Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Program: N2612 Electrical Engineering and Informatics

Branch: Mechatronics

DEVELOPMENT OF SIMULATION MODELS IN

ENERGY TECHNOLOGY

THE THESIS DEALS WITH SIMULATION MODELS, MAPPING OF A NEW

HEAT STORAGE CONCEPT, SIMULATING THE STORAGE PROCESS AND
MODELING THE HEAT STORAGE.

MASTER THESIS

Grant recipients: Hochshule Zittau/Göerlitz

Author: Bc. Jan Krofta

Assessor: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Alexander Kratzsch (HS Zittau/Görlitz)

Supervisor: Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Sebastian Braun (HS Zittau/Görlitz, IPM)

Date of issue: 02/04/2013

Date of submission: 30/09/2013

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Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

Assignment for the master thesis

Course of studies: Mechatronics

Student’s name: Jan Krofta

Subject: Development of simulation models in energy technology

As part of the State of Saxony funded project "Energy efficiency in thermal power plants"
simulation models should be created that will allow the mapping of a new heat storage
concept in power plant-cycle processes. To simulate the dynamic phenomena of the storage
process, the modeling of heat storage (latent and sensible heat storage) is necessary.

Assignment:

 Survey of available literature on simulation models (model availability) of sensible

and latent heat storage
 Choosing the most appropriate simulation tools (Modelica, DynaStar (Delphi), etc.)
 Development of a simulation model for heat storage (latent and sensible heat)
 Perform simulations for designing a pilot heat storage
 Documentation of results

Assessor: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Alexander Kratzsch (HS Zittau/Görlitz)

Supervisor: Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Sebastian Braun (HS Zittau/Görlitz, IPM)
Date of issue: 02/04/2013
Date of submission: 31/07/2013
Registry-Number.: MA/EMIm11 - 02/13

1
3
Prohlášení

Byl jsem seznámen s tím, že na mou diplomovou práci se plně vztahuje zákon č.
121/2000 Sb. o právu autorském, zejména § 60 – školní dílo.

Beru na vědomí, že Technická univerzita v Liberci (TUL) nezasahuje do mých

autorských práv užitím mé diplomové práce pro vnitřní potřebu TUL.

Užiji-li diplomovou práci nebo poskytnu-li licenci k jejímu využití, jsem si vědom
povinnosti informovat o této skutečnosti TUL; v tomto případě má TUL právo ode mne
požadovat úhradu nákladů, které vynaložila na vytvoření díla, až do jejich skutečné výše.

Diplomovou práci jsem vypracoval samostatně s použitím uvedené literatury a na

základě konzultací s vedoucím bakalářské práce a konzultantem.

Datum

Podpis

4
 Acknowledgements
I would never have been able to finish my diploma thesis without help from friends,
and support from my family especially my sister. I would like to thank all the people who
contributed in some way to the work described in this thesis.

I thank my academic supervisor Dipl.-Ing. Sebastian Braun for his guidance, caring,
patience, and for providing a helpful atmosphere for my academic work. I have been lucky to
have a supervisor who cared about my work, and who responded to my questions and queries.
Thanks also belong to Prof. Kratzsch for his advice during the colloquiums. I would like to
thank all the staff members at Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz who helped me in my supervisor’s
absence.

Furthermore, I thank the Technical University of Liberec for their support and
technical advice. Thank belong Ing. Hubka Lukáš, Ph.D , who endorses my thesis at the
University of Liberec.

5
 Abstract
This work covers three topics. Firstly, it summons a survey of available literature on
simulation models of sensible and latent heat storages. Secondly, it describes a developed
model for sensible or latent heat storage with Matlab® simulation tool. Thirdly, it performs
simulations for designing a pilot heat storage.

The development of simulation models in the field of energy technology surveys the
simulation models of the sensible and latent heat storages. Thermal energy storage is a key
technology in providing a balance between energy supply and demand for heating and cooling
systems. Use of proper thermal energy storage systems presents a better solution for
discrepancy between energy supply and demand. Heat transfer involving phase change is very
important in latent heat storage applications. The numerical model and model based on
number of transfer units method, proposed in this thesis, employ thermal distribution in phase
change material and heat transfer fluid. The predication of temperature distribution and rate of
melting or solidification is crucial in order to design latent heat storage devices. Phase change
material melting time depends on not only thermal and geometric parameters, but also on the
thermo-physical properties of the phase change materials.

Keywords: thermal energy storage, latent heat energy storage, sensible heat energy
storage, heat transfer, simulation model, phase change material, numerical method, charging,
discharging, number of transfer method, finite difference method.

6
Content
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 12
2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................. 13
2.1 Thermodynamic Systems ............................................................................................................ 15
2.3 Sensible and Latent Heats ........................................................................................................... 15
3 Literature Survey on Simulation Models of Sensible and Latent Heat Storages ............................... 16
3.1 Thermal Energy Storage .............................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Sensible Heat Storage .................................................................................................................. 24
3.2.1 Liquid Sensible Heat Storage ............................................................................................... 25
3.2.2 Solid Sensible Heat Storage ................................................................................................. 26
3.2.3 Sensible Heat Storage System Design and Configuration.................................................... 28
3.2.3.1 Design Sensible Heat Storage ........................................................................................... 28
3.3 Latent Heat Storage ..................................................................................................................... 30
3.3.1 Latent Heat Storage Materials .............................................................................................. 31
3.3.1.1 Types of Phase Change Materials ..................................................................................... 32
3.3.2 Selecting PCM to Design Thermal Energy Storage Devices ............................................... 36
3.3.3 Latent Heat Storage System Design and Configuration ....................................................... 38
4 Design of Heat Storage....................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Storage Classification .................................................................................................................. 40
4.2 Number of Transfer Units Design Method .................................................................................. 41
4.2.1 Heat Transfer ........................................................................................................................ 42
4.2.2 Nondimensional Variables ................................................................................................... 46
4.3 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method............................................................................... 48
4.3.1 Process of Calculation .......................................................................................................... 49
4.3.2 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method – Discharging Process ................................... 50
4.3.3 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method – Charging Process........................................ 53
4.3.4 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method – Influence of Some Parameters ................... 56
4.4 Numerical Methods ..................................................................................................................... 58
4.5 Finite Difference Method ............................................................................................................ 58
4.6 Numerical Model on Thermal Energy Storage............................................................................ 61
4.6.1 Governing Equation for the HTF ......................................................................................... 63
4.6.2 Governing Equation for the PCM......................................................................................... 64
4.6.3 The Initial and Boundary Conditions ................................................................................... 67
4.7 Results of Numerical Model of Thermal Energy Storage ........................................................... 69
4.7.1 Process of Calculation .......................................................................................................... 69
4.7.1 Results of Numerical Model of Thermal Energy Storage – Discharging Process................ 70
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 4.7.2 Results of Numerical Model of Thermal Energy Storage – Charging Process .................... 74
5 Conclusion and recommendations.................................................................................................. 78
References ............................................................................................................................................. 80
Appendix A ........................................................................................................................................... 83
Appendix B ........................................................................................................................................... 84
Appendix C ........................................................................................................................................... 87
Appendix D ........................................................................................................................................... 88
Appendix E ............................................................................................................................................ 90
Appendix F ............................................................................................................................................ 91
Apendix G ............................................................................................................................................. 92
Apendix H ............................................................................................................................................. 93
Appendix I ............................................................................................................................................. 94
Appendix J............................................................................................................................................. 98
Appendix K ........................................................................................................................................... 99

List of figures
Figure 1: Storage module with visible tube register [16] ......................................................... 16
Figure 2: Packet bad SHS system during 5 hours of charging mode [18] ............................... 17
Figure 3: Upward: the PCM surrounds the HTF. Downward: the HTF passes over tubes
containing PCM [19] ................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 4: (a) U-tube design; (b) U-tube with inline fins; (c) U-tube with staggered fins; (d)
novel festoon design during charging. [20] .............................................................................. 19
Figure 5: Shell and tube unit with three different PCMs [21] .................................................. 19
Figure 6: Shell and tube storage splitted into two region and symmetry cell [22] .................. 20
Figure 7: (a) Shell and tube unit, (b) Metal (copper) foam [23] .............................................. 21
Figure 8: Computational melting phase front for different arrays .......................................... 21
Figure 9: Two-tank sensible heat storage ................................................................................. 28
Figure 10: Multi-tank sensible heat storage ............................................................................. 29
Figure 11: Thermocline Energy Storage .................................................................................. 29
Figure 12: Types of PCM and their usage for different temperatures ..................................... 33
Figure 13: Tube geometry and configuration (a) Pipe model (b) Cylinder model (c) Shell and
tube model [13] ........................................................................................................................ 38
Figure 14: A) Parallel HTF flow B) Counter-current HTF flow............................................. 39
Figure 15: Double-pipe heat exchanger A) counter-current B) parallel-flow .......................... 39
Figure 16: Tube heat exchanger design: tube, PCM and solidification/melting radius ........... 41
Figure 17: Fourier’s law of heat conduction - temperature gradient ........................................ 43
Figure 18: Heat transfer in PCM .............................................................................................. 44
Figure 19: Convection heat transfer between a surface and fluid ............................................ 45
Figure 20: Energy release from/to PCM .................................................................................. 45

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Figure 21: Temperature of the HTF ......................................................................................... 46
Figure 22: Discharging mode; inflow temperature 190°C during the 12 hours of discharging
LHS system .............................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 23: Discharging mode; solidification radius in certain positions ................................. 51
Figure 24: Discharging mode; effectiveness in certain positions ............................................ 52
Figure 25: Discharging mode; outlet temperature as a function of time at different inlet
temperatures ............................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 26: Charging mode; inflow temperature 250°C during the 12 hours of charging LHS
system ....................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 27: Charging mode; melting radius in certain positions ............................................... 54
Figure 28: Charging mode; Effectiveness in certain positions ................................................ 55
Figure 29: Charging mode; outlet temperature as a function of time at different inlet
temperatures ............................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 30: Influence of thermal conductivity ........................................................................... 56
Figure 31: Influence of specific heat ........................................................................................ 57
Figure 32: Influence of melting point ...................................................................................... 57
Figure 33: Different geometric interpretations of the first-order finite difference
approximation........................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 34: Auxilliary functions to define the density, conductivity and capacity of the PCM 62
Figure 35: Cylindrical control mesh elements ......................................................................... 67
Figure 36: Two domensional computation domain.................................................................. 69
Figure 37: Discharging process of numerical model in initial coditions ................................. 71
Figure 38: Discharging process of numerical model after 100 seconds .................................. 72
Figure 39: Discharging process of numerical model after 300 seconds .................................. 72
Figure 40: Discharging process of numerical model in steady-state ....................................... 73
Figure 41: Disharging process of numerical model. HTF temperature depending on the length
of the tube. ................................................................................................................................ 73
Figure 42: Charging process of numerical model in initial coditions ...................................... 75
Figure 43: Charging process of numerical model after 100 seconds ....................................... 75
Figure 44: Charging process of numerical model after 300 seconds ....................................... 76
Figure 45: Charging process of numerical model in steady-state ............................................ 76
Figure 46: Charging process of numerical model. HTF temperature depending on the length
of the tube. ................................................................................................................................ 77

List of tables
Table 1: Available hight temperature TES ............................................................................... 23
Table 2: Range of application sensible storage media ............................................................. 25
Table 3: Thermal capaties at 20°C of some sensible storage materials [1].............................. 27
Table 4: Thermal properties of latent heat storage materials [3] ............................................. 35

9
List of nomenclature
A area [m2]

Cp specific heat capacity [J / kgK]

f liquid fractiom [-]

F frozen fraction [-]

H latent heat [kJ/kg]

h, U convection heat transfer coefficient [W/(m2K)]

k thermal conductivity [W/mK]

L length [m]

m mass [kg]

mf mass flow rate [kg/s]

Q heat [J]

r, R radius [m]

Ste Stefan number [-]

t time [s]

T temperature [°C]

ε efficiency [%]

ρ density [kg/m3]

θ temperature difference (T-Tm) [K]

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List of abbreviations
ES Energy Storage

HTF Heat Transfer Fluid

LHS Latent Heat Storage

NTU Number of Transfer Units

PCM Phase Change Material

PDE Partial Differential Equation

SHS Sensible Heat Storage

TES Thermal Energy Storage

TESD Thermal Energy Storage Devices

11
1 Introduction
The main focus of this thesis about the development of simulation models in the field
of energy technology is to examine in particular the simulation models of the sensible and
latent heat storages. As simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital
prototypes of the particular physical models of new technological propositions to predict their
performance in the real world it is an important part of the technology development. This kind
of simulations can predict, analyze, understand, and avoid design errors of the proposed
systems.

The purpose of my thesis is to introduce and explain the reasons for creation of the
specific situational model of the particular choice. The text also introduces background
knowledge and individual calculations which were used to enumerate the heat storage
capacity and other potential values.

The thesis is divided in three big chapters where each introduces a specific aspect of
the topic. First chapter brings the general literature review of specialized technical literature in
the field of thermal energy storage technologies. Second chapter deals with the introduction of
different kinds of heat storage systems with the major focus on simulation models of sensible
and latent heat storages. The chapter also deals with the choice of heat storage and phase
charge materials. The final, third chapter is devoted to the proposal of a particular situational
models of heat storage based on the NTU method and numerical model. The content of the
chapters covers the results of the executed simulation and performed calculations. The gained
results are explained and documented. The content is particularly valuable as an analysis of a
specific type of the tube energy storage system technology.

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2 Problem Statement
Large amounts of electricity cannot be effectively stored. The only way to store
electricity is to convert it to another medium or store it in the form of heat. Power systems
require a large amount of heat rejection from a power cycle in a short period of time.
Proposed solution is to use a latent or sensible energy storage system to absorb the rejected
heat. It allows this excess of thermal energy to be collected and stored for later use. Its
subsequent release to space over a longer period of time is desirable and effective as for
example in case of balancing unequal energy demand between day and night times.

Due to the increased cost of the fossil fuels the alternative options for the heat
recovery and waste heat storage are becoming increasingly attractive. Furthermore, a thermal
energy storage can be used as a thermal management tool to achieve a better capacity factor,
to avoid start-up and part load losses, and investment cost can be reduced in combination with
cost intensive components.

Fossil oils, coal, and gases constitute 85 per cent of the total energy consumption.
However, their stores and reserves are limited. The fossil fuels propose the increase in CO2
emissions which cause temperature climate change. High efficiency systems offer the benefits
of controlling the rate of CO2 increase and global temperature rise. There are many reasons
why heat transfer and heat exchangers play a key role in the development of sustainable
energy systems as well as in the reduction of emissions and pollutants.

