Ll 12 States of Matter Kinetic Theory of Matter lotionChemistry is mainly concerned with what substances are made of, and how and why these different substances react with each other. All the substances and materials from which the physical universe is composed are made up of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (has a volume), Chemistry is the study of how matter behaves, and how one kind of substance can be changed into another. Matter can exist either as a solid, or as a liquid, or as a gas. Therefore solid, liquid and gas are the three states of matter. These states have quite different properties which affect the way they behave. Almost any substance can exist in these three different forms depending on the conditions, such as temperature. For example water is found as solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (steam). A solid has a fixed shape and volume at a given temperature. However the shape and volume can be altered by a change in temperature: increase in size when ‘heated-(expansion), and decrease in size when cooled (contraction). A liquid has a fixed volume but it takes up the shape of the container in which it is poured. A change in temperature will also affect the volume of a liquid. A gas has neither a fixed volume nor a fixed shape. It will take up the shape of any container into which it is placed and will spread out evenly within the con- taining vessel. Changés in temperature affect to a higher extent the volume of gases. Gases, and to a certain extent liquids, are compressible. wa “63 96 it Liquid a": a ge ° ae Question: Fill in the following table with different examples of pure solids, pure liquids and pure gases. Solid Liquid GasThe kinetic theory helps to explain the way in which matter behaves. The main points of the theory are:~ = all matter is made up of tiny particles. Different substances have different types of particles which have different sizes and masses. H the particles are moving all the time. On average, the particles move faster as the temperature is increased. tas nat a given temperature, heavier particles move slower than lighter ones. The kinetic theory can explain how the arrangement of particles relates to the properties of the three states of matter. In a solid the particles are packed closely together in a regular way and are held together by strong forces which attract the particles to each other. The individual particles do not move about, but they do vibrate. Ina liquid the particles have weaker forces of attraction between each other. Although the particles are still quite close together, they can move around in a random way, sometimes colliding with each other. Ina gas there are no forces of attraction between particles because they are relatively far apart. This means that gas particles are free to move anywhere within the container in which they are held. This movement occurs freely and at very high velocities. Question: A small amount of wax was heated over a period of 9 minutes. Draw simple diagrams to show how particles in wax are arranged in the solid, liquid and gaseous states. (Paper | May 2006 - 3 marks) (=) Solid Liquid Gas vv The Kinetic Theory needs to be proved and explained. But the particles are too small to be seen, making it even impossible to watch them moving! But in 1827, Robert Brown, a botanist, was looking at some grains of pollen floating on water and he noticed that they were moving in an irregular way. He could not explain such phenomenon, which was lately called Brownian motion. However today, knowing the kinetic theory of matter we can explain what Brown had observed. Brown had seen the pollen grains with the aid of a microscope, but could not see the much smaller water particles. In fact the pollen grains were moving because the randomly moving water particles were constantly colliding with them. Brownian motion can be seen whenever small particles of dust or smoke, or even tiny crystals are suspended in a liquid or gas. Usually, they have to be illuminated with a bright light and viewed through a microscope. The diagram below * demonstrates Brownian motion using a smoke cell. 1 A small lass cali filed with srnoke 2 tights shone through the cell 3 The smoke is viewed through a microscope Pe 4 You see the smoke particles 4 constantly moving and changing direction. The path taken by cone smoke partic will ook something ike this Question: In the space left empty above, show how air particles bombard the smoke particles by drawing the direction in which one smoke particle is moving. secre eee eee eeeParticles in liquids and gases are continuously on the move. For this reason gases and liquids are known as fluids, Due to this continuous movement, there is a tendency for the particles to spread themselves out evenly to fill all the available space. This is known as diffusion. Diffusion is the process by which particles move freely from a high concentration of particles to a lower concentration. During diffusion there is intimate mixing between the different sets of particles, such as bromine particles and air particles, or potassium permanganate particles and water particles, as shown in the examples below. Intimate mixing is a result of the collisions taking place between particles in a liquid or a gas. Diffusion in gases can be demonstrated by using two gas jars, one filled with bromine vapour and the other one placed upside down on it, filled with air. Bromine vapour is reddish-brown in colour and it is five times denser than air, However when the glass plate is removed, the colour spreads upwards by diffusion. In liquids, diffusion can be shown, by placing a purple potassium permanganate erystal at the bottom of a beaker filed with water, When the crystal vwv Not all fluids diffuse at the same rate. Gases diffuse faster than liquids because their particles are moving at higher velocities. Heating will also increase the rate of diffusion as the ‘particles gain heat energy which is then converted into kinetic energy. Also substances that have heavier particles have a lower rate of diffusion than others with lighter particles, at a particular temperature. (Remember the Kinetic Theory!) This can be demonstrated by the reaction of ammonia gas with hydrogen chloride gas. When these two substances react, they form a white cloud of ammonium chloride. The experiment is carried out as shown below. cotter wool glass. white smoke —_cotton wool soaked in tubing —formshere——soakedin ammonia hydrochloric solution acid One piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonia solution and another one in concentrated hydrochloric acid. These are put at opposite ends of a dry glass tube. After some time ammonia gas will diffuse to the opposite end where there is a low concentration of ammonia. The hydrogen chloride gas (the hydrochloric acid evaporates to form hydrogen chloride gas) will diffuse to the other side where there is a lower concentration of hydrogen chloride. The formation of the white smoke shows the position at which the two gases meet and react. In fact, instead of forming mid-way, the white cloud appears closer to the cotton wool soaked with hydrochloric acid. This is because the acid particles are heavier and so moved slower than the ammonia particles. Mass of ammonia, NH, = 14 + (1 x 3) = 17. Mass of hydrogen chloride, HCI = | + 35.5 = 36.5. This will be explained in Chapter 3. Question: An experiment was set up to compare the rate of diffusion of two gases, using SO, and H,S. When these gases react, they form a yellow deposit of sulfur. On the diagram below sketch the approximate position of the solid sulfur deposit that would be obtained. (Relative atomic masses. H =1, © = 16, $ = 32) (Poper | May 2001 - 2 marks) wee) I I $e SS “Ty. 7. SOx)The particles in a solid have great forces of attraction wv and they can only vibrate at a fixed position. When a solid is heated, the particles gain more energy and therefore can vibrate faster. This makes them push their neighbouring particles further away from themselves and causes an increase in the volume of the solid. So expansion has occurred. When the given heat energy overcomes the forces of attraction between the particles, the regular arrangement of the solid structure breaks down. At this point, the solid melts and turns into a liquid. The temperature at which this happens is called the melting point of the substance. The molecules in a liquid move about randomly but they are still quite close together. They are attracted to each other by small forces. Ifa liquid is heated, the particles move faster and faster until they have enough energy to overcome the forces of attraction and leave the liquid to form a gas. That temperature when a liquid is changing to a gas is known as the boiling point. At the boiling point the pressure of the gas formed above the liquid equals atmospheric pressure. Evaporation is a process that occurs at the surface of a liquid and also involves the change of state of a liquid into a gas. However this occurs below the boiling point. This is because particles at the surface have lower forces of attraction since there are no particles above them that are attracting them. If the particles of a gas are cooled, their energy would decrease and they would come closer to each other. So the forces of attraction increase and cause the gas to condense into a liquid. If the liquid is cooled further more, the particles would come so close to each other that the forces of attraction become so strong and would freeze the liquid into a solid. There is an unusual change of state, known as sublimation, where a substance would change directly from a solid to a gas without becoming a liquid when heated. Carbon, carbon dioxide (dry ice),(ammonium chloridé)and iodine are some examples of substances that sublime. Z Question: Write down the