.
-

sm a ll p e rfo ratio n to p e rm it t he e ntrance of w a te r whe n the can

is im m e rse d a nd anothe r pe rfo rat io n co nnected by a sm a ll pipe

or t u b e to the a ir wou ld be sa ti sfa cto ry f o r t he pu r po se O rdi .

na rily do se d s t re a m sa m pl es shou ld be t a k en at m or e th a n one

.

point in the c ross se ction of the stream in o rde r to de te rmine

-

wh eth er the m ixtu re of the sa lt with the stream is sa tisfac to ry .

It will u sually be nec essa ry to m ak e p relim inary inv es t iga

t io ns to de t e rm ine the p rope r pl a c e for t a king sa m ples of d osed
st r ea m w a te r and the ne c e ssa ry ti m e i nt e r va l b etwe e n the

tim e of b e ginning dosing a nd ta ki ng the sa m pl e Pa rk e r gives 1

.

the fo llowing a pproxim a te ru l e s .

Let v represent the m e a n ve locity of the s t re a m and b its

width Then for strea m s with de pths b etwee n M ob a nd xl
.

com ple te m ixtu re d oes not occu r u ntil a dista nce of at

has b een t rav erse d and the di sch a rge of the solu tio n
,

tinned f or a pe riod of at l east 24 b/v seconds .

It is app arent that the che m ic al method of ga ging is

su it a ble to t u rbu l e nt w a te rs a nd it is dou btf u l wheth e r it c
,

a ppl ie d sa tisfa cto ril y to sl u g gish st reams .

1 F a rm s A M oaw r
. Pu m a s : C ontr ol of W a ter . 9. 73 .
 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FLO WI NG WAT E R 25 7

Continu ou s Strea m d i scharge-

Record s

I
n orde rto properly u nderst a nd the flu ct u a tions in flow a nd
to estim a te the a va il a bl e d ischa rge of a st re am cont inu ous d aily
disch ar ge reco rds extending over a period of seve ral yea rs a re
essential Fre qu e ntly e rro neous and m i slea di ng results will be
.

obtained by b asing co nclu sions on a f ew sc attering disch arge

m easu re m e nts or eve n on continu ou s reco rds f or 1 or 2 yea rs .

The best da ta on w hi ch to base a n es tim a te of the f u tu re dis

ch arge of a st ream are reco rds of disch a rge f o r p rec edi ng ye ars ,

bu t such re cor ds to be a t rustwo rthy gu ide shou ld ove r a p e riod

long e nou gh to incl u de a wide ra nge of conditio ns of flow .
.

U sually reco rds f or a pe riod of 1 0 ye ars will give a good id ea of

no rmal co nditio ns of flow bu t the y should not be dep end e d u po n
to give e xt rem e low w a ter or flood conditio ns .

App recia ting the im po rt anc e of this m a tte r the U S Geolog , . .

ic al Su r ve y in 1 888 b egan a system atic ga ging of the m o re

i m porta nt st re am s in the U nited States As a resu lt continu ous .

discha rge re co rds of m any stre a m s f or long pe riods of yea rs h ave

been kept and on other stream s owing l a rge ly to i na de qu at e
, ,

a ppropr i ations the re co rd s a re m o re or l e ss f ragm e nt a ry a nd

,

i nte rm ittent All of the strea m discha rge re co rds of the U S

.
-
. .

Ge ologic al Su rve y a re pu blished in its Wa te r Su pply a nd I r r i

gation Pa pe rs
1 .

The gener a l method of procedu re to obta in da t a f or co ntinu ou s

discharge reco rds is indic a ted in the following ou tline :
1 . Se lect
itable loc ation f or a gaging sta tio n
a su .

2 I ns tall g age b u il d nec ess a ry stru ctu res a nd p ut st atio n in

.
,

pe rm anent co ndi tion E m ploy ga ge rea de r or othe rwise p ro

.

vide fo r k ee ping a continu ous re co rd of stage .

3 M a k e disc ha r ge m e asu re m e nts at di ff e rent sta ge s of the

.

st re a m th rough a s wid e a ra nge in flu ctu a tio n a s poss ibl e k eep ,

ing a rec o rd of gage height at the ti me ea ch discha rge m e asu re

m ent is m ad e .

4 Af te r su fficie nt disch arge m eas u rem e nts ha ve bee n oh

.

ta ined p re p a re a d is ch a rge cu rve with dis ch arge s a s a bscissa s

,

and co rrespondi ng ga g e h eights a s o rdina tes .

1 These p a p ers ma y be o bta ined as p u blished by a pp l i ng to the Dire ctor y

o f the U 8 Ge ologic al Surve
. . y
o r the y m a y be p ur chase d f ro m t he Su p e rin

te nde nt o f Do cu m e nts , W as hingt o n D C M os t o f the old e r iss u es a re

. . .

no w o u t o f p r i nt .

17
 ’

258 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

5 . From the
discharge cu rve p re pa re a t a ble giv i ng disc ha rges
co rresponding to ga ge he ights f o r e a c h f o ot i nte rv a l -
.

6 Fr o m the discha rg e t a bl e a nd da ily ga ge rec o rds p rep a re a

.

tAble o f da ily di sc h a rges .

7 Aft e r the disch arge cu rve has b ee n c o m pl e te d disch a rge

.

m ea su rements shou ld be m a de f rom ti m e to ti m e to c h ec k the

cu rve I f th ese points i ndic a te that the rel a tion betwe e n g a ge
.

height and disc harge has changed the c u rve should be correc t e d
‘

, .

The o
ab ve s e t p s will be conside re d in de ta il in t he f ollowi ng
p a ge s .

Sel ection of Si te f or Ga ging Sta ti on — The f ollowing di sc us .

sio n a ssu m e s th a t dis ch a rg e m e asu r e m e nt s a re to be m a d e wit h

a c u rr e nt m e t e r It a pplies h o we ve r to o the r m e thods o f

.
, ,

m e asu rem ent e x ce pt a s it r ef e rs to the a c tu a l d e t e rm i na tion o f

disch a rges Below is giv e n a lis t of the esse nti a l poi nts to
.

be c o nsid e re d in m a king a rec o nna issa nc e f o r determ i ning the

m o st su ita bl e l oc a ti on f o r a g a ging st a tio n .

1 .Ge ne ra l lo c a tio n of pl ac e a t which re co rds a re de s ire d .

2 St ru ctu re f rom whi ch cu rrent m e te r m ea su re m e nts a re to

.
-

be m a d e .

3 Conditions fa vo ra bl e to a c o ns ta nt rel a tion b e twee n ga g e

.

height a nd dis cha rge .

4 U nif o rm cha nne l conditions a t se c tio n whe re c u r r e nt

.

m e te r m e asu re m e nts a re to be m a de .

5 Acc essibility o f site

. .

6 Av a ilability of ga ge
. re a der or a tte nda nt .

7 . Co st of c onstru ctio n a nd m a i nte na nc e .

Be fo re d e finitely sel e c ting a site f o r a gaging sta tion it is

so m e tim e s ne c e ssa ry to de te rm i ne the gene ra l l o c a lity tha t will

give the b est reco rds of di sc ha rge f o r a given po rtion of the

drainage a rea of a st re a m I n sp ec i a l c a se s a d e finite sec tio n o f
.

the strea m m a y be giv e n whe re di sch a rge re c o rds a re re

qu i re d bu t f requ e ntly the e nginee r is all owe d c o nsi de rabl e d is
,

c re tion in the m atte r Usu ally the disc ha rge will not va ry
.

grea tly b etwee n the p oints where two tribu ta rie s enter a strea m ,

a nd in c a ses wh e re a ge neral i nv e stiga tio n o nly is b e ing m ad e

the e xa ct loc ality whe r e re co rds a re obta ined is no t esse ntial .

Whenev e r p ractic abl e it is c ustom a ry to so loc a te the ga gin g

,

sta tio n th a t cu rrent— m e te r m e asu re m e nts m a y be m a de f ro m

e xis ti ng bridge If thi s is no t feas ibl e a stru c tu re m u st u s u
.
,
26 0 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I C S

ne ither too high nor too low for all ordinary stages of the riv er
, .

As a m a tte r of convenie nc e the c u rrent m e te r m eas u re m e nts

-

shou ld be m a de a t a point clo se to the g a ge bu t this is not

ne ce ssa ry p rov idi ng the g a g e is no t so f a r a w a y tha t the s t re a m

,

will change m a te rially in sta ge du ring the ti m e oc cu pi e d by the

obse rver in walking b etwee n the two pl a c es Cu rre nt m e ter .
-

m easu re m ents du ri ng low sta ges of the st rea m a re so m e ti m es

.

m a de by w a ding a t some plac e mo re sa tisfa cto rily th a n the

gul a r sta tion .

A gaging sta tio n sho uld be rea dily a c c essi bl e f rom a ra il w a y

s t a tio n o r highwa y sSinc e sev e ra l discharge m ea su re m e n ts
must usu ally be m a de each ye a r a loc a tio n should be c h o s e n
w hich will e nta il the sm all est e xp ense possible f or m aking t r i p s
If a non re co rding ga ge is ins tall e d a t a ga ging sta tio n t he
-

da ily a tte nd anc e of a ga ge reader is nece ssa ry A re co rdi ng .

ga ge should o rdina rily be vi site d o nc e a wee k to c h a nge s he e ts

o r to se e th a t the ga ge is op e ra ting p rope rly .These m a tte rs
should theref o re be gi ven c arefu l co nsid e ra tion in se l e ct ing a

site .

The cost of co ns t ru cti ng a nd m a inta ining a ga gi ng s t a tion :

shou ld al so be investig a te d . If reco rds a re w ante d f or a com

p ara tiv ely sho r t ti m e th e fi rs t cos t s ho u ld b e r e d u c ed a s m u c h
as p oss ibl e On the other h and if a p erm anent sta tion is to be
.
,

esta bli she d the first c os t m a y be c om p a ra tively u ni m porta nt .

The rela ti ve ac cu ra cy of re su lts to be obta ined by the di ff e rent

types of install a tion should a lso be considere d in this co nnec tio n .

—
Installation and De scri ption of Gag es Afte r se lec ting the
site f or a g a gi ng st a tion the g a g e should be i ns t a ll e d a nd a ll

wo rk re qu i re d to cl e a n ou t a nd i m p rove the c h a nne l shou l d bc

c om l e te d a s s oo n as p ra ctic a bl e A g g d r a tte nd a nt
p . a e r ea e r o

shou ld the n be e m ploye d a nd the t a king of g a g e re co r ds sho u ld

be b e gu n w ithou t u nne c e ssa ry de la y .

Gage s m a y be cl a ss i fie d a s re c o rding a nd non r e c ordi ng -

.

The m os t c om m on f o rm of no n r e co r ding g a g e is the st a ff g a ge

-

whi ch m a y be e re cte d in eithe r a v ertic a l o r i ncli ne d position .

A sta ff ga ge m a y be a st rip of b o a rd o r a thi n she e t of m e tal

a tt a c he d to a boa rd w hi ch is g ra du a te d to te nths of a f oo t in
,

e l ev a tio n
. Ga g es in 2 or 5 f ee t s ectio ns of sh ee t ste e l w ith
e na m e ll e d f a c e s a nd su bdiv is io ns a r e a cc u ra te
, conve nie nt
, ,

a nd m o re d u ra ble th a n o r di na ry p a i nte d sta ff ga ges I n re a d

.

ing the ga ge hu nd re dt hs of a f oot shou ld be e sti m a te d .

A v e rtic al sta ff ga ge shou ld be rigidly a tta che d to a b ridge

 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FLO W I NG WAT E R 26 1

a bu tme nt r ock o r other pe rm a nent obj ect in su ch a m anner

, ,

t ha t the re will be no da nge r of its be coming di slodged by ic e ,

d rif t o r othe rwise

,
. I t should be pla ce d in qu ie t wa te r a nd so
f a ce d tha t it m a y be easily rea d The gage shoul d extend dee p
.

e nou gh into the w a te r and be long e nou gh to insu re a re ading

f or the lowes t a nd hi ghest sta ge s of the stre am .

I nclined sta ff gages should be m ade of 4 by 4—inch or heavie r

t im be r bol te d to conc re te su ppo rts M a rks should be pla c ed
.

w ith a lev el at f oot inte rv a ls of el eva tion I ncli ned gages

.

a re no t as trustwo rthy as vertic a l staff ga ges a nd should not

be u se d when a su itabl e pl ac e f o r installing the l a tte r ca n be

f ou nd .

The el eva tion of w a ter su rf ace is so m eti m es obt aine d by sus

p e n d ing a plu m m e t f ro m the e nd of a t a pe or ch a in and m e as

u ring the d is tanc e to the w a te r su rfa ce f rom so me fix e d point

ove rhe ad as from a m a rk on a b ridge or overh angi ng tree .

This m ethod m a y be reso rte d to whe n conditions a re favorable

a nd a sa tis fa cto ry loc a tio n f o r a s t a ff ga ge c annot be fou nd .

A gage sho uld al ways be c a re f ully ref e renc ed to two perm a

ne nt b e nch m a rk s p ref erably loc a te d so tha t a co m p ariso n of
,

s o m e m a r k o n the ga ge can be m a de with a t l e as t o ne of the

be nch m ark s fro m a s ingl e se t u p of the level The ga ge should

.

be checked f rom a bench m a rk a t f req u ent inte rvals a s the

re lia bility of the re co r ds obt a i ned dep e nds u po n the m a inte

na nce of the ga ge a t an a b solu te ly fixed el eva tio n

-
In c as e .

the gage is a c cide nta lly m oved o r dest roye d it should be c are ,

fully repla c ed so as to give the sam e readings tha t it gave in

its o rigi nal positio n .

The re ar e a nu m ber of di ff e rent reco rding gages on the ma rket

whi c h give a c ontinu ous r eco rd of sta ge A com mo n type of .

re co rd ing ga ge consis ts of drum w hi c h is revolved by a flo a t as

the sta ge c ha nges a nd a pencil ac tua ted by a clock whi c h

, ,

m ov es a c ro ss the face of the drum p a rallel to its axis A shee t .

of p roperly rule d c ross sectio n pa per is faste ne d to the d rum

-

and on t his a gra ph is t rac e d givi ng the height of w a te r sur fa ce

and co rresp o ndi ng tim e U su ally these ga ges a re p rovide d

.

with an 8 d a y clock and the shee t of pa pe r is j u st l a rge enough

-

to last thr ou gh this pe riod It is nec essa ry theref o re f or an

.

a ttenda nt to vi sit these g a ges once a wee k to re pla c e the pa pe r

a nd wi nd the cl ock A no n rec o rding ga ge shou ld alwa ys be

.
-

erected clo se to a re co rding ga ge a nd the two ga ges s hou ld be

adj u s te d to giv e t he sa m e re a di ng Whene ver a ne w shee t of

.
26 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAl l Ir
' ’
‘ ‘
. .

pa pe r is pl a ced on the rec ording gage it sho uld be se t a ccu ra tely

a s to ti m e a nd ga ge re a di ng a s giv en by t he no n re c o r di n g
g a ge -

and the d a te ti m e a nd g ag e rea di ng sh oul d be w ritte n o n the

, ,

shee t ne a r the point whe re the rec o rd b e gi ns Whe n the shee t .

is re m ov e d the da te a nd ti m e a nd r ea di ng of the no n r eco rdi ng -

ga ge sho uld be w ritten ne a r the point where the re c ord ends .

This p rovides f or the a dj u stm ent of inte rve ni ng rec o r ds w he re

suc h a dj ust m ent is ne c e ssa ry a nd i nsu re s a g a inst a po ss i bl e

e rro r f ro m us ing the w ro ng foot m a rk in t a k ing re co rds f r o m

the g ra ph 1
.

The re are two types of re c ordi ng ga ges ope ra te d by w e ight ,

d ri ven clocks which a re de signed to run f ro m 2 to 3 m onths

'

withou t a ttention These a re the Steve ns ga ge and the inte r

.
2

m itte nt Gu rl e y ga g e
8 The Ste v e ns ga ge giv e s a re c o rd in the
.

f o rm of a hydrogr aph sim il a r to th a t de sc ribe d a bov e bu t the

m e thod by whic h it is p rodu c e d is re ve rse d in tha t the clo c k
revolv es the d ru m a nd the flo a t m ove s the pe ncil The p a pe r .

is fed f ro m a l a rge roll w hi ch conta i ns abou t o ne ye ar s su pply

’
.

Reco rds m a y be rem ove d as de sired a nd if the ga ge is ope ra ti ng ,

p roperly it re qu ires no a tte ntion oftener than is ne c essa ry to

,

wind the clock .

The Gu rl e y ga ge ha s three type whee l s one co nta ini ng the ,

tim e whi c h is opera ted by a clock a nd two which give the ele
,

va tion of the wa te r su rfa ce to f ee t a nd hu nd re dths of a f oo t

a re co ntroll e d by a flo a t A reco rd of the e le va tion of the .

wa te r su rfa c e is p rinted eve ry 1 5 m inu te s whe n a rubbe r f a ced -

hamm e r strikes a strip of c a rbon b a cked p a pe r whic h p a sses

over the typ e wh ee ls .

The Ste ve ns ga ge and Gu rle y i nte rm itte nt ga ge give sa tis

facto ry resul ts whe n p roperly installed a nd the y re qu i re le ss
fre quent a tte ntion tha n othe r ga ges They are ra the r c om pl i .

ca te d how e ve r a nd c onsi dera bl e skill is nec e ssa ry to pr ope rl y!

, ,

i nstall and ope ra te the m If the exp ense of we ekly a ttention ‘

is no t too g re a t o ne of the si m pl e r a nd l e ss e xpe nsiv e ga g es

,

will prove e qu ally sa tisf a c to ry .

Re cor ding ga ge s shou ld be se cu rely hou sed in o rde r to prote c t

the m f rom ste m s a nd the po ssibl e ra va ge s o f l awle ss pe rsons .

Gage hou se s a re u su a lly bu ilt ov e r well s c o nne c te d to the strea m

1 Ga ges of this t y p e a re m a nu f a c t u re d by J uli an P F r ie z , Ba ltim o r e , M d
. .
,

a nd W dz . L . E . G u rle y T ro y , N Y
, . .

3 M a nu f a c tu r e d by L e u p o ld V o e lp e l, P o r tla nd , O r e .

M a nu f a c t u re d by W . L E G u r le y , T r o y . N Y
. . . .
264 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRA ‘
it

is not too tu rbu l ent O rdina rily floa ts sh wl ! no t be u se d if a

. a

curre nt m e ter m easu rem ent is p ra ctic able I

-
f how ev e r a
.
, ,

c u rrent m e te r is not a vail able or if it is re qu i red to m e a su r e a

st rea m a t flood s ta ge whe re a m e te r c a nnot be O pera te d t he ,

flo a t m e thod m ay be nec essar y .

A w e ir if p ro pe rly c onst ru cte d p rovides the m o st sa tisf a c to ry

, ,

m ea ns of obta i ni ng co ntinu ou s discha rge reco rds I f a sh a rp .

c reste d we i r is u se d the di scha rg e c o rre sponding to a giv e n

head m a y be obta ine d di rectly f rom f orm u l a pa ge 7 2 If a .

weir has a c ross sectio n sim il a r to a ny of the se ctions given on

- .

pages 1 32 to 1 38 the c oe fficie nts co rresponding to the p articu lar

,

sha p e of c re st m a y be ta k e n f rom Ta bl e s 42 to 5 3 inclusiv e ,

pa ges 1 4 3 to 1 4 8 and a ppli ed to fo rm u la

,
pa ge 1 28 I f a .

wei r ha ving a c ro ss s e ctio n f o r whic h no e xpe rim e nta l coe ffi

-

cients h ave b e en obta ine d is to be u se d the discha rge s c o r r e,

sp onding to di ff e re nt g a g e h e ight s should be m e asu re d If a .

we ir is p rope rly constru cted the c ont rol f or the ga ging sta tio n
,

is p erm a ne nt . The re is u su ally how eve r a te nde nc y f o r silt

, ,

to deposit b ack of the w e i r a nd i nc re a se the vel o city of a pp roa c h .

This c ondition shou ld be ca re fully stu die d and f rom ti m e t o

ti m e measu re m ents shou ld be m a de to che ck the re l a tion o f
ga ge height to disc ha rge Fo r perm a ne nt s ta tions sha r p
’
.
.

c reste d we i rs will not u su ally be a s sa tisf a c to ry a s we i rs of so m e

o the r type a s it will be f o u nd di fficu lt to m a i nt a i n a s ha r p c res t .

St re a m s c a n o rdi na rily be m e asu re d with a c u r re nt m e te r a t

, ,

low a nd m e diu m sta ge s with little di fficu lty but to co m ple te ,

the dis c h a rge c u rv e m ea su re m e nt s a t flood s t a ge s a re re qu i r e d .

These a re of te n di ffic u lt to obt a in p a rtly be ca use of the s ho r t

,

d u ra tio n of suc h sta g es a nd a lso be ca u se of ra pid ch ange s o f

s ta ge s wif t c u rre nt s a nd O b s t ru ctio n of the st re a m s u rf a c e by
, ,

floa t ing dr if t or ice U nd e r su ch conditions a c cu ra te c u rre nt

.

m e te r m e a su re m e nts b e c o m e i m poss ible (s ee p a ge Ve ry

o f te n fl o od d isch a rg e s m a y m o r e re a d ily be O bt a ine d by u s i ng

a n a dj a c e nt d a m a s a w e i r a f t e r s e l e cti ng a su ita ble c oe ffic i e nt

, .