Energy storage mediums can be very variable and can include water or ice-slush tanks
ranging from small to massive, masses of native earth or bedrock accessed with heat
exchangers in clusters of small-diameter boreholes, deep acquifers contained between
impermeable strata, lined pits filled with gravel, water, and/or different phase-change
materials.

The main purpose of the energy storage methods are the consumptions of surplus or
low-cost energy for conversion into resources such as hot/cool water which is then used for
heating/cooling at other times when electricity is in higher demand or perhaps at greater cost
per kilowatt hour for better balancing of power supply and demand.

Plant efficiency increases with the decrease in heat losses from the stack during the
operations at higher temperature and pressures, in combined heat and power systems, and
through the use of integrated energy conversion systems. In real power plants, a lot of heat is
lost in the stack or at the tail end of the boiler or power plant. The characteristic efficiency of

13
a power plant is only about 30 per cent. By utilizing the waste heat significant gains in the
thermal efficiency can be obtained, and significant increase in plant efficiency can be
achieved. The extent of waste heat from a plant varies with the type of the plant. This is
mainly due to certain temperature range of interest for each application. [15]

The sustainable energy development, as is generally known, can be achieved by three

parallel approaches: by reducing final energy consumption, by improving overall conversion
efficiency, and by making use of renewable energy sources. In these three areas, it is
important to apply advanced heat transfer and heat exchanger technologies.

Electricity demand represents a significant impact to the cost of electricity. Therefore,

there is a need for off peak storage. Even with all commercial off peak storage systems, there
is a need to prevent an increase of energy consumption.

Thermal energy storage (TES) is a key element for effective thermal management in
the sectors of heating and cooling, processing heat, and power generation. Thermal energy
storage is the temporary storage or removal of heat energy for later use. Such storing is
indispensable for increased utilization of renewable energy systems. The characteristic of
TESs is that they are diversified with respect to temperature, power level, and heat transfer
fluids. Also, each application is characterized by its specific operation parameters. This
requires the understanding of a broad portfolio of storage designs, media, and methods.

The most widely used TES technologies are based on the models of shell-and-tube
heat exchanger. The use of such exchangers should be considered in the optimization of heat
exchanger networks. It reduces the capital cost because of its small size needed for a given
duty. It also reduces the temperature driving force which reduces the entropy generation and
increases the efficiency of the system. In addition, heat transfer enhancement enables heat
exchangers to operate at a smaller velocity but still achieve the same or even higher heat
transfer coefficients. All these advantages have made heat transfer enhancement technology
attractive in the field of heat exchanger applications.

Storing the coolness or heat from the off peak period of energy system operations by
using the phase change material (PCM) is a potential option for such systems. PCMs are
materials in which the heat at the solid – liquid or solid – solid phase transition point is used
in applications for storing large amounts of thermal energy at a certain temperature. A
principle advantage of PCMs is the large energy storage density compared to sensible energy
storage with rock or water. The main drawback of PCMs is the low thermal conductivity
which reduces the useful amount of energy which can be stored. In a latent heat thermal
14
energy storage system, the heat transfer fluid (HTF) passes through an area of encapsulated
PCM.

2.1 Thermodynamic Systems

A thermodynamic system is a device or combination of devices that contains a certain
quantity of matter. It is important to carefully define a system under consideration and its
boundaries. We can define three basic types of systems. They are as follows:

 Closed system. A closed thermodynamic system is defined as a system across the

boundaries of which materials do not cross. It contains a fixed quantity of matter.

 Open system. An open thermodynamic system is defined as a system in which material

crosses over the boundaries are allowed.

 Adiabatic system. An isolated thermodynamic system is defined as a closed system that

is not affected by the surroundings. No materials such as mass, heat, or work cross its
boundary. [1]

2.3 Sensible and Latent Heats

It is known that all substances can hold a certain amount of heat. This property is
called the thermal capacity of substances. When a liquid is heated, its temperature rises to the
boiling point, which is the highest temperature that the liquid can reach at the measured
pressure. The heat absorbed by the liquid during the process of raising the temperature to its
boiling point is called sensible heat. The heat required to convert a liquid to a vapor at the
same temperature and pressure is called latent heat. This is a change in the enthalpy during a
state change. The change of the enthalpy is in other words the amount of heat which is
absorbed or rejected at constant temperature at any pressure, or the difference in enthalpies of
a pure condensable fluid between its dry saturated state and its saturated liquid state at the
same pressure. [29]

15
3 Literature Survey on Simulation Models of Sensible and
Latent Heat Storages
This chapter is concerned with thermodynamic systems of temporary storage of high-
or low-temperature energy for later use. These storage devices create the possibility of storing
energy before its conversion to electricity. Mainly, two modes of thermal energy storages
(TESs) will be discussed. These primal models of possible energy storages are a sensible heat
storage (SHS) and a latent heat storage (LHS). Both these types are expected to be seen in
multiple extended applications as the new energy technologies which are constantly being
developed. They also form important means of offsetting the surplus between thermal energy
availability and demand.

For storing sensible heat in thermal power plants the storage in concrete is an option
shown in Figure 1. To demonstrate this idea Bahl et al. have built and tested a module in a
real technology. This simulation is a first step towards the investigation of the yearly
electricity yield of a thermal energy storage using concrete and thermal oil as HTF for
parabolic trough power plants. It has been working for 16 months with using actual weather
data. Design temperature of the test module is 400°C, length of storage concrete is 8.60 m,
height / width are 1.70 m x 1.30 m and charging or discharging time is 6 hours. Bahl’s
simulation shows that parabolic trough power plants with concrete storages of the analyzed
size could deliver 3,500 full load hours annually in the climate zone of southern Europe. The
operation time of the plant lies at 4,550 hours annually there. The electricity generation during
the storage operation is about 30 per cent over the entire year. This means that the storage
realizes one third of the power plant operation. This power plant generates 175 GWh
electricity in one year. The concrete storage module is principally composed of a tube register
and the storage concrete. [16]

Figure 1: Storage module with visible tube register [16]

16
 A. F. Regin et al. and L. Xia et al. have analyzed the performance of a packed bed
LHS system shown in Figure 2. The packed bed is composed of spherical capsules or pebbles
filled suitable PCM usable with water as a HTF. The phase change phenomena of PCM inside
the capsules are analyzed by using enthalpy method. They solve equations numerically for
both analysis such as charging and discharging processes. Regin and Xia investigate the
effects of the inlet HTF temperature, mass flow rate, and phase change temperature range on
the thermal performance of the capsules of various radii. [17, 18]

Figure 2: Packet bad SHS system during 5 hours of charging mode [18]

H. Shabgard et al. have investigated two configurations of heat pipes to serve as

thermal conduits between the HTF and the PCM shown in Figure 3. The heat pipes transfer
heat between the HTF and the PCM. The team developed a thermal model to investigate the
effect of adding heat pipes to a high temperature LHS system. They considered charging and
discharging in two storage configurations, one with the PCM contained within tubes over
which the heat transfer fluid flows (Figure 3 upward), and the second with the PCM
surrounding tubes that conveys the heat transfer fluid (Figure 3 downward). The influence of

17
the number of heat pipes, their orientation to the HTF flow direction, and the gravity vector
were also investigated. [19]

Figure 3: Upward: the PCM surrounds the HTF. Downward: the HTF passes over tubes containing PCM [19]

Jundika C. Kurnia et al. investigated various configurations TES devices, e.g., U-tube,
U-tube with in-line fins, U-tube with staggered fins, and a novel festoon design as well as
some different placement of different PCMs shown in Figure 4. The heat transfer between the
HTF and PCM, which undergoes a cyclic melting and freezing process, was solved
numerically using the computational fluid dynamic approach utilizing enthalpy-porosity
formulation. The results indicate that the novel festoon design provides the highest heat
transfer performance. This best performance was followed by TES with U-tube with fins. It is
also found that U-tube with staggered fins performs better compared to U-tube with in-line
fins. Another finding by Kurnia is that the implementation of multiple PCMs could enhance
heat transfer performance within the TES. Different arrangement of PCMs significantly
affects the heat transfer performance; placement of high melting point PCM at the inlet side
during discharging improves heat transfer but it slightly underperforms during charging. [20]

18
Figure 4: (a) U-tube design; (b) U-tube with inline fins; (c) U-tube with staggered fins; (d) novel festoon design during
charging. [20]

H. Shabgard et al. have developed a mathematical model of shell-and-tube latent heat

thermal energy storage unit of three PCMs with different melting temperatures (983 K, 823 K
and 670 K) and with air based HTF on the enthalpy method shown in Figure 5. Shabgard’s
team has numerically analyzed instantaneous solid-liquid interface positions and liquid
fractions of PCMs as well as the effects of inlet temperatures of the air and lengths of the shell
and tube unit on melting times of PCMs. A two-dimension mathematical model using
FLUENT software based on the enthalpy method was developed to predict the thermal
behavior and performance shell and tube unit with three high temperature PCM1, PCM2 and
PCM3. [21]

Figure 5: Shell and tube unit with three different PCMs [21]

A.H. Mosaffaa et al. have developed analytical model for the solidification process in a
shell and tube finned thermal storage shown in Figure 6. Authors present comparative study

19
for solidification of the PCM in cylindrical shell and rectangular storages with the same
volume and heat transfer surface area. The tube is composed from aluminum and PCM is
CaCl2·6H2O. Analytical solution is presented for the solidification process in a shell and tube.
This analytical solution is compared to that obtained via a two dimensional numerical method
based on an enthalpy formulation for prediction of the solid–liquid interface location. Their
results show that the PCM solidifies more quickly in the cylindrical shell storage than in
rectangular storage. The effects of air velocity and inlet air temperature on the performance of
the thermal storage are analyzed. It is found that the effect of inlet air temperature is more
significant than air velocity on the outlet temperature. [22]

Figure 6: Shell and tube storage splitted into two region and symmetry cell [22]

Zhenyu Liu et al. have established a numerical model to predict the PCM melting
process in porous media shown in Figure 7. Authors use metal foam in a shell-and-tube unit
for heat transfer technique to PCM. The solid–liquid phase change phenomenon is solved
with the enthalpy method. The solid–liquid interface position and the temperature distribution
are predicted to describe the melting process. The physical domain includes the volume filled
with a copper matrix. This matrix is saturated with the PCM RT 58. Authors compared their
metal foam model with the results of the pure PCM. The phase change heat transfer can be
enhanced by more than seven times. Author’s study shows that the structure characteristics of

20
the metal foam and the HTF inlet conditions have significant influences on the storage unit
performance. [23]

Figure 7: (a) Shell and tube unit, (b) Metal (copper) foam [23]

R. Darzi et al. investigate numerical model on melting of PCM using N-eicosane

inside a cylindrical container. Authors performed numerical simulations for symmetric
melting of PCM between two cylinders in concentric and eccentric arrays using the FLUENT
software. Solid PCM is more melted in top region of inner cylinder. It is due to the effect of
natural convection in the zone where warm liquid rises to the top region and replaces there the
cooler liquid shown in Figure 8. Heat conduction occurs between hot surface of inner wall
and the cold solid PCM at the bottom region. [24]

Figure 8: Computational melting phase front for different arrays

21
 Anica Trp et al and Hamid Ait Adine et al. have presented an experimental and
numerical two-dimensional model of transient forced convective heat transfer between the
HTF and the tube wall based on the enthalpy method. Authors investigate experimentally and
numerically the transient heat transfer phenomenon during melting and solidification in a
shell-and-tube latent TES unit with the HTF circulating inside the tube and the PCM filling
the shell side. [25, 26] K. A. R. Ismail et al. investigated solidification of PCM around a
curved tube also in shell and tube heat exchanger. [27]

Y.B. Tao et al. have numerically carried out the effects of the non-steady-state inlet
condition of HTF on the thermal performance of the PCM in shell and tube unit. Their results
show that when the average HTF inlet temperature in an hour is fixed at a constant value the
melting time decreases with the increase of initial inlet temperature. When the initial inlet
temperature increases from 30°C to 90°C, the melting time will decrease from 42.75 min to
20.58 min. [28] This literature has been set up as a source for the section 4.6.

N. Shamsundar et al. [14] presents the results of research and development on passive
latent heat storage systems. Analytical models and a computer code for simulating
performance were developed by the authors. The PCM studied was a eutectic mixture of
inorganic salts that fill the space outside the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
Author’s prediction of the heat transfer rates and the transient response involved the solution
of a transient heat transfer problem. Heat recovery models were tested by N. Shamsundar et
al. Authors also set up for calculating performance improvement resulting from the use of
finned tubes instead of plain tubes. A simple computer program for quick calculation of
design parameters for heat storage is also described by authors. This literature has been set up
as a source for the section 4.2.

3.1 Thermal Energy Storage

Thermal energy may be stored by elevating or lowering of the substance temperature
(i.e., by altering its sensible heat), by changing the phase of a substance (i.e., by altering its
latent heat), or through a combination of the two methods.

TES is technically a temporary storage of high- or low-temperature energy for later

use. Through this function it can be an important mean of offsetting the temporal difference
between thermal energy availability and demand.

22
 The technologically available ES types are applicable to electrical energy. In thermal
electrical generating systems, TESs offer the possibility of storing energy before its
conversion to electricity. Energy quality is measured by the temperatures of the materials
entering, exiting, and stored within the storages. For this the TESs are an important
considerations.

Energy demands in the industrial, utility, commercial, and residential sectors vary on a
temporal (different daily, weekly, and seasonal demand) base. The use of TESs in such varied
sectors requires that the various systems operate synergistically and that they are carefully
matched to each specific application. Much attention has been already devoted to the use of
TESs for thermal applications such as space heating, hot water heating, cooling, air
conditioning and similar. A variety of new TES technologies has been developed over the past
four or five decades in the top industrial countries. TESs have enormous potential for the
more effective use of thermal equipment and for economical facilitation of large-scale
substitutions of energy resources. However, a coordinated set of actions in several sectors of
the energy system is needed for the maximum potential benefits of TESs to be realized and
maximum beneficiary used. [1]

Different SHSs and LHSs for high temperature TES systems up to 100°C were
identified as being commercially available. The following table summarizes the storage types,
the preferred HTF, the storage medium material, and the temperature range of typical
applications. Table 1 shows, that the complete temperature range from 100 to 1000°C can be
covered with sensible materials.

Table 1: Available hight temperature TES

Storage
Storage type Preferred HTF Temperature range [°C]
medium
Steam
water, steam Water 100-300
accumulator
Liquid salt Liquid
Liquid salt, oil 150-600
storage salt
Concrete storage Oil, compressed water Concrete up to 500
Packed bed
Flue gas, air Ceramics up to 1300
storage
Latent heat 2 phase flow, water, material depending up to
Salt
storage steam 1000

Energy is stored or extracted by heating or cooling a liquid or a solid, which does not
change its phase during the process. As seen from the table, a variety of substances have been
used in different TES systems. These include liquids like water, heat transfer oils, certain
23
inorganic molten salts, and solids like rocks, pebbles, and refractories. In the case of solids,
the material is invariably in porous form and heat is stored or extracted by the flow of a gas or
a liquid through the pores or voids.