names of the processes occurring represented by the arrows. soLID —————> LIQUID ———————-> GAS Lt <All matter undergoes changes at one point or another and under different circumstances, like heating or burning, Changes of matter can be of two types: physical and chemical changes. A physical change is a change in the form and appearance of matter but not in its identity, i.e. its particle composition remains the same. This means that in a physical change no. new substance is formed. An example of a physical change would be ice melting into water. Ice and water are both H,O. The identity of the matter is not changed, just the state changes from solid to liquid. Another example is dissolving sugar into water. The water and the sugar retain their chemical identities and can be separated by physical means. A chemical change is one where the chemical composition of a substance is changed. Ina chemical change one or more new substances are formed. This is because different particles are joined together by chemical bonds during a chemical reaction. Bonds are forces between particles which act like a glue. During a chemical reaction two or more substances react with one another to form a new substance. Examples include the rusting of iron, setting a wood on fire, cooking food, and the burning of magnesium metal in oxygen to form magnesium oxide. All of these materials combine chemically with another material, and cannot be separated by any physical means. The following table summarises the differences between physical and chemical changes. Physical Change Chemical Change INo new substance is formed [A new substance is formed F*Generally the change is easily reversible [Generally the change is irreversible Generally no energy is given out or absorbed |Generally energy is given out or absorbed [The mass ofthe substance does notalter |The mass of the substance does alter rata oust * There can be exceptions to these differences. In fact there are o, reversible reactions that are easily reversible although they are GZ chemical changes. Also in some physical changes energy is absorbed, for example heat is absorbed when ice melts and when water boils. iA YNSo far we had mentioned that everything is made up of yy particles, But what are these particles like? This is a difficult question because nobody has ever seen one. They are too small. So scientists had to think up ideas which explain the things they cannot see. ‘Around 400 B.C. in ancient Greece, Democritus put forward his ideas about particles, but most people did not believe him. Then in 1805 John Dalton came out with the atomic theory. He thought that the smallest particles were like tiny, hard snooker balls that could not be split and called them atoms, a Greek word for indivisible. Dalton suggested that there were just a few dozen different types of atoms varying in their size. Some substances that could not be broken down were made from the same type of atoms while millions of other different substances were made up of different atoms joined together. When atoms are joined together by chemical bonds they make molecules. Many of Dalton’s ideas are still useful today. Today we know that there are 92 different types of atom found naturally on Earth which make up the 92 naturally occurring elements. ‘Atoms of the same type can join together to form molecules. For example, the atoms of the elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are joined in pairs to form diatomic molecules. The symbol of an oxygen molecule is written as Op. Molecules can be formed by combination of two or more different types ‘of atoms, as in the case of all compounds. For example water exists as molecules * containing one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms - HzO. * An atom is the smallest particle into which an element can be divided without losing the properties of the element. ‘A molecule is a group of atoms which are chemically bonded together and which can exist as a separate unit.wv Earlier scientists found that complex substances can be broken down into simpler ones. However at a certain point these simpler substances cannot be broken down into more simpler ones. An element is a substance which cannot be split up into two or more simpler substances by chemical means, eg. gold and iron. This implicates that gold is made up of only gold particles and iron is.made up ‘of only iron particles. Imagine that you could cut a small piece of an element such as gold into two even smaller pieces. Then cut each new piece into two, and so on, so that you would produce smaller and smaller pieces of gold. Eventually you would end up with the smallest possible particle that still has the properties of gold. There are about 90 of these elements that occur in nature; a further 24 elements have been produced artificially. Different substances in the Universe are made Up out of these elements, which can be considered as ‘building blocks’, All the elements are listed in the periodic table and, for convenience, each element is given a symbol. The symbol consists of one or two letters, the first of which must be a capital letter. A periodic table is provided on the next page and explained in detail in Chapter 3. Elements can combine together to form compounds. A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements chemically combined together, e.g, water, sodium chloride (common salt). If you take a salt crystal and split it up into very small pieces, you would end up with small sodium chloride particles (molecules) all made up of a sodium particla chemically combined with a chlorine particle. If you split them up, then the chemical would not remain a compound, salt, but it forms two elements - sodium and chlorine. ‘Question: Which of these substances are elements and which are compounds: lass, aluminium, wood, silver, plastic, paper, oxygen, copper, blood & magnesium. ElementsTy |dn® | 9 |g | yy 08 | sveewmery cor-os, ng” FONE | 12 | Od We uy %| y 1 og | 19 xX = a Welt ene] aH; . A WA Nn ot dna) dng dno dna dno charg drag dno, z z az uy HEB t iThe elements can be divided into two main groups: Metals and non-metals, although some elements have the properties of both (metalloids). In fact the periodic table is divided into two by a border line in the form of a stairs. Those elements on the left side of the periodic table are metals, while those on the right side are non metals. The majority of the elements are Metals, and they are all solids at room ‘temperature, except for mercury. The non-metals are all gases or solids at room temperature with dne exception - bromine. This means that at room temperature there are only two liquid elements in all. Metals have very similar physical properties. They are generally shiny when they are polished, although they may become corroded (lose their shininess by reacting with oxygen in the atmosphere). All metals are good conductors of electricity and heat. Many of them have a high density (sink in water), can be hammered out flat (malleable) and may be drawn into wires (ductile). But this is not true for all metals. Sodium is lighter than water, and can be cut with a knife. Potassium and lithium are very similar to sodium; magnesium and calcium are also lightweight metals. Physically, the non-metals are the opposite of metals, When solid non- metals are hammered or stretched, they break up or shatter and so they are brittle. They usually have low melting points and in fact many of them are gases at room temperature, Non-metals are poor conductors of electricity and heat, with carbon being an exception since it is a conductor of electricity and has a melting (sublimation) point of about 3800°C. Question: Complete the following table. Write down any exceptions. Property Metals [State at room temperature TT I [Appearance of solid [Bendabiiey of solid Density [Melting & Boiling points [Electrical & Thermal conductivityAt the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Explain how molecules are arranged and how they move in I solids, liquids and gases. 2. Explain how gases, liquids and solids inter-convert. Explain what is meant by the terms melting point and boiling 3. point, 4, Explain diffusion and Brownian motion in terms of simple kinetic theory. 5. Know the differences between physical and chemical changes. 6, Explain what atoms and molecules are. 7. Explain the meaning of the terms element and compound. 