It is d es ira bl e tha t a p ro file a nd se ction of the d a m shal l ha v e

bee n obta ine d p re v iou sly d u ring low w a te r sta ges In ge ne r a l .
,

t he d a m b e co m es inc re a s i ngly m o re a c c u ra te a nd the c u rr e nt

m e te r le s s s o as the sta ge i ncre as es .

The m e thod Of che m ic a l gaging is W ell a da pte d to sm a ll

tu rbu l ent strea m s whe re a stra ight u nif o rm re a c h o f c ha nne l ,

su it abl e f o r cu rre nt m e t e r m e a su r e m e nts

-
c a nno t be f o u nd
, .

Suc h st rea m s a re f r e qu e ntly enco u nte re d in r o ck y m ou nta i no u s ,

 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FLO W I NG WAT E R 26 5

t
di s ir cts wh e r,
e th e ch a nn el s a r e rou gh b u t u sua lly of a p e rm a

nen t ch r
a a cte r Th e r e i
.s u n d e r su ch
,
c o n ditio n s littl e d i ffi ,

culty in loc ating a ga ge above a perm anent control a nd a ,

disc harge cu rve once de te rm ined m a y be u se d inde finitely ,

.

The co m p ar a tiv e ly h i gh co st of m e a su r i ng di sc ha r g e s m a y
t he refore be j u stifie d if re co rds f or a long p er iod a re desire d
,
.

—
Discharge Cur ve s A di scha rge cu rve m a y be ob tained by
.

plotting on ordinary c ross s ection pa pe r discha rge s a s ab scissas

-
,

wit h corresp onding g age he ights as o rdina tes a nd dra wing a

sm ooth cu rve throu gh the m ean pos ition of the se poi nt s I f .

t he gagings ha ve b een p rope rly m ad e the point s shoul d lie ve ry

clos e to the cu r ve .

3
,
o
n 5.
h
n
Di sc a rge in Se co nd F ee t-

Fi 75 — Dis ch a r ge m e a n v e lo cit y a nd ar e a cu r v e s
g
. .
, , .

An cu rve is a gra phic al represe nta tion of the area of the

a rea

c r o ss sec tion of the channel f or di ff erent gage heights Da ta

-
.

f o r the cu rve a re obta ine d by ta king a reas co rresponding to ,

p roper intervals of ga ge he ight f ro m a plotte d c ro ss section ,

-
.

For ea ch gaging of a stream a valu e of the m e an velocity

f o r the p a rticula r gage height m a y be obta ine d by divi di ng the
dis charge by the a rea From the v alu es thu s obta ine d a m e an
.

ve locity cu rve m ay be plotted .

Fig 7 5 shows typic al di scha rge m ea n v elocity and a rea

.
,
-

cu rves The sa m e vertic al coordina tes are u se d for each c urve

. .

For co rres po nding gage heights the ab scissa of the discha rge
266 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

cu rve is e vidently the p rodu ct of the abscissas of the other two

cu rves Area a nd m ea n velocity cu rves when plotted in con
.
-

ne ction with di sc ha r ge cu rves m a y a ss is t in dete rm ining the

a ccu racy of indi vidu a l m e a su rem ents by showing whe the r a

disc re pa ncy is du e to e rrone ou s m easu rem ent of a rea o r vel oc ity .

Duri ng a rising sta ge the flow of a st rea m is g re a ter f or a ,

given g a ge height and du ring a f alling sta ge less than when the
,

flow is u nif orm It is the ref ore i m po rtant tha t ga ge rea dings
.

a t the b e ginni ng and e nd of a disc h a rge m easu rem e nt shoul d

be as nea rly e qu a l a s p rac tic a bl e Fig 7 6 is a dis cha rge cu r ve

. .

f or a ri sing a nd f a lling flood the points 5 to 1 7 inclu sive indi

,

c a ting the se qu ence of m e asu re m ents du ring the flood The .

Di sc h a rge i n Se c o nd F ee t
-

F IG . 7 6 — T y p ic a l d is c h ar ge ,
. c u r ve f or floo d s ta ges .

disc h a rge cu rve f or a rising flood is be low a nd f or a re ce d ing ‘

flood above the di sc ha rge cu rve f or a consta nt sta ge the am ou nt ,

of di ve rg e nc e inc re a si ng with the ra te o f cha nge in st a ge .

S ai g
tr ht -
line M e th o d s of Plo tti ng D i g
schar e Cur e s
v — It .

f re qu ently h a ppens tha t th e re a r e no t su ffici e nt m e asu re m e nt s

to de te rm ine a discha rge cu rve a ccu ra tely when plotte d by the ,

m ethod desc ribe d a bove o r it m a y be de sire d to e xtend the

,

c u rve a bov e o r b e low the ra ng e of plot te d po ints In so m e .

i nsta nces it m a y be ne cessa ry to plot the b e st cu r ve possibl e

f ro m a v e ry lim ited nu m b er of m e a su rem ents or ev en f ro m a
singl e m ea su re m ent I n su ch c a ses it is cu s tom ar y to sele ct
.

c o or d ina te s tha t a re re sp ee tiv ely f u nctions of the g a ge he ight

268 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAIE

2000 second feet might have been u sed The main consid e ra
-
.

tions are to se l ect three point s where the cu rve is a ccu r a t e ly

establi sh e d a nd if po ssible to choo se a ra tio w hi ch will l o c a te

two of the points nea r the lower e nd a nd one qu ite well u p o n t he g

cu rve Fro m the poi nts A a nd B vertic al line s a re e xte nd ed

.

u pw a rd a nd f rom the points B a nd C ho ri z o nt al lines a re d r a w n

which inte rsec t the v ertic al line s a t E a nd D The lines DE

'

a nd BA a re then d ra wn to thei r inte rs e ctio n F a nd the ve rti c a l

‘

Lo gari th m of Di sc harge in Second F ee t

00
20 300
0 4000 5000
Disc ha r ge i n Se co nd Feet

FIG . 77 .
-
L o g a r i thm d is char ge cu r v e .

dista nc e of F f rom the o rigin is e the qua ntity sou ght This ,
.

m e thod is the o retic a lly co rre ct bu t m ay give a result slightly in

1

e r ro r du e to i na cc u ra cy in plotti ng

Af te r c ha s b een de te rm ine d va lu e s of Q a nd G 6 m a y be

plotte d on loga rithm ic p a pe r or the loga rithms of these qua n

tities m a y be plotte d o n ordina ry c ross section p a pe r The -
.

pl o tte d points should lie close to a stra ight bu t a di ff e renc e of a ,

f e w hu nd re dths in 6 will g re a tly e ff e ct the positions o f poi nts for

the sm a ller di sch arg es a nd it m a y be tha t on firs t t r ia l the lower
1 For th e
p f f
root hi mOt h d T s O DO RE
e R RUoN N IN
see : E m p
HEi i al . G r c

F m l
or u as , p 47 . .
 M E ASU RE M E N T O F FL O W I NG W AT E R 269

p o in ts w ill no t f a ll e xa c tly in line with the u ppe r o nes A slight .

c o rre c tio n to the v a lu e o f 8 w ill the n be nec e ssa ry The log .

a rithm of the requ i re d co rre ctio n will be give n a pp roxi m a te ly

b y the v e rtic al distance f rom the low e st plotte d point to a

s t ra ight li ne p a sse d throu gh the u pp e r points .

Af te r the loga rithm ic discha rge cu r ve ha s bee n sa ti sfa cto rily

plotte d the e qu a tion of the cu rve m a y be w ritten or a ny de
s ire d po i nt m a y be t ra nsf erre d di re ctly to the o rdi na ry d is

cha rge cu rve The e qu a tion Of the cu rve show n in Fig 7 7 is

. .

Q 35 1 (G ( l l a )
The o rdina ry discha rge cu rve as plotte d is a gra ph of this e qu a
tio n It is evident tha t in this case a loga rith m ic disch a rge
.

c u rve cou ld h a v e b e e n d ra wn with pra ctic a lly the sa m e re su lt

f r om a m u ch sm a ll e r nu m b e r of poi nts .

Theor e ti c a lly three m e a su r e m e nt s a t diff e re nt sta ges of a

s t re a m will d e te rm i ne the e qu a tio n of the di sch a rge c u rve .

The th ree co rres ponding v alu e s of Q a nd G ca n be su bs titu te d

in e qu a tio n ( 1 1 ) a nd th re e s i m u lt a ne ou s e qu atio ns fro m which
e a nd n m a y be de t e rm i ne d w ill re sult The e qu a tion of the .

c u r ve m a y th e n be w r itt e n by su b stitu ting th e se v alu e s inthe

o riginal e qu a tio n o r a f te r e ha s b ee n d e te r m ine d the log a rith m s

,

o f Q a nd G e m a y be plotte d .

With two di sc harge m e asu rem e nts gi ve n e m a y be obta ine d ,

f ro m field ob se r va tions a nd a n a pp roxi m a t e loga rithmic dis

c ha rg e c u rve m a y be dra wn th rou gh the two plotte d pos itio ns of

Q a nd G 6 Very a pp roxim a tely with a single disch a rge

. .

m e asu r e m e nt 6 m a y be obt a ine d as above a nd a line dra w n

, ,

t h r o u gh the o ne p l o tte d point a t a n a ngl e who se t a nge nt is

with the log (G c) a xis Su c h a m e thod shoul d be u se d only
.

wh e n a ro u gh esti m a te of disc ha rg e a t som e p a rticul ar sta ge is

de s i r e d .

The se riou s obj ectio n to plotting a disc h a rge c u r ve f ro m a

sm a ll nu m b e r of ob se rva ti o ns is th a t it does no t p rov ide f o r the

e lim i na ti o n Of e r ro ne ou s m e a su re m e nts Whe re a ccu ra te .

rec ords a re re qu i re d a nu m b e r of ob se rv a tio ns c ov e r ing a s wide ,

a ra nge of sta ge as p r a c tic a bl e a re e sse ntia l .

The Ar e a M e an depth Discharge Curve - — Thi s m e thod de .

, ,

vised by Steve ns is b ase d u pon the assu m ptio n th a t the m e a n

1
,

1 J . C ST
. EV E NS : A M et ho d E s tim a ti ng Str e a m Dis c har g e f ro m
of a L i rn
i te d N u m be r of G a gi ng a . J
E ngi ne eri ng Ne ws , u ly 1 8 1 907 , .
27 0 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI
CS

ve loc ity a t the gaging se c tio n is giv e n by the C he z y f o rmu l a a nd .

tha t
6
Q (13) 5

the nom encl a tu re b e ing the sa m e a s give n o n p age 1 89 The .

m ean depth d which is a pp roxim a tely e qu al to r f or m o st

na tu ra l strea m s m a y be su b s titu te d f or r in the a bove e qu a tio n .

If w is the width of the st rea m

a

w
a nd writing d f or r in e qu atio n ( 3)
1

Q /s
ox c\ /d (1 5)
I
f Q be considered a function of a x/ E with cx/ E constant this
e xp ression is the e qu a tio n o f a s t ra ight li ne .

From inve stiga tions O f a nu m b e r of stre a m s it has b een f o u nd

tha t when Q is plotte d as a f u nctio n of a x/ Zi the points lie ve ry
c lose to a s t ra ight li ne The a pp a rent e rro rs in assum ing c a nd
.

s to be consta nts a nd the e xpo ne nt o f d to be a ppe a r to ve ry

nea rly b a la nc e e a ch othe r .

Fig 7 8 shows a di sc ha rge c u r ve p re pa re d by thi s m e thod

.

f rom the sa m e da t a tha t we r e u se d f o r Fig 7 7 To f a cilita te .

plotti ng a cu rv e of a x/E is us u a lly constru cted which will

, ,

i nclu de the enti re range of sta ge and after it ha s b een com ple ted
points on the di sc ha rge cu rve m a y be de term ine d di rectly from
ga ge read ings Valu es of ax/ Zi m ay be com pu ted f o r ea ch
.

f oot o r half f oot inter val of ga ge he ight di m e ns io ns u se d in the

-

c om pu ta tions b e i ng s c a l e d f ro m a plotte d c ro ss se cti o n of the -

cha nne l The dotte d line indi c a tes the m e thod of loc a ting a
.

discha rge m e asu rem ent O f 1 7 5 7 se co nd fee t with co rresponding -

ga ge rea ding of f ee t on the an/d discha rg e cu rv e a nd tra ns

,

f e rring the poi nt to the o r dina ry discha rge c u rve .

The a x/d discha rge c u rve i nte r se c t s the a xi s of zero di scha r g e

a t a point whe re the va lu e o f a x/ fi is a bou t 60co rrespondi ng to a

ga ge re a ding of This m ay be com p are d to the val u e of

e obtai ne d from the loga rithm ic di sc h a rge cu rve Fig 7 7 ,
. .

The tru e ga ge rea ding of z e ro di scha rge is dou btl e ss so m e w ha t

b elo w e ithe r of the se valu es H o weve r a s two ga gings O f abou t
.
,

50sec ond f ee t fall on the stra ight li ne in e a ch c ase it is a pp a rent

-

tha t both the loga rithm ic a nd a x/ Zl disc ha rge cu rve s a re accu r a te

f o r all bu t the ve ry sm all e st di sch a rge s Re su lts Obta ine d .

f ro m stu di es o f oth e r stre a m s bea r ou t thi s co ncl u sio n Ste v e ns .

—
st a t e s th a t the a x/ ci di sc ha rg e cu rve will i nte rse c t the z e ro dis
27 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

It should be unders tood t hat the above discu ssion ref ers o nly
to s tr e a m s ha ving a re asona bly u nif o rm c ro ss se ctio n a nd it does
-

not a p ply to cha nnel s with b a nks th a t ha ve ab ru ptly ch a ngi ng

slopes . If the stream has a flood pl ain at a gaging se ctio n the ,

portion of the cha nnel lying ou ts id e of the regular b anks of the

s t re am shoul d be co nsid e red se p a ra te ly .

Discha r ge Tabl e — . Afte r a di scharge cu rve has been sa tis

f a cto r ily plotte d a nd chec k ed a disch arge t abl e shou ld be
,

p rep a red The following is a po rtio n of the disc h a rge ta ble f o r

.

the H u ron Ri ve r a t the Full e r St s ta tio n which gi ve s d is

.
,

cha rges f or ea ch f oot i nte rv a l of ga ge h e ight

-
.

The com pl e ted ta bl e shou ld c o ve r the e nti re range in sta g e o f

the st rea m .Su c h a tabl e m a y be u se d di rec tly withou t i nt e r
p ola tio n and m a te ri ally re d u ces the l abo r of wo rking u p d a ily
,

disc ha rg es fro m the gag e rec ords .

The m o s t sa tisfa cto ry m e thod of co m pu ti ng a di scha rge ta ble .

is f rom the e qu a tion of the disc h arge cu rve si m ilar to e qu a tion

,

( 1 1 a ) pa ge 269
, . It w ill be f ou nd ne c essa ry to com pu te d is
cha rges by the f o rmu l a only f o r ea ch f oot interval of g a ge
-

height the r em a ining discha rges b e ing de te rm ine d by t he

,

m ethod of di ff erences The firs t diff e re nc es will g ra du a lly in

.

c rease whil e the second di ff erenc es will d ec rea se slightly with a n

i nc rease of sta g e a nd b ec om e v e ry nea rly c onsta nt f Or the highe r
s tages . In o rd e r to ha ve the qu antiti e s in the t a bl e co rre ct to
—
the nea res t se cond f oot the c o m pu ta tions by d iff erenc es s hou ld
be c a rrie d ou t to one or two dec i m al pl ac es and the res u lts ,

tabu l a te d to the nea res t whol e nu m ber .

A d ischa rge tabl e m a y be m a de di re c tly f rom the d i sc ha rge

 M E ASU RE M E NT O F FL O W I NG W AT E R 27 3

cu r ve by sc aling values from the cu rve f or eac h

,
foo t inter -

v al oi g a ge he ight a nd inte rpol a ting interm edi a te v a l u es

, The .

qu a ntiti es thus obta ined shou ld then be adj u ste d till the first
a nd se co nd d iff ere nc es v a ry u nifo rm ly This p roc ess will be
.

f ou nd to be v ery tediou s a nd is no t a s sa ti sf a cto ry as the me thod

,

of com pu ting valu es f rom the e qu a tion of the cu rve .

Verifi ca tion of Di scharge Curve The a ccu ra cy of the dis

.
-

cha rge reco rds obta i ned a t any sta tion depends in a l a rge m eas
u re u pon the m a intena nc e of a k now n rel a tio n b e tw een ga ge

he ight and disch arge Any co nditio ns of flow whic h m a y have

.

a te ndency to eff e ct the cont rol sho u l d be c a r ef u lly w a tch e d .

It is the ref o re a dvisable to m a k e occ asional ga gings of the

st rea m pa rtic ula rly af te r floods to c he ck the disch a r ge c u r ve
, ,
.

If it should be fou nd a t a ny tim e that a change of cha nnel con

di tio ns has a ff e cte d the rel a tion of s ta ge to disch a rge it will be
ne c essa ry to m a k e a new se t of ga gings a nd c o nst ru ct a new
di scha rge cu r ve The tim e when the use of the new disc harge
.

c u rve sho u ld be sub stitu te d f o r the old will be the ti m e a t whic h ,

in the j u dgm ent of the e nginee r the c ha nge in cha nnel c ondi
,

tions occ urred .

Stream s with Shif ting Be ds —Th e re a r e c e rt a in st rea m s of

.
,
{
w hi ch those in sou thwes te rn U nite d Sta te s a re typic a l whi c h ,

ha ve conti nu a lly shif ting be ds a nd c o nse qu e ntly a continu ally

c ha nging rela tion b e twee n gage height a nd di scha rge To Ob .

t a in co ntinu ou s disc ha rge r e c o rds on su ch str ea m s disc h a rge

m easu re m e nts should be m a de e ve ry f e w da ys If the sta ge .

of the strea m doe s no t c ha nge ra pidly the discha rge m a y be

a ssu m e d to v a r y u nif o r m ly b e twe e n su cce s si v e ga gings a nd

inte rm e di a te disc h a rg e s m a y be inte rp o la t e d Thi s m e thod

.
,

how ev e r is not sa tisf a cto ry and it f a il s e nti re ly f o r va rying

,

ra tes of cha nge in flow .

Severa l m e thods ha ve b e en su gge ste d f o r O b ta i ni ng continu

o u s di sc ha rg e rec o rds fro m ga ge rea di ngs bu t o nly o ne the
, ,

Stou t m e thod will be de sc ri be d

,
An a vera ge di scha rge cu rve
.

is first dra wn f ro m the disc h a rg e m e asu re m e nts The n f o r .

ea ch di sch a rge m ea su re m e nt the co rre c ti o n plu s o r m inu s is

, ,

obtained whi ch m us t be a pplie d to the ga g e rea ding to m a k e it

corres po nd to the a pp roxim a te discha rge cu rve The se cor .

re ctio ns a re then plott e d f o r the p ro p e r d a t e as show n in Fig ,

.

7 9 af te r whi ch a c u rve is d ra w n th rou gh the po ints

,
The .

points m a y be connec te d sim ply wit h the idea of obta ining a

sm oo th cu rv e u nless so me c o nd itio n su c h a s a flood on a p a r

18
274 H AND BOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

ticula r day might i ndi c a te tha t the re had b ee n only a sli ght
change in the cha nne l u p to tha t ti me Af te r the c u rve has .

b een com pl e te d the ga ge rea di ngs f or each day m a y be co r

,

rec te d a nd th ese in tu rn m a y be u sed to obta in di sch a rges f ro m

the a pproxima te c u rve or ta bl e of lis cha rges

/
.

Ap r i l M ay

FIG 7 9 — C u r v e f or
. . co rr e c ting g a g e r e a ding s f or cha nging
c ha nne l c o nditio ns .

Dischar ge of Str eam s dur ing Fr e e zing W eather .

1 — The f ree z
ing of a stre a m m ay o r m ay not a ff ec t the rela tio n of g age he ight
to discha rg e I f the co ntrol (se e p ag e 259) is f ree from ice the
.

s t rea m a t the g a g e m ay be e nti re ly f r o z e n Ove r witho u t ch a ng

i ng this rel a tio n As soo n howe ve r a s ice fo rm s a t the co ntrol

.
, ,

t he wa t e r will be b a ck e d u p a nd c a u se a de c re as e d discha rg e
f o r a gi ve n g ag e he ight Ic e m a y colle ct a bove or b e low a
.

co ntrol in su fficie nt qu antity to te m pora rily f o rm a new con

trol The re a re thre e dis ti nc t typ es of ice fo rm a tio n ; su rfa c e
.

ice a ncho r ice a nd f r a z il o r slu sh ice

, , In a ny of the se fo rm s .

o r in the i r co m bi ne d i nflu e nc e ic e m ay c au se a b a cki ng u p

e ff e ct o f the w a te r of a st re a m .