The choice of the substance used depends largely on the temperature level of the
application. Water is used for temperature below 100°C and for example refractory bricks are
used for temperatures around 1000°C. [31]

3.2 Sensible Heat Storage

The SHS refers to the energy system that stores thermal energy without a phase
change. It occurs by adding heat to the storage medium and increasing its temperature. Heat is
added from a heat source to the liquid or solid storage medium. The thermal stratification is
important for the SHS. Heating of the material that undergoes a phase change is called the
LHS. The amount of energy stored in the LHS depends upon the mass and latent heat of the
material. In the LHS, the storage operates isothermally at the phase change of the material.
Both these types and forms of TESs are expected to be seen in extended applications as the
new energy technologies are constantly being developed.

In SHS thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature of a solid or liquid. SHS
system utilizes the heat capacity and the change in temperature of the material during the
process of charging and discharging. The amount of heat stored depends on the specific heat
of the medium, the temperature change and the amount of storage material. [2]

∫ 2 - 1

m is the mass and Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure. Ti and Tf represent the
lower and upper temperature levels between which the storage operates. The difference (Ti -
Tf) is referred to as the temperature swing.

SHS systems are simpler in design than LHSs. The systems are beneficial if the
thermal energy of the HTF is discharged over a large temperature range. This is connected
with a corresponding large temperature change of the storage medium. A slight disadvantage
of the SHSs is their bigger size. For this reason, an important criterion in selecting a material
for SHS is its (ρCp) value. It is desirable for the storage medium to have high specific heat

24
capacity, long term stability under thermal cycling, compatibility with its containment and the
most important is the low cost. [30]

A second disadvantage associated with SHSs is that they cannot store or deliver
energy at a constant temperature. The following Table 2 summarizes range of applications,
specific heat capacity, and the volumetric heat capacity of typical sensible storage media.

Table 2: Range of application sensible storage media

Specific Volumetric
Range of
Sensible storage heat heat
application
media capacity capacity
[°C]
[kJ/kgK] [kJ/m³K]
Liquid salt-
150-450 1,5 2450
mixtures
Synthetic Oil 0-400 2,1 1800
Concrete until 500 1 2200
Ceramics until 1500 1,2 3000

3.2.1 Liquid Sensible Heat Storage

Because of the density differences between hot and cold fluids the liquid media
maintain thermal stratification. The existence of a thermal gradient across the storage is
desirable. This characteristic is used when the hot fluid is supplied to the upper part of the
storage during charging, and the cold fluid is extracted from the bottom part during the
storage discharging.

Storage in fresh water. Water can be used as storage and as a transport medium of
energy. The water is one of the best medium to be used at temperature under 100°C. It has
higher specific heat than other materials, it is cheap, and widely available.

However, due to its high vapor pressure, water requires costly insulation and pressure
withstanding containment for high temperature applications. Water storage tanks are made
from a wide variety of materials, like steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete and fiber glass.
The tanks are insulated with glass wool, mineral wool or polyurethane. The sizes of the tanks
used vary from a few hundred liters to a few thousand cubic meters.

For large scale storage applications, underground natural aquifers have been
considered. Aquifers are geological formations containing ground water, offering a potential
way of storing heat for long periods of time. The storage medium in aquifers consists of water

25
saturated gravel or sand. Large storage volumes are available, as typical aquifer sizes range
from hundreds of thousands to millions of cubic meters. The attractiveness of aquifer storage
is due to its low cost characteristics, its high input/output rates and its large capacity.

Storage in salty water. Molten salt is commercially used as HTF. The main advantage
of its use is the low pressure of the liquid even at high temperature. Molten salt installations
are operated continuously. Nitrate salts are mostly used. Well known are different binary and
ternary salt mixtures, which are also used for TES for thermal power plants. Long term
experience is available at several industrial manufacturers and suppliers of sub-components,
melting facilities and salt producers.

Storage in other fluids. The most substitutes for water are petroleum based oils. These
substitutes have lower vapor pressure than water and are capable of operating at temperatures
exceeding 300°C. The oils are, however, limited to temperatures up to 350°C. Due to stability
and safety reasons the mostly used fluids such as Therminol, Caloria are costly.

Next in significance is the usage of liquid metals in SHSs. However, such fluids have
usually unwanted properties, which make them very narrowly focused for their application.
Their properties are partly similar to water, but they also have undesirable properties such as
high corrosion, difficulty in containing at high temperatures, and potential for reactivity with
the container. [8]

3.2.2 Solid Sensible Heat Storage

Sensible heat storage (SHS) is the simplest form of storing thermal energy. The
storage is based on the temperature change in the material. An identifying characteristic of
sensible heat is the flow of heat from hot to cold by means of conduction, convection, or
radiation. This type of heat storage is dependent on the temperature gradient and requires
insulation to maintain the temperature gradient. The difficulties of the high vapor pressure of
water and the limitations of other liquids can be avoided by storing thermal energy as sensible
heat in solids. [16]

Solid materials such as rocks, metals, concrete, castable ceramic and bricks can be
used. The energy can be stored at low or high temperatures, since these materials will not
freeze or boil. Solids do not leak from their container. The best solid for SHSs is cast iron
which exceeds the energy density level of water storage [9]. Cast iron is more expensive than

26
stone or brick and the payback period is much longer. Due to the low cost of pebble beds or
rock piles, they are generally preferred as the storage materials.

Storage in rocks. The pebble bed or rock pile consists of a bed of loosely packed rock
material. The HTF can flow through this bed. The thermal energy is stored in the packed bed
by forcing heated HTF into the bed and utilized again by recirculating ambient air into the
heated bed. This energy depends on the thermo physical properties of the bed material, rock
size and shape, packing density, or heat transfer fluid.

Storage in metals. Most of the materials proposed for high temperature (120±1400°C)
energy storages are either inorganic salts or metals. Metals such as aluminum, magnesium,
and zinc are suitable examples. The use of metal media may be advantageous where high
thermal conductivity is required and where cost is of secondary importance. Solid industrial
wastes such as copper slag, iron slag, cast iron slag, aluminum slag, and copper chips could be
used as storage materials [8].

Storage in concrete. Concrete as a material for energy storages is chosen for its low
cost, availability, and easy processing. Concrete is a material with high specific heat, good
mechanical properties (e.g. compressive strength), and thermal expansion coefficient near that
of steel, and high mechanical resistance to cyclic thermal loading.

When concrete is heated, a number of reactions and transformations take place. These
alternations influence its strength and other physical properties. Compressive strength
decreases about 20 per cent at 400°C, the specific heat decreases in the range of temperature
between 20 and 120°C, and the thermal conductivity decreases between 20 and 280°C [12].

Resistance of concrete to thermal cycling depends on the thermal expansion

coefficients of the individual materials used in the concrete mixture in use. Steel needles and
reinforcements are sometimes added to the concrete to impede cracking. Hereby the thermal
conductivity is increased about 15 per cent at 100°C and 10 per cent at 250°C [12].

Table 3: Thermal capaties at 20°C of some sensible storage materials [1]

Specific heat Volumetric heat

Density
Material capacity capacity
[kg/m3] [J/kgK] [MJ/m3K ]
Water 998 4182 4,17
Wood 700 2390 1,67
Brick 1800 837 1,51
Aluminium 2710 896 2,43
Steel 7840 465 3,68

27
3.2.3 Sensible Heat Storage System Design and Configuration
SHS made by solid materials are usually used in packed beds. Such beds require fluids
to exchange the heat. For specially high temperatures concrete, or castable ceramic is being
used as a suitable material to surround the tubes of the heat storages. For low temperatures
water tanks are used. Because of their low cost, good thermal conductivity, and moderate
specific heat concrete and cast ceramics are the most suitable and preferable.

3.2.3.1 Design Sensible Heat Storage

Multitank. Most SHS systems are design variations of a two-tank system. Multitank
storage refers to the type of SHS system which uses more than two tanks.

In a two tank system, in Figure 9, each tank must have the capacity to hold all the
fluid. Thus there must be twice the tankage volume to the fluid volume. In case of three tanks
of equal volume, any two of the three tanks must at any given time be able to hold all the
storage fluid in order to provide separation of the hot and cold storage fluid.

Figure 9: Two-tank sensible heat storage

Following is the description of the three-tank SHS operational cycle shown in Figure
10. At the start of the day tanks 1 and 2 are full of cold fluid and tank 3 is empty. Cold fluid is
withdrawn from tank 1, heated and placed in tank 3 which was empty until now. After some
time tank 3 is full of hot fluid and tank 1 is empty. Cold fluid is then withdrawn from tank 2
and after being heated, it is placed in tank 1. Tanks 1 and 3 are consequently full of the hot
fluid, tank 2 is empty and the cycle of the three-tank multitank ends.

28
 Figure 10: Multi-tank sensible heat storage

Thermocline Energy Storage. The reduction in storage tank volume is achieved when
the storage tank volume equals the storage fluid volume shown in Figure 11. Thermocline
system has both the hot and cold storage fluids occupying the same tank. The storage tank is
full of cold fluid at the start of the operation. Cold storage fluid is withdrawn from the bottom
of the storage tank and heated. The hot storage fluid is then put back into the top of the
storage tank. The less dense hot storage fluid will “float” on top of the cold storage fluid. This
phenomenon actually occurs quite commonly in many fluid systems ranging from the ocean
to residential hot-water heaters. One of the most critical design parameters in the thermocline
TES systems is proper provision for diffusion of the incoming and leaving fluids in order to
minimize mixing which results in formation of vortices or jetting of the incoming fluid.

Figure 11: Thermocline Energy Storage

29
 High-Temperature SHS. The ability to store high temperature thermal energy is
limited by the availability of HTF. Fluids such as molten salts, liquid metals, and air are
considered for electric power generation. However, in temperatures above 400ºC organic HTF
incline to decompose thermally.

Pressurized Fluids. The use of water or steam as a storage medium reduces storage
fluid costs. This advantage is significant as SHS are usually overwhelmed by the expense of
the pressurized storage tank which is needed.

3.3 Latent Heat Storage

As it was previously mentioned, the LHS refers to the energy system that store thermal
energy with a phase change. LHSs are based on the heat absorption or release when a storage
material undergoes a phase change from solid to liquid, from liquid to gas, or vice versa. The
storage capacity of the LHS systems with a PCM medium [2] is given by

∫ ∫
2 - 2
[ ]

where Csp and Clp represent the specific heats of the solid and liquid phases, ΔH is
enthalpy and Tm is the melting point. The storage operates isothermally at the melting point of
the material. If the isothermal operation at the phase change temperature is difficult, the
system operates over a range of temperatures Ti to Tf that include the melting point. The
sensible heat contributions, and the amount of energy stored have to be considered.

Any LHS systems must keep at least the following conditions. It has to have a suitable
PCM with its melting point in the desired temperature range, suitable container compatible
with the PCM, and a suitable heat exchange surface.

LHS systems have certain benefits in comparison with SHS systems. The most
important advantages are surely its higher energy density per unit mass, and higher energy
density per unit volume. Large amounts of heat with only small temperature changes are
possible to be stored because of this high storage density. As the change of phase at a constant
temperature takes some time to complete, it becomes possible to smooth temperature
variations.

30
 LHSs can be accomplished through solid-liquid, liquid-gas, solid-gas, and solid-solid
phase transformations. The only two transformations of practical interest are the solid-liquid
and solid-solid transitions [7]. Solid-gas and liquid-gas transition have higher latent heat of
fusion but their large volume changes on phase transition are associated with containment
problems. This particular problem rules out their potential utility in the TESs. The large
changes in volume make the system complex and impractical.

In solid-solid transitions, heat is stored when the material is transformed from one
crystalline to another. This transition has generally smaller latent heat and volume changes
than the transition from solid to liquid. Solid-solid PCMs offer the advantages of less rigorous
container requirements and better design flexibility [7].

Solid–liquid transformations have comparatively smaller latent heat than liquid-gas

transitions. Thus this transition has proved to be economically attractive for the use in TES
systems. These transformations also involve only a small change in volume (< 10 per cent).

3.3.1 Latent Heat Storage Materials

PCM are materials used for latent heat storage. As the source temperature rises, the
chemical bonds within the PCMs break up as the material changes its phase from solid to
liquid. The phase change is a heat-seeking, endothermic process and, therefore, the PCMs
absorb heat.

Upon heat storage in PCM materials, the material begins to melt when the phase
change temperature is reached. The temperature then stays constant until the melting process
is finished. The heat stored during the phase change process of the material is called the latent
heat.

LHS can be used in a wide temperature ranges. A large number of PCMs are known to
melt with a heat of fusion in any required range. The PCM to be used in the design of the TES
systems should accomplish desirable thermo physical, kinetic, and chemical properties. These
properties are as follows:

31
 Thermo-physical Properties:

 Melting temperature in the desired operating temperature range.

 High latent heat of fusion per unit volume so that the required volume of the
container to store a given amount of energy is lower.
 High thermal conductivity of both solid and liquid phases to assist the charging
and discharging of energy of the storage systems.
 Small volume changes on phase transformation and small vapor pressure at
operating temperatures to reduce the containment problems.
 Consistent melting point of the PCM for a constant storage capacity of the
material with each freezing/melting cycle.

Kinetic Properties:
 High nucleation rate to avoid super cooling of the liquid phase.
 High rate of crystal growth to enable the system meet the demands of heat
recovery from the storage system.
Chemical Properties
 Chemical stability.
 Complete reversible freeze / melt cycle.
 No degradation after a large number of freeze / melt cycles.
 Non-corrosiveness to the construction materials.
 Non-toxicity, non-flammablility, and non-explosivity of the materials for
increased safety. [3]

3.3.1.1 Types of Phase Change Materials

There is a large number of PCMs - organic, inorganic, and eutectic. All these material
types can be identified as PCMs from the point of view of the melting temperatures and latent
heats of fusion. No single material can have all the required properties for an ideal thermal
storage media, and thus compromises must be done. For example one has to use an available
material with preferable chemical properties and try to make up for the poor physical
properties by an adequate system design. [3] The enthalpy is the preferred expression of
system energy changes. Enthalpy change accounts for energy transferred to the environment
at constant pressure through expansion or heating. Figure 12 shows the dependence of the

32
enthalpy to the temperature for different materials. Another method of allocating the LHS
materials is shown in the Appendix A.

Figure 12: Types of PCM and their usage for different temperatures

Paraffin. A normal paraffin of type CnH2n+2 belongs to a family of saturated

hydrocarbons with very similar properties. Paraffins between C5 and C15 are liquids, and the
rest of paraffins are waxy solids. Paraffin wax is the most-used commercial organic heat
storage PCM. [4] It consists of mainly straight chain hydrocarbons that have melting
temperatures ranging from 23 to 67°C [4, 5].