8. Show the differences between metals and non-metals. htep://www.s-cool.co.uk http://www.gesescience.com heep://www..tryscience.org heepil/www.rsc.org pee eee eee eee ee ee; CHEMISTRY NOTES - 3 32 : 33 : 34 : 35 : 36 : 37 The Atom Atomic Number & Mass Number Isotopes Relative Atomic Mass Electronic Configuration ‘The Periodic Table Summaryvy So far it was mentioned that the word atom, given by John Dalton in 1808, comes from a Greek word meaning something which cannot be split, However, in the last hundred years it has been proved that atoms are in fact divisible and made up of even smaller sub-atomic particles. The most important of these are neutrons, protons and electrons. These three sub-atomic particles are found in two distinct and separate regions. The neutrons and protons are found in the center of the atom which is called the nucleus. The electrons orbit around the nucleus with great speeds in electron shells (orbitals) or electron energy levels. races, corning nan and pois ragjon ware lactons Selound The neutrons have no charge and therefore they are neutral. The protons carry a unit positive charge, while the electrons are negatively charged. The electrons are held within the atom by an electrostatic force of attraction between themselves and the positive charge of the protons in the nucleus. Since the number of electrons around the nucleus is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus, the overall charge is balanced and therefore the atom has no charge. Scientists have also measured the mass of these particles. Because they are very small, the ordinary units of mass cannot be used. Instead they are given relative atomic mass units (a.m.u). The neutrons and protons have the same mass and each are given | am.u. The electrons are very light and it takes almost 1840 electrons to weigh the same as a proton or a neutron. Therefore their mass is ignored. Question: Complete the following table. (Paper I Sept 2007 -3 merks) Particle Relative mass Relative charge CS) ice Neutron Protoncontain different numbers of neutrons, protons and electrons. Each element has its own number of protons which is called the atomic number and so atoms can be identified by the number of protons in them. All the atoms of a particular element have the same proton number, while different elements have different atomic numbers. Since atoms have no overall charge, the atomic number is the same as the electron number. For example, the atomic number of Aluminium is 13. So an atom of aluminium contains 13 protons and 13 electrons. Atoms also have a mass number. The mass number of an element tells us how heavy an atom of that element is. Since electrons are very light compared with protons and neutrons, their mass is ignored. Therefore the mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons plus the number of neutrons found in the nucleus of that atom. The number of neutrons in an atom can be calculated by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number. For example, aluminium has a mass number of 27. So the atom of aluminium has 14 neutrons (27-13). The atomic number and mass number can be shown using chemical shorthand as shown below: Mass number Elementsymbol ,, ElementSymbol where A is the symbol for the mass number and Z is the symbol of the atomic number. For example the aluminium atom is written as: 27 a} 13 This information may be summarised for all the elements. In fact when one looks at the periodic table, one observes that near each element symbol there are the mass and atomic numbers. Questions: |. Complete the following table: Se oe ee eee Gz) ateceone | frams_| nubons 3 joy 2 ‘ » v 2 a 6 ‘ (Paper Sept 2006-5 marks) 2. This question is about platinum 195 p, 7” |) What is its atomic number? ji) How many neutrons are present in this platinum atom? Mtr cattesssasrssees (pr Sp 2007-2 ats Atoms of diferent elements are different because they “iyFrom the periodic table, one can see that some mass numbers of certain elements are not a whole number. This does not mean, however, that such atoms contain half or fractions of neutrons. It means that the atoms of that element have different number of neutrons and an average is calculated. Such atoms are called isotopes. In fact isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons, i.e. they have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. Lsotopes area bit like Easter eggs which have the same chocolate shell, but different numbers of sweets inside! For example, a chlorine atom can contain either 18 or 20 neutrons. The symbols for these atoms are written as: }3Cl and 37CI or as chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. This means that one isotope of chlorine contains 17 protons, 17 electrons and 18 neutrons, while the other isotope has 7 protons, 17 electrons and 20 neutrons. They are both chlorine atoms since they have the same atomic number and so they have the same chemical properties. In most cases where an element has several isotopes, one of the isotopes makes up a high percentage of the atoms present and so only the mass number of the most abundant isotope is used. For example, carbon consists of 98.89% carbon-I2, 1.1% carbon-13 and minute traces of carbon-14, So the mass number of carbon is 12. Some of the atomisiof certain isotopes are unstable because of the extra number of neutrons and are said to be radioactive. The best known elements which have radioactive isotopes are uranium, plutonium and carbon. Question: Two isotopes of iron are iron-56 and iron-59. Complete the following table by filling the missing numbers. Isotope Mass number Number of protons | Number of neutrons tron-56 26 tron-59 eFrom the periodic table, the atomic mass of chlorine is iy given as 35.5. This is the relative atomic mass with the symbol R.A.M. or A. Itis the average mass of the isotopes of an element in the proportion in which they exist naturally compared to (relative to) one-twelfth (1/12) the mass Carbon-12 which is a standard. So the RAM. can be calculated as follows: RAM, — 2verage mass of istopes of element Lx massof oneatomof 12c 12 For example, naturally occurring chlorine contains 75% of Chlorine-35 and 25% of Chlorine-37. So you can see that the calculated R.A.M. is going to be nearer to 35 than to 37. So the RAM. of chlorine can be found as follows. From the natural abundance of chlorine isotopes, the ratio of atoms is 3 atoms of chlorine-35 to | atom of chlorine-37. Therefore: : 5 2 : average mass of chlorine = GX35)*(x37) 4, (7535)+@5x37) 355° 4 100 vy . : 35.5 andso Relative Atomic Mass = yoo = 355 ~~ x 12 Question: Given that the percentage abundance of ' B is 20% and that of 1! B is 80%, calculate the RAM. of boron.vy The electrons in an atom orbit around the nucleus in electron shells or electron energy levels. These shells are positioned at fixed distances from the nucleus. The shells that are near the nucleus have a low energy, the ones further away have high energy. Each of the electron energy levels can only hold a certain number of electrons. The first shell (nearest to the nucleus) can hold just 2 electrons. ‘The Second shell can hold a maximum of 8 electrons, while the third shell can hold up tol8 electrons. However there is a special stability associated with having 8 electrons in a shell, and thus when the third shell is occupied by eight electrons, the next electrons will go to the fourth shell even though the third is not full. There are further energy levels which contain increasing number of electrons but these shall not be studied. The way the electrons are arranged in these electron shells is called the electronic configuration or electronic structure. The electronic configurations can be simplified by using atomic structure diagrams, where it is convenient to show an energy level as if it were a ‘region’ in the atom represented by a circle. The various energy levels are shown by a series of concentric circles, separated from each other by roughly equal distances. The electrons fill the energy levels starting from the energy level nearest to the nucleys. When this is full with two electrons, the next electron will go into the second energy level. When this is also full with eight electrons, then the electrons will begin to fill the third energy level. For example, a carbon atom has an atomic number ‘+ of 6 and therefore has six electrons. Two of the six electrons: enter the first energy “level, leaving four to occupy the second energy level. So the electron configuration of arbon is drawn as shown below:ee To take another example, the sodium atom has || protons and therefore II electrons. The first two electrons fill the first shell, the next eight electrons fill the second shell and the remaining electron will go into the third shell. So the electronic configuration of sodium is: potassium If we consider potassium with an atomic number of 19, then 19 electrons will be arranged as follows: the first two electrons in the first shell and the next eight electrons in the second shell. Although the third shell can hold the remaining 9 electrons, there are eight electrons in the third shell due to energy stability and the next electron will go to the fourth shell. The electron configurations of elements can also be written in shorthand without the need of drawing diagrams. This just shows the number of electrons in each shell, working outwards from the nucleus. So the electronic configuration of carbon can be written as C: 2,4 and that of sodium as Na: 2,8,1 while that of potassium K: 2,8,8,1 Question: In the space provided draw and write the electronic configurations of: Chlorine Aluminium Calcium decros.c cork qurdaon a RahThe first periodic table was devised in 1869 by the Russian Dmitri Mendeleev. In the light of the work carried by later scientists, ‘his periodic table was modified until the modern periodic table with 112 elements has been established. The periodic table is obtained by arranging the elements in order of increasing atomic number and placing them in rows so that similar elements fall into vertical columns. The horizontal rows are called periods and the vertical columns are called groups. Groups are made up of elements found in the same column and that have sitnilar chemical properties. There are eight groups of elements with a central block of Transitional elements in between. The first column is called Group 1; the second, Group 2 and so on up to Group 7. The final column in the periodic table is called Group 0. Some of the groups have been given names where Group | is called the Alkali Metals; Group 2 the Alkali Earth Metals, Group 7 the Halogens; and Group 0 the Noble or Inert Gases. But why do elements in the same group have similar chemical properties? Itis the outer electrons that are mainly responsible for the chemical properties of any element. So when one examines the electronic configuration of each element in the same group, one would notice that each element in the group has the same number of electrons in the outer shell. For example Group | includes the elements Lithium, Sodium and Potassium with the electronic configurations: Li 2,1: Na 2,8,1 and K 2,88,1. So the group number indicates the number of electrons in the outer shell. There is an éxception for Group.0 where helium has 2 electrons