Ancho r ice f o rm s in runni ng w a te r on cold nights whe n the

tem pe ra tu re of the wa te r is be low 32 F a dhe ring to the be d °
.
,

o f the riv e r o r to so m e oth e r su rf a c e with which the w a te r

com es in conta ct When the tem p e ra tu re of the wa te r be com es

.

a s m a ll f ra ction of a de g re e g rea te r th a n 3 2 F the a ncho r ice

°
.

becom es loo sene d fro m the obj e ct to whi c h it is a tta ched rises ,

to the su rfa ce a nd floa ts down stre am Fra zil o r slush ice .

f o rm s in ru nni ng wa te r whe n the te m pera t u re of the wa te r is

,

be low 32 F in the shap e of sm all needles or thi n flakes which

°
.
,

1 T his s ub e c t
j i s f u lly d is c u ss e d i n Wa ter Su p p ly P a p er No 3 37
. of t he
U . S G e o lo g ic a l Su r v e y
. .
 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

TABL E 87 .

DAIL Y D ISCH ARG E , IN S l C O N D—FEET . Snvra n

or RIV E R N E AR
G u nm s o n, U T AH . FO R 1910

Nor a — Daily d is c ha r ge d e te r m ined f r o m d is c ha rge r at ing c u r ve f a ir l

we ll de fine d . Dis c ha r ge i nte r p o la ted f o r da ys on whi c h g a ge was no t r ea
Dis c har ge Dec 22 t o 3 1 es t i m a te d
. .

M o u r ns : Drs a ne n o r Se vre s Brv a n N E AR G U N N IS O N U r An s o n 1 9 1 0

,
'
,

[ Dra ina ge a re a . s q u a r e m iles ]

 M x: O F FLO W I NG W ATE R 27 7

m a y be v drawing the cu rve of ga ge c orrections be

. n

twe e n the k nown poi nts Af te r this c u rve ha s b een co m ple ted
.

the g a g e readi ngs m a y be c o rrec te d a nd a pplied to the op e n

w a te r discha rge c u rve .

—
Recor ds of Di scharge J Daily discha rge reco rds should be
ta b u la te d a nd ke pt in a fo rm c onvenie nt for ref erence Ta ble .

8 7 indi c a tes the f o rm a dopte d by the U S Geo logi ca l Su rve y . . .

Jan u a r y F e b r u a ry M a rc h

F IG 80— H y d r g r a p h
3
. . .

H ydrogr a p hs, Fig 80, . a re gra phi c a l re p re se nta tio ns of re c o rds

of disc ha rge the ordi na te s e xp re ssing di sc ha rge s a nd the a bsc is
,

sa s ti m e . The y m a y be plo tte d co nti nu ou sly o r o n sep a ra te

shee ts , u su a lly f o r y ea rly p e r io d s H ydrog ra ph s c o nve y a
.

be tte r m e nta l pi c tu re of the disc ha rge of a st rea m tha n is poss i

ble f ro m ta bul a te d va lu e s a nd whe n d ra wn to a s m a ll sc a le
, ,

the y a re v e ry valu a ble f o r repo r ts a nd o the r pu rp o se s whe re

ge neral conditio ns o nly a re to be e xp resse d H yd ro gra phs .

plotte d to a sc al e of f ro m 1 to 2 inch es to the m o nt h m a y be .

used t o a dva nta g e in m a ny p robl e m s p e rt a i ning to s t re a m flo w

.

a nd in c o nnectio n with the m ass di ag ra m p a ge 294 th ey m a

y , ,

be he lp f ul in sto rag e c a l c ul a ti ons .

 C H AP T E R X
I

SP E CIAL P ROBLE M S

Back water Curve

Ba ckwa ter c urve is the term a pplie d to the profil e of the

su rf a c e O f the w a t er in a ch a nnel a bo ve a da m o r Othe r ob s t ru e

tio n The p roblem ma y be e ncou ntered in eithe r c a na ls or

.

na tu ra l st re a m s . When a da m is co ns t ru cte d a c ross a na tu ra l

s trea m it m ay be ne c ess a ry to de t e rm i ne the flow li ne f o r flood

disc ha rges in the po nd abo ve the da m in o rde r to e stim a te

p rope rty d a m a ges o r to c a lcula te the e ff e ct of ba ckw a te r on a
powe r pla nt a bo ve the da m The solu tio n h ere given is ge nera l
.

a nd a pplie s to e ith e r na tu r a l or a rti fici al c ha nne l s

. The p ro ble m
a s co mm only sta t e d give s the di sc ha rg e a nd e l e va tio n of w a t e r

su rf ac e a t the ob st ru c tio n c a u si ng b a ckwa ter ; it bei ng d e s i re d

to obtai n the e l e va tio n Of wa te r su rf a c e a t su cc essive poin t s

up st re a m fro m the O b st ru ctio n .

The first ste p in the solu ti on co nsi sts of di vidi ng the str eam
i nto rea c he s of su c h l e ngth tha t a m e a n c ross sectio n Of the
-

re a ch m a y be obta i ne d w hi ch whe n u sed in the com p u ta tio ns ,

,

will give results within the d esi red li m its of a ccu ra cy The .

com pu ta tio ns u su ally star t a t the obs tru ction with a kno wn o r
assu m ed di sc h a rge a nd co rr e spo ndi ng e l e va tion of w a ter su r

f ac e The sl o p e thr ou gh the first re ac h is the n c alc u la te d f rom

'

which the e l e va tio n of w a te r su rf a ce a t the begi nning of the

seco nd re a c h m a y be obta i ne d . Thi s e le va tio n m a y the n be
u sed a s a b as i s f o r co m pu ti ng the sl o p e in the se c o nd re a c h ,

w hi c h in tu rn gi ve s d a t a f o r o bt a ining the el e vatio n of w a te r

su rf a c e a t the b eginni ng o f the t hi rd re a c h . I
n the sa m e m a n
ner the slo p e o f othe r r e a c he s m a y be de t e r m ine d u ntil t he
so l u tio n ha s b ee n c a rr i e d a s f a r a s is d e si re d
.

A pla n of the ch a nnel a nd da ta f o r o bta ining a s m a ny c r o ss

se c ti o ns a s a r e d esi r e d s h o u ld be a v a il abl e
. Fig 8 1 show s a
.

pla n lo ngitu dina l se c tio n a nd two typic a l cross se c tio ns of a

,
-

na tu ra l st rea m . The pl a n sh o ws c o nto u rs f ro m which c r o ss

27 8
2 80 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

°
s ec tion oc cu r it is generally a dvisa ble to ta ke a shor t rea c h t h a t
exte nds f ro m j u st b elow to j u st a bove the pl a c e wh e r e t he

c ha nge occu rs .

The lo ngitu dina l se c tion Fig 8 1 sh ows the genera l f o rm o f

, .
,

the b a ckwa te r c u rve The b a ckwa te r cu rve g ra du ally a p

.

p roa ches the line of no rm a l wa te r su rf ac e a nd will ultim a te l y

becom e tangent to it I n p ra ctic a l p robl e m s it m a y be ass um e d
.

tha t when the slope of the ba ckwa ter cu rve becom es ap p roxi
m a te ly p a ra ll e l to the be d Of the stre am the limi t of the back ,

wa te r ha s b een re ac he d .

The slop e of e a ch re a ch m ay be com pu te d by a ny of the

f o rm u l a s f o r flow in op e n ch a nnels To do this a m ea n c ross
.

sectio n f o r the re ac h m u s t be obt a ine d For re gul a r c anal s .

this c ross se ction m a y u su a lly be ta ken as the se ctio n a t the

-

m iddle of the re a ch Fo r na tu ra l s t rea m s a m e a n of all c ro ss

.

s e c tio ns in the rea ch as nea rly a s m a y be obta ined by p r ac

,

tica ble m ea ns sho u ld be u se d

, This m ea n c ross section m a y be
.
-

obta ine d by plotting a nu m be r Of sec tions ha ving a com m on ,

c e nte r line ove r e a c h oth e r a nd d ra wing a n a ve ra ge li ne throu gh

,

the m The ele va tion of wa ter su rf a c e to be u sed in this c ase

.

will be the eleva tion a t the m i ddl e of the rea ch .

If b a ckwa te r cu rve s f o r se ve ral di ff e rent disch a rg es a r e to be

dete rm ined tim e m a y be sa ve d by co m pu ti ng se vera l a rea s a nd
,

hydraul ic ra dii f o r the m ea n c ross se cti o ns f or e a ch rea c h -

,

u s i ng e le va ti o ns of wa t e r su rf a c e c ho sen a rbit ra rily within the

r a ng e of as su m e d c o nditi o ns a nd f r o m t h e se v al u e s d ra wing
,

a rea c u rv e s a nd hyd ra u li c r a dii cu r ve s by plotti ng o n c r o ss

sectio n p a p e r e l eva ti ons f o r ordi na tes a nd a re a s a nd hydra ul ic

ra dii r es p e c tive ly f o r a b s cis sas Any valu e s the n ne e de d in the

.

co m pu ta ti o ns m a y be t a ke n f rom the se cu r ve s The a reas o f .

plotte d c ro ss se ctio ns m a y be convenie ntly obta ine d by m eans

-

of a pl a ni m e t e r Whe re se vera l el e va ti o ns of wa te r su rf a c e are

.

to be conside re d a t a ny c ross sec tion it w ill be f ou nd co nvenient

-

to firs t c om pu t e the a rea f o r the highest wa te r su rf a c e and

then f o r the next l ower wa ter su rf a c e su btra ct the a rea be
, ,

tween the ele va tions Of the two wa ter su rf a ces This su btrac .

ti ve qu antity will be e qu al to the di ff e re nce in eleva tio n o f the

two su rf a c es m u ltiplied by thei r m ea n l e ngth The l ength of .

we tte d p e rim e te r m a y be sc al e d f ro m the c ross se c t ion On -

.

o r dina ry riv e r c ha nne l s the we tte d p e ri m e te r is e qu a l ap p roxi

m a te ly to the width of the strea m pl u s the m a xi mu m de pth o f

wate r or m ore a cc u rately f or channels of ne a rly rec ta ng u la r
,
 SPE C I AL P RO BLE M S

c r o ss se
- ction it is equ al to the width of strea m plus 2 tim e s
,

t h e m e a n d e pth .

Afte r ob ta ining m ean c ross sections the first ste p in the com
-

p u t a t io ns is to a ssu m e a slope f o r the reac h b ei ng c o nsid e re d in

o r d e r t ha t a n ele va tio n o f w a te r su rf ac e a t the m iddle of the

,

rea ch f o r the c ro ss se ctio n m a y be obta i ned

,
-
With thi s t ri al .

e l e v a tio n dec ided u po n the a rea a nd hyd rau lic ra di u s f o r the

se ct io n m a y be de te rmi ne d a nd v
9 f ou nd The slope of .

f
wa te r su r ac e ma y then be co m pu te d by an open cha nne l f o r -

m u la . If the co m pu ted slope diff e rs m a teri ally f ro m the

assum ed slope a sec o nd co m pu ta tio n m a y be m a d e u si ng this ,

com pu te d slope f o r dete rm ini ng the tri a l eleva tion of wa te r

su r fa c e at the m iddle of the re ach Usu ally howe ve r thee rro r
.
, ,

in a rea int rodu ce d by u si ng the assu m e d slop e will be insig

nifica nt and a sec o nd co m pu ta tio n will no t be ne c e ssa ry Af te r .

the slope of wa te r su rf a ce f o r the first re a ch has b e e n de term i ne d ,

the e l e va tio n of w a te r su rfa c e a t the be gi nning Of the se co nd

re a c h m a y be ob ta i ne d a nd the co m p u t a tio ns f o r the oth e r

reac h es m a y be m ade in the sam e m a nne r as desc ribed f or the

Slope compu ta tio ns m a y be rea dily m a de by m e a ns of M a n

nin g e formula (p ag e which ma y be w ritte n in the f o rm
’

1
Valu e s of 2 2 08214 5
fo r g
a ra n e of r f ro m to 55 f e e t a re g i ve n
in T a bl e 82, p a ge 222 , a nd by i g this table the sol u tion
us n

re du c e s to the sim pl e ope ra tio n of m ultiplying the ta b ula te d

val u e co rrespo nding to the given r by (nv) 2

The co m pu ta tio ns .

ma y be still farther redu c ed by u sing Dia gram 2 opposite pa ge ,

230 f or de termining s
, This diagram will be acc u ra te enou gh
.

for o rdina ry b ackwa ter c alc u l a tions .

E ngi ne e rs who a re a ccu stome d to u se Ku tte r s fo rm u la f o r ’

co m pu ta ti ons of this kind will find tha t the two fo rm u l as giv e

results a g ree ing ve ry clo sely If howeve r it ha s bee n de cided

.
,
,

to use a c e rtain valu e of n with Ku tte r s fo rm u l a the co rre ’

sp o nding va lue of n f o r M a nning s f o rm u l a whic h will give

’

identic al resu lts m ay be ob ta i ne d f ro m Tabl e 7 5 p age 204 , .

It will generally be f ou nd m o re convenie nt to m a rk O ff 1 00

fee t s t a tio ns on the c ente r l ine of the c ha nne l b e gi nni ng with ,
28 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

sta tion 0 at the downstrea m end of the cu r ve All e leva tions .

shou ld be referre d to the sa m e d a tu m a nd ti e d to one or m o re

,

permanent bench m a rks .

Prefera bly the resu lts of compu ta ti ons should be k ept in

ta bular f orm in order to system a tiz e the work and p ro vide
a co ncis e re co r d f o r fu tu re ref ere nc e . Ta ble 88 is a n exa m ple
of a f orm which ma y be used fo r ba ckwa ter com pu ta tions .

It is so m e ti m es desire d to de te rm ine the height to whic h

wa ter in a strea m a t a given point m a y be ra ise d by the constr ue
tio n of a da m or othe rwise withou t b a cki ng u p the wa ter above
a c erta in el eva tion a t s o m e poi nt fa rther u p s t re a m . I n thi s
case the m e thod to be f ollowe d in ma king com pu ta tions is the
sa me as des c rib e d a bov e e xc e pt tha t th ey p roc ee d do wns tre a m

i ns tea d of u pstream and slope corre ctions a re subtra cte d in

s tea d of a dde d .

I n c as e s where the stre a m is divi de d be twee n two cha nne ls

“

as in p a ss ing a rou nd opposit e sides of a n isl a nd , the give n

dis cha rge is divid ed by j u dgm ent b etween the two channe ls .

The slope in e a ch with its po rtion of the dis cha rge is co m pute d
a nd if it is fou nd tha t the com p u te d slope f or one ch a nnel giv es

a g re a te r di ff e re nce o f e l eva tion be twee n the e nd s o f the i sl a nd

tha n the com pu ted slope f or the othe r channe l the com pu ta tion,

is re pe a te d re du ci ng the p ropo rt ion of the disch a rg e a ssume d

,

to p a ss th rough the channel which g a ve the g re a te r di ff e rence

in e le va tion a nd i nc re a si ng the p ropo rtion of di scha rge f or the
cha nne l which gave the sm a lle r diff e re nce in e leva tion Thi s .

ha s the e ff e ct Of inc re a si ng the ca lcu la te d slope in one ch anne l

a nd re d u ci ng it in the othe r . The op e ra tion is re pe a ted u ntil
the flow is so div ide d be twee n the two cha nne l s th a t st a rting
with a n a ss um e d e le va tion a t one e nd the c a lcu la te d e le va tion
a t t he oth e r e nd of e a c h c h a nne l is the s a m e .

Af te r two co m ple te t ri a l solu tio ns ha ve be e n m a de the f ollow

,

ing g ra phic a l m e thod m a y be e m ploye d to co mple te the com

p u t a t io n
. s L e t Q 1 b e o n e of t he t ria l di sch a rg e s f or e ith e r

c ha nne l a nd Q ; the othe r t ri a l di sc h a rg e f or the sa m e ch anne l .

C onside r di sch a rg e s as a b scissa s a nd e le va tions as o rdina tes .

On the o rdi nate Q 1 plot the e leva tions obta ine d f o r ea ch ch anne l
f o r the t ri a l s olu tio n in whi ch Q 1 was u se d a nd on the o rdi na te
Q2 plot t h e e l e v a tio ns obt a i ne d by the oth er t ria l sol u tio n T.h e

o rdi na te o f the poi nt of i nte rse ction of the stra ight lines co n
nec ting t he poi nts f or e a c h c ha nne l w ill be the app roxim a te
e le va ti on re qu i re d . The a b sc issa of the p oint gi ve s the a p
284 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

p r oxim a te di sc ha rge of the c ha nne l fo r w hi c h Q 1 a nd Q , we re

tri a l di sch a rge s The va lu e s o bta ine d by this method m ay be
.

che cke d by slope c a lcu la tions .

I n case a s trea m has a flood pl a in which is overflowed d uring

highe r sta ge s it is b e tte r not to inclu de thi s po rtion of the dis
cha rge in the co m pu ta tions f or the ma i n channel bu t to su b ,

divide the flo w by j u dg m e nt b e tw ee n the flood pla in a nd m a in

cha nnel m a king the ca lc ula tions in the sa me m anner as for a
cha nne l divide d by an i sl and as a l rea dy d esc ribe d Tri a l
, .

s ubdi vis ions sho ul d be re p e a te d u ntil a divi sio n of t he flow has

b ee n f ou nd suc h t ha t the fa ll on the flood pla in in the give n

re a ch b e c o m es the sa m e a s the f a ll in the m a i n ch a nne l .

As a ru le the g ene ra lly a cc ep ted val ues of coe ffici ents of

r ou ghne ss c a nnot be f ollo w e d clo se ly in a pplyi ng the f o r mu l a s

f o r flow in op en cha nne ls e sp e ci a lly in c ase of low w a te r a nd

,

in cha nnels su bj e c t to b a ckwa te r fro m da m s I.n s u ch cha nne ls

there is u su a lly m o re o r less sla ckwa ter in pl a ces a long t he
botto m a nd sid e s of the channel which ca nnot p rop erly be
,

i nclu de d a s a n e ff ecti v e p a rt of the cha nnel It is us u a lly

.

di fficu lt to e li m ina te sla ck wa te r a rea s f rom m easu re d c ro ss

se c tio ns a nd in o rd e r th a t slop e c o m p u t a tions m a y in a m e asu re
, ,

a llow f o r this co ndi tion it is ne c e ssa ry to u se a l a rg e r coe ffic i e nt

of ro u gh ness . Na tu ra l c ha nne ls m a y re qu i re t he u se of a c oe f
fic ie nt of rou gh ne ss o f or in c a ses whe re the be d
a nd b a nks a re s u c h tha t the c a tego ric a l c oe ffic ie nt o f rou ghne ss

wou ld be to The p re sence o f sl a ckw a te r m ay of t en

be de te cte d by the growth of a qu a tic g rass in which case e ve n
, ,

thou gh the re is a good c u rrent the coe ffici ent of rou gh ness
,

will be mu ch la rger tha n f or a channel free fro m su ch

obstru ction .

It is f re qu ently i mpo rtant to de termine whe ther a n e xis ti ng

or p r opos e d da m has ca us ed o r will c a u s e a ri se in t he su rf a c e

e l e v a tio n of a st re a m a t s om e poi nt up st rea m f ro m the da m .

I n su ch c a ses a p ro file Of the w a t e r su rf a c e wh e n not i nflu e nce d

by b a ckwa ter is essenti a l The b est m e thod of obtaining the
.

ne c essa ry d a ta is to k ee p a conti nu ou s d aily re co r d of sta ge a nd

discha rge a t the poi nt in qu e stion If thi s i nfo rm a tion is
.

s e c u r e d b e f ore the d a m is b u ilt it will fu rnish the b e st possibl e

e v id e nc e a s to the na tu ra l s t a ge O f the strea m and f re qu e ntly

,

su c h d a t a c a nnot be s e c u re d af t e r the da m has b ee n b u ilt even ,

by d ra wing dow n the wa te r owi ng to changes in the channe l

,

by s ilti ng a nd the f o rm a ti o n Of b a rs a t the hea d Of the po nd .

 SPE C I AL P RO BL E M S 285

Divided Flow in Pipes

An e xa m pl e of this proble m is ill ustra ted by Fig 82 The . .

p i p e AB divides a t B i nto the two b ra nc hes BBC a nd BF C

whi ch re unite a t C whe re the y dis ch a rge i nto the pipe CD .

Le t I ,
ll ,
la a nd I
; re p r e se nt res p e ctiv e ly the l e ngth s o f pip es AB ,

BE C, E FC, and CD a nd d, d l dz a nd ds a nd 0 v1 v2 a nd vs the , , ,

co rres po nding di am e te rs a nd velocities K1 KG K 1 , and .

, ,

X 1 a re friction co e ffici e nts (see p a ge 1 54 and Ta ble 5 7 , p a g e

” ’

h e . 8 2 — P ip e w it h d ivid e d flo w
.
.

tota l hea d los t in f riction f ro m A to B is rep resente d

The
by h; f rom B to C by ha from C to D by h; and fro m A to D
, ,

t he tot a l h e a d lo s t in the sy s te m is rep rese nted by H It is

'

a p p a re nt th a t

H hi ha ha
l o
a s ,
se e pa ge 1 58 ,
l v2
1; v1 ?
1 v8 2
H X1 "

K
59 2; 26

And si nc e the los t hea d in the two b ra nchi ng pip e s m u s t be the

sa m e
lg 02 2
A 1
°

d2 1 25.
20

Fro m the pri ncipl e of co ntinu ity of flow the followi ng rela tio n
ma y be obta ined
vi di ’
vzd z
z

Al so fro m e q ua tions (5 ) a nd (6)

286 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

a nd fro m e q uations (7 a nd (9)

X1
2g du o

Fro m this equa tion v ma y be com pu ted and v; 11 2 and us m a y , ,

be obta i ne d f ro m e q ua tions (8) a nd Also H m a y be

c a lc u la te d when the discha rge a nd all di mensions of the pipe
s yste m a re given If H a nd the d is cha rge and all di m ensions
.

e xc ept one a re given the m issi ng di mensio n ma b co m p u t d

y e e

from the above formulas .