Advantages:

 No tendency to segregate.
 Chemical stability.
 No degradation in thermal properties.
 High heats fusion.
 Safety and non-reactiveness.
 Easy incorporation into heat storage systems.

33
 Disadvantages:

 Low thermal conductivity in the solid state.

 High volume change between the solid and liquid stages.
 Decreased heat storage capacity in phase change.
 Flammability easily alleviated by a proper container.
Non – Paraffin. The non-paraffin organic substances are the most numerous group of
the PCMs. Unlike paraffin, this group has highly varied properties. Each member of this
substance family has its own unique properties. These materials are flammable and should not
be exposed to excessively high temperatures or flames.

Salt Hydrates. Substances of the salt hydrate family consist of salt and water, which
combine in a crystalline matrix when the material solidifies. There are many different
materials, where some of them have low temperature melting ranges of 15 to 120°C [5] and
other have high temperature melting ranges of 120-1000°C [10]. Salt hydrates form the most
important group of PCMs on the base of its usage as PCMs.

Advantages:

 Low cost.
 Easy availability.
 Sharp melting point.
 High thermal conductivity (compared to other PCMs) which increases heat
transfer in and out of the storage unit.
 High heat of fusion which decreases the needed size of the storage system.
 Lower volume change (compared to other PCMs).
Disadvantages:

 Out settlement and reduction of the active volume available for heat storage.
 Tendency to cause corrosion in metal containers.
 Under cooling phenomenon.
Fatty acids. Substances of the fatty acid family have similar characteristics as
substances of paraffin. Systems, which use fatty acids to obtain melting temperatures ranging
from 20–30°C, have an accuracy of 0.5°C. This desirable characteristic allows a designer to
select the optimum operating temperature to obtain the maximum performance of the TES.

34
 Fatty acids have thermally stable behavior after 1500 repeated melting / freezing
cycles. Therefore, no purity guarantee can be provided. This may be the reason that the latent
heats of fusion of fatty acid generally decrease with the number of thermal cycles.

Advantages

 Sharp phase transformation.

 Mild corrosiveness.
Disadvantages

 Cost (two to three times more expensive then paraffins).

Table 4: Thermal properties of latent heat storage materials [3]

Thermal
Melting Density Latent heat
Name Material conductivity
point [°C] [kg/m3] [kJ/kg]
[W/mK]

Non-
Glycerin 17,9 1260 n.a. 198,7
parafin
Succinic Non-
119 1104 n.a. 204
anhydride paraffin
Fatty
Capric acid 16 901 0,149 148
acid
Fatty
Stearic acid 69 848 0,172 202,5
acid
Salt 1450
MgCl2.6H2O 115-117 0,570 (120°C) 165-169
hydrates (120°C)
Hitec XL* Organic 140 1992 0.519 n.a.
Hitec ** Organic 142 1990 0.6 84
KNO3-
Organic 223 1867 0.8 105
NaNO3
NaNO3 Organic 308 2260 0.5 74
KNO3 Organic 336 2110 0.5 266
KOH Organic 380 2044 0.5 149.7
AlSi12 Organic 576 2700 160 560
NaCl Organic 802 2160 5 492
Na2CO3 Organic 854 2533 2 275.7
K2CO3 Organic 897 2290 2 235
* 48% Ca(NO3)2 45%KNO3 7% NaNO3
** KNO3 - NaNO2 - NaNO3

35
3.3.2 Selecting PCM to Design Thermal Energy Storage Devices
Various conventional and unconventional materials are investigated for their
capability to store thermal energy. These thermal energy storage devices (TESD) are selected
on the basis of some crucial physical, chemical, and economic properties. Melting point, Heat
of fusion, density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity, compatibility with container, and cost
of production belong to the main parameters for selection considerations. [4, 5, 10]. It is a
genuine challenge to find an ultimate TESD. The overall suitability of materials to be used as
TESD is governed by a multifaceted interplay between several properties of those materials.

Organic, inorganic, and hybrid materials are being used for thermal energy storage.
Paraffins and fatty acids are the most preferred organics. Water and hydrated salts of alkali
metals, some transition metals are popular inorganic TESDs. Salts of organic cations are
characterized by wide usable temperature range, high thermal stability, high ion density and
design ability. Ionic liquids mostly possess intermediate physical and chemical properties to
organic and inorganic compounds. [11]

It has not been possible to gain all the desirable properties from one material
substance. As we select a material with one or two favorable properties with best values, the
remaining properties have to get compromised. The overall efficiency of a TESD is a result of
a complex interplay between all the properties of the PCM. To overcome this difficulty,
eutectics and other mixtures of fatty acids and paraffins are investigated for their ability to
store thermal energy.

Melting point. The temperature (Tm) at which the first crystal of the material collapses
is called the melting point. The melting point itself does not affect the energy storage capacity
of a material. It is, however, vital to have the melting point of TESD within the temperature
range of the targeted application. As the phase change is involved in melting, the inclusion of
melting point in temperature range of application can permit the use of phase change as an on-
off switch. Phase change starts and stops the flow of materials which in turn can connect and
disconnect the thermal circuit and offer a smooth path for heat transfer.

Within inorganic TESDs the under cooling is a clearly visible phenomenon. Melting
of a solid is usually very quick but the solidification of molten materials requires relatively
longer time and reduced temperatures. Due to this, a difficulty in rapid disconnecting of the
thermal circuits arises. Hence, materials with low under cooling properties are preferred
TESDs.

36
 Heat of Fusion. Heat of fusion (ΔH), or latent heat of fusion is a very important
property useful in selecting a suitable TESD. It refers to the amount of thermal energy that
must be absorbed or evolved by the material in order to change its phase from solid to liquid
or vice versa. Large values of heat of fusion leads to more efficient TESDs.

Heat Capacity. Heat capacity (Cp) refers to the amount of energy per molecule which
a compound can store before the increase in its temperature. This energy is generally stored in
translational, vibrational, and rotational modes. Materials with greater atom numbers are
expected to have higher heat capacity.

Thermal Conductivity. Thermal conductivity (k) measures the ability of a material to

conduct heat. Greater values of k imply more efficient heat transfer. It forms a property of
materials which needs to be optimized. Thermal conductivity is a phase dependent property.
Thus it is important to know the values of k in both the solid and molten phases. It has been
observed that most of molten materials exhibit much higher values of thermal conductivity as
compared to that in their solid states. Higher values of thermal conductivity in molten state
can facilitate an efficient heat transfer and smooth operation of the thermal circuits in TESD.

Density. Density (ρ) of a material is a property of materials that refers to its mass per
unit volume. Materials with higher density occupy less space which in turn increases the
energy storage capacity. Materials with high density thus, obviously, possess higher energy
storage capacity. However, many of such TESD materials show a significant decrease in
density in their molten states. This is due to the expansion of their volume. If the TESD is
placed in a sealed container in its solid phase, empty space equivalent to its volume expansion
must be kept in the container. Taking in consideration this property, materials with high
density but very small change in density at the phase change temperatures are attractive
TESDs.

Other properties. In addition to the above mentioned properties, material compatibility

with container, thermal stability, inflammability, and economic factors play additional vital
roles in determining the right PCM for TESs. [11]

37
3.3.3 Latent Heat Storage System Design and Configuration
Different heat transfer applications require different types of hardware and different
configurations of heat transfer equipment. Some have been already described in Section 2.

Several models of LHS systems have been developed already. Well-known are mainly
the three modes of cylindrical PCM containers shown in Figure 13. The first model represents
a device where the PCM fills the shell and the heat transfer fluid flows through a single tube.
Second model shows a device where the PCM fills the tube and the HTF flows parallel to the
tube. Such examples of the pipe models have a low heat loss to the surrounding area. The
third cylinder model is the combination of shell and tube system. Heat transfer in such model
system has advantage due to its effect of multiple convective heat transfers compared to a
single conductive heat transfer in the pipe model.

Figure 13: Tube geometry and configuration (a) Pipe model (b) Cylinder model (c) Shell and tube model [13]

In a cylindrical container configuration of the HTFs two flow directions exist shown in
figure 14. They occur during charging and discharging of the PCMs. The first flow can be
labeled as a parallel flow where cold and hot HTF flows in one direction. The second flow is
called a counter-current flow where cold and hot HTF enters in the opposite ends of the tube.
Two flow directions exist the parallel flow increases energy charge or discharge more than the
counter-current flow. The counter-current flow for charge or discharge process produces
super cooling of the PCM in the inlet region of cold fluid. [13]

38
 Figure 14: A) Parallel HTF flow B) Counter-current HTF flow

A double-pipe heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different diameters

which are shown in Figure 15. One fluid in a double-pipe heat exchanger flows through the
smaller pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular space between the two pipes.
Double-pipe is subdivided also in two groups parallel-flow and counter-current.

Figure 15: Double-pipe heat exchanger A) counter-current B) parallel-flow

39
4 Design of Heat Storage
Several facts have to be considered when deciding on the type and the design of any
thermal storage system. A key issue in the design of a TES system is its thermal capacity.
However, selection of the appropriate system depends on many cost-benefit considerations,
technical, and environmental criteria. The cost of the TES systems depends mainly on the
following items: the storage material itself, the heat exchanger for charging and discharging
the system, and on the cost of the space and enclosure for the TES (commonly of its tank(s)).
All the following technical and technological criteria have to be considered when deciding on
the type and design of thermal storage. [32]

From the technical point of view, the most important requirements are:

 High energy density in the storage material (storage capacity).

 Good heat transfer between HTF and storage medium (efficiency).
 Mechanical and chemical stability of storage material (must support several
charging/discharging cycles).
 Compatibility between HTF, heat exchanger, and storage medium (safety).
 Complete reversibility of a numerous charging/ discharging cycles (lifetime
durability).
 Low thermal losses.
 Easy controllability.
From the point of view of design technology the most important requirement criteria are:

 Operation strategy.
 Maximum load.
 Temperature and specific enthalpy drop in load.
 Integration into the power plant.

4.1 Storage Classification

High temperature storage concepts in power plants can be classified as active or
passive systems. An active storage system is mainly characterized by forced convection heat
transfer into the storage material. The storage medium itself circulates through a heat
exchanger. This system uses one or two tanks as the storage for media. Active systems are
subdivided into direct and indirect systems. In a direct system, the heat transfer fluid serves

40
also as the storage medium. In an indirect system, a second medium is used for storing the
heat.

Passive storage systems are generally dual medium storage systems. The HTF in them
passes through the storage only for charging and discharging of the solid material. The HTF
carries energy received from the energy source to the storage medium during charging, and
receives energy from the storage when discharging. The main disadvantage of this kind of
system is the HTF temperature which decreases during discharging as the storage material
cools down. Other unfavorable problem is that the heat transfer is quite low, and there is
usually no direct contact between the HTF and the storage material. [12]

4.2 Number of Transfer Units Design Method

Number of transfer units (NTU) is a method which was developed to simplify the
calculations of heat exchanger design (Figure 16) problems. The method is applicable to shell
and tube heat exchangers of any given tube size and spacing length. The method accounts for
time-dependent flow-rate and inlet temperature of the tube side fluid. The storage code returns
the outlet temperature of the fluid, the instantaneous heat transfer rate, and effectiveness. HTF
enters the tube at a temperature which is specified. It delivers or takes heat to/from the latent
heat storage material. This heat flow causes the storage material to begin melt or solidify on
the outside of the tube. It also causes the temperature of HTF to rise or decrease. An analytical
solution to this problem would be very desirable. Such solution would help in understanding
the interplay of various parameters and in making efficient calculations without having to
resort to long numerical simulations.

Figure 16: Tube heat exchanger design: tube, PCM and solidification/melting radius

41
 The NTU method is also used in the model developed by Shamsundar et al. [14]. Their
model is the base of the TES model proposed by me. Modifications made to the source model
are due to the luck of consideration of the thermal resistance of the tube. To obtain a solution
a few simplifying assumptions are made:

 The heat storage substance is completely liquid when the heat recovery phase
begins in the discharging process and completely solid in the charging process.
 The initial superheat/supercool in the liquid/solid is negligible compared to the
latent heat of fusion.
 Melting/freezing takes place with a smooth interface between solid and liquid
and vice versa, with cavities in the frozen zone or the tube itself.
 The tube has a length much longer than its diameter. Axial conduction in the
frozen layer and in the HTF can be ignored.
 The melting/freezing rate is slow enough that the temperature distribution in
the melted/freeze zone can be approximated as being quasi-steady.
 The residence time of the HTF in the tube is very small compared to the typical
melting time.
 The convective heat transfer in the tube is fully developed and uniform over
the tube.
 The flow rate of the HTF is assumed to be steady.

4.2.1 Heat Transfer

Heat transfer (Q) is classified into various mechanisms, such as thermal conduction,
thermal convection, thermal radiation, and transfer of energy by phase changes. It is the direct
microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two
systems. When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings,
heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature. At this point
they are in thermal equilibrium. Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region
of high temperature to another region of lower temperature.

In solid wall the variation of temperature with the time and position is represented by
the one dimensional Fourier equation:

3 - 1

42
where T is the temperature, t is the time, k is the thermal conductivity, A is the area of
surface, and, finally, x is the position.

Only the steady state, no change with the time at any point within the medium,
condition will be of concern, in which case the partial integral of previous equation 3 - 1.

The rate of heat conduction through a medium in a specified direction (x-direction) is

expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction for one-dimensional heat conduction as:

3 - 3

Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature, and thus the temperature
gradient is negative when heat is conducted in the positive x-direction.

Figure 17: Fourier’s law of heat conduction - temperature gradient

The heat flows from the inside to the outside the area changes constantly. Accordingly
the equivalent of equation 3 - 3 becomes, for a cylinder of length (L):

3 - 4

of which the integral is:

3 - 5
( )

Heat transfer in PCMs. Because the tube has a length much longer than its diameter,
the axial conduction in the frozen/melted layer and in the HTF can be ignored. The heat

43
conduction in the solid is purely radial. The heat transfer rate per unit length is given by the
following formula:

3 - 6
( )

where Q is the heat of conduction per unit length in the PCM, kPCM represents the thermal
conductivity of the PCM, Tm is the melting point of the PCM, Tw represents the wall
temperature of the tube exchanger, rm is the radius of the solidified PCM, the function of time
and X, and finally, Ro is the outer radius of the tube exchanger.