in the outer shell while the other noble gases have 8 electrons. One must note that the noble gases have very stable electronic structures with filled outer shells. Periods are made up of elements in the same horizontal row. Elements of one period all have the same number of electron shells. For example some of the elements in Period 2 include Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, Carbon, Oxygen and Neon. From their électronic configurations that are Li 2,1; Be 2,2; B 2,3;.C 2,4; O 2,6 and Ne-2.8 one can conclude that these elements all have two electron shells, So the period number indicates the number of electron shells that are being used up by electrons. weet e eee eee BDAt this stage we are not going to discuss the chemical wv properties of each group since this will be done in later chapters. However one must notice the several trends that there are down the groups and across periods. It has already been mentioned that the Group 0 gases have an energy stable configuration with filled/stable outer shells. For this reason they are called noble gases or inert gases which means that they do not react. The other elements try to achieve full outer electron shells to obtain stability. They can achieve this by losing, gaining or sharing electrons by bonding with other atoms undergoing chemical reactions. This is explained in the next chapter. When one looks at a group of elements in the periodic table, one notes that down the group the atoms of the elements get larger since there is one more electron shell being filled up. The bigger the atom the further away are the outer negative electrons from the positive nucleus. So the electrostatic force of the outer electrons decreases down the group. Those elements that need to lose electrons to achieve a noble gas configuration, such as elements in Group | (that need to lose I electron), in Group 2 (that need to lose 2 electrons) and in Group 3 (that need to lose 3 electrons) will ind it easier to get rid of their outer electron if it has a weaker electrostatic force. The smaller the atom will be, the closer the electrons are to the nucleus and hence the more difficult it will be for the atom to lose its electrons. Therefore a larger atom would be more reactive (reaction occurs faster and stronger) than a smaller atom and so going down Groups |, 2 and 3 the elements are more reactive. On the other hand, those elements that have to gain electrons to obtain a noble gas configuration such as Group 6 {that need to gain 2 electrons) and Group 7 (that need to gain I electron) will find it easier to obtain a ‘foreign’ electron if they have a strong electrostatic force. The smaller the atom, the closer are the electrons to the positive nucleus and therefore the greater the attraction and the easier the gain of the electrons. Hence in such groups reactivity decreases as the atom gets larger and hence reactivity decreases down Groups 6 and 7, Regarding Groups 4 and 5, electrons are neither lost nor gained but they are shared between atoms as explained in the next chapter. The reactivity across the transitional metals will not be studied.There are also trends across a period of the perio table. As already said ‘across a period all the elements have the same number of electron shells, however they do not have the same atom size. This is because across a period, each element has one more proton and one more electron than the previous element. The size in fact decreases across a period because atoms will have higher positive charge in the nucleus and higher negative charge in the electron shells. So the electrostatic force is greater and the éléctrons are held more tightly and élosely to the ‘Rucleus. Since the size of the atom decreases then across a period for Groups |, 2 and 3 the reactivity decreases and for Groups 6 and 7 the reactivity increases. So in Period 2, Lithium is more reactive than Beryllium and Fluorine is more reactive than Oxygen. The reactivity series is a list of elements arranged in order of their reactivity. (This will be discussed in more detail in later chapters.) The reactivity series of the commonly used metals, starting from the most reactive, is potassium, then comes sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper, silver, gold and platinum.*The reactivity series of non-metals, starting from the most reactive, is fluorine, then comes chlorine, oxygen, bromine and iodine. Another trend across the period is that the elements go from metals to non-metals with metalloids in between. Metalloids behave like metals. in some ways and as non-metals in others. Here is an outline of the trends in the periodic table:At the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Name the three particles found in the atom, and give their relative masses and electrical charges. Describe how these particles are arranged in the atom. 2. 3. Explain what is meant by the terms atomic number and mass number. 4. Explain the meaning of the term isotope, an give an example of an element which has isotopes. 5. Calculate the relative atomic masses of elements with respect to carbon-12. 6. Explain the arrangement of electrons in shells around the nucleus of an atom. 7. Work out the electronic configuration of the first twenty elements. 8. Explain what is meant by Groups and Periods in the periodic table. 9. Know some of the trends across periods and down the groups. http://particleadventure.org GCHSMISLY ecpuimmw.webelements.com | Web . heep:/www.chemsoc.org/viselements heep://www.chemicalelements.com. ° . . . CHEMISTRY NOTES . 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 Chemical Reaction lonic Bonding Dot - Cross Diagrams Covalent Bonding Tonic Structures Molecular Structures Properties of lonic & Covalent Compounds Metallic Bonding Summaryle was already stated that compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically join together. But why do elements react! In the previous chapter we said that atoms of elements in Group 0 of the Periodic table obey the octet rule, ie. they have full/stable outer shells with eight electrons which makes them unreactive, These elements belong to the family called noble gases or inert gases. These names give a clue to their chemical properties; they are very unreactive and do not take part in normal chemical reactions. Atoms of the noble gases are the only atoms to be found free in nature since they do not bond with other atoms, even with atoms of their own kind. ‘Atoms of all other elements do not have full outer shells; therefore they are not stable. However they can achieve a stable arrangement of electrons by bonding (joining) with other atoms, even if this means atoms of their own kind. They attempt to gain full outer electron shells when reacting, and become stable by either: losing electrons from their outer shell, or © gaining electrons into their outer shell, or sharing electrons in their outer shell with other atoms. Group | elements have only one electron in their outer shell. When they react, they do so in order to lose this electron. All the Group | metals react this way, and that is why they all have similar chemical properties and compounds. Group 2 ‘elements have two electrons in their outer shell and they lose these two electrons in order to make their outermost shell full. So they react similarly. (On the other hand, Group 7 elements have seven electrons in their outer shells, so they want to obtain one electron to make them up to eight ~ a fullistable shell. This can be done by gaining or sharing one electron. They all react in this way and so have similar chemical reactions and compounds. Group 6 elements need two more electrons to fill their outer shells and so they all react similarly to obtain two electrons. Not all elements lose or gain electrons when they react. Group 4 elements have four outside shell electrons. They cannot lose four, neither can they gain four. Instead, they react by sharing electrons with other elements. Similarly Group 5 elements share three electrons. When atoms obtain full shells by losing or gaining electrons they undergo ionic bonding to form ionic compounds, and when they share electrons, covalent bonding occurs to form covalent compounds.lonic or electrovalent bonding involves the losing Gy and gaining of electrons. This occurs when a metal bonds with a non-metal. It involves the complete transfer of outer electrons from the metal atom or atoms, to the non-metal atom or atoms. By doing so, the atoms do not remain neutral but become charged. Therefore they are not called anymore atoms but we call them now ions. ‘An ion is a an electrically charged particle. It is charged because it contains an unequal number of protons and electrons. The ions formed usually have the electronic configuration of a noble gas. ‘A metal atom reacts by losing one or more electrons. When an electron is lost, the overall charge of the ion becomes positive. For example, when a sodium atom reacts it loses an electron, So, originally it had I! protons (+) and 1 electrons (-), ie. it was neutral, but when sodium loses the electron it now has I protons and 10 electrons, giving an overall charge of 1+. So sodium becomes a positive ion, written as Na‘. Magnesium, having 12 protons and 12 electrons, loses two electrons when it reacts. Therefore the magnesium ion now contains 12 protons and 10 electrons, giving an overall charge of 2+. So it is written as Mg”*. On the other hand, when a non-metallic atom gains electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion. For example, a chlorine atom with 17 protons and 17 electrons, reacts by gaining an electron and now it holds 18 electrons. So the chloride ion has an overall charge of |- and is written as CI’. The same applies to an oxygen atom with & protons and 8 electrons, that gains two electrons to fill the outer shell