F IG 83 —Pip e with br a nc he s d isc ha rg i n at d i ff e re nt e le v a t io ns .

. .
g

The us e of Table 60 or 61 , pa ges 1 75 a nd 1 7 8, whi ch giv e

1
va l ues of will si m plify the com puta tions The l
va ues o f
(1
14 5
.

X 1, K 1 an d K
taken from Table 57 pa ge 1 7 2
1 a re to be ,
.

These values will va ry slightly with the velocity a nd as the y ,

m u st be chosen from a n assu m ed ve locity it m ay be ne cessa ry

to m a ke a se co nd solu tion of the p roblem afte r ob ta ining a p
p roxi m a te ve lociti es f ro m the firs t s olu tio n .

Another pr oblem so me tim e s e ncou ntered is illu stra ted in Fig .

AB is a m ain pipe li ne which divide s a t B into the b ra nc he s

 28 8 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

Assu m e othe r di sc ha rge a nd ag ain in the sam e manne r find

an

the di ff e re nc e be twee n the assu m e d di sch a rg e and the c o m

bine d di scha rge through pip e s E a nd F Using re ctangu la r .

c oo rdina tes plot to su ita bl e s ca le the di ff e re nc es f or e ac h s e t

, ,

of co m p u ta tions aga inst the co rresponding a ssum ed disch a rg e s .

Co nne ct the plotte d poi nts with a s t ra ight line The poin t o f .

i nte rse ction of this line with the coOrdinate of ze ro di ff e re nc e

gives a p p roxi m a tely the t rue discharg e A slight e rro r is in t r o
.

d u ce d by a ssum ing a s t raight line va ri a tion be tween the plotte d

poi nts To ge t a close r re sult de term ine a new diflerence by
'

.
,

the a bove m e thod u sing thi s app roxi m a te va lue of the t ru e

di sch a rge Plot thi s di ff ere nc e as be fo re and d ra w a cu rv e
.

th rough the three plotted points The inte rse ction Of this cu rve
.

with the co Ordinate of ze ro di ff ere nce should be ve ry clo se to

the t ru e di sch a rge .

A m e thod sim ila r to the a bove m a y be em ploye d f or d e te r

m ining the di sch a rge th rou gh the syste m of pip es show n in
Fig 83
. . Q is a ssum e d and y com pu te d af te r which the c o m
bine d di scha rge of pip e s BC a nd BB is obt a i ne d Su cc e ss ive .

a ss u m ptions a re the n m a de a nd the a ssu m e d di sc ha rg es a nd

di ff e re nces a re plotted by the method desc ribed above to

d e te rmine the t rue di scha rge .

Sh ort Ca nal s with Fr e e Dischar g e

A p roblem f req uently encountere d in engineering design

dea ls with the flow of wa te r throu gh a sho rt c anal ha ving its
i nta k e in a com p a ra tively qu ie t body of wa te r and dis cha rging
f ree ly a t its lowe r end Pra ctica l e xa m ples of this p roble m a re
.
,

a c a na l e xc a va t e d a ro und a da m to se rve as a spillw a y f o r a

re se rv oi r o r a ch u t e const ru cte d on a s t ee p gra d e to c a rry the

wa te r in a c ana l to a lower l evel .

The p r oble m presents two sp e ci a l ca ses which ne c essita te

m odi fic a tions in the me tho d of s ol utio n They a re however
.
, ,

both b a se d u pon the p rinciple tha t the re is a c e rta in m a xi m um

dis cha rge a t the intake which c annot be exceed ed Which of .

the two m ethods is to be u se d d ep ends upon whe ther the slop e

o f the ch a nnel is su ffici ent to c a rry this maxim um di scharge .

The s ol ution f or ea ch cas e is given b elow A tra pez oida l .

c a na l se ction is assu m ed in ea ch case and fo rmulas a re deri ved

,

which a re l a ter given in a simpli fied form f or rectangular

a
c tions .
 SP E C I AL P RO BL E M S

Shor t Canal with Flat Slope — Fi hows a longitu dina l

.
g 84 . s

e
s c tio n a nd c r oss-s e ction of the ca nal The wa te r ente rs the
.

c a na l f ro m a re se r v oi r at the u ppe r e nd and le a ves with free

di s c h a rge a t the lowe r e nd . The f ollowing nome ncl a t u re

u se d :

De pth of wa te r above c a na l bo tto m a t e nt ra nc e .

De pth of w a te r in c a na l j us t a bo ve ou tle t .

Los t hea d a t e nt ra nc e pl us velocity hea d .

M e an v elocity in u ppe r end of ca nal .

Width of ca na l bot tom .

Slop e Of sides Of cana l ; ho ri z ontal to vertic a l .

Length of c ana l .

Slop e Of w a te r su rf a ce in c ana l .

Slop e of botto m of c ana l .

H yd rau lic radiu s of c ross se ction of ca na l - .

Coe ffi ci e nt of di scha rge .

8 , Sla m of Bo t to m of C ana l

Fm . 84 .
—Sho r t c a na l w ith fla t s lo p e .

The val ue of C w ill v a ry f r o m u nity f or pe rf ect entra nce con

ditions , with w e ll rou nded co rne rs to
-
whe re all co rne rs a t
t c to ca nal a re sharp
e n ra n e .

The v elocity j u st b elow the t

e n ra n e c to the c anal is gi ve n
by the f o rmula
( 1 6)
Als o, le tting a re present the a rea of wa ter se ction in the u ppe r
end of cana l
cx/ zghoff
w
‘

Q ho) [b z ( D ho)l (1 7 )
This tion equ als ze ro when ho 0 a nd a lso when ho D
equa .

The ma xi mu m valu e of Q therefore li es som e wh ere betw ee n

, ,

these li m its The value of ho whi ch will give the m aximu m

.

19
290 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I C S

possible val ue of Q m ay be obta ined by di ff e re ntia ting e qu a tion

( 1 7 ) with res pe c t to ho a nd eq u a ting to z e ro This gives a f te r .
,

re d uction the e qu a tion

,

5zho
2
3 (2z D b) ho (Db z D) ’
0

For a t
rec a n u a r g l cha nnel 2: e qu als z er o a nd f o r m a xim u m
di sc ha rge
ho %D ( 1 9)
Su bs titu ti ng this v a lu e of ho in fo rmu la ( 1 7 ) the resu lting
fo rm u la of dis charge f or a re cta ngu la r se ctio n is

3 087 CbD”
Q ( M a ximu m ) .
(20)
Fr om qu a tion ( 1 8 ) the valu e of ho which gives
e m a xi m u m d is
cha rge f or a tra pe z oid a l se ction is

Subs tit uting this val u e of h in f orm u la ( 1 7 ) the m a xi m u m va lu e

e

of Q f o r a t ra p ez oid a l sec tion m a y be obta ined .

The ne xt s te p in the s olu tion is to de te rm ine whethe r the

slope of the ca na l 1 8 s uffi cient to c a rry thi s m a xi m u m di s ch a r g e

w ith a dep th of w a te r in the ca nal not gre a ter tha n D ho I f .

it is the discha rge of the c a na l will be e qu a l to the m a xim u m

,

discha rge as given by f o rm u las ( 1 7 ) a nd bu t if the slope

of the c a nal is not gre a t enou gh it will ca u s e a ba cking u p e ff e ct -

a nd re su lt in a s m a lle r v a lu e of ho and c o nse qu e ntly a sm a l le r

discha r ge .

The lowe r e nd o f the c a na l be co m es a f a ll the di s c ha rge o ve r ,

which (se e pa ge 1 4 2 ) is given by the fo rm ula

Q 082 H )
.
(22 )
The l as t te rm of thi s f o rm u l a disa ppe a rs fo r a re cta ngu la r
s e ctio n .

To dete rm ine the de pth of wa te r in the lowe r end of the

c anal assu mi ng the m a xim um va lu e of Q su bs titu te this va l u e
, ,

of Q in f o rm ula (22 ) a nd solve fo r H Then de te rm ine .

D — ho — H

which c alled a tri a l va lu e Of the slope of the ca nal

m ay be .

Fo r the ne xt ste p dete rm i ne the sI Op e ne c ess ary to c a rry the

m a xi mu m Q as given by f o rmu la ( 1 7 ) f rom one of the f o rm u las
29 2 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

b e tween re a ches A a nd B B and C etc a re to be dete r m i ne d

, , . .

Co m pu ta tions f or e a ch rea ch a re m a de i nde pe nde ntly t he ,

c rosss e ction a t the low er e nd of rea ch A b e i ng firs t d e t e r m i n e d ,

the n the c ross se ction a t the lowe r e nd of rea ch B and so o n

-
.

The f ollo wi ng no m e ncla tu re will be u se d .

I Le ngth of rea ch c o nside re d .

81 Slop e of b o tto m of c a nal .

h
l Fa ll of wa te r su rfa c e in re a ch conside re d .

H1 Lo ss of hea d in r e a ch due to f ric tion .

d
o De pth of wa ter in u ppe r e nd of rea ch .

d
l De pth of wa te r in lower e nd of rea ch .

b
o Width of c a na l b otto m a t u ppe r end of rea ch .

b
l Width of ca na l bottom a t lowe r e nd of rea ch .

ao M e a n v elocity of wa te r a t u pp er e nd of re a ch .

M e a n ve locity of wa te r a t lowe r e nd of re a ch .

r H yd ra u li c ra diu s of se c tion a t m iddle of rea c h .

2 Slop e of sides of c a na l .

n Co e fficient in M a nning s f or m ul a .
’
.

F IG . 85 — Sho r t
. c a na l wi th s te e p s lo p e .

Re fe rri ng to Fig 8 5 the f ollo wi ng e qu a tion is

. Ob at i ne d d irec tly
f ro m Be rnou lli the o re m
’
s
2
”0
—
72 H1
0
Fr o m M a nni ng s f o rm ula (pa ge
’
1 90)
H1
0 1 963 f
n n l
a nd a pp ro xi ma te ly pu tting v , (vo 01 )
ln 2
(vo vl ) 2

Su bs tit u ting this va ue l of H 1, e q ua tion (25 )

h
vo z
ln 2
(
vo v1 ) 2
v1
?

29 s ee m 2g
 SPE C I AL P RO BL E M S 29 3

In e qua t io n (28 ) h; , 00, c l a nd r m a y be e xp ress e d in t e rm s o f

b u, bl , do, d ; a nd Q a nd in this m a nne r the f ollowing e qu a tio n

h as bee n deri ved

Q 2
do 811 (1 1
24d 1 ’
(b1 Zd i ) 2

0 (29 )
o d1 ) l(bo 01 ) f
‘ ‘

In equ a tion (29) b a nd d a re the only u nk nown qu a ntitie s

; ; .

As s u m ing one of these qu a ntiti es the other m a y be c a lcu l a ted .

P r ob a bly a b e tte r w ay is to st a te b in t erm s of all as f o r e x ; ,

a m pl e bl 2d or bl 3d 1 a cco rding to the ge ne ra l fo rm of

,

c r o ss s e c tio n th a t is des i re d
-
If it is pl a nned to h ave a ch a nnel
.

o f u nif o rm width and d e te rm i ne the d e pth of w a te r a t di ff e re nt

p oi n ts b ; b b e co m e s
e co n s t a n t a n d o nly (1 1 is u n k n ow n .

L i k e wise the width of cha nne l a t di ff e re nt p oi nts m a y be de te r

,

m i ne d f o r a c o ns ta nt de pth of w a te r Fo r a cha nne l of rec .

t a ngula r c ross s e c tio n z -

0 a nd fo rmula (29) b e c o m es si m pli
fied . In a ll c ases form u la (29) m u st be s olve d by su b s titu ti ng
t ria l va lues The las t te rm which is the co rre ction fo r f ri ction
.
, ,

is us u a lly a co m p a ra ti vely s m al l qu a ntity f o r the u pp e r r e a c hes

a nd m a y be ne gl e ct e d in the firs t t ria l solu tio n The va lu e .

o f bl o r d . thu s obt a i ne d will be slightly too sm a ll a nd a s o m e

wha t la rger va lu e should be u se d f or su bstitu tion in the com

p le te fo r m ul a A f te r
. t h e s e ctio n a t t h e low e r e nd o f t h e firs t

r e a ch has b ee n d e t e rm i ne d b e c a u se Of th e fa ct th a t the c h a nne l

,

is b e co m ing s m a ll e r it shou ld not be di fficu lt to m a k e a f a i rly

,

close e sti m a te of the di m e nsion to su bstitu te in the fo rmu la f o r

t he firs t t ri a l solu tion f o r the ne xt rea ch .

Prob a bly the m os t v a l u able sp e c i a l a pplica tion Of fo rm u l a

(2 9 ) is to ch a n ne l s h a vi n g a r e ct a n g u la r c ro ss s e ctio n a nd co n -
,

s t a nt d e pth of w a t e r I n thi s c a se z . 0 a nd d (1 ; d (a , o

c o ns ta nt ) a nd b t he w idth a t the lower end of su cc essi ve re a c he s

1, ,

is the only qu a ntity to be d e te rm i ne d U nd e r th ese co nditions .

the f o r m ula re d u c es to
5 1a
ld + 2 Q Q 2 2
1 1
0 ( 30)
Sl + +
2gb0 2
n l
z
bo d bo

The di mensions of a cha nne l for a ny f o rm of cross section a

may be obtai ned a pp ro xi m a te ly by firs t de te rm i ni ng c ro ss

s e c tio ns by fo r m u l a then for a ny f o rm of se ction no t
 294 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

re c ta ngu ar l dete rmi ne a se ction of

qui re d sha pe ha ving
the re

a pp roxi m a t ely the sa m e a re a a s t he re ct angu la r sectio n Fo r .

a t ra p e z oida l se ctio n t he a rea shou ld be a little la r ger a nd f o r

a se m ici rcu l a r se ction the a rea s hould be a lit tl e sma ll er th a n

f o r the re c ta ngu la r se ction .

A channe l c a rrying wa ter a t an a cc ele ra ting velocity will ,

if exte nde d fa r e nou gh a pp roa ch a condition of uniform ve locity

,

where the se ctiona l a re a of the ch annel will be cons tant In .

the ca se of co m p a ra tiv ely l ong c ha nne ls i t m a y be a dvi sa bl e

to com pu te thi s mi ni m u m section in order to know the lim it to
which the resu lt is a pp roa ching This li m it will be rea ch e d
.

when the veloci ty b e co m es g rea t enou gh to c a use a f ric tio nal

res is t anc e th a t will o ve rco m e the slop e of the e ha nnel The .

m ini m u m section m a y be com p u te d by a ny of the ope n c hannel -

f orm u las Using M a nning s fo rmu la the f ollowing rela tio n

’
.

e xist s

[ d (b
n (b 2 dx/ 1
or if z = 0
1 486 31
1:
d
( )b 9é

n (b 2d) %

With either b (width) or d (de pth ) given in e qua tion (3 1 ) o r

the othe r m a y be d e t erm i ne d The e qu a tion m u s t be
.

solve d by su b stitu ting t ri a l va l u es .

The M a ss Diagram f or Stor ag e Pr obl e m s

The flow of na tu ra l strea m s is lw a ys subj e ct to m o re or less

a

d a ily a s w e ll as se asonal flu ctu a tion It is not a n unu su a l

.

condi tion f or the m aximu m flow of s trea ms to be as m u ch as 1 00

ti mes g re a ter tha n the m ini mu m flow This condition in .
,

m a ny cases re ta rds the fu ll e co no m i c deve lopm e nt of ri ve rs

,

f or p u rp oses re qu iri ng a unifo rm ra t e of flow or a varying u se ,

a t c e rt ai n s p e ci fie d ra t es .

It is possibl e to regu l a te the discha rge of c e rta in rive rs by

m e a ns of arti fici al sto rage de p ende nt u pon the a va ila bility of
,

sites whe re su it a bl e rese r voi rs m a y be e co no m i c a lly c ons t ru cte d ,

I n conne ctio n with the i nvestiga tio n of s to ra ge po ssibilities

of a ny st rea m t wo g e ne ra l type s of pr obl e ms m a y be e ncou n

te red . It ma y be req uire d to de te rm i ne the s to ra ge nec essa ry to

p rovid e f or a u se o f wa te r a t a u nif o rm ra te or a t c e rta i n spe ci
 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS
l

296

TABLE 89.
— DISCH ARGE DATA or H U RO N RIVE R Ar GE D D E S
'
 SPE C I AL P RO BLE M S 29 7

M i c h f or the yea rs 1 904 to 1 9 1 4 inclu sive Ta ble 89 is a n

.
, .

e x t r a ct f r om the d a ta and co m p u t a tio ns on which this ma ss

d i a g ra m is b as ed .

T he se c ond colu mn of Table 89 gives the m e an m o nthly

d i s c ha rges in se co nd f ee t The thi rd col umn co nt a i ns m o nthly
-
.

d i s c h a rg es in a c re feet obta ine d by m ultiplying the m e an

-

m o n thly dis ch arge by two ti m es the nu m b er of da ys in the

m o nth The fo u rth colu mn is obta ine d by de du cti ng es ti ma te d
‘

s e e p a ge a nd e v a po ra tion loss e s f ro m the qu a ntities giv en in

t he thi rd colu m n The a m ou nt of see pa ge loss d e p e nds u pon

.

t he ge ologica l fo rm a tion of the b a sin in which the reser voi r is

loc a te d and this m a tter shou ld be given the m ost ca re fu l con
,

s id e ra tio n in ea ch pa rticu la r c a se The eva po ra tio n loss will .

v a ry with the a rea of expose d wa ter su rfa ce the seaso n of the ,

y ea r the hu m idity of the a tm osphere the te m pe ra tu re the

, , ,

v e locity of the wi nd a nd othe r fa cto rs M e a n va l ues of eva po .

ra tio n f ro m f ree w a te r su rfa c es in di ff e rent loc a lities a re

g 1 v e n m T a bl e 90 p a g e 298 , .

The l as t col um n of Ta ble 89 gives the tota l dis ch a rge s in

a cre fee t
-
corre cte d f or evapora tion and seepa ge losses f rom
, ,

Ap ril 1 1 904 u p to t he e nd of ea ch m onth

, ,
The i rre g ula r .

l ine ACNDB Fig 86 is the cu r ve plotted fro m these to ta l

, .
,

discharges a nd is c a lled the ma ss cu r ve Any poi nt on this

,
.

m ass cu rve re p re se nts the tota l flow in a c re fee t f ro m the be -

ginning Of the period to the date given by the co rrespondi ng

abscis sa a nd the slop e of a tangent to the li ne a t thi s point
i ndicates the ra te of flow in se cond f ee t Straight lines on the -
.

diagram indica te a u niform flow a nd the slope of su ch lines ,

i ndica tes the ra te of flow This ra te of flow m a y be obta i ned .

by di viding the am o unt of rise ina c re fee t f o r a giv en pe riod by -

'

two tim es the nu m be r of d ays in the p e riod The sloping .

lines at the lowe r right ha nd side of the dia gra m sho w the -

l pes f o r the di ffere nt ra t es of flow i ndi ca te d .

The s tra ight line CM DM tangent to the two lowes t

,

points of the m as s c u rve Fig 86 give s the m a xi mu m unif o rm .

,

flow tha t m a y be p rovid e d by the st re a m on the assu m p tion

of adeq u a t e s to ra g e The m axim u m o rdina t e M N b e tween
.

this line h ereina f te r re fe rre d to as the us e line a nd the m as s

, ,

curve gives the s to ra ge th a t will be ne c essa ry to p rovid e f o r

,

this ma xim u m ra te of flow Sc ali ng fro m the di a g ram it is .

f ound th a t a sto ra ge c a p a city of a pp roximately a c re

298 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS
3 00 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I C S

te rm ined ta ngent to oth er low points on the m ass cu rve in o rd e r

to m a k e su re th a t no g re a ter o rdina te m a y be fo u nd .

Othe r types of sto rage problem s m ay be encou nte re d bu t in

genera l the y m ay be solve d by an a pplic a tion of the a bov e
principles In cases wh e re the stora ge is lim ited a nd the p ro b
.

le m be com e s o ne of sto ri ng a po rtio n O f the flow tha t oc cu rs

du ring high sta ges to su pple m ent the following low wa te r flo ws -
,

it m ay be m o re convenient to plot se p a ra te m as s cu rves to a

l arge r s c a le f o r e a ch ye a r or two ye ar period This pr ovid e s
-
.

f o r a m o re de ta il e d s tu dy and re sults m ay be se a le d with g re a te r

a cc u ra cy . In o rd er to obt a in a gene ra l conc e ption of the p r ob
le m howe ve r it will ge ne r a lly be fou nd a dv a nt a ge ou s to firs t
, ,

p re p are a m ass dia g ram of the entire dis ch ar ge d a ta .