Figure 18: Heat transfer in PCM

Convection heat transfer between a surface and fluid. Convection heat transfer (Q)
between a surface and fluid is governed by the Newton‘s law of cooling. It is the transfer of
heat from wall tube to the movement of HTF. The heat must flow into HTF by convention.
The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between HTF and the wall of the tube. The greater the difference in temperature between the
system and surrounding is, the more quickly the body temperature changes. The convection
heat transfer can be calculated by the following formula:

3 - 7
( )

where kw stands for the tube wall thermal conductivity, TF represents the outflow
temperature, Tw is the wall temperature of the tube exchanger, Ri is the tube inner radius, Ro
represents the tube outer radius, and h stands for the convection heat transfer coefficient.

44
 Figure 19: Convection heat transfer between a surface and fluid

Energy release from/to PCM. This released energy (Q) is heat transfer rate
lost/increase of the PCM. This heat is equal to the heat transfer gained in the wall tube. The
heat reduces/increases the temperature of the HTF. Energy released from PCM is given by the
following equation:

3 - 8

where rm is the radius of the solidified PCM, function of time and position, Ro is outer radius
of the tube exchanger, H is the latent heat of fusion, ρPCM is the density of the material, and
finally, t is time.

Figure 20: Energy release from/to PCM

45
 Temperature of the HTF. The temperature of HTF is caused to increase/decrease by
the heat conduction of PCM. It can be expressed by following equation:

3 - 9

where Q is the heat transfer rate in the HTF, mf is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat

capacity of HTF, is the change of HTF temperature as a function of axial distance along

the tube heat exchanger.

Figure 21: Temperature of the HTF

4.2.2 Nondimensional Variables

Nondimensional variables can recover characteristic properties of a system. The basic
principal is the removal of units from an equation involving physical quantities by a suitable
substitution of variables. It is especially useful for systems that can be described by
differential equations.

Frozen fraction. The most important nondimensional variable for calculation of the
effectiveness of the heat transfer between HTF and PCM is the frozen fraction (F). It is
described by the following equation:

3 - 10

where rm is the solidification/melting radius and Ro is the outer radius of the tube. The area of
the frozen/melted region in the radial plane is divided by the area of cross-section of the tube.

46
 Fourier number. The Fourier number (FN) is a dimensionless number used in the study
of unsteady-state heat transfer. It is equal to the product of the thermal conductivity and time,
divided by the product of the density, the specific heat at a constant pressure, and the distance
from the midpoint of the body through which heat is passing to the surface.

3 - 11

Stefan number. The Stefan number (Ste) is used for calculations of the rate of phase
change. It is defined as the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat. Its solution represents the
properties of the medium for each phase which are infinitesimally thin.

3 - 12

Nondimensional time. The properties of solid and liquid phase of PCM remain
constant with respect to temperature. The nondimensional time variable (τ) can be calculated
as a product of Fourier and Stefan numbers:

∫( ) 3 - 13

Nondimensional variables proposed by Shamsundar [14]. To simplify more difficult

calculations Shamsundar proposes yet another three important variables:

 Nondimensional heat flow. The nondimensional heat flow ( ̇ ) which is defined

as follows:

̇ 3 - 14
( )

 Number of transfer units. The number of transfer units (NTU)is defined as

follows:

3 - 15

 Heat exchanger effectiveness. The heat exchanger effectiveness (ε) is defined

as follows:

47
 3 - 16

where F0 is frozen fraction at the beginning of the tube (x=0).

Biot number. Biot number determines whether or not the temperatures inside the
material will vary significantly in space from a thermal gradient applied to its surface. Biot
number determines how fast heat transfers through the material. In calculations the number is
set as a variable α which is half of reversed value of Biot number.

3 - 17

where h is convention heat transfer coefficient of HTF and kPCM is the conductivity of the of
the used material.

4.3 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method

This chapter brings only the results of calculations where certain modifications have
been done to the model designed by Shamsundar et al. The step by step description on how
the final equations have been achieved is brought in Appendix B. I decided to use Matlab® for
the calculations. Matlab® is a numerical computing environment, which uses scripts. An *.m
file, or script file, is a simple text file where commands are placed. Calculation of the NTU
method is performed by Matlab® with file "NTU_Method.m" and it is stated in Appendix D.
Also, additional two auxiliary functions appear in the appendix attachments. These are
"NTU_Determination_F.m" in Appendix E and "NTU_Determination_e.m" in Appendix F.

48
4.3.1 Process of Calculation
For the calculation of the heat transfer the following steps have to be performed. For
the specific of HTF inlet temperature T0, τ is calculated as a function of time from the
equation:

3 - 18

NTU values of each position, which need to be investigated in the analysis of the
system, are calculated from the definition of 3 - 15. Time and position variables are calculated
for each specific system.

In the following equation variables α, τ, k (thermal conductivity) and R (radius ratio)

are known, the only unknown variable is F0 which is calculated as a root of the equation. The
root is calculated by m-function "NTU_Determination_F.m".

( ) 3 - 19

Next step in the calculation process is to determine the effectiveness which is the
function of NTU and F0. Effectiveness is determined as a root from the following equation:

3 - 20

The root of the effectiveness is calculated by Matlab® m-function

"NTU_Determination_e.m". The temperature of each position of NTU distance is calculated
from the following equation:

3 - 21

49
4.3.2 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method – Discharging
Process
Corresponding values of the time and the NTUX variables by their definitions are
calculated using definitions 3 - 18 and 3 - 15. Then the root of equation 3 - 19 for F0 is found.
By using this F0 in equation 3 - 20 we calculate instantaneous value of the effectiveness. Then
the instantaneous fluid outlet temperature from the definition of the effectiveness is
calculated. All numerical calculations for charging process are expressed in Appendix G. As a
PCM KNO3-NaNO3 (50-50) and as a HTF water was chosen. Next parameters are as follows:
length of the tube is 2000 mm, inner radius is 17 mm, and outer radius is 20 mm.

In the discharging process energy is transferred from PCM to HTF. The PCM changes
phase from liquid to solid (solidification process). Inlet temperature was set at 190°C. At time
t=0h the outlet temperature of HTF was 218.084°C and after 12 hours outlet temperature
decreased to 214.920°C.

Temperature variation depending on the length of the tube is shown in Figure 22 as

well as seen in Figure 24 where effectiveness variation represented is. In this image
temperatures in times from 0h to 12h are shown. During the discharge process at time t = 0h
the temperature of HTF rises faster than at t = 12h.

Figure 23 represents solidification process during 12 hours of the discharging process.

At the beginning of the tube the solidification radius is greater than in the end of the tube.
Small differences in solidification radius are caused by a poor conductivity of the PCM. The
proposed ideal design should be based on proper distance between the tubes so that the PCM
during charging/discharging process is completely charged/discharged. Each system should
have its unique design to achieve best results for the particular application.

Figure 25 represents the outflow temperature during 12 hours of discharging process at

different inlet temperatures. The more the input temperature approaches the melting
temperature of the PCM (220°C) the smaller the temperature difference after 12 hours is. If
the inlet temperature is 210°C, than, after 12 hours of the discharging it is almost the same as
the output temperature at the beginning at t=0. However, if the inlet temperature was only
110°C the outlet temperature dropped from 213°C at t = 0 to 168°C at t=12h. The more the
inlet temperature approaches the melting temperature the lower the effect of the discharge
process is.

50
Figure 22: Discharging mode; inflow temperature 190°C during the 12 hours of discharging LHS system

Figure 23: Discharging mode; solidification radius in certain positions

51
 Figure 24: Discharging mode; effectiveness in certain positions

Figure 25: Discharging mode; outlet temperature as a function of time at different inlet temperatures

52
4.3.3 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method – Charging Process
The calculation procedure for the charging process is the same as for the discharging
process which is described in the previous chapter. Also as in the discharge process, the same
PCM, HTF, and tube parameters are used. Energy transfers from HTF to PCM in the charge
process. PCM changes phase from solid to liquid (melting). The inlet temperature of HTF is
higher than the outlet temperature. All numerical calculations are in Appendix H.

The inlet temperature was set at 250°C as shown in Figure 26. At time t=0h the outlet
temperature of HTF was 221.916°C and after 12 hours the outlet temperature increased to
225.920°C.

Temperature variation depending on the length of the tube is shown in Figure 26 as

well as seen in Figure 28 where effectiveness variation represented is. In this image a
temperature in times from 0h to 12h is shown. During the charging process at time t=0h the
temperature HTF declined faster than at t=12h.

Figure 27 represents the melting process during 12 hours of charging. At the beginning
of the tube the melting radius is greater than in the end of the tube. Small differences in
melting radius are caused by a poor conductivity of the PCM.

Figure 29 represents the outflow temperatures during 12 hours of the charging process
at different inlet temperatures. The more the input temperature approaches the melting
temperature of the PCM (220°C) the smaller the temperature difference after 12 hours is. If
the inlet temperature is 230°C, than, after 12 hours of the discharging it is almost the same as
the output temperature at the beginning at t=0h. However, if the inlet temperature was 320°C
the outlet temperature increased from 226°C at t=0h to 264°C at t=12h. The more the inlet
temperature approaches the melting temperature the lower the effect of the discharge process
is.

53
Figure 26: Charging mode; inflow temperature 250°C during the 12 hours of charging LHS system

Figure 27: Charging mode; melting radius in certain positions

54
 Figure 28: Charging mode; Effectiveness in certain positions

Figure 29: Charging mode; outlet temperature as a function of time at different inlet temperatures

55
4.3.4 Results of Number of Transfer Unit Method – Influence of Some
Parameters
This chapter will described the influence of some parameters after 2 hours of
discharging process to the resulting temperatures. The assumptions mentioned in chapter 3.2
effect the results. The influences of thermal conductivity, specific heat of PCM, and melting
point on the output temperature are described here. All other system parameters always
remain constant except for the particular impact of output parameters investigated.

Thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity is the property of the particular material

to conduct heat. Heat transfer occurs at a higher rate across materials of high thermal
conductivity than across materials of low thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity of
KNO3-NaNO3 (50-50) is 0.56 Wm-1K-1. By reducing the heat conductivity to k=0.01 Wm-1K-1
the HTF temperature has increased. Similarly, if we increase the heat conductivity to
k=1 Wm-1K-1 HTF the temperature will decrease, how is seen in the Figure 30.

Figure 30: Influence of thermal conductivity

Specific heat of PCM. Specific heat is the heat capacity per unit mass of a particular
material. It is the ratio of the amount of heat energy transferred to a PCM resulting in
increase in temperature of the PCM. Specific heat of KNO3-NaNO3 (50-50) is
Cp=1350 J.kg-1K-1. If the specific heat increases by 250 J.kg-1K-1 to Cp = 1600 J.kg-1K-1 the
difference to the original value is small. But, if specific heat of the 250 J.kg-1K-1 is decreased,

56
the temperature in the HTF will rise even faster, how is seen in the Figure 31. A higher
temperature than the original value of the specific heat will be at the output of the tube.

Figure 31: Influence of specific heat

Melting point. The melting point of a solid PCM is the temperature at which it
changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. Melting point has the biggest
influence on the temperature of HTF. Melting point of KNO3-NaNO3 (50-50) is 220°C. At
time t = 0 during the discharging process, when the entire volume of the PCM is in the liquid
state, the temperature of PCM has major effect on the temperature of outflowing HTF from
the tube.

Figure 32: Influence of melting point

57
4.4 Numerical Methods
The difficulties of predicting the behavior of LHS systems is very difficult. The main
problems include primarily non-linear nature at moving interface and the two phases have
different thermo-physical properties. This problem was described in 1989 by Stefan [38]. The
different classes of solution available for Stefan problem are analytical and numerical. Many
approximate analytical techniques such as the heat balance integral, variation technique,
isothermal migration, source and sink method and periodic solution were developed. A
common drawback of these approximate techniques is limited to one-dimensional analysis
and they become complicated when multidimensional solution is required. Numerical
methods such as finite difference and finite element are the most powerful in solving the
Stefan problem. Using the time variant mesh approach offers good accuracy but is limited.
The fixed mesh approach is much simpler in practical application.

The method to solve the moving boundary problem is enthalpy formulation. The
enthalpy method is used in a particular way so that the only unknown variable is the
temperature of the phase change material and the solidification/melting occurs at a uniform
temperature. Enthalpy method treats the enthalpy as a temperature dependent variable and
constructs the latent heat flow through the volume integration with the use of the enthalpy of
the system.

4.5 Finite Difference Method

Numerical model is another way to investigate the behavior of LHS systems.
Numerical model of LHS is expressed by Partial differential equation (PDE). To solve the
numerical model of TES is necessary to solve PDE. PDE expresses the relationship between
the function of several variables and its partial derivatives. Partial differential equations and
their systems are mathematical models of many technical problems. For some simple tasks
you can find the exact solution in the form of infinite series. However the vast majority of
tasks are able to solve only approximately or numerically. Stationary tasks are time
independent, non-stationary tasks are time dependent. The unambiguous solution is not
enough to determine the actual PDE equations, it is also necessary to enter a non-stationary
boundary conditions and the task initial conditions. Fundamental to the development of a
numerical method is the idea of discretization.

58
 An analytical solution to a partial differential equation gives us the value as a function
of the independent variables. The numerical solution, on the other hand, aims to provide us
with values of at a discrete number of points in the domain. The conversion of a differential
equation into a set of discrete algebraic equations requires the discretization of space. This is
accomplished by means of mesh generation. Mesh generation divides the domain of interest
into elements or cells, and associates with each element or cell one or more discrete values. It
is these values we wish to compute.

Several numerical methods are available for converting equations to a set of discrete
algebraic equations as these methods are: Finite element method, Finite volume method and
Finite difference method. For numerical calculations for the TES model has been chosen the
Finite element method because of this method is easy to understand and to implement [37].
Finite difference method is the method, which approximates the derivatives in the governing
differential equation using Taylor series expansions. The derivatives of the partial differential
equation are approximated by linear combinations of function values at the structured grid
points. Taylor series approximates the value of the function that has a derivative at a given
point, using a polynomial whose coefficients depend on the derivative of the function at this
point.

The simplest way to approximate the numerical derivatives is linear interpolation,

which uses past, current and future data shown in Figure 33.

Forward difference. Consider a linear interpolation between the current data value
(x0, u0) and the future data value (x+1, u+1). The slope of the secant line between these two
points approximates the derivative by the forward difference:

3 - 22

Forward difference predicts the value of ui+1 from the derivative u' (x0) and from the
value u0. If the data values are equally spaced with the step size Δx, the truncation error of the
forward difference approximation has the order of O(Δx).

59
 Backward difference. Consider a linear interpolation between the current data value
and the past data value (x-1,u-1). The slope of the secant line between these two points
approximates the derivative by the backward difference:

3 - 23

Backward differences are useful for approximating the derivatives if data in the future
are not yet available. If the data values are equally spaced with the step size Δx, the truncation
error of the backward difference approximation has the order of O(Δx).