and gets an overall charge of 2-, written as O. One must note that, metals form positive ions and non-metals form negative ions. The oppositely charged ions are strongly attracted to each other. This attraction sticks the ions together and is called an ionic bond. For example Na* and CI bond together to form sodium chloride (common salt), written as NaCl. Note that the formula of the ionic compound is uncharged, since ionic charges balance each other WW out.wv ‘A reaction between two different elements can be represented by a dot-cross diagram. This is a diagram that is used to show how electrons are transferred or shared in a compound. Normally only the outer electrons are depicted. A dot (+) is used to depict the electrons of one type of atom and a cross (00) for the other type of atom. Let us look at sodium chloride as an example. Sodium burns in chlorine gas to form the white salt sodium chloride. The electronic configurations of sodium and chlorine are 2, 8, | and 2, 8, 7 respectively. Therefore sodium needs to lose one electron, while chlorine must gain one electron, so that both will have full outer shells. When sodium and chlorine react, the electron from the sodium atom is transferred to the atom of chlorine. The sodium now becomes a positive ion, Na’, while chlorine becomes the negative ion, Cl. The dot-cross diagram for such reaction is as follows: OO Similarly, when a piece of magnesium is burnt in oxygen, magnesium oxide is formed, Magnesium, has two electrons in its outer shell that are lost and given to oxygen that has six electrons in its outer shell and therefore needs two electrons to fill its outer shell. Magnesium becomes positively charged; Mg**, while oxygen becomes negatively charged; O*. Here is the dot-cross diagram of this reaction. | (-)G) seen neeSee When chlorine gas is passed over heated calcium metal, calcium chloride is formed. Calcium needs to lose two electrons to obtain a full outer shell, whereas chlorine needs only one electron to add with its seven electrons in the outer shell. One must note that during a chemical reaction there are millions of atoms that are taking part in the reaction. In the above reaction, each calcium atom needs to encounter two chlorine atoms so that it will give one electron to each chlorine atom. Hence the dot-cross diagram of this reaction is: a oon oF => [ca] } Question: In the space provided, draw the dot-cross diagram of potassium sulfide, aluminium bromide, and aluminium oxide. Potassium Sulfide9 Aluminium Bromide Aluminium Oxide cece eee eee ee eeSac Covalent bonding occurs when two or more Wy non-metal atoms bond. These atoms all need to gain electrons to reach full shells. They can manage this only by sharing electrons between them. The shared electrons orbit around the nuclei of both atoms sharing them, forming strong covalent bonds. One shared pair forms one covalent bond. Covalent bonding results in the formation of neutral molecules, and no ions are formed. The simplest example of covalent bonding can be seen by considering the hydrogen molecule, H;, A hydrogen atom has one electron in its outer shell. It can share this electron with another hydrogen atom so that both will obtain the electron configuration of helium. To do this, the two hydrogen atoms allow their outer shells to overlap as show in this dot-cross diagram. ~ a shared pair of electrons Iydrogen molecule (H,) Similarly, the atoms of diatomic molecules obtain full electron shell stability by bonding with atoms of their own kind. In the space provided draw a dot-cross diagram of the bonding in a Cl, molecule.Oxygen also forms diatomic molecules. Each oxygen atom has six outer electrons and therefore two electrons are shared between them. Since two pairs of electrons are shared, the bond between them is called a double covalent bond. The dot-cross diagram of the oxygen molecule is shown below. two oxygen atoms an oxygen molecule, O, forlo f fo j)fo} mY NF NY two shared pairs of electrons Similarly, two atoms occasionally form triple covalent bonds by sharing three pairs of electrons. This is the case for the nitrogen molecule N;. In the space provided draw a dot-cross diagram of the nitrogen molecule. Covalent bonds also form between atoms of different non metallic elements. For example, hydrogen chloride gas contains the elements hydrogen and chlorine. The chlorine atom needs one electron to achieve a noble gas configuration, while hydrogen requires one more electron to fill'its outer shell. So a hydrogen atom shares an electron with chlorine, which in turn shares one electron with hydrogen thus forming a single covalent bond. The dot-cross diagram, showing all electrons is depicted below. ‘Carbon dioxide is a gas containing the elements 7 carbon and oxygen. In this case the carbon atom needs to share four electrons to gain a fall outer shell. The oxygen atom needs to share two electrons to achieve the electron configuration of neon. So each oxygen atom shares two electrons with the carbon atom, which in turn obtains the required four shared electrons, two from each oxygen atom, Here is the dot-cross diagram of the carbon dioxide molecule, QO > Be oxygen atoms carbon atom carbon dioxide molecule (CO,) Question: Draw a dotand-cross diagram for each of the following molecules: water, H;0; ammonia, NH3; and methane, CH,- GC (Paper 18 Sept 2000 - 6 marks)The structure of a solid compound depends to a large extent on the bonding within it. It also depends on the way in which the atoms, ions, or molecules pack together. This in turn depends upon the shape of the particles, their size, and the ratio in which they occur in the compound. In the solid state, ionic compounds exist as crystals. Oppositely charged ions are held together in a regular, repeating arrangement throughout each crystal by strong electrostatic forces of attraction called ionic bonds. This forms a three- dimensional structure called a crystal lattice. The whole structure must be electrically neutral, ie. the total number of negative charges must be equal to the total number of positive charges. Sodium chloride is normally used as an example of an ionic lattice. The figure below shows the way in which a sodium chloride crystal lattice is made up. ‘We are bonded tightly together ‘with strong ionic bonds ets haps doesn ain tho Imatiage could soon be clesohed by8CI" ions by Na" crs Each sodium ion in the lattice is surrounded by six chloride ions, and each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. The shape of the lattice is a cube because with the sodium and chloride ions pulling on one another, they fit together best this way. The lattice is held together very tightly because the positively charged sodium ions attract the negatively charged chloride ions and vice-versa. A single crystal of sodium chloride contains millions of ions. For this reason sodium chloride, and almost all ionic compounds, has a relatively high melting point: 801 °C.SS Compounds containing covalent bonds have molecules yy whose structures can be either simple molecular or giant molecular. Simple molecular structures are composed of simple molecules made up of only few atoms such as water H;O, carbon dioxide CO,, iodine ly, etc. The atoms within the molecule have strong intra-molecular covalent bonds. However, these simple separate molecules are held together in a solid structure by weak inter-molecular bonds (bonds between molecules), such as van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding, Let us take for example the molecular structure of iodine, lodine is made up of simple I,molecules. The intra-molecular (} ~ !) bond is a strong covalent bond. However, the molecules are then attracted to other molecules of the same type by weak van der Waals forces to form iodine crystals. Since these intermolecular bonds are weak, they can be broken down easily by heating. This explains why iodine, which is a black solid, sublimes on heating to give purple iodine vapour. The same applies to carbon dioxide which can exist as a solid, known as ‘dry ice’. Solid iodine has the following structure, where the dotted lines represent the weak van der Waals forces. =O ‘CO- The main intermolecular bonds in water that form ice are a special class of bonding called hydrogen bonding. This is because the hydrogen atoms in a molecule of water have weak intermolecular forces with oxygen atoms of other water molecules. These bonds start to break when ice is heated, and so the ice melts. Hydrogen bonds are stronger than van der Waals forces, but they are weaker than ionic bonds and covalent bonds. Below is the structure of ice, where the dotted lines represent the hydrogen bonds. a N Bs Qe 4 ,y Giant molecular structures consist of atoms joined together by strong covalent bonds to form a three-dimensional lattice of atoms, Examples normally studied are diamond and graphite, the two allotropes of carbon. Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element at the same physical’state. ‘The atoms in graphite are bonded together in layers, in which a hexagonal Pattern of atoms can be seen. In the layers each carbon is strongly bonded to three other atoms. The bonds between the layers, however, are more like weak inter- molecular forces and thus the layers can slide over each other. This explains the slippery feel of graphite and why the layers flake off. One must note also, that since carbon is covalently bonded to three other C atoms (whereas it has four outer electrons) one electron will remain free. These free electrons are found between the graphite layers and it is these electron clouds that make graphite such a good electrical conductor, As a complete contrast, each atom in diamond forms four strong covalent bonds. There are no flat layers but a tetrahedral arrangement is obtained. The whole structure, made up of a single molecule, is a strong, rigid mass of atoms. The figures below show the structures of the allotropes of carbon. Wieck orcas onwoon ier ‘Question: a) Name the type of bonding and the type of particles (eg, ions, molecules, etc) present in (i) sodium fluoride crystals and (i) methane gas: Substance ‘Type of bonding ‘Type of particle/s () Sodium fluoride, NaF(6) ee , Methane, CHi(@) i b) lodine exists as shiny black crystals. ‘What type of forces keep the different iodine molecules together in the solid state? (Paper | May 2004 -3 marks)om Ionic compounds are composed of two or more different kinds of oppositely charged ions, Usually they are made up of a positively metal ion with a negatively non-metal ion These oppositely charged ions attract each other and form a large three- dimensional structure, called a crystal lattice, which is held by electrostatic attractions in all directions, lonic substances are thus usually crystalline solids. Because of the great attraction between the ions, a large amount of energy has to be used to separate them, and so ionic compounds usually have high melting points and boiling points. onic compounds, when molten or in aqueous solution, conduct electricity due to the presence of charged particles. Jonic compounds are usually soluble in water, but insoluble in organic solvents such as ethanol or methyl-benzene. Covalent Compounds Covalent compounds consist of two or more atoms linked together by covalent bonds in which electrons are shared. Generally they are made up of non-metal atoms, either of the same type or different elements. Simple molecular compounds are usually gases and liquids with low melting and bolling points. Giant molecular compounds are exceptions, with extremely high melting and boiling points. Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity even if molten or in aqueous solution, as they do not have charged particles. They are generally insoluble in water but dissolve more easily in organic solvents. q:Another way in which atoms obtain a more stable electron structure is found in metals. In a metal, the atoms are found tightly packed in rows and can lose their outer shell electrons to form a mobile ‘sea’ of electrons (free electrons) around them. When the metal atoms lose these electrons, they become Positive ions. So the negatively charged electrons attract all the positive metal ions and they bond together with strong electrostatic forces of attraction, called metallic bonds. The diagram below shows the metallic crystal in a metal. + nucleus 9 electron As a result of their bonding, metals have the following properties: |. They are solid at room temperature (except mercury) because the positive ions are held together strongly by the ‘sea’ of electrons. 2. Most have a high melting and boiling points since the strong metallic bonds Tequire a lot of energy to break. 3. They conduct electricity since the free electrons can move through the metal. (Graphite can conduct electricity since it has free electrons between its layers.) 4. They conduct heat because heat increases the kinetic energy of the mobile electrons and so this energy can be passed on through the metal. 5. Most metals are malleable (hammered out flat) and ductile (can be drawn into wires) since layers of positive ions can slip over each other whilst still being held together by the free electrons.vy At the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Explain why the noble gases do not react, and why the other elements do react. Describe, by means of diagrams, how elements react together to form an ionic compound. Describe, by means of diagrams, how elements react together to form a covalent compound. Describe the shape of a sodium chloride crystal lattice and explain how it is constructed from its ions. Know examples of compounds that have simple molecular structures and others that have giant molecular ones. Describe and explain the differences between ionic and covalent compounds. Explain the properties of metals in terms of metallic bonding, heep:l/www.quia.com/dir/chem ” hetp:/hwww.chemicalelements.com hetp://www.learn.co.za/sitemap hetp:/www.newton.dep.anl gov ween eee eee ee DePere Te & CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Su: Valency 52 Radicals :, i Naming Compounds Chemical FormulaeWw In the previous chapter, we have seen how elements combine together to form compounds. Some compounds were made up of two atoms, eg. sodium chloride is made from one sodium atom and one chlorine atom. Others were made up of three atoms e.g. water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. There were also other compounds made up of a larger number of atoms, e.g. aluminium oxide is made up of two aluminium atoms and three oxygen atoms. From the above observations, one can conclude that atoms of certain elements can join with only one other atom, while some can join with a greater number of atoms. Therefore how are we going to decide the ratio of atoms combined in a compound? This is decided by the valency (combining power) of an element. The valency is the number of electrons an atom has to lose, gain or share to attain a stable electronic structure. For example sodium, which is in Group 1, must lose one electron to obtain a stable electronic structure. Therefore it has a valency of I and so it can combine with only one other atom. Note also that the valency of sodium is equal to charge of a sodium ion. Chlorine is in Group 7 and must gain one electron to fill its outer shell, So chlorine has a valency of | and it can join with only one other atom. This explains why sodium chloride is made up of only one sodium atom joined to one chlorine atom. Should one remember the valencies of the most common elements? Yes, the list of valencies on page 5 should be studied. However, there is some help. Usually the valency of the most common elements can be obtained from the Group they belong in the periodic table. Group 1 elements lose one electron, and so have a valency of 1. Group 2 elements lose two electrons and have a valency of 2, while Group 3 elements lose three electrons and therefore have a valency of 3, Usually Group 4 elements share four electrons and have a valency of 4, Also, usually Group 5 elements share three electrons or gain three electrons and so they have a valency of 3. Group 6 and Group 7 elements share or gain two and one electron respectively and | therefore their valencies are 2 and | respectively. Group 0 elements |e coupyaere!"* are stable and do not combine and have a valency of 0,: The Transition elements do not have a group number ay and therefore the valencies of the most common transitional elements (Cu, Fe, Zn, Ag) should be studied and remembered. One must note also that some transitional elements have more than one valency. For example copper can have a valency of | or 2, while iron has a valency of 2 or 3. In order to distinguish the different valencies of the same element, a roman number is written near the element. Therefore copper with a valency of | is written as Copper (I), while copper with a valency of 2 is written as Copper (ll). To understand better and visualise this combining power more clearly one can imagine the valency number as a ‘hand’ or ‘stick’. (This system has no real scientific bases but gives only an idea of the combining power.) Atoms join together by holding ‘hands’ in ‘hands’, All the hands must be holding another hand. Atoms with a valency of ‘one have one hand, those with a valency of two have two hands, ete. Let us take aluminium oxide as an example. Aluminium is in Group 3 and has a valency of 3, while oxygen is in Group 6 and has a valency of 2. ac — ~~ ace — ° ‘The two atoms are joined ‘An atom of aluminium has An atom of oxygen has the together using the valencies {he symbol Aland a valency symbol O and a valency of tempos ender 9 Leona ving the wl 2 ee ln they coche [928 acer pan oe o~ A eo Se © A a NX —-* AY — AY a) ° ° —o ‘An ‘atom’ of the other kind is added, with its normal valencies. This satisfies the An ‘atom’ of the other kind (this time aluminium) is added, with its normal A third ‘atom’ of oxygen is ‘added, with its two valencies, and this completes the ‘compound because all the atoms have used up their Valencies in combining together valencies. This satisfies the two oxygen ‘atoms’, but ves the second aluminium ‘ator’ with two spare valencies ‘aluminium ‘atom’ but let the second oxygen ‘atom’ with a spare valency So aluminium oxide is made up of two aluminium atoms and three oxygen atoms and is written as ALO;. qe.Ww The compounds mentioned so far were made up of only two different elements joined together. These binary compounds are usually made up of a metallic part with a non-metallic part. However these parts can be substituted by radicals. A radical is a charged group of atoms that behave like a single atom. However, a radical cannot exist on its own, but must be joined to another part. Most radicals are negatively charged and so act as the non-metallic part of a compound. Examples of negative radicals include; the sulfate group (SO,2") which is made up of one sulfur atom grouped with four oxygen atoms and with a negative charge of 2, the carbonate group (CO,*) made up of one carbon atom joined with three oxygen atoms and with a negative charge of 2, the nitrate group (NO,") made up of one nitrogen atom joined with three oxygen atoms and with a negative charge of I. The only positive radical for our study is the ammonium radical (NH,*) and acts as the metallic part of a compound. It is made up of one nitrogen atom grouped with four hydrogen atoms and with a positive charge of |. Note that these radicals are all made of a group of atoms and all of them are charged. Here is a complete list of the most common radicals: Radical Symbol Radical ‘Symbol Sulfate SO; Carbonate co, Sulfite $0 Hydrogen-carbonate