In m a ny c ases w a te r will not be us e d a t a u niform r a te .

This is esp e ci ally true of irrig ation whe re w ater is requ i re d onl y
th rou ghou t the g rowi ng se asOn a nd du ring the rem a ind e r o f
the ye a r it m ust be sto re d if the e ntire flow of the s t re a m is to
be co ns erv ed The line RP S Fig 86 is the u se line f or the
.
, .
,

H u ron Rive r assu m ing th a t the tota l d isch a rge f or the pe r iod
is to be use d a t the foll owing ra t es :

M ay

Au gu st
Septem b er

Assum ing that the qu antity of wa te r will be requ i red

same

ea ch y e a r the a va il a ble y early su pply will be e qu a l ap roxi

, p
m a tely to th at obta i ne d f o r the m a xi m u m unif o rm flow or ,

f rom the d a t a given f o r the H u ron Ri ver it will be very ne a rly

e q u a l to a unifo rm flow of 424 se co nd fe e t or a tota l y ea rly
-

flow Of ac re f ee t -
.

The u se li ne f o r a non u nif orm ra te of u se m us t be d rawn

,
-

so as to be t a nge nt to the m ass c u rve a t two points the s a me as

f or u nifo rm u se In doing this c a re m us t be t a k e n to see tha t

.

e a ch point of the us e line c o m es di re c tly o ve r the t im e to which

it pe rta ins A sim ple m e th od of p roc edu re is to first p lOt the

.

m ass c u rve and then on a i e c e of t r a ci ng p a p e r using the same

p ,

s c a l e plot a t ri a l use line Th en plac e the l atter ove r the fdrmer

'

, .

and see if the use l ine c an be so pl a c e d th a t e a ch poi nt will be

’
‘
 SPE C I
AL P RO BL E M S 301

o ve r t he p rope r ti m e a nd a t the sa m e time be tangent to the

m a s s c u rve a t two po ints I f this c a nnot be done the co rre e
.
,

t io n c a n be de te rm i ne d a nd a new u se line m a y be dra wn a nd

a p p lied to the m a ss c u rv e in the sa m e m a nne r A se c ond tri a l .

w il l us u ally give a u se line which will f u lfil the abov e re qu ire

m e nts and thus give the m a xim u m ye a rly su pply of w ate r
a v a il a bl e. The sto ra g e re qu ire d will be the m a xim um o rdi na te
b e t we e n the m ass c u rve a nd u se line Fo r the p robl e m give n
.

t his sto r ag e is re p resente d by the o rdina te P Q and eq u a ls

a cre fee t
-
.

Other p r oblems i nvolving a non u niform ra te of use su ch as

-

a re p res ente d by a li m it e d s to ra ge c a p a city or wh e n a q u a ntity

,

of wa te r l ess th a n the m axim u m disch a rge is re qu i red m ay be

re a dily solve d by a n a pplic a tio n of the a bov e p ri ncipl es .

Reser voi r

F IG . 87.
— Rese r voir with y
su p p l c a na l .

Aspecial c ase whe re the m as s di agra m may be used to adva n

tage is in the de term ina tion of the c a p a city of supply c a nal to
f eed a res e rvoi r not t ribu ta ry to the s t rea m su pplying the w a t e r .

The co nditio ns of this p roblem m a y be see n f ro m Fig 87 . .

AB is a st ream whi ch su pplies the w ate r to be sto red in the ,

rese rvoi r CD The c a na l AC c a rri es wate r fro m the stre a m

.

to the rese rvoi r The annua l consu mption of w ater f rom the
.

reservo i r a nd a va il a bl e d is c h a rg e f ro m t he st re a m f o r a p e riod
3 02 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

o f ye ars given The re qui red c ap a c ities of ca na l a nd s to r

a re .

a ge r es e rvoi r a re to be de te rm ined
'

In this c as e the q u a ntiti es which d e termine the use line a r e

given so th a t it m ay be plotted once f or a ll p re ferably on tr a ns
,

p arent p a pe r The see p a g e and evapo ra tion losses in the c ana l

.

a nd re se rvoi r shou ld be cons idere d as a dditiona l w a te r c o n

su m e d and co rre ctio n f o r s a m e should be incl u d e d in the u s e

line The ne xt s te p is to as su m e a ca p a city f or the canal and

.
,

p lot a m ass c u rve o f w a te r div e rt e d i nto t he c a na l u sing t he ,

sa m e s c a l e as th a t cho se n f o r the u se line bu t o n a se pa ra t e

sh ee t Wh en the a va ila ble su pply of wa te r in the strea m is

.

e q u a l to o r g rea te r th a n the c ap a city of the c a na l the c a p a cit y ,

o f the c a na l will be the q u a ntity di v e r t e d otherwis e this

,

qua ntity will be the a va il a ble flow of the st re a m .

Af te r this m ass cu rve has b ee n plotte d a t ri a l shou ld be ma d e

,

by the m e thod des c ribe d above , to dete rm ine whe the r the us e
c u rve ca n be so m o ve d a s to be t a nge nt to it a t two points .

If not a ne w c ap acity of cana l m us t be as su m ed and a new

,

m ass cu rv e plotte d and the a bove p roc ess re p e a te d u ntil the

u se li ne a nd the m ass c u rve m ay be pl a c e d so as to be t angent

to e a ch oth e r at two points The l as t as su m ed c a p a city of

.

the su pply c ana l will be the re qu i re d c a p ac ity a nd the m a xi m u m

o rdi na te b etwee n the m ass c u rve and use l ine will be the re
qu i red sto ra ge c a pa city .

Dete rm ination of Re s e rvoir Spillw ay Capacity

I
n desig ning a to ra ge pu rposes it is essential to
da m f or s ,

p rovide a spillway of s ufficient cap a city to p revent the w ater

su rf a c e in the re servoi r e ven u nde r e xt re m e flood co nditions
, ,

f rom risi ng a bov e a c e rt a in fixed sa f e eleva tio n In c a lc u l a ting

.

the re qu i re d spillwa y c a pa city f o r a rese rvoir it is ne c essa ry ,

to consider the wo rst possible flood condi tions for the loc ality
and as su m e su ch flood to dis ch a rge into the rese rvoi r wh en

f ull . Under thes e co nditions w a ter will be gi n to flow ove r the

spillw a y as soo n as the first floo d w a te rs ente r the reservoir .

The rese rvoi r p rodu c es a n e q ua liz ing e ff ec t u pon the flood so ,

th a t the m a xim u m disch a rge ove r the spillway will be some

thing less tha n the m a xi m u m flood disch a rge The extent of .

this e qu aliz i ng e ff ec t inc re ases with the si ze O f the rese rvoi r and
f o r re s e rvoi rs th a t a re sm all in comp a rison with the d is ch a rge ,

it m ay be inapp re ci able .
304
‘
H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I
CS

2 . Prep a re a ta ble showing depth of wa te r a bove spillwa y

‘

c rest in the res e rvoi r a nd the co r res po nding are as of flow li ne ,

volu m es of wa ter a bove c rest of spillwa y and disch arge ove r .

s pillw a y .

3 . From the l as t two colu m ns o f the p re cedi ng ta bl e plot a

c u rve to su ita ble s ca l e whic h will show the re lation be twee n
,

v olu m e of w a te r a b o ve c re s t of spillw a y in ac re fee t and d is

-

c h a rg e o ve r spillw a y in se co nd f e e t E F Fig 88
-

, ,
. .

4 Fro m the da t a in the firs t t a bl e plot a m ass cu rve to su it

.
,

a bl e sc a l e P M Fig 88 with t o ta l flow of rive r in a c re f e et

, ,
.
,
-

f or the o rdina tes a nd ti m e in da ys f o r the a b scis sas

'

The .

ve rti ca l s c a le shou ld be su ch tha t the t o tal dis ch a rg e in acre

f ee t m a y be pl otte d and the h ori z ont a l s c a le sho u ld p rovide
f o r the e nti re fl ood pe ri od .

Fro m the sa m e o rigin P and with the s a m e c oo rd ina tes plot

a m as s cu rve P N re p re s e nting the t o t a l di sch a rge over the

spill wa y . This m us t be done by a m e thod of app roxi m a tions ,

p rocee ding in the f ollowing m a nne r : Assume th at af ter some

 SPE C I AL P RO BL E M S 305
'

o
reas na ble shor t peri od from the be ginning of the flood say ,

a t 4 RM on M a y 1 0 the tot a l dis ch a rg e ov e r the sp illwa y has

.
,

been 1 00acre feet This is rep resented at A and means tha t

-
.
,

Volu m e Sto re d above C res t of Spi llway in Ac re Fe et

12
M ay 10 M ay 1 1

FIG . 88.
— De te r m ina tio n o f r e s e r v o ir s p illw a y c a p a cit y .

the m ass c u rve of disch a rg e ove r t he spillwa y sh o uld p a ss

th ro u gh this poi nt if the ass u m ption is co rre ct
, .

TO find the co rrect positi on of the poi nt f rom this ass u m e d

[
20
306 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

position de termine the length of the ordina te AB which g ives

, ,

as the ass u med volu m e of w a te r in the re se rvoir a pp r oxim a t ely

21 0a c re fee t Then from the cu rve EF de term ine the dis c ha r ge

-
.

in se cond fee t ove r the spillway co rresponding to a volu m e of

-

2 1 0a cre f e e t in the rese rvoir

~
-
This is app roxim ately 8 se con d .

fee t Sinc e 8 se c ond f ee t is the dis charg e a t 4 R M a nd t he

.
-
.

discha rge a t 9 A M was 0se cond f e e t the a ve ra g e f or the p e r iod

. .
-

is a pp roxim a t ely 4 se cond f ee t and the total discharge f o r t he -

7 hou r pe riod is 2 56 a cre fee t

- -
.

It thus a ppe a rs th a t the first as sumption th at 100 a c re f e e t -

had dis ch a rg ed ove r the wei r was m u ch too g rea t a nd c o ns e

q u e ntly t h e vol u m e of w a t e r re m a i ni ng in the res e r voi r a nd

re p re s e nte d by AB was co rr es pondingly too sma ll a nd the r e

su lting dis ch a rg e ov e r the w e i r (8 se co nd f ee t o r a tot a l of -

2 34 a c re f ee t ) is too sm a ll -
The corre ct tot a l dis ch a rge ov e r .

the w ei r f or the pe ri od th erefo re lies so m ewhere b etwee n 2 3 , 4 ,

a c re fe e t a nd 1 0
-
0 a c re feet but is obviou sly m uch close r to-

the fo rm er .

Fo r the second assu m ption therefo re we may as su m e 4 , ,

a c re f ee t f o r the tot a l dis ch a rg e over the w e i r and in the s a m e

-
,

m a nne r a s a bov e de te rm ine 3 a c re f ee t f o r the re com p u te d -

value which is su ffic i ently close to the assu m ed disch a rge

, .

Plotting 3 a c re fee t f o r the tota l d is ch a rg e o ve r t he s pillw a y a t

-

4 P M . M a y 1 0 and c onne cting this point with z ero dis ch a r ge

.
, ,

at 9 A M gives the firs t se ction of the m as s cu rve The

. .
, .

f ollowing ta ble which gives only the fina l t ria l solu tion in di
,

c a tes the m e thod of m a king com pu ta tions .

308 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

i d a de c i m al fra ction whi ch is t e rm e d the m a ntiss a

a c te r s tic a n .

The log a rith m s o f numb e rs g re a te r th a n u nity h ave ch ar a c t e r

is tics one less th an the nu m b e r of pla ces to the left of the de c i m a l
point , a nd f or a given sequence of figu res the m antissas a re
eq u a l
. The following e xa m ples will illus trate :
Log arith m
of
Log a rith m of
L oga rith m of 44 5
Lo g a rith m of 44 5 0
Neg a tive log a rith m s tha t is the log a rith m s of num b e rs l e ss
, ,

tha n u nity a re g ene ra lly e xp ress ed with neg a tive ch a ra cte r

,

istics and positive m a ntiss as This gives a co m m on m a ntiss a

.

f or a give n se qu e nce of fig u res re g a rdle ss of wh e th e r the nu m be r

is g re a te r o r le ss th a n u nity A m i nu s sig n ove r the ch a ra cte r
.

is tic i ndica tes th a t the ch a ra cteristi c is ne g a tive a nd the m a n

tissa positive Frequ e ntly 1 0 is a dded to su ch log arith m s to
.

m a ke the whole l og a rith m po siti ve it be ing u nde rs tood th a t the

,

lo g a rith m is 1 0 le ss tha n i ndica t ed The f ollo wi ng e x a m pl es

.

illus t ra te di ff e rent m e th od s of e xpressi ng the log a rithm s o f

nu m be rs le ss th a n u nity :

Log arithm of
Log a rithm of 10
Loga rith m of 10
L og a rithm of 10
Log ari th m of 10
If the log arithm of a num b e r is s u bt ra cte d fromz e ro the
diff erence is c alle d the colog arithm of the num ber The colog .

a rithm of a nu m b e r is th u s the log a rith m of its rec ip roc al . It

is e vident a lso th a t the colog a rith m of a nu m b e r l ess tha n u nity
is positive . The f ollowing t able gives log a rith m s a nd co rre
s p onding colog a rith m s of va riou s nu m b ers the m antissa s in all
,

c ases be ing positive a nd the ch a ra cteris tics p ositive o r neg a tiv e

as req u i re d .

Nu m be r

44 5
44 5
4 45.

0 4 45
.

0 044 5
.

0 0044 5
.

0 0004 4 5
.
 SPE C I AL P RO BL E M S 3 09

Tables of loga rithms are of g rea t value in s i mplifyi ng the

ope ra tions of m u ltiplic a tion divis ion involution and evol u tion
, ,

a nd in e v al ua ting exp ressions cont a ining f ra ctiona l e xpone nts ,

they a re indis pensable Ordina rily log arithmic ta bles conta in

.

o nly the m antissas as the valu e of the ch ara cte ris tic ca n be
,

re a dily d e te r m ine d from the pos ition of the d eci m a l point .

Ta ble 91 p a ge 3 1 1 contains loga rithm s of numbers f rom 1 to

, ,

to five pla c es of de cima ls and Table 92 p age 329 give s

-

, , ,

co rre sponding colog a rithms .

Below a re indic ated the p rocesses to be followed in the sol u

tion of a f ew fu ndam ental p roble m s i nvolving the use of l o g a
rithm s The wo rds log arithm a nd c olog a rith m a re a bb re via te d
.

to log and colog respectively

'

log a bc log a + log b + log c

log lo g a + log b
?
lo g b ‘
a: log b a: colog b ‘
~

1
log 5 ,
a: log b x colog b

log a b z
log a s log b log a E c olo g b

log - g log a — s log b = log a + x colo gb

b ,

Owing to the fact that it is very c onfusing to multiply

le ga rithm s h a ving a neg ative cha ra cte ris tic and pos itiv e m a n ‘

tissa it will be found m uch sim pler to use colog arithm$ as

,

indi c a ted a bove when a nu m b e r less t h an unity is to be ra ised

t o a ny p owe r The f ollow ing nu m eric al ex amples indic a te the
.

s i m pl es t m e thod of solvi ng su ch p robl e m s .

P roblem — Given y X 21 7
to d t m i n
; e e r e y
-
.

log y log colog

log y X

11

Problem — Gwe n y 4 51 ;
to dete rmi ne y .

log y log log

co

y
 C H AP T E R X

GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S

By fa m ilia ri zi ng him self with the loc a tion a nd purp ose of

the va riou s t able s cont a ine d in this vol u m e the e ngine e r will ,

be a ble to sim plif y the p roc esses involve d in hyd ra u lic ca lcu
la tions Following e a ch ch apte r in the p re c e di ng p a ges the
.

tables perta ining to the su bj e ct m a tter tre a ted in tha t chapte r

a re give n Ta bl es which will be f ou nd u sefu l in genera l hy
.

d ra u lic co mpu ta tions are incl ud ed in the f ollowi ng p ages .

M a ny p roble m s m a y be wo rke d with su fficient a ccu ra cy with

a slide rule A log log slide ru le will be fo und pa rticu la rly co n
.

ve ni e nt in e va l ua ti ng hyd ra u lic fo rm u l a s Whe re g re a te r a c .

c u racy is re q ui re d log a rithms shou ld be u sed I n o rd e r to sa v e .

ti me and re d uc e the li ability of e rro r the enginee r shou ld u se

log arithm s in the pl a c e of di re ct m e thods of c a lcu l a tion whe n
e ve r possible Ta ble 91 p a ge 3 1 1 contai ns five pla c e loga rithm s
.
,

of nu m be rs u p to a nd Ta ble 92 p a ge 3 29 give s the co r ,

re spondi ng colog a rith m s o f nu m be rs The l a tte r t a ble will be .

f ou nd espe ci ally u sefu l in p roble ms i nvolvi ng m ixe d Ope ra tions

of m u ltiplic a tion a nd di vis io n and in r ai si ng to a ny powe rs

num b e rs le ss tha n unity The p rinciple of log a rithms a nd

.

typic a l p roble m s i nvolvi ng thei r use a re given on p a ges 307 to

309 .

Ta bl es 93 94 and 95 p age s 34 7 to 352 incl u sive give the

, , , ,

na tu ra l trigo no m e t ri c fu nctions to 5 de ci m a l pl a c e s f o r inte r v a ls

of 1 0m inu tes Tabl e 96 p a ge 353 contai ns the sq ua re s cu be s
.
, , , ,

s q u a re r oots c u b e root s a nd re cip ro ca ls o f nu m b e rs f r o m 1 to

, ,

1 000 T a ble 97 p a ge 37 3 give s the squ a re roots of nu m b e rs

.
, ,

from 1 000to with an i nterval of 1 0 to 2 de cim al pla c e s , .

Ta bles 98 a nd 99 p age s 37 5 a nd 37 7 give respe ctively ci rc u m

,

f e rence s a nd a re a s of ci rcle s with dia m e te rs u p to 1 0 f or i nt e r

, ,

v a l s of 01 a nd Ta bl e s 1 0
. 0 a nd 1 01 p age s 37 9 a nd 381 give , ,

circ umferenc e s and a re a s f or dia m ete rs of ci rcles u p to 1 00

, ,

f or inte rva ls o f O rdi na rily Ta bles 60 a nd 61 p a ge s 1 7 5 ,

a nd 1 7 8 will be f o u nd m o re c o nve ni e nt f o r d e t e rm i ni ng a re a s o f
.

c i rcle s in the sol u tio n of p ip e p r oble m s th a n Ta ble s 99 and 1 01 .

31 0
312 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

TABLE 91 ( Conti nu ed )
LOGARITH M S or NU mBE Rs
‘
G E NE RAL RE FE RE NC E T ABL E S 3 13

T ABL E 91 ( Conti nu ed )
L O G ARITH M S or NU M B E RS
3 14 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL ICS

TABLE 91 ( Continued)
L O G ARr rnM s
'
or NU M BE RS

5 6
316 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I C S

T ABL E 91 ( Co ntin ued)

L O GARITH M S o r NU M BE RS
GENE RAL RE FE RE N C E TABL E S 317

T ABL E 91 (Continued)
LO GARITHM S or NU M B E RS

5 6 7
318 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABL E 91 ( Conti nu ed)

LO GARrrBM S o r NU M BE RS
20 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

T ABL E 9 1 ( Conti nued)

L O G ARITH M S or NU M BE RS
GE NE RAL RE FE RE NC E T ABLE S 32

TABL E 91 ( Conti nued)

ARrrmus or NU M BE Rs
322 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TAB L E ( Conti nued )

91
ARrrrm s o r NU M BE Rs
3 24 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABL E 91( Conti nued)

L o e Am m ms or NUM BE BS
'
GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S 3 25

T ABL E 91 ( Conti nu ed )
LOGARITH M S OF NU M BE RS
326 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABL E 91 ( Conti nued )

LO G ARITH M S O F N U M B E RS

962 967 973 97 8 983

‘013 ‘018 m4 ‘029 ‘034
064 069 075 080 085
1 15 1 2) 1 25 1 31 1 36
1 66 171 1 76 1 81 1 86
21 7 222 227 232 237
268 27 3 278 283 288
31 8 323 328 334 339
369 374 379 389
_ fi
328 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T AB L E 91 ( Concluded )
LO GARITBM S or NUM BE RS

7 8
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S 329

TABLE 92.
— C O L O GARITH M S op NU M BE RS
3 30 H ANDBOO K OF H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 92 (Conti nued )

CO LO G ARIT BM S or NU M BE RS
33 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE 92 (Continued )
CO L O GARITH M S o r NU M BE RS
 GE NE RAL REFE RE NCE T ABLE S 333

T ABLE 92(Conti nued )

CO LO G ARITH M S O F N UM BE RS

4 8 94 5

4 6 980

4 5 967

5 56 54 4
334 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 92 (Conti nu ed )
CO LO G ARIIH M S O E N U M BE RS
'‘
33 6 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 92 (Conti nued)

CO L O G ARITBM S o r NUM BE RS

068 060
GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S 33 7

T ABLE 92 ( Conti nued )

CO L OG ARITHM S or NU M BE RS
33 8 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE 92 (Conti nued )

CO L O GARITHM S o r NU M BE R S
34 0 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 92 (Continued )
CO L O GARITH M S or NU MBE RS
GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLES 34 1

TABLE 92 ( Continued)
CO LO GARIT H M B o r NU MBE RS
34 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 92 (Continued)
CO L O G ARITH M S or NU M BE RS
3 44 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T AB L E 92 (Conti nued )
COLO GARITH M S or NU M BE RS
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S 34 I
.