Central difference. Finally, consider a linear interpolation between the past data value
and the future data value. The slope of the secant line between these two points approximates
the derivative by the central difference:

3 - 24

If the data values are equally spaced, the central difference is an average of the
forward and backward differences. The truncation error of the central difference
approximation is order of O(Δx2), where Δx is the step size. It is clear that the central
difference gives a much more accurate approximation of the derivative compared to the
forward and backward differences. Central differences are useful in solving partial differential
equations.

Figure 33: Different geometric interpretations of the first-order finite difference approximation

60
4.6 Numerical Model on Thermal Energy Storage
In the model described in section 3.2 have been used to simplify the calculations many
assumptions and were made a weak solution for given problem. These assumptions simplify
the laws of physics acting on the system. It is crucial to have a clear picture of exactly which
phenomena are taken into account and which are not, because a model can at best be as good
as its underlying physical assumptions. Because of these assumptions, it was decided to create
a new model describing the same system but much more in-depth physical properties.
However, all completely assumptions cannot be avoided. In this numerical model described in
this section, based on studies of Y.B. Tao at al. [28] and H. A. Adine et al. [33] are taken into
account the following assumptions are adopted:

 The axial heat conduction and viscous dissipation in the HTF is negligible. The
flow of HTF is treated as one dimensional fluid flow. The phase change
material region is treated as an axisymmetric model.

 The effect of natural convection of PCM during melting is negligible.

 Constant pressure

 Physical aspects of the tube are negligible.

For the purpose of this work let the physical aspects of the tube were neglected.
However, although many authors in the literature survey supposed so, the inner and outer of
the tube’s material properties in the heat transfer analysis between materials have been proved
are not negligible in the dynamics. In governing of the equations another dynamic equation
for the tube should be added where the capacity carries major influence on time constant. This
capacity has the dominant influence in transient analysis.

The effect of temperature change to heat capacity, thermal conductivity, density in

isothermal phase change problem involves sudden changes. F. Samara et al. [36] introduce
method Modified Volume Force which investigate material properties changes in PCM.
Modified Volume Force is robust and uses smoother functions. This method goes deeper in
the mathematical formulation of the functions required to account for phase change, but still
represents the PCM as a liquid regardless of its temperature. Gaussian function, D(T), is used
to account for the latent heat over a melting temperature range ΔT. This function has a value
of zero everywhere except over the interval (Tm – ΔT) to (Tm + ΔT) centered at Tm. Most
importantly, its integral is equal to 1, so by multiplying D(T) by H, the energy balance is
ensure for a simulation that starts at a temperature lower than (Tm – ΔT) and ends above

61
(Tm+ΔT). Functions D(T) and B(T) are auxiliary functions to determine physical aspect of the
PCM such as density, thermal conductivity and capacity. The D(T) function is presented:

3 - 25
√

To account for the change in specific heat between the solid and the liquid phase of the
PCM, a simple piecewise function B(T) is created as follows:

3 - 26

B(T) is equal to zero for temperature lower than the melting point, and is equal to 1
after melting. It increases linearly from 0 to 1 over the melting temperature range ΔT as show
in Figure 34. The following equations then define the density, conductivity and capacity of
the PCM:

3 - 27

3 - 28

( ) 3 - 29

where ρ is density, k is thermal conductivity, Cp is specific heat capacity and finally H

is latent heat. Subscript represented by l is for liquid and s for solid phase. [35]

Figure 34: Auxilliary functions to define the density, conductivity and capacity of the PCM

62
 The enthalpy method is adopted to deal with the moving boundary problem in solid–
liquid phase change process. The corresponding governing equations are shown as follows
two chapters.

Enthalpy method has following advantages:

 The governing equations are similar to the single phase equation.

 There is no condition to be satisfied at the solid–liquid interface as it

automatically obeys the interface condition.

 The enthalpy formulation allows a mushy zone between the two phases. Phase
change problems are solved by finite difference or finite element methods.

 Method does not require explicit treatment of the moving boundary.

 The enthalpy formulation belongs to fixed-domain method for solving the

Stefan problem.

4.6.1 Governing Equation for the HTF

The following equations are arrived by establishing energy balances at the respective
regions of HTF. The equation for the incompressible liquid is given by the following
equation:

3 - 30

where θf is relative temperature of HTF, θ* relative temperature last time layer value, t is time,
x is axial coordinate, mf is mass flow rate of the HTF, ρf is density of HTF, Ri is inner radius

63
of the tube, h is heat transfer coefficient, Cpf is specific heat of HTF, T is temperature of HTF
and finally Tm is melting point temperature.

Using the backward finite difference method for the development of equation 3 - 24,
we have:

( ) 3 - 31

where the subscript i represents the location of the element in the finite difference mesh and
n+1, the instant in that the nodal temperature is being calculated.

4.6.2 Governing Equation for the PCM

Consider a thin cylindrical shell element of thickness Δr and width Δx in a long
cylinder. Assume the density of the cylinder is ρ, the specific heat is C, and the length is L.
The area of the cylinder normal to the direction of heat transfer at any location is A= 2πrL
where r is the value of the radius at that location. Heat transfer area A depends on r and thus it
varies with location. An energy balance in two dimensions on this thin cylindrical shell
element during a small time interval Δt with considering the natural heat transfer by
convection can be expressed as:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

or

3 - 32

The change in the energy content of the element and the rate of heat generation within
the element can be expressed as:

3 - 33

64
 Now dividing the 3 - 32 equation above by AΔrΔx gives:

( ) 3 - 34

Taking the limit as Δx → 0, Δr → 0 and Δt → 0 yields

( ( ) ( )) 3 - 35

since, from the definition of the derivative and Fourier’s law of heat conduction

( ) 3 - 36

( ) 3 - 37

The term of the heat generation of energy Qgen is [33,34]:

3 - 38

where ΔH is the latent heat of fusion, is the cell density and finally is the fraction of
solid formed during the phase transformation. Noting that the heat transfer area in this case is
A= 2πrL, the two-dimensional transient heat conduction with natural heat transfer equation in
a cylinder becomes:

( ) ( )
3 - 39

where θ is melting fraction, ρp is density of PCM, Cp is specific heat of PCM, r is radial

coordinate, kp is thermal conductivity of PCM and finally f is liquid fraction of melt.

65
 The latent heat evolution was taken into account by using Scheil’s equation until the
remaining liquid reached the eutectic composition. The liquid fraction is estimated as [34]:

By simplifying equation 3 - 39 we have:

( ) ( ) 3 - 40

Expanding the partial derivatives in relation to the radius and considering the material
as isotropic, rearranging previous equation 3 - 40, it follows that:

( ) ( ) 3 - 41

where

3 - 42

and the cylindrical coordinates equation is reduced to:

( ) 3 - 43

Using the backward finite difference method for the development of equation 3 - 39, we have:

( ( )
3 - 44
)

where the subscript i and j represent the location of the element in the finite difference mesh
and n+1, the instant in that the nodal temperature is being calculated.

66
 Figure 35: Cylindrical control mesh elements

4.6.3 The Initial and Boundary Conditions

To determine the temperature distribution in a medium, it is necessary to solve the
appropriate form of the heat equation. The solution depends on the physical conditions
existing at the boundaries of the medium. Because the heat equation (3-43) is second order
in the spatial coordinates, two boundary conditions must be expressed for each coordinate to
describe the system. Because the equation is first order in time, and thus the initial condition
cannot involve any derivatives, only one condition, termed the initial condition, must be
specified. The heat conduction equation is second order in space coordinates, and thus a
boundary condition may involve first derivatives at the boundaries as well as specified values
of temperature.

The conditions are specified at the coordinates x and r for a two-dimensional system.
The first kind condition corresponds to a situation for which the surface is maintained at a
fixed temperature. It is commonly named a Dirichlet condition. The second kind condition
corresponds to the existence of a fixed or constant heat flux at the surface. This heat flux is
related to the temperature gradient at the surface by Fourier's Law. It is named as Neumann
condition. A special case of this condition corresponds to the perfectly
insulated, or adiabatic, surface (3-47 and 3-49). The boundary condition of the third kind
corresponds to the existence of convection heating at the surface and is obtained from the
surface energy balance (3-48 and 3-51). The initial and boundary conditions were taken over
from Y.B. Tao at al. [28] and H. A. Adine et al. [33].

67
 The initial conditions for HTF:

3 - 45

The initial conditions for PCM:

3 - 46

where Ti is initial state temperature.

The boundary conditions for PCM:

Inlet and outlet insulated boundaries:

3 - 47

Inner surface convection boundary condition:

( ) ( )
3 - 48

where U is the convection heat transfer coefficient.

Outer surface insulated boundary:

3 - 49

The boundary conditions for HTF:

Inlet boundary:

3 - 50

Outer surface convection boundary condition:

3 - 51

68
4.7 Results of Numerical Model of Thermal Energy Storage
The results of the numerical model for two dimensional mathematical model of a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger described in section 3.6 will be presented here. The numerical
analysis of thermal behavior during charging and discharging of the LHS system have been
performed.

4.7.1 Process of Calculation

The heat transfer between the HTF and the PCM surface is by convection where the
heat transfer coefficient is constant and equal to U. There is internal energy generation and the
heat transfer in the PCM is controlled by pure conduction and pure PCM. For the calculation
of the numerical method, which is a system of PDE with moving boundary conditions, a
distinct target computer code was written by the author. A program was established again in
Matlab® and the simulation code was developed to predict the behavior of LHS system with
non-isothermal phase transition of PCM. The program solves discretized PDE for PCM and
HTF to predict the temperature distribution and rate of melting or solidification in PCM. This
program "Numerical_method.m" is attached in Appendix I with using auxiliary function
"Material_properties.m", which determines physical aspect such as density, thermal capacity,
and conductivity from input temperature as is described in section 4.6. This function is
attached in Appendix J. Flow diagram of the code is attached in Appendix K. The
computational domain in two dimensions has been discretized using backward finite
differences of uniform size and constant time steps. The grid size used in this study was of 20
axial x 20 radial with time steps of 1s each. This grid’s layout with marked boundary
conditions and computation domain is shown in Figure 36.

Figure 36: Two domensional computation domain

69
 A series of numerical calculations have been done to analyze transient heat transfer
during the melting and solidification process of the KNO3 - NaNO3 (50-50). Temperature
changes of the HTF and the PCM storage unit can be seen in more details on the contours that
represent different temperature distributions. The length for the computation domain (L) is
2m, the inner radius of tube (Ri) is 20mm, inner radius for shell side (RPCM) is 30mm. The
thickness of the tube wall is neglected. In order to simplify the physical and mathematical
model the following assumptions are adopted. The axial heat conduction and viscous
dissipation in the HTF is negligible. The flow of HTF is treated as one dimensional fluid flow.
The phase change material region is treated as an axisymmetric model [28] and the effect of
natural convection of PCM during melting/solidification is also negligible.

4.7.1 Results of Numerical Model of Thermal Energy Storage –

Discharging Process
Solidification process delivers energy from PCM to HTF. Thermal energy stored in
PCM is released to HTF. The discharging of the LHS unit during the solidification of the
PCM initially in the liquid phase at temperature 240°C has been observed. KNO3 - NaNO3
was chosen as a PCM for assessing of the thermal behavior. The thermo-physical properties
of PCM are stated in Table 4.

The temperatures used in this numerical model are established as differences between
the temperatures of PCM or HTF and the melting point of the particular PCM. The inlet
temperature initially set at 190°C thus corresponds to θ=-33K in Figure 41 due to the principle
of temperature differences. In the Figures 37-40 the temperature range between
-7.5K to 7.5K represents mushy phase of the PCM. In graphics it is symbolized by the
divisional area of white line or line array.

The initial attempt was to make the two used methods, the NTU and the method
applied in numerical model, comparable. However, this attempt failed due to the insulated
boundary conditions, which influenced the results of the numerical model very significantly.
As a result of the exposure of the insulated boundaries the outflow temperature has always
been θ=0K thus incomparable to the results gained by the NTU method. The insulated
boundary conditions are represented in equations 3-47 – 3-49 by Y.B. Tao at al. [28] and H. A.
Adine et al. [33].

70
 Figures 37 to 40 represent solidification process of the discharging PCM. At the
beginning of the tube the HTF forms the PCM into a thorn shape profile. The shape of the
thorn remains stable thought time, but as Figure 40 shows the profile increases its sink. The
sequence of the above mentioned figures illustrates the change of PCM as it transfers energy
into HTF. Visually we can notice this change through the graphical demonstration as a
flattening effect of the shape of the particular PCM. In theory it means that the temperature of
PCM decreases. Time span necessary for conversion from the initial conditions into the stable
state is surprisingly brisk - approximately 900s. The tube’s material properties in the heat
transfer analysis between materials have been proved are not negligible in the dynamics. In
governing of the equations another dynamic equation for the tube should be added where the
capacity carries major influence on time constant. This capacity has the dominant influence in
transient analysis.

The total exhaustion of energy from PCM to HTF is disabled by the insulated
boundary conditions.

Figure 37: Discharging process of numerical model in initial coditions

71
Figure 38: Discharging process of numerical model after 100 seconds

Figure 39: Discharging process of numerical model after 300 seconds

72
 Figure 40: Discharging process of numerical model in steady-state

Figure 41: Disharging process of numerical model. HTF temperature depending on the length of the tube.

73
4.7.2 Results of Numerical Model of Thermal Energy Storage –
Charging Process
Water, as a HTF, flows by forced convection through the inner tube and transfers the
heat to PCM. Melting of the PCM, KNO3 - NaNO3 (50-50), represents the storing of energy.
The KNO3 - NaNO3 was initially in the solid phase at the temperature of 200°C.

Again, the temperatures used in this numerical model are established as differences
between the temperatures of PCM or HTF and the melting point of the particular PCM. The
inlet temperature initially set at 250°C thus corresponds to θ=27K in Figure 46 due to the
principle of temperature differences. In the Figures 42-45 the temperature range between
-7.5K to 7.5K represents mushy phase of the PCM. In graphics it is symbolized by the
divisional area of white line or line array.

Through the exposure of the insulated boundaries the outflow temperature has always
been θ=0K thus incomparable to the results gained by the NTU method. These insulated
boundary conditions influence the results of the numerical model dramatically.

Figures 42 to 45 represent melting process of the charging PCM. At the beginning of

the tube the HTF forms the PCM into a thorn shape profile. The shape of the thorn remains
stable thought time, and as opposite to the solidification process it does not increase the
profile in its sink. The sequence of the above mentioned figures illustrates the change of HTF
as it transfers energy into PCM. Visually we can notice this change through the graphical
demonstration as a flattening effect of the shape of the particular PCM. In theory it means that
the temperature of PCM increases. Time span necessary for conversion from the initial
conditions into the stable state is surprisingly brisk - approximately 900s. The total exhaustion
of energy from HTF to PCM is disabled by the insulated boundary conditions.