HCO, Nitrate NO; Hydrogen-sulfate Hso,; Nitrite NO; Phosphate Poe | Hydroxide ‘OH ‘Ammonium NHJ Note the difference in naming the ions; the sulfide ion is S*, while the sulfate ion is SO,*, and the sulfite ion is SO,”. When a radical name ends in ~ate, this means that there are oxygen atoms combined with that particular element. For example, carbonate is made up of carbon and oxygen, while nitrate is a combination of nitrogen and oxygen. These radicals also have a valency number that has to be remembered and can be found in the list of the next page. The valency number is equal to the charge of the radical. Thus, for example the valency of the sulfate radical is 2, the valency of the Phosphate radical is 3, while that of the ammonium radical is 1. >The following table summarises the symbols and Ey valencies of the most common elements and radical. Valency 1 2 3 Metals [Lithium Li [Magnesium Mg® [Aluminium = AI Sodium Na* |Calcium Cat |Iron (Itt) Fe* Potassium kK’ [Barium Bat Silver Ag’ [Lead Pb Copper (1) Cut |Copper (ll) Cu Zinc Zn* Iron (Hl) Fe* Non-Metals [Fluoride F° |Oxide O* [Nitride N* | Chloride Cr |Sulfide s* Bromide er Hydrogen H “Radicals [Hydroxide | OH [Carbonate CO," [Phosphate PO," Nitrate NO,” |Sulfate soe Nitrite NO, |Sulfite so;* Ammonium — NH, Hydrogen-sulfate HsO, Hydrogen-carbonate HCO;The name of a compound is a combination of the names ~ of the elements present in it. Naming binary compounds having only two elements is quite easy, First you must write the element which is nearer to the left of the periodic table. Usually, this would be the positive ion, i.e. a metal ion or the hydrogen ion. Then you write the second element (usually this would be the non-metal ion) with the ending -ide, This ending shows that the two elements are chemically joined together. For example a compound of sodium and chlorine is called sodium chloride. When an element has more than one valency the naming must indicate this. For example copper can combine with oxygen using either a valency of one or a valency of two. So in the first case the compound is named copper (|) oxide, while the other compound is named copper (I!) oxide. Both aré totally different compounds. Non-metals can also sometimes exhibit more than one valency. For example carbon can join with one oxygen atom or with two oxygen atoms. In such cases a prefix is added to the oxide to indicate the number of oxygen atoms. So carbon monoxide indicates the presence of one oxygen atom, while carbon dioxide has two oxygen atoms. Other prefixes include tri for three atoms, tetra for four atoms, penta for five atoms, hhexa for six atoms and deca for ten atoms. For example, when carbon reacts with chlorine, it forms carbon tetrachloride, CCl,. When a compound has three or more elements in it, usually this is because it contains a radical. In this case there is a special method of naming the compound. First you must write the positive part, ie. the metal ion or the ammonium radical. Then you write down the second part, usually a non-metal ion or a negative radical. Those radicals that contain oxygen atoms are named by writing the first part of the non-metal element with the ending ~ate, e.g. sulfate is made up of sulfur and oxygen. If they have one oxygen atom less, the ending would be ~ite. For example, sodium sulfate has sodium and the sulfate radical with four oxygen atoms, while sodium sulfite has sodium and the sulfite radical with three oxygen atoms, There are some exceptions to these rules. The radical made up of hydrogen and oxygen is called a hydroxide. Therefore a compound made up of sodium, oxygen and hydrogen is called sodium hydroxide. Other exceptions include the acids. All acids contain a hydrogen atom. The name of the acid depends on the second part of the compound which is usually a radical. Hence the names of the most common acids include: hydrochloric acid, made up of hydrogen and chlorine; sulfuric acid, made up of hydrogen and a sulfate radical; nitric acid, made up of hydrogen and a nitrate radical; carbonic acid, made up of hydrogen and a carbonate radical; phosphoric acid, made up of hydrogen anda phosphate race eee eee eon Aname has a chemical formula. The chemical formula of a compound gives the ratio of the atoms of the different elements. Formulae can be written by first writing the atomic symbols. Then, if the number of particles of each element are not the same, a subscript number is written after the symbol to indicate the ratio of the atoms. For example, the chemical formula of water is H,O, meaning that water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. That of aluminium oxide (see page 3) is Al,O;, meaning that this compound is made up of two aluminium atoms and three oxygen atoms. There is a very simple method of writing chemical formulae. These can be worked out if the appropriate symbols and valencies of the elements or radicals forming the compound are known. The steps, using aluminium oxide as an example, are as follows: 1. Write down the symbols involved, putting the element nearer to the left of the periodic table first, and leaving a small gap between them: ALO 2. Obtain the valencies of both elements and swap them (cross them over) so that the valency of the first element is placed after the symbol of the second element, and similarly, the valency of the second element is written after the first symbol. In this example, the valency of aluminium is 3, and so a subscript s is written after the symbol of oxygen. On the other hand, the valency of oxygen is 2, and so a subscript , is written after the symbol of aluminium. In effect, the two valencies have been swapped over. Thus the chemical formula is: ALO; So, the chemical formula of another example, magnesium nitride, can be worked out easily. Magnesium has a valency of 2, while nitrogen has a valency of 3. Then, by crossing over valencies, the formula is MgsN2- One must note that if there are elements with a valency of I, it is not necessary to write down the number I in the chemical formula. So for example, the formula of magnesium chloride is worked out as follows: magnesium has a valency of 2, and chlorine has a valency of |. By crossing over valencies the formula is MgCl, and not MgiCh.When the two valencies are equal, they cancel each other out since the ratio of atoms would be 1:1. For example in magnesium oxide, magnesium’ has a valency of 2, and also oxygen has a valency of 2. So the formula is MgO and not Mg,O,. If the valencies have a lowest common multiple, then the smallest ratios are written down. For example, in carbon dioxide, carbon has a valency of 4, while oxygen has a valency of 2, So the ratio C:O is 2:4, and the simplest ratio is 1:2. Hence the formula of carbon dioxide is CO, and not C,O,. (There are exceptions to this rule, especially in organic compounds, e.g, glucose, C,H,.0,) fone or more radicals are present, they must be considered as one entity and not as separate atoms. So brackets may be needed so as to avoid confusion between any numbers already present and those numbers being added. For example, in aluminium sulfate, aluminium has a valency of 3, and the sulfate radical has a valency of 2. By crossing over valencies it would be wrong to write AkSO,. Instead, the correct formula is Al(SO,);. This means that there are 2 aluminium atoms and 3 sulfate radicals. The total number of atoms in this compound is 17; which are 2 aluminium atoms, 3 sulfur atoms and 12 oxygen atoms. Similarly the formula of ammonium Phosphate would be (NH,)3PO,, where the ammonium radical has a valency of I, and the phosphate radical has a valency of 3. The total number of atoms in this compound is 20; that are 3 nitrogen atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, | phosphorus atom and 4 oxygen atoms. Now, try to work out the chemical formulae of the following compounds, and write down the total number of atoms for each compound: Potassium Oxide K,O_ 3. Calcium Fluoride __ Aluminium Sulfide Aluminium Nitrate _ Ammonium Chloride tron (Ill) Sulfate =. Hydrochloric acid ___ Sulfuric acid _ Lead Hydrogencarbonate ___ Copper (il) Oxide _ Zine Hydroxide ___. Sodium Carbonate Ammonium Sulfate __. Calcium Hydroxide TJ Aluminium Hydroxide ___ Silver Nitrate _ Lithium Sulfide ___. Barium Phosphate _: A chemical equation is a chemical sentence that represents in shorthand a chemical reaction. It tells you what is going on in a chemical reaction, It tells you both what is reacting and what is being formed, and also about the quantity of the substances involved. Reactants are shown on the left and products are shown on the right separated by an arrow: condions Reactants ——————>_ Products (ex. tanperaure) Again, there is a routine for writing equations. There are word equations and symbol equations, Let us take for example the reaction for the formation of iron (\l) sulfide. This compound can be formed by heating together some iron filings with some yellow powder of sulfur. The word equation for such reaction would be: Step |. iron + Sulfur. ——"—> Iron ({l) Sulfide The symbol equation is 2 more accurate and a more scientific (and a more simple) way of showing what is happening in a chemical reaction. First you must change the words into the formulae with the correct valencies. The symbol for heat is A. A Step 2. Fe + Ss —"—> Fes Then you must balance the equation so that there are the same number of atoms of each element on each side of the equation. This is done by placing simple whole numbers in front of formulae to alter the proportions of reactants and products - formulae must never be altered. In our example, there is one atom of Fe on the left hand side and one atom of Fe on the right hand side, while there is one atom of S on the left hand side and one atom of $ on the right hand side. So the equation is already balanced and there is no need