T ABLE 92 ( Conti nued)

CO LO GARITH M S or NUM BE RS

. 04 5 7 6

22 3 21 8 21 4 205 200 1 96 191

34 6 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS

T ABL E 92 (Conclud ed )
CO LO GARIT H M S o r NUM BE RS
 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABL E 93 (Conclu ded )

NAT U RAL SINE S AND C O SI
NE S

C O SINE S

0 99795
.

0 96593
.

0 91355
.

0 89623
.

0 874 62
.

SINE S
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE T ABL ES 34 9

T ABL E 94.
— NATU RAL T ANGE N TS AND CO TAN GE NT S
3 50 H ANDBOO K O F H YDRAULI CS

TABL E 94 ( Concluded )
NAT U RAL TANGE NTS AND COT AN GE NTS
C OT ANG E NTS

114 m

10 7 1 191
.

2
39552
'

91516
15 107 1 4 44942
4 16630
3 :86671

2 14451

TANGE NTS
35 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 95 ( Conclu ded)

NAT U RAL SE CANTS AN D COSE CANTS
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE T ABLE S 3 53

T ABL E 96 .
- SQU ARE S, CUBE S, SQ U ARE ROOTS, CUBE RO OTS
,

RE CIP ROCALS
3 54 HANDBO OK OF H YDRAUL I
CS

T ABLE 96 (Continued)
SQU ARES , CUBE S, SQU ARE RO OTS, CUBE ROOTS, RECIP ROC AL S

26 01

5 3 29

62 4 1

. 01 098901

88 36

92 1 6

98 01
356 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU LI CS

T ABL E 96 (Continued)
SQ U ARE S, CU BE S, SQU ARE ROOTS CUBE RO OTS, RECIP RO C AL S
,
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S 35 7

TABL E 96 (Conti nued )

SQ U ARE S, CU BE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS CUBE RO OTS RE CIPROCAL S
, ,
3 58 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABL E 96 (Conti nued )

SQ U ARE S, C UBE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS, C UBE RO OTS RE CIP RO C AL S
,
36 0 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULICS

TABLE 96 (Conti nued)

SQU ARE S, C UBE S, SQU ARE RO OTS, CU BE ROOTS RE CIP RO C AL S
,
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLE S 36 1

TABLE 96 (Conti nue d)

SQ U ARE S, CUBE S, SQ U ARE RO O TS, CU BE RO O TS RE CIPRO CALS
,
362 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E 96 (Conti nue d)

SQ U ARE S, CUBE S, SQ U ARE ROOTS CUBE RO OTS, RE CIP RO C AL S
,

. 002 2 1 23 8 9

. 002202 6 4 3
. 002 1 9 7 802

. 002 1 4 5 923

. 002 07 9002

. 00206 6 1 1 6
. 00206 1 8 5 6

JXHKHM2 9 1
3 64 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE 96 (Continued)
SQ U ARE S, CUBE S, SQU ARE RO OTS, CU BE RO O TS RE CIP RO C ALS
,
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE T ABLE S 3 65

T ABLE 96 (Conti nued)

S Q U ARE S, CUBE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS, CU BE RO OTS RE CIP R
,
‘

O C ALS
36 6 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRA L I CS U
T ABLE 96 ( Conti nued)
SQ U ARE S, CU BE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS C UBE RO O TS, RE CIP ROC AIS
,
3 68 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 96 (Continued)
SQU ARE S, CUBE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS, CUBE ROOTS, RE CIPRO C AL S
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NCE TABLES 3 69

TABL E 96 (Conti nued)

SQ U ARE S, CUBE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS CUBE ROOTS, RE CIPRO CALS
,
37 0 HANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABL E 96 (Conti nued)

SQU ARE S, CUBE S, SQUARE ROO TS, CUBE ROO TS, RE CIFRO C AL S
37 2 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 96 ( Conclu ded)

SQ U ARE S, C U BE S, SQ U ARE RO OTS CU BE RO OTS RE CIP RO C AL S
, ,
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NC E TABLE S 37 3

T ABL E 97 .
— SQ U ARE ROO TS OF NUM BE RS F RO M 1 000 To 1 0000
37 4 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 97 (Conclu ded )

SQ U ARE RO OT S OF NU M BE RS F RO M 1 000 TO 1 0000
376 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

TABLE 98 ( Concluded)

CIRCU M FE RE NCE S OF CIRCL E S BY H U NDRE DTH S

15 71 15 74 15 77
16 02 1 6 05 16 08
16 34 16 37 16 40
16 65 1 6 68 16 71
16 96 1 7 00 1 7 03

28 17 31 17
59 17 62 17
91 17 94 17
22 18 25 18
54 18 57 18

88 1 8
20 1 9
5 1 19
82 1 9
1 4 20

4 5 20
7 7 20
08 2 1
39 2 1
68 2 1 7 1 2 1

99 22 02 22
34 22

26 7 0 62 7 3 26
02 27 05 27
33 27 36 27
6 5 27 68 2 7
96 2 7 99 2 8

27 28 31 28
59 2 8 62 28
90 28 93 28
2 2 29 25 29
5 3 29 56 29

8 5 29 88 29
1 6 30 1 9 30
4 7 30 50 30
7 9 30 8 2 30 8
1031 1 3 3 1 16
 GE NE RAL RE FE RE NC E TABLE S 37 7

TABL E 99.
— ARE AS OF CIRCLE S BY H U NDRE DTHS
37 8 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 99 ( Conclud ed )

ARE AS OF C IRC L E S BY H U NDRE DT H S

380 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABLE 1 00 ( Conclud ed )
CIRCU M FE RE N CE S OF CIRC LE S BY E IGH THS
 GE NE RAL RE F E RE NCE TABLE S 38 1

T ABL E 1 01
.
— ARE AS OF C IRCL E S BY E IGH THS
38 2 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABL E 1 01 ( Cond ude d )

ARE AS OF CIRCL E S BY E IGH TH S
3 84 H AN DBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

column 1 0 by the Fteley a nd Stea rns formu la a nd in c olu m n

1 1 by fo rmula the l a tte r will be e xpla i ned la te r (p a g e
It will be O bse rved tha t in genera l the au thor s fo rm ula ’

comes som ewha t closer to the e xpe ri m ent a l val ues tha n a ny
of the other f o rm ul as Ba z in s fo rm ula a nd Lym an s dia g r a m
’ ’
.

a lso a gree very we ll with the exp e ri m ent a l va lu es The L y m a n

.

dia g ra m was b ase d u pon m e asu rements m a de 1 5 f ee t u ps t re a m

f rom the w ei r by m ea ns Of a pl u m m e t su sp e nde d by a ta pe ,

a nd a co rre ctio n wa s m a d e to the Ba z in e xp e ri m e nts to m a k e

them conform to this m e thod O f m e asu re m e nt This dou btlens .

a ccou nts in a m ea su re a t le a s t f or the dis c re p a ncies in thes e

results The disc ha rges by the Fteley a nd Ste a rns f ormula a re

.

in ge neral less th a n the e xp e ri m e nt a l res u lts bu t the y ex c ee d

them f or the highe r hea ds on the we i r f e e t high a nd a p
proa c h the m a ga in f or the wei r f e e t high This indi cates
.

the nee d of a va ryi ng coe ffici e nt to be a pp lie d to a f o r mula of

this kind The Fra ncis f o rm u la shows a W ide va ria nce f rom
.

these exp e ri m e nta l results It co m pa res m o re f a vo ra bly f or

.

the highe s t w e i r howe v e r which is wha t wou ld be e xp ec ted

, ,

si nc e the Fra nc is f o r m ul a is b as e d u po n e xpe ri m e nts w i th

higher we irs tha n the Ba z in f o rm ula .

The a u tho r s fo rm ul a a g re e s with the e xp e rim ental res u lts

’

es pe ci a lly w ell f o r the lowe r he a ds It is he re tha t i nves tig a to rs

.

have ge nerally ha d di fficu lty in de rivi ng a f ormul a tha t would

give dis cha rges su fficiently g rea t withou t de pa rting too f a r
f rom the e xp e rim e nts f or highe r he a d s .

Fig 89 shows g raphic a lly the dis c re p a nci es res u lting f rom
.

Table 1 02 T he e xp e ri me nta l va lu es a re shown on the straight

.

line which is us e d a s a b as e The discre p a ncies of the f o rm ulas

.

f rom the se v a l u e s f or di ff e r ent he a ds a r e i ndi ca te d by the b rok en

lines The co m pa ra tiv e results by the v a rious f o rm u las ca n
.

be re a dily se e n f ro m this figu re .

Ta ble 1 03 has b ee n prepa red f ro m Fig 8 9 by de te rm ining .

the a reas b e twe e n e a c h of the b rok e n li ne s a nd the b ase li ne .

Areas a bove the b as e a re i ndic a t ed a s plu s a nd those be low

mi nus The figu res a re not d e finite q u a ntities bu t re p res ent
.

the com p a ra tive di s c re pa nci es f o r e a c h f o r m ul a The la st f our

.

c ol u m ns Show a su m m a ry of the re su lt s the la s t col u m n giving

,

t he com p a ra tive tota l di sc re p a nci es both plu s a nd m inus .

mom these figu res it will be seen tha t the au thor s f ormula ’

a g re es a li ttl e close r with the Ba z in e xp e ri m ents than any of the

he r f orm u l a s
‘

.
 APPE NDI X A 3 85

ar os e u ; s t u a p anam a
ns -I
pus penc ils -I
a pen n on u s s n oq [ unwou nd
386 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I C S

T ABL E 1 02 —
.SH O W ING CO M P ARATIVE V AL U E S OF DISC H A R GE
OV E R SU P P RE SSE D W E IRS AS DE TE RM INE D F RO M

BAzIN E XP E RIM E NTS AND As CO M P UT E D

’
S

BY V ARIO U S W E IR FO RM U L AS
3 88 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

T ABL E 1 03 — V E DI
SH O W ING CO M P ARATI SCRE P ANCI E S BE TW E E N
'

BAzIN S EXPE RIM E NTAL VAL U E S O F DISCH ARGE O VE R

’

SU PP RE SSE D WE IRS AND DISCH ARGES AS

CO M P U TE D BY V ARIO U S FO RM U L AS

indic a tes are a u nd e r c u r ve a bo ve bas e line .

indica tes area u nd er c u r v e be lo w ba se line .

The Ftele y and St im ents Thes e expe ri m e n ts

e ar ns E xp e r .
-

were m a de wi th two wei rs 5 fee t a nd 1 9 fee t long and f ee t

a nd fee t high respe ctively Table 1 04 Fig 90 a nd Ta ble
.
, .
,

1 05 ha ve bee n p repa re d to Show the disc re p ancies be twee n the

Fteley a nd Stea rns expe ri m e nts a nd v a rious f o rm u las The .

va lu es g ive n in col umn 6 of Ta ble 1 04 were obta ined g ra phic a lly

by plotting all of the Fteley and Stearns experim ents with Q
p e r lin e a r foot a n d H a s co é rd in a tes The discha rges f or the
.

heads given in the table we re ta ken dire ctly from the cu rve .

The sc al e was so chosen t ha t disc ha rges could be r ea d to tho u

sandths of a c u bic foot p er se cond .

The Fteley a nd Stea rns fo rmu la a g rees closest with th ese

e xpe ri m ents The a u tho r s fo rm u la a nd the Ba z in form u la give
’
.

resu lts g re a te r tha n the e xpe ri me nta l v a lues The Ba z in e x

.

p e rim e nt s a re no t co ns is te nt with tho se of Fte le y a nd S tea rns ,

as ca n be se e n by co m p a ri ng resu lts of the f o rm e r i nte rpola te d ,

be twee n wei rs a nd f ee t h igh with resu lts of the la tt e r

,

f o r the we i r feet high It is therefo re i m possible to ha ve

.

a ny f o rm u l a a g ree close ly wit h both se ts of e xp e ri m e nts The .

m a xi m um div ergenc e o ccu rs with the wei r 1 9 f ee t long wh e re

“
s au tho r s fo rm ula gives so m e resul ts a bo u t c u bic f ee t
’
i
 APPE NDI X A

c
p e r se on d too grea t It will be Observed from Fig 90 tha t
. .

t he cu rve of va ria nce Of the a u tho r s f orm u la is nea rly pa ralle l

’

t o tha t of the Baz i n f o rm ula It is to be hope d tha t a dditiona l

.

e xpe ri m e nts will soo n be a va ila bl e to cl ear u p the a pp a re nt in

c o ns iste ncies in the e xpe rim e nts of B az in a nd Ft ele y a nd

Ste a rns (see disc u ss io n p a ge

,

F IG . 90.

Verification of Formula

I
n order to de term ine wh e th e r hor s f o rm ula will fit
the au t
’

the e xpe ri m e nt a l da ta as sa tisf a cto rily as a ny other f o rm ula of

this type the general equ a tion

Q = ALH "‘
1 + B

was i nvestiga te d a nd com p a re d with the a u thor s formu la by ’

the la bo rio u s p roc ess of l eas t s qu a res The f o rm ula de te r

.

m ine d f ro m the da t a in Ta ble 1 02 as the o ne f u l filli ng the t e

qu ire m e nt th a t the s u m of th e s q u a re s of the res id u a l e rro rs

Sha ll be a mi ni m u m is

Q 3 B3LH
.
‘
390 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

T ABLE 1 04 .
-
SH o w 1 N G CO M P ARATIV E VAL U E S OF DISC H A RG E
OV E R SU P P RE SSE D WE LRS As DE TE RM IN E D F RO M
FTE L E Y AND STE ARNS E XPE RIM E NTS AND As
’

CO M P U TE D BY V ARIO U S F O RM U LAS

T ABLE 1 05 — V E DI
SH O W IN G CO M P ARATI SCRE P AN CI
ES BE TW E E N
FTE LE Y AND STE ARNS
’
EX PE RIM E NTAL V AL U E S OF

DISCH ARGE OVE R SU PP RE SSE D W E IRS AND

DISCH ARGE S AS C O M P U TE D BY V ARI
OU S FO RM U L AS
392 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS

I pply ing the a u tho r s f ormul a to contra cte d we ir s it

’
n a

should be bo rne in mi nd tha t the te rm 6 re p rese nts the c ro ss

sec tiona l a rea of the channel of a pp ro a ch per u ni t l eng th o f t he

wei r or
,

a nd fo r t
re c a n u a rg l channels of a pproa ch
WC

I
n Table 1 06 the bta ined by the au thor s for m u la
results O
’

a re co m p a re d with the e xp eri me nta l value of Francis a nd

Ftele y and Stearns The resu lts given cove r p ra ctic a lly the
.

e nti re ra ng e of th ese e xp e ri m ents The Fra ncis e xpe ri m e nts

.

we re p erf o rm e d on wei rs f ee t and f ee t high a nd

a pp roxi m a te ly 8 fee t and 1 0f ee t wide The Fteley and Ste a rns .

e xpe rim e nts we re co ndu cte d with a wei r fee t high a nd

f ro m to 4 fee t wid e .

The di s ch a rg es over the Fra ncis w ei rs were measu re d volu

m e tric a lly Fte ley a nd Stea rns de te rm ined the disch arge ove r
.

thei r c ontra cte d wei rs by a llowing the sam e qu antity of w a te r

to pas s over the sam e weir with contra ctions supp ressed The .

a u tho r re co m pu t e d the dis ch a r g es in the Ftele y a nd Stea rns

'im e nts by using the cu rve of discha rge alrea dy re ferre d
e xpe I

to pa ge 388 fr om which the quantities in Ta ble 1 04 f or the

, ,

su ppre s se d we i r 3 1 7 fee t high we re com pu te d

. The qu antities .

ta ken f ro m this curve w ere then corre cted f or velocity of a p

p roa ch to co rrespo nd to a wei r fee t high It is be lie ved .

tha t this m ethod gives results m ore in a c co rd with the discharges

m easu re d volu m etric ally f or the su pp resse d weir tha n the F te ley
a nd Stea rns m e thod of using the ir fo rm ul a to co m pu te them .

Table 1 06 includes one exp erim &1 t from ea ch g rou p of the

Fra ncis expe rim ents the e xpe rim ent chosen be ing the one in
1
,

which the compu te d valu e of C c am e the nearest to the mea n

va lu e of C f or the g ro up Of exp e rim ents c onside red Pra ctic ally
‘

all of the Fteley a nd Stea rns e xp e ri m ents on co ntra cte d weirs

a re i ncl u ded Colu mn 9 of this ta bl e gives the e xp eri mental

.

o r m e as u red di scha rge over t he we i r Colu mns 1 0 1 1 a nd 1 2

’

.
, ,

Show di sc ha rg es as co mp u te d by the Francis fo rm u la the Ftele y ,

a nd St e a rns f o rmul a a nd the au tho r s f orm ul a res pe tively

’
, c .

Fig 9 1 shows gra phica lly the d isc rep anci es be twee n e xpe ri
.

1 J B F RAN IS L w ll H y d uli E xp e i m nt
. . C : o e pp 1
ra 22 —1 2 5
c r e s. . .
394 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

TABLE 106 —SH O W ING COM P ARATI

VE VALU E S OF D ISC H ARGE
OVE R CO NTRACTE D WE IRS As DE TE RM INE D BY Ex
P E RI
M E NTS RY FRAN CI
S AND BY FTE LE Y AND

STE ARNS AND AS COM P UTE D BY

VARIO U S FO RM UL AS
 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAU L I CS
°

3 96

cha rges over weirs of the sa me height with f ree overfall T hese .

f orm ulas were use d only within the a ppr oxima te ra nge o f the
e xpe rim e nta l da t a on which the y w ere b ase d Since the c u r ves .

of these f ormulas plot V ery precisely as a mea n of the e xp eri

me ntal p oiiIts no appre cia bl e erro r is i ntrodu ce d in us in g t he m
i ns te a d of using the e xpe ri menta l results dire ctly It w ill be .

see n tha t the grea tes t diverg enc e of resu l ts by the a u t h o r s

’

f orm u l a f rom Ba z in s exp eri m enta l results is a pproxi m a te ly 2

’

p er c e nt while the tota l diverge nce is less tha n f or the Ba z in

.
,

genera l formula (f ormula p age

Table 1 09 shows a com paris on of discha rges ove r su bm e rged .

we irs as determined from the Francis expe rim ents of 1 883 the ,

Francis subme rge d we i r for m u la (f or mula

-
pa ge and

t he a uthor s sub m e rged we i r form u la The expe rim ent a l v al

’
-
.

u es wer e obt a ined by de ter m ining the qu antity of wa te r t hat

would flow over the sam e w eir with free ove rfall by m e a ns of
the Francis form ula Fra ncis a ppea rs to ha ve ne gle c te d the
.

velocity of a ppr oa ch correction in com pu ting his dis ch a rges

over the we ir with f ree overf all The dis cha rges correc te d for .

velocity of a pproa ch a re given in colu mn 7 Francis e xpe ri .

m ented on two w e irs ha vi ng a co m bine d length of f eet .

A co m ple te des c ription of the a ppa ra tu s use d is not give n and

i nforma tion as to the width of the cha nne l b elow the w e ir is
e nti rely l a cking Fro m a n e xa m i na tion of the ske tc h s ub
.

m itted wi th Fra ncis pa p er a n ass u m ption of a channe l width

’

below the w eir of tim es the com bi ne d lengt h of we i rs ap

p ea red cons e rva tive a nd this width was use d in the com p u ta
tions The height of the we i r a bove the bottom of the lower
.

cha nnel was dete rm ine d by sca l ing and ta ken as f eet .

Owing to the lack of da ta reg a rd ing c hanne l conditio ns below

t he w e ir som e u nc e rt a inty e xis ts as to the results obta ine d by
the a u tho r s f o rmu la Sinc e howe ve r d l is su re to be a com
’
.
, ,

p ara tively l a r ge qu a ntity co nsid e ra ble cha nge in the a rea of

,

the se ction of the lower c ha nne l will be ne c essa ry to g rea tly

'

eff e ct the com pu te d dis c ha rg es It will be obse rved tha t the

.

a u tho r s fo rm u la giv es disc ha rge s f ro m a bou t 1 to 2 pe r ce nt

’
.

grea te r than the e xperi me nta l va l u es while the Francis formula

gives resu lts a n e qu a l a m ou nt l ess tha n the e xperim ents If .

a v e locity Of a pp r oa ch co rre c tio n w e re a ppli e d to the Fr a ncis

- -

s u bm e rge d w e i r f o r m u l a its a g re e ment with the expe ri m ents

-
z

wou ld be close r bu t in his discu ssion Francis does not speak

, ,

of the ne c essity f or su ch a corre ction .

 APPE NDI X A 397

T AB L E 1 08
.
— COM P ARISO N OF DISCH ARGE S SUBM E RGE D
OV E R

W E IRS AS DE TE RM INE D BY BAZ IN S Two PRE CISE SUB

’

R FO RMU L AS, W ITH BAZ IN S GE N

’
M E RGE D W E I
-

E RAL SU BM E RGE D W E I
-
R F O RM UL A AND TH E
AUTH O R S SUBM E RGE D W E IR FO RM UL A
’
-
398 H ANDBO O K O F H Y DRAUL I C S

TABLE 109 — CO M P AR SO N O F DISC H ARGE S OVE R SU B M E RGE D

. .