74
Figure 42: Charging process of numerical model in initial coditions

Figure 43: Charging process of numerical model after 100 seconds

75
Figure 44: Charging process of numerical model after 300 seconds

Figure 45: Charging process of numerical model in steady-state

76
Figure 46: Charging process of numerical model. HTF temperature depending on the length of the tube.

77
5 Conclusion and recommendations
Most fossil fuel, solar, geothermal and thermal power plants conversion systems need
thermal storage due to the energy generation which is unstable and discontinuous with
different conditions such as heating value, weather and seasons. In order to ensure the
continuity and stability of the energy system so it operates with high efficiency, TES unit is a
necessary component. TES is a key technology in providing balance between energy supply
and demand for the heating and cooling systems. The use of proper thermal energy storage
systems presents a better solution for discrepancy between energy supply and demand. In both
sensible and latent heat storage systems, by shifting the load from limited and expensive time
period to a wide and cheaper time periods, has several economic and environmental
advantages. These can be favorably achieved by TES devices.

LHS has become attractive because of the ability of storing a large amount of energy
in small volumes. LHS may be a part of bigger system which manages temperature
distributions. But some difficulties occur in designing such systems. Selection of the PCM
and HTF materials, selection of the tank, the container’s geometry and shape, economic
benefits, and the actual price of PCM as well as HTF mediums have impact on the final
system’s design. My work attempts to find the most suitable PCM for various purposes.
Attempt to grasp a suitable heat exchanger with multiple ways to enhance the heat transfer
and provide the various designs to store the heat using PCM was intended.

The best option for storing energy is by the PCM as latent heat. The heat is absorbed
during the melting of the PCM and retrieved during the solidification of the PCM. Two
models have been developed based on different methods. Employed methods are a Number of
Transfer Unit Method and Enthalpy Method using finite differences.

The objectives of this work were threefold. Firstly, a survey of available literature on
simulation models of sensible and latent heat storage was summed. Secondly, a model for
sensible or latent heat storage with appropriate simulation tool was developed. Thirdly,
simulations for designing pilot heat storage were performed. All outlined objectives from the
beginning this thesis have been reached and fulfilled.

Numerical model, created in this thesis, has more options to simulate other influences
which can effect the system. In a further study investigation of the influence of non-steady
state inlet temperature, effects of different materials, and physical properties of PCM, HTF,
PCM spacing, where the shell space is filled with two PCMs with different melting
temperatures, different temperature distribution in the PCM initial conditions can be carried.
78
However, the issue is whether to have such a detailed model in the situation where only some
parameters are important to us. In the case of this study the only and most important
parameter was the outflow temperature of HTF.

79
References
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John Wiley & Sons, Chichester (England).

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[3] S.D. Sharma, Kazunobu Sagara, (2005); Latent heat storage materials and systems:
A review, Taylor & Francis Inc.

[4] Lane, G. A. (1983); Solar Heat Storage: Latent Heat Materials, Vol. I. Boca Raton,
Florida: CRC Press.

[5] Abhat, A. (1983); Low temperature latent heat thermal energy storage: heat storage
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[6] Hiran, S., Suwondo, A., Mansoori, G. (1994); Characterization of alkanes and
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[7] Wang, X., Lu, E., Lin, W., Liu, T., Shi, Z., Tang, R., Wang, C. (2000); Heat
storage performance of the binary systems neopentyl glycol/pentaerythritol and neopentyl
glycol/trihydroxy menthylaminomethane as solid phase change materials. Energy
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[8] Hasnain, S. M.; (1998); Review on sustainable thermal energy storage

technologies, part I: Heat storage materials and techniques

[9] Hasnain, S. M., (1995); Energy Research Institute DR&D Project Proposal,
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[10] Kenisarin, Murat M.; (2009); High-temperature phase change materials for
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[11] Vasishta D. Bhatt, Kuldip Gohil, Arunabh Mishra1; International Journal of

ChemTech Research (2010). Thermal Energy Storage Capacity of some Phase changing
Materials and Ionic Liquids

[12] Antoni Gil, Marc Medrano, Ingrid Martorell, Ana Lázaro, Pablo Dolado, Belén
Zalba, Luisa F. Cabeza; (2010); State of the art on high temperature thermal energy storage
for power generation. Part 1 — Concepts, materials and modellization.

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 [13] Agyenim F., Hewitt N., Eames P., Smyth M.,(2009); A review of materials, heat
transfer and phase change problem formulation for latent heat thermal energy storage systems.

[14] N. Shamsundar, E. Stein, E. Rooz, E. Bascaran, and T.C. Lee; (1992); Design and
Simulation of Latent Heat Storage Units, Final Report.

[15] A.K. Gupta; Advanced technologies for clean and efficient energy conversion in
power systems; (2008); Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland.

[16] Carsten Bahl, Doerte Laing, Matthias Hempel, Andreas Stückle; (2006); Concrete
thermal energy storage for solar thermal power plants and industrial process heat; German
Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Technical Thermodynamics.

[17] A. Felix Regin, S.C. Solanki, J.S. Saini; (2008); An analysis of a packed bed
latent heat thermal energy storage system using PCM capsules: Numerical investigation.

[18] L. Xia, P. Zhang, R.Z. Wang; (2009); Numerical heat transfer analysis of the
packed bed latent heat storage system based on an effective packed bed model.

[19] H. Shabgard, T.L. Bergman, N. Sharifi, A. Faghri; (2010); High temperature

latent heat thermal energy storage using heat pipes; International Journal of Heat and Mass
Transfer, Vol. 53, pp. 2979-2988.

[20] Jundika C. Kurnia, Agus P. Sasmito, Sachin V. Jangam, Arun S. Mujumdar;

(2013); Improved design for heat transfer performance of a novel phase change material
(PCM) thermal energy storage (TES).

[21] Y.Q. Li a, Y.L. He, H.J. Song b, C. Xuc, W.W. Wang; (2012); Numerical
analysis and parameters optimization of shell-and-tube heat storage unit using three phase
change materials.

[22] A.H. Mosaffaa, F. Talati, H. Basirat Tabrizib, M.A. Rosenc; (2011); Analytical
modeling of PCM solidification in a shell and tube finned thermal storage for air conditioning
systems

[23] Zhenyu Liu, Yuanpeng Yao, Huiying Wu; (2012); Numerical modeling for solid–
liquid phase change phenomena in porous media: Shell-and-tube type latent heat thermal
energy storage.

[24] AhmadAli Rabienataj Darzi, Mousa Farhadi, Kurosh Sedighi; (2012); Numerical
study of melting inside concentric and eccentric horizontal annulus.

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 [25] Anica Trp; (2005); An experimental and numerical investigation of heat transfer
during technical grade paraffin melting and solidification in a shell-and-tube latent thermal
energy storage unit.

[26] Hamid Ait Adine, Hamid El Qarnia; (2008); Numerical analysis of the thermal
behavior of a shell-and-tube heat storage unit using phase change materials.

[27] K. A. R. Ismail, L. M. de Sousa Filho, F. A. M. Lino; (2011); Solidification of

PCM around a curved tube.

[28] Y.B. Tao, Y.L. He (2011); Numerical study on thermal energy storage
performance of phase change material under non-steady-state inlet boundary.

[29] I. Dincer, M.Kanoglu (2010); Refrigeration Systems and Applications, John

Wiley & Sons, Chichester (England).

[30] Babay S., Bouguettaia H., Bechki D., Boughali S., Bouchekima B. and Mahcene
H.; (2000); Review on Thermal Energy Storage Systems.

[31] A.A. Adeyanju and K. Manohar; (2009); Comparison of Thermal Energy Storage
Techniques; Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

[32] Pilkington Solar International GmbH, Muhlengasse 7 D-50667, Cologne,

Germany; authors are unknown; (2000); Survey of Thermal Storage for Parabolic Trough
Power Plants.

[33] H. A. Adine, H. El Qarnia; (2008); Numerical analysis of the thermal behaviour

of a shell-and-tube heat storage unit using phase change materials.

[34] A. Fardi Ilkhchy, N. Varahraam, P. Davami; (2011); Evaluation of Pressure

Effect on Heat Transfer Coefficient at the Metal- Mold Interface for Casting of a356 al Alloy.

[35] M. Muhieddine, ´E. Canot, R. March; (2010); Various Approaches for Solving
Problems in Heat Conduction with Phase Change.

[36] F. Samara, D. Groulx, P. H. Biwole; (2012); Natural Convection Driven Melting

of Phase Change Material: Comparison of Two Methods.

[37] J. Y. Murthy, S.R. Mathur; (1998); Numerical Methods in Heat, Mass, and
Momentum Transfer; School of Mechanical Engineering Purdue University.

[38] J. Stefan; (1989) Über einige Probleme der Theorie der Wärmeleitung, S. B.
Wein, Acad. Mat. Natur.

82
Appendix A

Paraffin

Organic Non-Paraffins
Latent Heat Storage Materials

Fatty Acids

Salt Hydrates
Inorganic
Metalic
Miscellaneous
Inorganic -
Inorganic

Eutectics Inorganic - Organic

Organic - Organic

83
Appendix B
The mathematical model of tube LHS unit is developed and described in Appendix A.

Tube wall temperature is expressed from equation 3-6:

A - 1

The same variable can be expressed from equation 3-7:

( ( )) A - 2

Tube wall temperatures from equations A.1 and A.2 are equal. Convective heat
transfer from HTF through the wall tube to the PCM is expressed in equation A.3. This
process is reciprocal.

A - 3
( )

where R is radius ratio . The heat transfer with simplification and

nondimensionalization is given through the equation A.3:

̇
A - 4

After simplification of the 3-9 equation heat transfer to the HTF rises/decreases the
temperature of the fluid according to the equation:

̇ A - 5

Subsequently simplification of the 3-8 energy release from the PCM equals to:

̇ A - 6

84
 From this point on it should be considered that:

A - 7

Heat transfer = Energy release = HTF

from HTF to PCM from PCM rice/decrease

As a result the following operation is to achieve the formulation of the NTU which
equals the second and the third equations from A.7:

A - 8

The first and the third equation from A.7 are equal. They can be also expressed as:

A - 9

Consequently from A.8 is substituted in the equation A.9:

A - 10

In the following step the equation is extended by

( ) A - 11

Later the equation A.11 is integrated:

∫ A - 12

Finally as a result the following equation is gained:

( ) ( ) A - 13

85
 G(F) is an auxiliary function. To calculate G(F) Shamsundar et al. have developed an
approximation because no exact analytical representation exists.

[ ] [ ]
A - 14
[ ]

Following steps are for calculation of the frozen fraction (F). It will be shown how it
changes along the axial distance. Frozen fraction is the area of the frozen region in the radial
plane divided by the area of cross-section of the tube. F0 is the fraction at the inlet tube.

A - 15

The same equation can be also expressed by the definition of Shamsundar et al. [14] as:

A - 16

Equation A.9 can be written also as follows:

( ) A - 17

A - 18
∫( )

And finally the result is:

( ) A - 19

86
Appendix C

87
Appendix D
%% Program which calculates NTU method

clc
clear all
close all

global mf Ti kw Ri Ro Tm H cp km ro Hwall k R alfa U endtime

time cycfor...
Length Cuts Lenght4NTU NTU timeH tau TfC Root_Emin Tf F rm
rmMM alfaPCM alfaW

%% Physical properties of HTF

mf=0.5; % Mass flow rate HTF (kg/s)

Ti=190+273.15; % Inlet temperature of HTF [K]

%% Physical properties of Tube - Steel, Carbon 1%

kw = 43 ; % conductivity tube [W/(m.K)]

Ri = 0.017; % Outer radius of the tube [m]
Ro = 0.02; % Innet radius of the tube [m]
Length=2; % Length of the Tube [m]
Cuts=16 ; % Number of the Tube cuts

%% Physical properties of PCM (KNO3 - NaNO3)

Tm= 220+273.15; % Melting point of PCM [K]220 210 230

H= 100700; % Latent heat of fusion of PCM [J/kg]
cp= 1350; % Specific heat of PCM [J/(kg.K)]
km = 0.56; % conductivity PCM [W/(m.K)]
ro= 1867 ; % density of the PCM [kg/m3]

%% Time management

endtime=12; % Number of hours to calculation +1 (zero

time)
time=0:1:endtime;
cycfor=endtime+1;
timeH = time*3600;
tau= (km*timeH*abs(Tm-Ti))/(H*ro*Ro*Ro);

%% Constants, Vatiables calculation

Hwall=(kw)/(Ri*log(Ro/Ri)); % convention heat transfer

coeficient of pipe [K]
k = km / kw ; % Conductivity ratio
R = Ro/Ri; % Radius (Inner / Outer )
alfa = km/(2*Ri*Hwall);
alfaPCM = km/(2*Ri*Hwall/100);

88
alfaW = kw/(2*Ri*Hwall/100);
U=1/((Ri)/(Hwall*Ro)+(Ri*log(Ro/Ri))/(kw)); % Overall heat
transfer coefficient
Lenght4NTU = 0 : Length/(Cuts-1) : Length ;
NTU=(2*pi*Ri*Lenght4NTU*U)/(mf*cp); % NTU

%% Estimate roots
%F0
% because of the root is changing and Matlab have to have good
guess (hit)
hit(1)=0;
for W=2:cycfor+1
hit(W)=hit(W-1)+(0.1)/Cuts;
end

% Effeciency root
hitE(1)=0.3;
for Q=2:cycfor+1
hitE(Q)=hitE(Q-1)+(0.15)/Cuts;
end

%% Calculation of F0 and Effeciency

% Two cycluses FOR are filling two tables. 1st for Efficiency
root (Root_Emin)
% and 2nd temperature table (Tf). There are used also two
functions for
% determination F0 and effeciency. Cycluses are controlled by
variable R (time - rows)
% and T (cuts - column).

for R=1:cycfor
Fzero(R)= NTU_Determination_F(tau(R),hit(R));
Fzero(1)=0;
for T=1:Cuts
[Root_Emin(R,T), Tf(R,T)] =
NTU_Determination_e(Fzero(R),NTU(T),hitE(Q));
end
end

TfC=Tf-273.15; %Temperature K -> °C

%% Calculation of Solidification/Melting radius

for W=1:cycfor
for T=1:Cuts
F(W,T)=Fzero(W)*(Tm-Tf(W,T))/(Tm-Ti);
rm(W,T)=sqrt((F(W,T)+1)*Ro*Ro);
end
end

rmMM=rm*100; % Solidification/Melting radius in [mm]

89
Appendix E

% Auxiliary function for NTU method to determine F0

function [F0] = NTU_Determination_F(tau,hit)