to write down the number |. A Step 3. Fe + S$ ——* _ FeS Finally, you must write a symbol for the physical state for each reactant and product. These state symbols are (s) which stands for solid, (|) if itis a liquid, and (g) if it is a gas. If the substance is dissolved in water the symbol (aq) is used which stands for aqueous. So the correct symbol equation for the reaction of iron and sulfur to produce iron (Il) sulfide is: A Step 4. Fey + Sq = FeSHere are some useful rules and hints that will help you in writing good balanced equations, Always start with the word equation, then substitute the words with symbols and formulae, checking the valencies. Balancing is done by placing whole numbers in front of formulae. Start balancing the metals, then the radicals, then the non-metals (except hydrogen and oxygen), then hydrogen and finally oxygen. Radicals can be balanced as a single entity if they remain unchanged. When balancing sometimes half fractions are used, which can finally be removed by multiplying throughout all the equation by 2. When brackets are present (used for radicals only) the number inside bracket must be multiplied by the number outside brackets. During balancing the formulae are never altered. After balancing check that there are the same number of atoms of each element on each side. If the equation could not be balanced, it means that either there is an error in the valencies, or the reaction does not exist. + 10. Add the state symbols after each substance. A balanced equation, The same number and type Of atoms are on both sides of the equation.Here are some more examples of chemical reactions, "Gy with some useful hints in balancing equations: Equation for the reaction m with sulfur: Sodium reacts with sulfur to produce sodium sulfide. Step |. Write the word equation - Sodium + Sulfur -> Sodium sulfide Step 2. Change the words into formulae - Na + S > NaS Step 3. Balance the number of atoms. ‘There is | Na atom on the left side and 2 Na atoms on the right side. This must be balanced by placing a2 in front of Na. 2Na + S > NaS There is | $ atom on the left side and | S atom on the right side, so this is balanced and remains as it is. 2Na + S > NaS Step 4. Write down the state symbols - 2ZNawt Sw > Nase Equation for the reaction of sodium with oxygen: Sodium burns in oxygen to form sodium oxide. Step I. Write the word equation - Sodium + Oxygen — Sodium oxide Step 2. Change the words into formulae - Na + 0, > NaO Step 3. Balance the atoms. There is | Na atom on the left side and 2 Na atoms on the right side. This is balanced by placing a 2 in front of Na. 2Na + O; > Na, There are 2 © atoms on the left side and 1 © atom on the right side. You cannot balance by writing Na,O,, because this would change the formula of the compound, Instead to balance this, a number 2 is placed infront of the Na,Q 2Na + O, -> 2 NaO But now there are 2 Na atoms on the left and 4 Na atoms on the right. So this must be arranged and the 2 before Na is replaced by 4. 4Na + O, > 2.NaO Step 4. Write the state symbols - 4 Nagy + Or —>2Na,0 “devewy Eau ion for the reaction of zinc with hydrochloric aci Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and | hydrogen. Step |. Write the word equation - Zinc + Hydrochloric —» Zine + Hydrogen acid chloride Step 2. Write the formulae - Zn + HCl + ZnCh + Hy Step 3. "Balance the number of atoms. There is | Zn atom on the left side and | Zn atom on the right side. There is | Cl atom on the left side and 2 Cl atoms ‘on the right side, so this is balanced by placing a 2 in front of HCI. Zn + 2HCl > ZnCh+ Hy Now there are 2 H atoms on the left and 2 H atoms on the right. A final check shows that all atoms are balanced. Zn + 2HCl > ZnCh+ H, Step 4. Write down the state symbols- Zn @ #2HCl gg > ZnCh ay + Hyg E for the mn of chi le with jum hydi Aluminium chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide to form aluminium hydroxide and sodium chloride. Step I. Write the word equation - Aluminium + Sodium —> Aluminium + Sodium chloride hydroxide hydroxide chloride Step 2. Write the formulae - AIC + NaQH-» Al(OH); + NaCl Step 3. Balance the number of atoms. There is | Al atom on the left and 1 Al atom on the right side. There is | Na atom on the left side and | Na atom on the right side, There is | OH radical ‘on the left and 3 OH radicals on the right. This is balance by placing a 3 in front of NaOH. AIC + 3NaOH — AI(OH); + NaCl Now there are 3 Cl atoms on the left and | Cl atom on the right, so a 3 is placed in front of NaCl. AICI, + 3NaOH - Al(OH); +3 NaCl A final check shows that all atoms are balanced. AICI, +3NaOH -> Al(OH), + 3 NaCl Step 4. Write the state symbols - AIC, «y+ 3 NaOH gq) > AIO); « +3 NaCl fa)Equation for the reaction of ammonium carbonate ‘Ammonium carbonate reacts with nitric acid to form ammonium nitrate, carbon dioxide and water. Step I. Write the word equation - Ammonium + Nitric — Ammonium + Carbon + Water carbonate acid nitrate dioxide Step 2. Write the formulae - (NH,):CO; + HNO; -> NHNO; + CO, + H,O Step 3. Balance the number of radicals. There are 2 NH,‘ radicals on the left and | NH,’ radical on the right. Therefore a 2 is placed in front of NH,NO to balance it. (NH):CO; + HNO; > 2NHNO; + CO, + H,0 There is 1 NOs radical on the left side and now 2 NOs radicals on the right side, so a 2 is placed in front of the HNO, to balance it. (NH,),CO,; +2HNO; > 2NH.NO,; + CO, + H,0 The CO,* radical has split up so the C and © must be balanced separately. ‘There is | C atom on the left side and | C atom on the right side so it is balanced, ‘Oxygen is balanced as the last element. Now there are 2 remaining H atoms (the H atoms of the NH,’, are already balanced) on the left side and 2 H atoms on the right so H is balanced as well. Finally there are 3 O atoms from the CO;”( the O atoms of the NOs, are already balanced) and 3 © atoms on the right. Step 4. Write down the state symbols - (NH):CO3 9 #ZHNOs aq) > 2NHANO; Gy + COrw * HO 0 ‘Aluminium burns in oxygen to form aluminium oxide. Step 1. Write the word equation- Aluminium + Oxygen —> Aluminium oxide Step 2. Write the formulae - AL + OQ, > — AbLO; Step 3, Balance the number of atoms. There is | Al atom on the left and 2 Al atoms on the right side. This must be balanced by placing a 2 in front of Al. 2AL + 0, > — ALO, There are 2 O atoms on the left side and 3 © atoms on the right side. In this particular case, in order to balance both sides, the 2 © atoms on the left must be multiplied by 1, so that there are 3 © atoms on both sides. 2Al + 140, > — ALO; Since we cannot have half molecules, the equation is multiplied throughout by 2. 4Al + 30, > 2AL0; Step 4. Write the state symbols 4Al 4, + 3O1q@ > 2ALOs 6 Vvwv Now try to work out balanced equations of the following reactions. Sodium Carbonate + Nitric acid -> Sodium Nitrate + Water + Carbon Dioxide Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium Hydroxide > Magnesium Chloride + Water tron (ill) Chloride + Ammonium Hydroxide > tron ({ll) Hydroxide + Ammonium Chloride Nitrogen + Hydrogen > Ammonia Calcium + Water > Calcium Hydroxide + Hydrogen Sodium Hydroxide + Iron (IIl) Chloride > Iron (Ill) Hydroxide + Sodium Chloride Copper (Il) Carbonate + Suifuric Acid > Copper (Il) Sulfate + Water + Carbon Dioxide Sodium Nitrate > Sodium Nitrite + Oxygen Aluminium Nitrate > Aluminium Oxide + Nitrogen Dioxide + Oxygen Question: Change the following word equations into fully balanced chemical equations. State symbols should be included. (Peper iB Moy 2007 - 6 marks) a) Magnesium + hydrochloric acid -> hydrogen + magnesium chloride Grex *) b) iron (It) oxide + hydrogen —> iron + water ©) Copper (ll) oxide + ammonia -> copper + nitrogen + waterAt the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Know the valencies of the most common elements and radicals. 2. Know the rules for naming compounds. 3. Write the formulae of the most common ionic and covalent compounds. 4, Work out the ratios of atoms of individual elements in a compound. 5. Write a balanced equation for a chemical reaction. 6. Write the state symbols after each reagent in a chemical equation. heepiliwww.webgc.org/balance.php eh GHSPM BY peep:/tunbasedlearning com! Web. ~ hetp:liwww.chemistry.co.nzichemequa.htm http:/www.mpcfaculty. net/mark_bishop/balancing_equations_tutorial. htm}Environmental Science 1* Years CHEMICAL EQUATIONS - ANSWERS Work out balanced chemical equations of the following reactions whose word equation is given. State symbols need not be included. Use of the periodic table is allowed to work out formulae. 1. Sodium Carbonate + Nitric Acid > Sodium Nitrate + Water + Carbon Dioxide (5 marks) Na;CO; + 2HNO; > 2NaNO; + H,0 + CO, v . Hydrochloric acid + Magnesium Hydroxide > Magnesium Chloride + Water (4 marks) 2HCI + Mg(OH), > MgCl, + 21,0 - Iron (III) Chloride + Ammonium Hydroxide > Iron (III) Hydroxide + Ammonium Chloride (4 marks) FeCl; + 3NH,OH > Fe(OH); + 3NH,CI 4. Nitrogen + Hydrogen > Ammonia (3 marks) N, + 3H, > 2NH; 5. Calcium + Water > Calcium Hydroxide + Hydrogen (4 marks) Ca + 2H,0 > Ca(OH), + H, 6. Sodium Hydroxide + Iron (III) Chloride -> Iron (III) Hydroxide + Sodium Chloride (4 marks) 3NaOH + FeCl; > Fe(OH); + 3NaClEnvironmental Science 1" Years 7. Copper (If) Carbonate + Sulfuric acid > Copper (Il) Sulfate + Water + Carbon Dioxide (5 marks) CuCO; + H,SO, > CuSO, + H,0 + CO, 8. Sodium Nitrate > Sodium Nitrite + Oxygen (4 marks) 2NaNO; > 2NaNO,; + O2 9, Aluminium Nitrate > Aluminium Oxide + Nitrogen Dioxide + Oxygen (4 marks) 4A\(NO3); > 2AL03; + 12NO, + 30, 10. Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid > Hydrogen + Magnesium Chloride (4 marks) Mg + 2HCIl > H; + MgCh 11.Iron (II) Oxide + Hydrogen > Iron + Water (4 marks) Fe,0; + 3H; > 2Fe + 3H,0 12. Copper (II) Oxide + Ammonia > Copper + Nitrogen + Water (5 marks) 3CuO + 2NH; > 3Cu + N, + 3H,0