WE IRS As DE TE RM INE D F RO M FRANCIS E XP E RIM E NT S

’

OF 1883, W ITH THE FRANCIS SUBM E RGE D W E IR

-

FO RM UL A AND TH E AU TH O R S SU BM E RG E D
’

W E IR FO RM UL A
4 00 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I
CS

—
TABLE 1 1 0 CO M PARATI
. VE VAL U E S or DISCH ARGE OVE R SU B
M E RGE D WE IRS As DE TE RM INE D FRO M ExP E RI
M E NTS B r

FTE LE Y AND STE ARNS AND As COM P UTE D B Y TH E

FTE LE Y AND STE ARNS FO RM UL A AND
’
BY
TH E AUTH O R S SUBM E RGE D W E IR
’
-

FO RM U LA
 APPE NDI X A

Sinc e Fra ncis measu re d the hea d of sub me rgence j ust belo w
t he we i r in his e xpe ri m e nts of 1 848 the a u tho r s fo rm ul a ca n
” ’

not be a ppli e d to them Ta ble 1 1 1 Shows a com pa rison of the

.

res u lts of these e xperim ents with formu la p a ge 83 The .

discrepancy in ea ch c ase is less tha n 3 p er cent D was prob.

a bly measu red nea r the t rou gh of the s ta nding wa ve and the

ra th e r close a gree m ent be tween the com pu te d and experi

m e nta l va lu es is som e evidenc e to su bsta ntia te the a u thor s

’

o pini on th a t form u la (42 ) will give a pp roxi m a te dis c h a r g es

ove r sub m erge d wei rs if the hea d of su bmerge nc e is m e asured

in the t rou gh of the s ta nding wa ve .

It is i m possible to m a ke a thor ou ghly consis te nt comparis on

o f the fou r sets of e xpe ri m e nts desc ri be d a bov e wi th the au thor s
’

for m ula bec a use of the di fferent points chosen by the experi
m ente rs in m eas u ri ng the hea d of Su b m ergence It seems f air
.

to c onclu de howe ver f rom a study of the resu l ts given in

, ,

Ta bles 1 08 1 09 and 1 1 0 tha t if the hea d of subm ergence is

,

m eas u re d a t a poi nt corres ponding to tha t chose n by Ba zin

(36 f ee t belo w the weir ) the au tho r s su b m erged wei r formu la
’
-
,

s hould giv e re su l ts corre ct withi n fro m 1 to 3 p e r c ent .

T ABL E 111 —COM P ARATIV E

. DISCH ARGE S OV E R SU BM E RG E D
WE IR AS DE TE RM INE D F RO M F RANCIS E XP E RIM E NTS
’

OF 1 84 8 AND TH E AU TH O R S FO RM U L A
’
402 APPE NDI X A

Cau se s of I
nconsiste ncie s in W e ir E xpe rim e nts

A care ful c tiny of the foregoing e xperime nts reveals

s ru

many a pp arent inconsistencies in the resu lts of the di ff e re nt

investigato rs It wi ll be note d however tha t in e ver y case
.
, ,

ea ch set of e xpe ri m ents is consiste nt in itse lf within the li m i ts

of e xpe ri menta l e rro r The conclusion m us t be tha t s u c h

.

incons istencies a re due to di ff erent condi tions u nde r whic h

the e xperi m e nt s ha ve be e n pe rform e d a nd fa ilure to co ns i d e r
ce r tain funda m e nta l Unde rlyi ng p ri nciples .

Proba bly the m ost notice a ble incong ruity e xists in t he

e xpe ri m e nta l results of Ba z in a nd Fte ley a nd Stea rns E ac h .

se t of e xpe ri m e nts is cons iste nt in i tself and a ppa re ntly e a ch

was pe rform e d with g rea t c a re and u nder e qua lly fa vo r a ble

circu m sta nces It would there fore a ppear tha t so m e di ff e r
.

e nce in condi tions which ente rs into the re l a tio n b e twee n h e a d

,

and di scha rge e xi ste d which ha s no t hithe rto been consi d e re d

,

in weir investigati ons a nd f or the m ore pre c ise u se of w e i rs

, ,

co rre ctive f a ctors to a llow f or su ch conditions should be in

clude d in we ir formulas .

E xpla na tion of the reasons f or these conflicting exp er i

m e ntal da ta ha s ha rdly passe d the sta ge of conj e ctu re Appa r .

e ntly the i nco nsiste nc i e s in the Ba z in a nd Fte le y a nd Ste a rns

e xpe rim e nts a re no t du e to the di ff e re nt m e thods e m ploy e d in

mea suring he a ds nor di ff e renc es in the sha pe or de g ree of Sha rp

ne ss of w e ir c rests Ba rr e xpe ri m e nting with V notch w e irs
.
,
-
,

(pa ge 87 ) fou nd tha t i nc rea sing the ro ughness of the upstr ea m

f a ce of a we ir by re du cing the ve rtic a l com pone nt of the
,

velocity of app roa ch and so re du cing c rest contra ction in ,

c re a se d the discha rge A Si m il a r re la tion be twe en deg ree of

.

rou ghne ss of u p stre a m fa c e a nd di sch a rge m a y e xist f or r ec

ta ngular we irs . It is a l so probable tha t the discha rge ove r

we i rs inc reases Slightly with the tem pe ra ture of the wa te r d ue
to a dim inution of the coe fficient of V iscosity .

It is importa nt tha t fu tu re experi me nters sho uld give com

p le te d a t a rela tive to te m pe ra tu re of the wa te r a nd d e g re e of

rou ghness of the u pstrea m fa ce of the we i r All di m e nsions .

a nd a de ta ile d d es c riptio n of the a ppa ra tus use d in e xp e ri m e nts

Shou ld a l so be given In ge ne ra l it m a y be sta te d th a t b e fo re

.

ma terially g rea te r p recision in the mea surem ent of flow over

we irs ma y be e xpe cted the f unda mental la ws aff ecting su ch
,

flow m ust be m ore thorou ghly investig ate d .

l H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS

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APPE NDIX B 4 05
 H A N DBOOK O F H Y DRAUL I
CS

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4 08 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAUL I CS
4 12 H ANDBOO K O F H Y DRAULI CS
 I
NDE X
Ba s in ope n cha nnel form ula
fr o m
A “

C he y coe fi cient
r .

l
c e era te d flo w i n h
c a nne l s 291 —29 4
'
tabl e
A cc e l e ra tio n o f gra vity 35 coefi cie nts o f roug hness f or .

foot 1 9 1 3 4 0 4— 4 13
1 c re -
c o m pa iso n with Ku tte r
,

c o nv e rsi on f ac to rs
-
‘

2 g
r
M anning for m ulas
.

conve rs io n f ac to rs 7 8 1 97 20 0 204 206—

c omparis on wi t h Scobe y s
.

acres c o nve s io n factor s

.
.
’
6
3—
r
i ona no n o f na ppe e xper i m e nts
,
-
75 40 4 13
so l u tio n of
.

200
”
nchor 1 00
x 2 7 4 27 5
a nd“ gr a d u a l enlarge m e nt in Ba z in ted w eir f or
p1 pcs
.
mula 71
co m par iso n with exp eri
. .

I11 l es tr i o no m tr ic f u nc ti o ns
’
e
1g
0 t bl es — me ts —
.

a 3 4 7 35 2 n 388
p p r o aeh ve locity of 4 063 7 0 1 03 Ba zin sub m er ged w eir for mu la 7 9
“ ”
. .

1
—
c o m pa ris o n
.

u cher s u d d e n enl ar ge m e nt in
. , .

with e xp er i
—
.

1 65 e ts 398
21 1 Be ll m o u thed o r ifices
-
42 4 3 .

u es o nve sio n fa c to rs
c r 6 Be nds i n pip e s 1 68
mea n d e pth dis cha ge — coe fii c i i t f o r loss o f h ead
,

gi
1 rea -
r .

c ur ve
,

2 69 2 7 2
dia me te s by l oss of h ea d t a ble
.

\ rea s of ci cl
mg i fi z
r
Be nton ooe fi c ients for sub
. .

d .

by h u nd r ed ths 37 7 me rged ga tes 61

pi pes d ia m e ters n fee t s ub m e r d ga te f o rm ula
. .
.

175 46
Be rno ulli s tge
, 1
4 9 292
. . .

i n inches e or e m
’
1 78
haltedm ip es B arnes f or Bie l ope n c ha nne l for mula
.

. 1 93
Bilto n e xpe im e nts on orifices
.

u 1 57 . r 38
for mula d v o ca ted 1 58—1 60
a Bla cks to ne Ri ver d a m
ooe m a le Bord a s m o uthpiece
” .

cients f or
t b
’
s 49
l oss of h e ad p i pe 1 foo t
.

Bl ackwell experime nts

.
.

bro d cres ted we irs

.

i n dia m e te r ta ble
.

1 74 “ a -

solution of tahle Bor nemann e xpe ri m e nts on sub

.

.
form ula merged ga tes
”

l 59
T utton f o r mu l as 1 55 Boss u t ex m e nts on orifices 3 9
U nwin fo r m ula B o ve y
.
.

155 “ . coe fi cie nts f or

1 tm os p here val ue o f , ll ori fic es ta ble ,

1 tm osp her es c o nvers o n fac 1 e xperi m e nts o n o ri fices

t o rs
.

Bra nched pipes

”

9
1 tm osp he i c pr ess ur e Irael 1 1 01 ht o
sn o i t,n wo ri weig o
r
ltm osp heri c pr essures ta bl e
. .

12 , “

‘u ti n da m O O O O O O Q C O O O O O 0 0 6, 1 4 8
1 39 Brightm or e . l
e n a rge m e nt in
i
B
16
e c k wa ter cur e v B oad c res ted weirs (See Wei
g
r - rs .
Bro nze we igh t o f
.

a er . 91 9 0 01 9 011 01 1
p h l for B us hels co nversio n fa c to rs
.

3n nes. A A . o e n c a nne 7
m l
. .
. . .

u as l
pipe fo mulas 1 56—1 58 1 60 1 6 1
r
0
Bar nes nd Co ker criti
.

a ve .

l ocity 1 70 Ca na l. (s ee lso Op en Chann l )a e .

Barr V notc h ed w ei
.

-
85 86 87 rs 8 —
1 8 2 36
n efi t o f n ppe fo m on
.

s h o w i t h free d is
.
.
. ._

, ec a r t r
di s h a ge c 131 r 0 ar e
xpe im nts orifi es
e r e38 c S c o be y a o x p e r i m e nts
s ha rp or es te d w ei 4 03—
, .

65 67 rs . 4 13
Cas te l e xz
-
.

. eri me nts o n orifice s 39

ub me ged weirs 7 6 7 7 : 80 Cas t ir o n pip e s disc h ar ge o f
.

s r . . .
-
,

Barnes for mu las

.

82 . 83. 395 398 -

1 57
t Chez y f or m ula
.

weirs not sha rp - e res ed 1 53 1 54 .

1 33. 1 34 , 1 35. 1 4 0 for mula advocated 1 58 1 60 .
4 16 INDE X

C as t ir o n pi pes i mula coefii

-
. . Cla y . weight oi
ciente f or bl es Coe fi cient o f contra ctio n ,
. .

17 3 . o ri.
loss o f he ad p i pe 1 f oo t
. .

ter table
i n d ia m e t 1 74 .

so u tion of ta ble
”

s l 153 l 2
1
3 . . .

L‘x I or m u la t 151 a t e n r a ne e
Tu tto n f o r mul as
.
,
1 55
U nwi n fo r m u la 155 loss of head d ue t o be n d s
Wi llia ms a nd H a ze n f or
'“ l oss of head d ue to c o n t r a e
Ce nter s of gr a it v y and radii of t ons 1
yr a ti on of pl a ne s u r table
aces 14 on of hea d d u e t o e nla r g e
Ce n te s o f ressure o n da m s
r . me nts
ta bl es
.

ta b e 30
Ce nt im e te rs c o nve rs io n fac to rs loss of h ead due to
.

6
a lso Op en ( M h
.

Cha nnels (s
m t?
a
sa tabl e s
Ch annels c1 cu la hyd ra ulic
r r. ss of h ea d d u e to va lv es o r
o
e le m e nts f or p art f ull
.

, oth er obstr ucti o ns “

t r a p e i d a l hydra ul ic , l oss of h ea d du e to Y
r ad1 ta e 1. ra nc es
Ch a tterto n co e mci e nts f or sub Co fficients f or s u b m er ged weir
.

. e
mer ga tes fo mul as r
f o r m 11 a for su b m e rged Coeffi cie nts f or w eirs ( See Wei r:
Co e fli cients of dis ch arge g tes
.

a
mi hy fr ee dis charge
, .

che -
.

24 9. 256
t
a pp a ra us 25 3
a ppli ca tio n t o s t r ea m ga g
n
o zz l es 4

du crip tio n 2 49 on fices 3

t o of sa mples
e va p o a i n 251 ir u l
c c full contr tm n
ar , ac
f or mu a f or di sch arge
.

t bl
.
,

2 54 a e
nom encl a t ure nt
.

2 53 o m p a ra tw
c d iff e. e re
obt aini ng s a m ples 2 55 ha es ta ble
s
m e a neous su b m erge d
.

s ec1e d1 ] u tio ns 25 1
p
a c
.

Che xm hydr o m etry (see Ch

-
e
wal Ga ama) 24 9 2 5 6 e t a ngular f ull cont
r c c ra
Che z y f orm ula o o e n ch anne ls 1 89 t io n ta bl
, ,

e
w e fi cie nts g s 1 n form u l a squ full contraction
, .
.

ar e . ,

table
,

ta ble
.

210
K 11 t t e r f o r s u pp ess ed ont a tions:
. .

coe fi cie nts r c r c

mula t a bl e ta b l e
,

207
‘

hort tu bes
.

coe fi c ie nts M a nning f or s

mu la ta ble ub m ge d tu bes
,

s er
o mpa ris o n of co efii cient b
.

c tabl e
Ku tte r M a nning a n Ve nt uri m eter t able
B a zin formulas ta bl e
.

fli ci nts of o ughness
204—
e r
op n ch ann
. .

20 e om c
C h e z y for m ul a ipes 1 5 3 1 54 i n of b y Kutter
r so
coe m fi umug a n—
.

d Basin
. .
,

ci ents or 17 1 s
Cip p o letti w eirs 89 fo mulas 204 206 404 4 ]
r .
-

d isc h a ge o f ta bl e v al ues for Basin formula

.

r 113
, .

C i cl es areas
f “
d ia me te r by 1 93 404 4 -
r s .

v lu f Biel s f mula
,

c I a es or
’
or .

by hu ndredths g
p ipes d ia m e ter s 11 f ee t
.

1 v l ue f
a s M nning oror a
in inch es K utte f mula
, “

r or .

Ci cl es ce nter o f gravi ty a nd
r l 1 91 404 4 1 . .
-

,
rad ius or gy r a t io n val ues f or W ill ia ms nd a
circumfere nces of dia m e te rs ,
H a s en
b ei '

by gu n redths
Circ les segments of a rea s a nd
.

. .

Cir cular eo ndu1 ts

hydra ulic elem ents fo pa rt r
f ull ,
4 18 I N DE X
E Fra s i l i ce 275
F ree m a n. J -R . e xp en me nt s on
Ea th we igh t of
.

r ir re g u weirs 1 37
E nd c o nt a ctio ns fo r f a ils or
.

r o zz les
on n 4 3 . 44
Fr ic tion in p 1 es ‘

loss of he a d
f r ec ta ng ula r we i rs
o r . s o BM
( ee a lhs o . 1 50 1 5 2 —1
3 65 6 6 7 2 . , F r ie ze ga g e 262
tr p e o id a l weir s
.

f —
88 90 Fte le y a nd
or a s Ste a rns e xp e r i
Ell ipse ce nte r of g avity a nd r m e n t s sh a rp -
c re s te d
1
ius of gyr a t io n o f
. .

we1 rs . 65 67 .
E ll is T G experi ments o n or i
. .

. . .
. 7 4 . 3 8 8 —395 1
fic es 38 39 s ub m w e r ged e irs . 7 6 . 7 7 . 8 0. l
coe fi cie nts f or su b m er ge d
o rific s Fte l y e a nd Ste a r ns sh a p r
E nl a rgem e nt i n pipes loss 0f 66—
.
.

cres te d w e i for mu la 61 r
h ead
.

c o m pa r is on with e xp e r i
..

grad ua l e nla ge me nt c oefi r

c ie nte f o r ta bl e
.

1 82 Fteley a nd Stea r ns s u b me r g e d
s udd e n e nla r ge m ent ta ble
. .

1 81 . . weir fo mula 81 r
coe fi cie nts f o r 1 81 coe fi eie nts f or 7!
E ntra nce to ppipes
.

1 50 1 5 1 c o mpa is o n with e xp e r i
r
coe fi ci e nts f o r loss o f hea d 3 9 9 . 40
ta ble
.

a
l oss of head ta ble G
Evapora tio n correction for
.

reser voirs Gag es . m a lla ti on a nd

t
f ro m wa te r s ur fa ces table 298 zn
1o
t tion sele ction of s i te
. .
Gag ing s a .
F
.

2 5 8 —26
ll fo m
Fa s . r ulas f or d is char ge 1 4 1 1 4 2 Ga llons conv si on fa c tors er 6
f t o lo Ga llons, U S
.

F
. .
'
.

a nning. J T . ric i n sses 1 n

Ga lva m e d p pcs dis ch a ge 1
. .
:

1 g 16
s 1 . r .

t ula r ori fices

r ec a c oe fli c i nts f o r ta bl
e es
cie nte f or ta ble loss of he ad p pe 1 foot i n
.
i
Fee t c o nve rs io n fa c to rs
“

d ia m te ta bl
. .

. e r. e
Feet to 1 nc hes a nd f ra c t ions so l u tion of for mu l a ta b l e
ta ble
.

Ga nguille t a nd Ku tte r
. .

(Se e
to me te rs ta ble
.

. Kutt r e
Floods de t e mi na tio n of s pill
. r Ga tes 4 5 —4
wa y ca p a ity c oe ffi c ie nts of d is c h a g f
.

302—307 c r e or.
d is c h a r ge c u r ves f or 266 61 1
measure ment of 2 64 s ub m er ged 41
with f ee disc ha ge
r 4 r
3

disc h ar ge m eas u r e me nts by 24 4 G i bs on s e x pe rim e nts en

pupg m
.

s ur f ace su b s u rface
.

me nt
.

. a nd -
e 16
rod floa ts Glass p ipes d is h a rge f o mula
.

c 1 5: r
Flinn and Dyer weir e xp e i Grad ual e nla rg e m e nt i n p ip e s
. .

. r .

1
F oot po u nds
-
conve rs1 ou fa o
. coe fi cie nts f or loss o f h e a d
to s
.
r t able
F ort ie pipe e xpe ime nts
r. r G r a ins c o nv e rs ion fa c tors
Fra ncis J B e xpe rime nts ori Gra ms c onv e sion fa ctors
.

. . r
Gr a v e l we ig ht of
.
.
. .

ces
sha r p c res t d weirs Gr a v ity a c l tion of
.
-
e c e e ra
Gr o t ch e mic l g a gi ng
. . .

l 89 39 1 —3 9 5 a a “

s u b merg d weirs 7 6 80 8 G ur l ey gage

. .
‘
e . . . 2 6 1 2 61 f
—
. .

4 01
Fra n is fo mu la f or r od fioa ts
c r 24 0 H
F ra ncis sh ar res ted we i
. .

f or r
mu a 66 . 6 7 k l cu rent meter
H as e r
co m p a nso n w1 th e xp e ri H ea d los t 1 n ip s ( See P i pe e ) e
m nts 39 1 —395 of s u m ge nc we 1 s
. .

e Head er e, r
o tion f
c rr e c or e nd c o ntra c 3 140 . .

t 67 He d o n o i fices 5 —
37
a
r
dis c ha r ge by tabl e 1 17 n w ns
o e t
ubm wi f H ea ds e q u iv a l nt to
.

Fr a ncis s e rge d e r or mu la . e
7 6 . 7 7 . 83 d r o s t a t w p re ss u r e s .
c ompa is on r w ith e xp e ri ta e
m nt e s . 396 4 01 -
veloc ities ta ble .
 I ND E X
ds with ponding hy K utt fo er s
’
rmula n 1 8 9— 1 92
H ea corres
dr osta tic p reshures 1 n h y f om C er c oefi c 1e nt r 2 07
of o h
.

ou nds p e r s qu e ar c oe fi cie nts r ug ne ss f or .

oot ta ble 90. 1 9 1 . 4 04 — 4 13
sq uare inch ta bl e
.
o mp o w th c a ris n i M a nning
B fo mu l
.

ve oc ities ta ble a nd asi n r a.

—
H ec tares c o nv rsi o n fa c tors
.

e 1 97 200. 2 04 206 -

o m p o w th ob y
”

H e rsc h e l C le m e ns s u b me rge d
. ’
c a r is n i Sc e s
weir coe fi cie nts
.
78
.
xp m t e e ri en s 4 03 4 1 3 -

for mula 7 8 83 olu t o .

s i n of 2 00
Ve nt ur i m e ter 24 7
H orse pow c o nve rs ion f c tors
er . 9 a .

to kilow tts ta ble a 5

of one sec ond foo t ta ble
.
31
p p h f o mu l
-
.
.

o to
.