% INPUT - Tau
% - hit (estimate, where is F0 root expected)
% OUTPUT - Inlet Frozen factor
% F0 - inlet sodification radius
% Tm - metling temperature of PCM
% Ti - inlet temperature of HTF

global kw Ri Ro Tm H cp km ro mf Ti Hwall R alfaPCM alfaW

syms x

%% Calculation of F0 root (F0 is inlet F at position X=0)

fxx = @(x) (0.25*((1+x)*log(1+x)-x) + x/alfaPCM + x/alfaPCM +

(x*log(R))/(2*alfaPCM*alfaW) -tau);
F0 = fzero(fxx,hit);

90
Appendix F
% Auxiliary function for NTU method to determine efficiency
and outflow temperature

function [Root_Emin, Tf] = Determination_e(F0,NTU,hitE)

% INPUT - Inlet Frozen factor

% - NTU (Number of transfer units)
% OUTPUT - Effeciency root
% - Temperature [K]
% F0 - inlet sodification radius
% Tm - metling temperature of PCM
% Ti - inlet temperature of HTF

global kw Ri Ro Tm H cp km ro mf Ti Hwall R alfaPCM alfaW

k1=17/450;
syms x

%% Calculation of Effeciency root

fEmin = @(x)-NTU -log(1-x)+ (log(R)*log(1-x))/(2*alfaW)+

(1/(4*alfaPCM))*(
((log(1+F0)*(1+k1*(log(1+F0))^2))/(1+0.01*(log(1+F0))^2)+0.25*
(log(1+F0))^2) - ((log(1+(F0-x*F0))*(1+k1*(log(1+(F0-
x*F0)))^2))/(1+0.01*(log(1+(F0-x*F0)))^2)+0.25*(log(1+(F0-
x*F0)))^2));
Root_Emin = fzero(fEmin,hitE);

%% Calcuulation of temperature

Tf=Root_Emin*(Tm-Ti)+Ti;

91
Apendix G
Numerical results of discharging mode:

Length
0,000 0,222 0,444 0,667 0,889 1,111 1,333 1,556 1,778 2,000
[m]
Time F0 ǀ
Tau 0,000 0,296 0,592 0,888 1,183 1,479 1,775 2,071 2,367 2,663
[hour] NTU
0 0,000 0,000 190,000 197,901 203,721 208,008 211,166 213,493 215,207 216,469 217,399 218,084
1 1,072 0,017 190,000 197,344 202,988 207,284 210,529 212,965 214,786 216,141 217,148 217,894
2 2,145 0,035 190,000 196,856 202,311 206,587 209,896 212,428 214,349 215,796 216,880 217,689
3 3,217 0,052 190,000 196,427 201,689 205,921 209,271 211,884 213,898 215,434 216,596 217,470
4 4,289 0,070 190,000 196,047 201,117 205,288 208,659 211,338 213,436 215,057 216,297 217,237
5 5,362 0,087 190,000 195,710 200,593 204,690 208,065 210,794 212,966 214,667 215,983 216,990
6 6,434 0,104 190,000 195,410 200,112 204,126 207,490 210,256 212,491 214,266 215,655 216,729
7 7,506 0,122 190,000 195,140 199,670 203,596 206,937 209,727 212,014 213,856 215,315 216,454
8 8,578 0,139 190,000 194,897 199,264 203,098 206,406 209,209 211,538 213,440 214,964 216,168
9 9,651 0,156 190,000 194,677 198,891 202,632 205,900 208,704 211,066 213,019 214,605 215,870
10 10,723 0,174 190,000 194,478 198,547 202,195 205,417 208,214 210,600 212,597 214,238 215,562
11 11,795 0,191 190,000 194,296 198,229 201,785 204,957 207,740 210,142 212,175 213,865 215,245
12 12,868 0,209 190,000 194,129 197,934 201,402 204,520 207,284 209,693 211,755 213,489 214,920

92
Apendix H
Numerical results of charging mode:

Length
0,000 0,222 0,444 0,667 0,889 1,111 1,333 1,556 1,778 2,000
[m]
Time F0 ǀ
Tau 0,000 0,296 0,592 0,888 1,183 1,479 1,775 2,071 2,367 2,663
[hour] NTU
0 0,000 0,000 250,000 242,099 236,279 231,992 228,834 226,507 224,793 223,531 222,601 221,916
1 0,804 0,013 250,000 242,656 237,012 232,716 229,471 227,035 225,214 223,859 222,852 222,106
2 1,608 0,026 250,000 243,144 237,689 233,413 230,104 227,572 225,651 224,204 223,120 222,311
3 2,413 0,039 250,000 243,573 238,311 234,079 230,729 228,116 226,102 224,566 223,404 222,530
4 3,217 0,052 250,000 243,953 238,883 234,712 231,341 228,662 226,564 224,943 223,703 222,763
5 4,021 0,065 250,000 244,290 239,407 235,310 231,935 229,206 227,034 225,333 224,017 223,010
6 4,825 0,078 250,000 244,590 239,888 235,874 232,510 229,744 227,509 225,734 224,345 223,271
7 5,630 0,091 250,000 244,860 240,330 236,404 233,063 230,273 227,986 226,144 224,685 223,546
8 6,434 0,104 250,000 245,103 240,736 236,902 233,594 230,791 228,462 226,560 225,036 223,832
9 7,238 0,117 250,000 245,323 241,109 237,368 234,100 231,296 228,934 226,981 225,395 224,130
10 8,042 0,130 250,000 245,522 241,453 237,805 234,583 231,786 229,400 227,403 225,762 224,438
11 8,846 0,143 250,000 245,704 241,771 238,215 235,043 232,260 229,858 227,825 226,135 224,755
12 9,651 0,156 250,000 245,871 242,066 238,598 235,480 232,716 230,307 228,245 226,511 225,080

93
Appendix I
%% Program which calculates Numerical method

clc
clear all
close all

%% PCM Storage
global L Ri Ro N_x N_r N_t rho_f mio_f Cp_f m_f k_f Np rho_s
rho_l...
Cp_s Cp_l dH T_m dT_m k_s k_l dx dr dt U T R_PCM
f_PCM_t...
Cp_PCM k_PCM rho_PCM Theta_PCM_t Theta_HTF_t A B
time_h...
step Tf_ini Tp_ini Re Pr dTheta

%% Geometry parameters
L = 2; %Length of cylinder tube (m)
Ri = 0.020; %Inside radius of the tube (m)
Ro = 0.022; %Outside radius of the tube(m)
R_PCM=0.03; %Radius of the PCM (m)

%% Grid parameters
N_x = 20; %Number of points in x direction
N_r = 20; %Number of points in r direction
time_h = 1; %Time in seconds *3600
N_t = 1000; %Number of time steps

%% Physical properties of HTF

Tf_ini = 190+273.15; %Inlet temperature of HTF (K)
rho_f = 985; %density (kg/m3)
mio_f = 4.92*10^-4; %Dynamic viscosity of water (kg/m s)
Cp_f = 4178; %Specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)
m_f = 0.12; %Mass flow rate of HTF (kg/s)
k_f = 0.652; %Thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
Np=1; %Number of pipes

%% Physical properties of PCM (KNO3 - NaNO3)

Tp_ini = 240+273.15; %Initial temperature of PCM (K)
rho_s = 1867; %Density of solid PCM (kg/m3)
rho_l = 2100; %Density of liquid PCM (kg/m3)
Cp_s = 1350; %Specific heat capacity of solid
PCM(J/kg.K)
Cp_l = 1450; %Specific heat capacity of liquid PCM
(J/kg.K)
k_s = 0.8; %Thermal conductivity of solid PCM (W/m.K)
k_l = 1.5; %Thermal conductivity of liquid PCM
(W/m.K)
94
T_m = 223 + 273.15; %Melting point of the PCM (K)
dT_m = 15; %Diference of melting point (K)
dH = 105000; %Latent heat

%% Reynolds number and Prandtl number calculations

Re = 2*m_f/(pi*Np*Ri*mio_f); %Reynolds number
Pr = Cp_f*mio_f/k_f; %Prandtl number

if Re<2200
Nu = 3.66;
else
if Re>5*10^6
Nu = 0.023*Re^0.8*Pr^0.4;
else
if (Re >=2100)&& (Re<=5*10^6);
f = ((0.79*log(Re))-1.64)^-2;
Nu = ((f/8)*(Re-
1000)*Pr)/(1+(12.7*((f/8)^0.5)*((Pr^(2/3))-1)));
end
end
end

U =Nu*k_f/(2*Ri); %Convective heat transfer coefficient

(W/m2.K)

%% Constants
dx = L/(N_x-1);
dr = (R_PCM-Ri)/(N_r-1);
dt = ((( rho_s*Cp_s ) / ( 2*k_s ))*( ( dr^2 * dx^2) / ( dr^2 +
2*dx^2 ) ))/1;
dTheta=dx;
T_m1=T_m-dT_m/2;
T_m2=T_m+dT_m/2;
A= (m_f)/(rho_f*pi*Ri^2);
B= (2*U)/(rho_f*Cp_f*Ri);

%% Initial conditions
% Initial conditions for PCM
Theta_PCM_t = zeros(N_x,N_r,N_t);
for q=1:N_x
for w=1:N_r
Theta_PCM_t(q,w,1) =Tp_ini-T_m;
end
end

% Initial conditions for HTF

Theta_HTF_t = zeros(N_x , N_t);
for q=1:N_x
Theta_HTF_t(q,1) =Tf_ini-T_m;
end

95
% Filling PCM properties to matrix
% Initial state for Cp (_s =solid) - Specific heat

Cp_PCM= ones(N_x,N_r);
for q=1:N_x
for w=1:N_r
Cp_PCM(q,w)=Cp_s;
end
end

% Initial state for rho_pcm (_s=solid) - Density

rho_PCM = ones(N_x,N_r);
for q=1:N_x
for w=1:N_r
rho_PCM(q,w)=rho_s;
end
end

% Initial state for k (_s=solid) - Thermal conductivity

k_PCM= ones(N_x,N_r);
for q=1:N_x
for w=1:N_r
k_PCM(q,w)=k_s;
end
end

% Initial state for f (f=0 for solid) - Liquid fraction

f_PCM_t = ones(N_x,N_r,N_t);
for q=1:N_x
for w=1:N_r
f_PCM_t(q,w,1)=0;
end
end

%% Boundary conditions
Theta_PCM_t(1:N_x,1,1)=(k_s/U)*((Theta_PCM_t(1:N_x,1,1) -
Theta_PCM_t(1:N_x,1,1))/(dr))+Theta_HTF_t(1:N_x,1,1); %downer

Theta_PCM_t(N_x,1:N_r,1)=0; %Right
Theta_PCM_t(1,1:N_r,1)=0; %Left
Theta_PCM_t(1:N_x,N_r,1)=0; %Upper

%% Calculations
step=1;

for n=2:step:N_t

if rem(n,100)==0;
display([num2str(n) 'th time step of '
num2str(N_t/step)]);

96
 end

% Re-calculation material's matrixes in each time step

for e=1:N_x
for r=1:N_r
T=Theta_PCM_t(e,r,n)+T_m;

[Cp_PCM(e,r),k_PCM(e,r),rho_PCM(e,r),f_PCM_t(e,r,n)] =
Material_properties3(T);
end
end

%% Calculation temperature PCM matrix

for q=2:N_x-1

for w=2:N_r-1

% Calculation PCM
Theta_PCM_t(q,w,n)=((k_PCM(q,w)*dt ) /
(rho_PCM(q,w)*(Cp_PCM(q,w) - dH * (f_PCM_t(q+1,w,n-1)-
f_PCM_t(q-1,w,n-1))/(2*dTheta) )))*...
(( Theta_PCM_t(q,w-1,n-1) -2 * Theta_PCM_t(q,w,n-
1) + Theta_PCM_t(q,w+1,n-1) ) / ( dr^2 ) +...
( Theta_PCM_t(q,w+1,n-1) - Theta_PCM_t(q,w-1,n-
1)) / (Ro*2*dr)+...
( Theta_PCM_t(q-1,w,n-1) -2 * Theta_PCM_t(q,w,n-
1) + Theta_PCM_t(q+1,w,n-1) ) / ( dx^2 ) +...
( Theta_PCM_t(q+1,w,n-1) - Theta_PCM_t(q-1,w,n-
1)) / (2*dx) )+...
Theta_PCM_t(q,w,n-1);
end

Theta_PCM_t(q,1,n)=
(k_PCM(q,w)/U)*((Theta_PCM_t(q+1,w,n-1) - Theta_PCM_t(q-1,w,n-
1))/(2*dr))+Theta_HTF_t(q,n-1);

%% Calculation for HTF

Theta_HTF_t(1,n)=Tf_ini-T_m;
Theta_HTF_t(q,n)=( (Theta_HTF_t(q-1,n))/(dt)-
(A*Theta_HTF_t(q-1,n))/(dx)+B*Theta_PCM_t(q,1,n) ) / ( B+
(1)/(dt)+(A)/(dx));

if w==N_x-1
Theta_HTF_t(N_x,n)=( (Theta_HTF_t(q-1,n))/(dt)-
(A*Theta_HTF_t(q-1,n))/(dx)+B*Theta_PCM_t(q,1,n) ) / ( B+
(1)/(dt)+(A)/(dx));
end
end
end

97
Appendix J
%% Auxiliary function for Numerical method to determine
material properties

function [Cp_p,k_p,rho_p,f_PCM] = Material_properties3(T)

% INPUT - Temperature (K)

% OUTPUT - Thermal capacity
% - Thermal conductivity
% - Density
global rho_s rho_l Cp_s Cp_l dH T_m dT_m k_s k_l D_T B_T
f_s=0;
f_l=1;

%% D(T)
if T > (T_m + dT_m/2)
D_T=0;
elseif T < (T_m - dT_m/2)
D_T=0;
else
D_T= (exp((-T*(T-T_m)^2)/(dT_m^2)))/((sqrt(pi*dT_m^2)));
end

%% B(T)
if T < (T_m - dT_m)
B_T=0;
elseif T > (T_m + dT_m)
B_T=1;
else
B_T= (T-T_m+dT_m)/(2*dT_m);
end

%% Calculation Cp_p,k_p,rho_p
if T > (T_m + dT_m/2)
Cp_p=Cp_l;
k_p=k_l;
rho_p=rho_l;
f_PCM=f_l;

elseif T < (T_m - dT_m/2)

Cp_p=Cp_s;
k_p=k_s;
rho_p=rho_s;
f_PCM=f_s;
else T < (T_m + dT_m/2) && T > (T_m - dT_m/2);
Cp_p=Cp_s+(Cp_l-Cp_s)*B_T + dH*D_T;
k_p=k_s+(k_l-k_s)*B_T;
rho_p=rho_s+(rho_l-rho_s)*B_T;
f_PCM=f_s+(f_l-f_s)*B_T;
end

98
Appendix K

99