H r n R c flec ts of n a p
L e
'
a d i es d is c ar g e a 1 5 7 r

fo m on d sch
.
o ch a nne l for m u l a
.

i r e r e 1 30 1 3 2 L e a
p e n 1 9 4
xp t m of l p e for mu l as
.

e e i m e n sr o n e ls p 1 58 2 60
e b os e x p e ri me nts o n o ific es 3 8 4 0
.

d a ms L r r -
.

Li te rs c o nve rs ion fa c tors

.

formu la f r weirs not sh a p o r 7 .

cr es t 8 1 2 9 L es p i nass e a nd E ll is e xp e ri .

me nts on orific es
.

values of K utter coe fli me nt 1 9 1 39

L oga r ith mic dis ch arge cu rve 26 6 2 69
.

H um phr e ys a nd Abbot M u sic

-

of um b t l
.

pp v p
.

s i i Ri e r e e n L o g a n t h m s n r e rs a b e 9 3 11 . .

us e 0 307 3 09 -

H yd r ogra p hs L o ss of h e a d in p ipes ( See P i p s ) e

L y ma n we ir d ia gra m
. .

H yd os t t s
r a ic 66 7 1
o m pa is on with Ba in e x
. .
.

H yd os t ti p ess u es
r a c r r c r s

ag a ns t d m
”

e ri me nts 383 388

i p
-

a s
overflow da ms
.

a ga 1 nst .

ta ble
ce nters of p ess u ta ble M
38 M a nnin ope n channe l for mula
r re .
on c o nic a l s u rf a ces
on c li nd i ca l r 19 g
on p a ne s u f a ces r bac k wa te r c ur ve a p
pl t o to
.
—
on s ph e ica l s u f ac es r 18 1 9 r ic a i n 29 1 294
Che y p oe fi cie nt f o m
“ . .

2 10 r r
c oe fi c1e nts of r oug h ness f or
90 1 9 1 4 03—
.

4 13
tt
. .

Ice a nchor 27 4 2 7 5
c o mp a ns on W l th K u er
0

a nd Ba s n for m u l as
.
.

ce c ov e ed s t a ms
. .

1
I -
r 234 2 3 5 re
9 7 0 0 0 0
.

1
. .
.
2 2 4 2 6 - -

24 3 2 7 4
1 th Sc obe y s
.
'
co m p ar 1so w
I f az i l sl s h
.

2 7 2 7 5 p
4 03 —
ce . r
u or 4
Inc hes onv rs on fa to rs
.
4 13
6
d agr a ms f or s ol u tio n of
.

c e i c
d e pth on dr ainage ham
.

2 2 30 1
s ho t ca na ls a pplica ti on to
c o nv ers i o n f a c tors
r
8
29 1 —294
. .

of m c u y er r 9
s lope s by ta ble 2 22
2
s ol u t on of
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

p er
a re a
—
i 0 0
p e m o nth or y
2 1 2 3
3
v e loc 1 t e by ta ble
r
to d c i mals c i a foot ta bl e 5 M as on y wes1 ht of
e .
2 1
10
5 1 .

Ir o n weig ht 0 g r
a ppli ca tio n to
.

M ass d i g r a m
I g ul r w eirs
. .

a
1 36
s torage p r oble m
.
r re a
294 302
.
-

M eas ur e me nt o f flo w1 ng w a te
.

(see als o Dis ch g ar e

M ea su ments) 23 1 27 7 re

Jac ob d te m ina tion of s pi ll M c ur y c ol um n convers io n

" .
.

e r er
fa c tors
.

w y capacity
.

a
Ju d d nd n exp i m e nts n heig ht of
.

a er o
orifices w ight of
.

e
M i ma n f or mu la c o nt tion e rr . r ac
1n p 1 es
M ta ls a nd a lp oy s we g ht of e 1
M te rs to f e e t ta le e
K ilogra ms c onversion fa c tors M ic he lotti e xp ri m e nts o n o i
. . .

9 e r
to po u nds ta ble
. .
,

4 fle es
Kilo mete rs convers ion f a to rs
.

M iles c o nv ersi on f ac to rs
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

6 c
Kilowatts c onve s ion fac to s
.

M in s i nc h
.
’
r 9 r er
of one se co nd foot t a bl
.

33 -
inc h es co nv e rs io n f a to s e c r
to horse wer ta bl M o ita pi pe for mulas
. . .
.
5 e r
Kuichling o tru ct1 0ns 1 n p1 pc M u d we ight of
.

. s 1 68 . .
4 20 I NDE X
O rifices . ga es. ta ble t 61
3 5—
. .

orifices 40
Na gler . weir e x cir cu l f to
.

p erim e nts a r . ull co ntrac i n .

Nap p e d e fini ti on of
. a le t b .

e ff e c t of m odi fica tio n of c omp

a ra i e. difle re nt tv
fo m on dis c h ar ge 1 30 1 32
r -
sha es . a e t bl
Nelles s u b m erged weirs ub m
.

. l 40 neous s e r ge d
N otc h ed fa lls 14 2
Notc h e d we i s ( See V Notched
r .
-

ta n u
re c
g lar f ull c nt ac o r
t o n t bl
.

Weirs) i a e
N o zzle s
.

squ full cont tion

.

. a re . ra c
ta b le
.

c ontr tion
. .

sup p ss ed e
rblle
ac s.
‘ a
O bs tr uc tions i n ipes '

sho t t u b r es
coe fi ci ts or loss of head s ub m g d
gp
. er e
1 84 tabl e
loss of head ta ble 1 84 Ot t uc nt m te
rre e r
O pe n h a nne l s
.

onv ion f
. .

c O un ces . id c e rs ac
acce ler a t ed flow 1 n
.

tfl u s
'

2 94 -
or
bac kwa t
. .

er 27 8 28 4 -

c rc u la
1 co nd ul ts
r 2 03
meas ure m e nt o f flow
.

23 1 27 7 P
s h ort ca na ls w i t h f ee d 1s
. . .

r
ch ge 2 88 Par ke r. P ilih p AM che m 1 e s l
e s oid a l c h a nne ls
.
.

tr 202
O pe n p a nnals
o c oe fficients of . m nt e 1n
r ou g h ness co m a riso n 1 66
of by K utte ub m g d g t
.

a nning r. s er e a es
a nd Ba in for mu las s s udd n ont tion in pip
e c ra c es . 1 67
204—206 4 04 4 1 3
.
'
-
Pascal s la w
valu es f or Ba zin for mu la
.

—4 1 3 .

tical ve locity n
cr i 1
values f or Biel fo m ula 1 93 1 94 t o t o of —
.

r d e
e r i a i n r 1 5 6 1 58 1 60
—
.

d iscussi on of formu las

.

va l ues f or M a nning or k ut 1 6 0 1 62
ter fo r m v flow
.

—
.

i i
d d ed l n 2 85 2 88
1 90 1 9 1 4 04 4 1 3 -
hydra u lic elem e nts of ta ble 2 1 1
m eas ur ement of v locity m 2 38
.

valu es f or W ill ia ms nd
. . .

a e
nom e nc la ture f or fo mulas
.

H a en s 1 54 r
O pe n c ha nne ls coe ffi c ie nts f or s ol u t i on of
.

1 62 1 64 -

fo mula by ta bl e
.
.

e y s r . 1 75
Bas in for mula Pipes be nds 1 68
by K u t ter for m ula c oe ffi c ie nts f or loss of h ea d
.
.

by M a nning f or mula
.

ta 1 86
O pe n ch a nnel f or m ulas B a nes loss of h a d t ble
”

r e 1 85 a
Pip s c ont a t ion i n
. .

1 95 e r c 1 50 1 66 -

ts f or loss of he a d
.

coe fli c i
gp
.

Biel fo mu la r 1 93
Ch e z y for mula 1 89 loss of h ea d ta bl e 1 82
c o mpa is on of 197 2 — Pipes e nla g e me nt —
. . .

r00 4 03 4 13 ~
r i n 1 5 0 1 65
nas i o n of l l m t
. . .

1 96 g ra d u a n a g e n e c o r e .

K utter 1 89—1 92 e fli cie nts fo los s of r

o r m ula 1 94 hea d table
M a nnin for mu la s udd e n e nl a r g m nt
.

1 90—1 92
“

oe ffi c
e e
cie nte f loss of hea d
.

nom e nc a tu e 1 89 r or
200—
.

s ol u t ion of 2 03 ta bl e
W illi a ms a nd H a n f s udd n e nl e m e nt los s of
fi
ae or e ar .

he a d
Pipe s e ntr a nce to 1 51
c oe m c ie nts f r l oss of h a d
.
.

be ll mo u th d e o e .

ec ta ng u l a
.

r r 17!
s u bm r ed loss of h ea d ta bl 1 70 e
with f u fic ont a t
e
P ipes loss of h a d in f i tio n
.

r c e r c
w th s u ppr esse d c ont a c
. .

1 r
—1 54
c oe fli c i nts f e C h zy 171o r. e
ifi s oe fli i nts of d i ha g oe ffici nt or L a
”

Or ce c c e sc r e c e s r e

ga t s f ee d s fo mulas f r B a nes f or
. . .

o r e r 1 r o r
har ge mula
. .

c
t blea C h y fo mu la es r 1 51
g a t es su bm ged fo m l —
.

. er Lee r u a 1 5 6 1 60
4 22 I
NDE X

l w ht of
Stee . e ig U S al on. l c o n ersi n act ors . 6 . v o f
v U uv
. .

Ste e ns ga S eo logi ca l S r ey . e xp e r i
w t B coe ffici e nts f br a d
. .

Ste a r . or m nts n e o o
s u b m er ged t u bes
.
.

59 62 es te d w e irs
cr 1 33
e xp im ents on su b me ge d
.

sa m ple of eco rds ta bl

. .
.
er r r e 276
t u bes t ea m d h ge
.

s r -
i sc ar 257 I
»

Sto ne we ig ht of Units hyd a ul i (s e ls o U n t

.

r c e a i
rage p oble ms use of m as
. .

s es t on)
. .

r in
Q u i
d i ra m basi c u ni ts
.

294 302
Sto u t m e tha g sh ifting cha nn ls 27
-

e uni ts of vol um e a nd fl w o
Stra ig ht line d isc h e r c ur ves
.

26 6 U mts conv on fac t

. ta b l
ers i o rs . e
a rea m ea n d e pt m e thod flowing w t
. .

l s
.
-
. a e ‘. a
es w
loga rith mic me th od 267 269 f ngth
.

-
s o
Str ea m d is c h a rge rec o ds pow
“ .

-
257 r er w
St rea m g a g ng (See Di ch g 1 s ar e p u es ress r c
u f ace
.

M asu r ements e s r m
St a ms wit h sh ifting be ds veloc t es
.

re i i o
Sub m g e d ga tes
”

er 9 fl
coe ffi c ie nt of disc ha ge r w ig ht e c
Units ta bles f onv on f
.

ta ble or c e rs i o “ m
Su b me ged o ifices f t to mete
. .
l
-
r r ee rs a

Subm e e d t u bes ho se po wer t o k low tt m

. .

r r i a s
of d s charge nd fra t o n to f e t
. .

c oe c i nts e i . n h 1 c ss a c i s e
ta ble nd d eci m l a a s
Su bm e g d w ei s r ( See Wei s )
e r r k ilog a ms to ndr u s
Su ct i on p i e f o p um ps ki lowa tts to
. . .

12 r p ow orse er
Sud d e n e n ge m e nt 1 n p 1 ss 1 50 1 65
r
-
m t to fee t
e e rs
c oe ffi cie nt s f o loss 0 h e d u nds to ki l g ra ms
.

o
r a
p o
b oa d
.

ta ble 1 81 U nw m W C . t d r -
c res e
w irs th t ca l f o
. .

loss of h a d table
.

1 81e e eo re i r
Su p p e ss e d c ont a ct o n o i fi ces
. . .
.

r 39 r i r
m ul
conv
a
Su pp e ssed w i rs g nt
. .

r (See W i s ) e e r fi c oe nts f ci e or er e
ho t tu bes
. .

s r
T di sc h ge m asure me nts by
ar e

Ta bles ( See Su bj ect Ques tio n ) o t

a s

ts
tural ta ble xpe ments on o i fi
. . .

Ta n e n na “9 e ri r ces

e x pe r im e n
ts on Aus tin ga t Wi th f ree d sch ge
. .

Ta y or . es i ar

m coe ffi c nt f ta bl ie s or . e
f o mu
. .

The o tica l ve loc ity

re p p s i l r a
U n v s t y o f M h ga n V
.

Tho mp s on e xperim e nts on V

.

i er i ic i
notc h ed w ei
.

notc h ed w ei rs
.
r e 1
86 87
Three e ighths powe rs table m e nts
. .
.
-
2 27 86 . 87
Three ha l v es o we rs ta ble
. . .

1 22
Tin weig ht 0P
-
. . .

10 V
Tons co nve rsio n factors
.

To i e lli s th e o e m
.
’
3 Vac uum unde ove falling sh t 1 7 r r ee
l ves in pipes
.
rr c r
T ra pe z id a l w ei s Va 5 0 1 67
( See Wei s )
coe ffi ci nts f lo of hea d
o r r
T a pe z oid ce nter of gra vi ty and
. .

e or ss .
r
ius of gy a tion of
.
ta bl e

T a veling sc ee n me thod of
r . .

loss of h d t bl ea . a e
c tica l
r r
m e as ur i v e loc ity 23 1 24 5 Ve l i
oc
vsu se of ta bl
'
. ri

T ia ngle oc h e o g a vity a nd
.
e
lo ity n t um nt f— m
r r r .

it
us of gy a ti o n of
.
Ve c i s r e s or eas
u in
.
t r
T ia ngula w irs ( See W i ) 23 5 24 1 24 5 24 7
.

r .
-

ol m t cd
.
r r e e rs .
Trigono m t ic f uncti ons ta bles 23 1 246
.

c or e
u rre nt m ters
. .
.
e r
23 1 2 32 235
. .
e
34 7 —35 2 c . . .

2 38 24 1 24 4 263
T ubes short conve ging
-

42 43
fl ts
. .
r
.
23 1 239 24 0 244
. .
oa
di v e r gi n 43
Pitot t ubes
. .

23 1 238 243
s t a nd a r 41
t v ling ee n
. .

T ub es . s u bm e rge d 47 ra e
locity p n h nn l ( S e
23 1 245sc r .

coe fli c i c nts of d is c ha rg e .
Ve O
a ls o Op en Ch nn l )
. e c a e s
a
.

e s
e

d i t b u t io n of
.

a e
—
T utton pipe fo mulas . r
i
fo mu l f
s r
r
23
as
2 235
1 88—196 or
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

U m u m nt of
eas 2 3 1 24 1
re e
v ti l velo ty u v
.

er i
ca 2 3 —
2 235 c c r es
U Dee p W a te r wa ys B oa d lo ity o ifi lso
.

S r Ve c (S r ces ee a
xp im nts n w i s
. . . . .

e er e o e r .
" 11 0c
c oefli e nt of ci
 IN DE X 4 23

the ore tica l

e lo ci t f . 35 3 6 W eirs tra soida l sectio n
g i nt of
'

sf ha rg
. .

oc it of o h 4 0 ac cos c e e d is c e.

{ gee a ls o P i pe s 1
i
y a
e lo c it y p pes i table 14 6 147
t ia ng ular sectio n
.

ri t i a l
.
. .

c c 1 69 1 87 r 1 34
oe fficie nts of d is ch a r ge
.
. .

for mu l as f o 1 4 9 1 60
r c .

ta ble
.

meas u ement of r 145

v lo ity h ad
e c e W ei rs re c t a ng u la r sha
cres ted 3—1 27
.

s loc ity w e i s ( S e a ls o Wei )

'
rs
—
63 6 7
1 r e .

c o m pa ris o n of fo mulas
.

theor e tica l me a n velo ity

. .

r
wi th e xperim ents 383—
c
o ve r 0 395
— sup ess d we rs
. .

veloc ty of a pproa h 6 70 1 03 3 —
.

i c p i r 3 8 3 3 91 e
v e i fica tion of a u tho s
” .
.

velocit y of etre a t 63
r r r
’

s na c o nt a c ta r for mula
Ve nt uri e xpe ri m ents on t u b s 43 e we s W th end contrac
ir i

m tions
. .

Je ntu r i e ter 24 7 24 9 -
3 9 1 39 5 -

formulas a uthor s
.
'
c oe fli c ie nts f or 24 9 66 7 1 7 4 -

66 68—
.

Bazin
.

otc hed we irs

.

l n ( See Weir s ) 70
‘
-

Fra ncis
. . .

66
F te ley and Ste ar ns 66 68 '
L y m a n a d ia gra m 66 7 1
’

theo re tica l
“ . .

65
preca u tions for ac cu ra te
.

W ard e x pe rime nts on a es t use 0 7 6

W a te r d e nsity of ta bles —
. .

ta b s 9 3 1 26
di s c h a ges by a u tho r s
. .

measure m nt of e ( see a s lo r
’

Di scha rge M eas u r e me nt ) for mula

d is h a ge s by a u tho s
.
’
3 1 . 27 7 c r r
weig ht of ta bl e 11 fo mula c orr e ted f or
r c
W a te r c olu m n height of velocity of a ppr oa h 1 04
.

12 c
W ei ght c o nversion f acto s discha rge by F a ncis
. .

r 9 r
c o nv e rs ion of kilog a m s to formula
. .

r 1 17
pounds 1 4 7 powe s of num b rs 93 r e
c onve rs io n of pounds to three hal ves powers of
. .

o ra m s
g num be rs
of m a t e i als t a ble r velocity of a pproa ch c o r
re ct io n a u tho s f or
.

We irs a a t io n of na ppe
. .

’
er . r
a ppl i a ti o n t o st r ea m ga g m ul a
. .

c
i ng 2 63 264 veloc ity of a pproa ch
ca uses of i nco nsiste ncies i n
e x pe ri m e nts W e irs su bm e r ed
ha nne l be ow weir
.

c ho ic e of f o ma xi mum as
.

of fo m
r c
c o m p ar is on u las—
.

92 . 1 2 7 r

90 with e x pe ri me nts 395 4 01

t o of t m for mulas a uthor s
. .

de fini i n 7 0 84
’
er s 63 -

o t t 63— Ba s in
. .

end c n ra c ions . 67 . 7 2 . 7 4 . 79
88 —395 Fra ncis‘
77
m h se ve a l
ea n d isc a r ge f o r r Fte le y a nd Ste a ns 77 r
obs e v a ti ons r s t ac h e l 78
mod ifica tion of na ppe fo m the or etica l
.

r 76
1 3 0— sol u ti o n of a u thor s
.
’
1 32 f or
no me ncla tu e 64 65 r mula 84
preca utions f or a ccu te
.
.

ra 1 09
u se 4 76 s ub me r ge d d a m s 1 39 1 4 1
W e irs not sh a meta l r148 W eirs t ra pe z oid a l 88 —90
ic fo r m a a
.

a pplica ti o n of a u tho s f r
.
. .

’
1 8 r o
ve locity of a pp oa c h cor r mu la
re c t io n Ci le tti weirs
broad c rested w irs rec-
e p ole tti f or mu l a
l
ta ngu la r se c tio n a g s by Cip p o le t ti
. .

1 33 d r
coe ffi ci e nts of d is c h a rge f c m u la t a ble
“

rm i
r
ta bl s
. . .

1 4 3 1 44
e f or
da ms mode ls of
.

. W ei s V not c h ed
r -

coe ffi c i e nts of d is c ha ge a c c u a c y of
.

r r
ta ble
.

e x pe r i m e nts
. . ”

ir re gu la r sec tion f o m ulas f or r ght a ng led

r i
coe fli cie nts of d is c h a ge r . n h
ta e d isc h arge b tabl e
old C r oton d a m m od e ls of
O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

ge ne a l fo m
.

1 37 r r
coe ffi cie nts of d is ch a ge
. .

r theo re tica l c onsid era tionsa

ta ble
.

velocity of a pp roach
.

147 .
4 24 INDE X

W eisbach xpe riments on

e W ooden pi pes M e rits f or m ula
obe y for mu la
. .

obs tr ucti ons in pipes 1 68

.

Sc
e xp e ri m e nts o n o ifice s Tu tt on f or m u la
.

r 38
ip fo r m ula W oods w ight of
.

p e 1 54 e
W i ll a ms a nd Ka re n Ope n c ha n
.

W r ou ght i r on p pes disc h a r ge

.

i .
-
i
ne l for mula of Barnes for mu l a
.

ip e f or m ula U nwi n for mula

.

d s cha rge of
.

W en 1 p es i .

a rnes for mu l a s
.
1 57 Y
fo mula ad voca ted
r
.
—
1 8 1 60
5 .

o v
Y a rds . c n e rsi n ac o rs o f t
fli ci e nts f or ta b e s
c oe . .
b
Y r a nc es . loss
-
h hea in of d
loss of he d fo pi pe
a r 1 Z
foot in d ia me ter 174
sol u tion of ta ble Z inc . we ight
‘

175 of

SEP 1 2 1921