816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

Enhanced Gas Recovery by CO2 Injection and Sequestration in Depleted Gas Reservoirs

Abstract

Introduction

Problem Statement
A depleted gas reservoir's gas recovery can be improved with CO2 injection while
simultaneously storing the CO2, according to published research. However, more research is
needed to determine the volume of gas that can be produced by employing CO2 injection. Also,
research shows that depleted gas reservoirs with increased gas recovery offer a substantial
potential for carbon sequestration but have not yet undergone comprehensive field testing.

Project Objectives
This initiative intends to improve the ultimate gas recovery from a mature gas reservoir through
the supercritical CO2 injection procedure. So, this study's objectives include carrying out
sensitivity analysis to pinpoint the best injection parameters and determining the volume of
carbon dioxide that can be held in the reservoir.

Project Scope
The recovery of a depleted gas reservoir is the main focus of this research. The primary tool used
in this work to carry out the reservoir simulation was CMG software. This study focuses on how
various characteristics affect the ultimate gas production. A variety of injection rates should be
modeled and tested for this project. The results and discussion section will discuss the effects.
The reservoir simulation will start with the lowest values of 7.36MPa as its base. Moreover, a
simulation for carbon sequestration will be carried out. A few reservoir pressures are evaluated
for carbon sequestration. An analysis is done regarding the effect on CO2 storage.
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

LITERATURE REVIEW

Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGR)

Abba, Abbas, and Nasar (2017) stated that the concept of enhanced gas recovery by CO2
injection makes use of the reservoir's remaining CH4 and the depleted gas reservoirs' storage
capacity for producing CH4 while simultaneously storing the injected CO2. Injecting carbon
dioxide into gas reservoirs to increase gas recovery, according to Al-Hashami, Ren, and Tohidi
(2005), is a relatively new topic that hasn't been studied as thoroughly as EOR, but has been
gaining attention internationally due to the growing concern about climate change and
greenhouse gas emissions, as stated by Abba, Abbas, and Nasar (2017). According to Kalra and
Wu (2014), the no-thief zone scenario allows for the recovery of an extra 60% or more of the gas
in the depleted reservoir. Yet, due to increased mixing zones in the formation, highly
heterogeneous reservoirs would result in reduced natural gas recovery and will decrease the
proportion of hydrocarbon pore volume of CO2 being sequestered. Abba, Abbas, and Nasar
(2017) claim that mixing contaminates recovered natural gas, lowers its calorific value, and
consequently increases its market value, making it more expensive to maintain natural gas purity
after the process.
According to Amirlatifi et al. (2022), the purity of the injectant and its guaranteed supply
volume have a significant impact on the usage of carbon dioxide in mature reservoirs for increased
oil recovery. Despite the fact that this project is growing, only modest-scale carbon dioxide
enhanced gas recovery operations have been implemented thus far. Additionally, despite almost
ideal reservoir structures, only a limited number of viable enhanced gas recovery projects exist,
at times making the method highly unprofitable, according to Abba, Abbas, and Nasar (2017). To
increase gas production in a mature gas field, the production facilities must be able to manage
high CO2 contents. To avoid natural gas getting trapped in unsweep regions at greater pressures,
CO2 injection operations should begin later in the field's lifetime.
Enhancing gas recovery by carbon dioxide injection is complicated, Oldenburg and Benson
(2001) stated that the high expense of carbon dioxide capture and storage prevents it from
being widely used, but this can be offset by revenue from incremental gas recovery.
Supercritical CO2 has been used in simulated and experimental investigations to repressurize
mature gas reservoirs and improve recovery of natural gas.
The storage of natural gas in the U.S and improved coalbed methane recovery with
carbon dioxide injection were evaluated by Mamora and Seo (2002) to comprehend and simulate
natural gas displacement. By increasing sweep efficiency and repressurizing the reservoir from
depleted/abandoned gas reservoirs, high methane recovery at CO2 breakthrough accounted for
73%–87% of OGIP which exceeds primary recovery of 65% and demonstrated favorable
characteristics for the field. The experiment also revealed that there is little supercritical CO2
dispersion in CH4, which ranges from 0.01 to 0.12 cm2 per minute. Nevertheless, the experiment
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

was only allowed to test carbonate core performance and one-dimensional displacement. Hence,
for a multidimensional reservoir with sandstone formation, the experiment outcomes may vary.
Nevertheless, the experiment was only allowed to test carbonate core performance and one-
dimensional displacement. Hence, for a multidimensional reservoir with sandstone formation,
the experiment outcomes may vary.

CO2 Injection

Amer et al. (2018) demonstrated the carbon dioxide injection method into depleted natural
gas reservoirs that extends the production life and gas recovery as a result. CO2 demonstrates
supercritical conditions in gas reservoirs. Pure CO2 is much denser and more viscous in the
reservoir than pure CH4, which will tend to underride the existing gas and give it buoyancy while
decreasing the tendency of mixing and interfingering. Similarly, Gallo, Couillens, and Manai
(2002) established that the CO2 interacts over a more or less lengthy period of time to enhance
mineral precipitation, also known as mineral trapping, depending on the mineral composition of
the rock and the available organic matter. Furthermore, mineral trapping may occur during CO2
injection depending on the composition of the rock fluid, altering well injectivity. The simulation
of CO2 injection increases the pressure of the reservoir and enhances the recovery of gas to the
maximum level. Clemens and Wit (2002) conducted a similar study to investigate the effects of
CO2 injection on methane recovery, in which five different CO2 injection strategies for a gas
reservoir were investigated. Early CO2 injection did not appear to be a very appealing option for
enhanced gas recovery due to a reduction in cumulative gas production, whereas CO2 injection
after abandonment of the field for conventional gas production achieved the maximum incremental
gas recovery.
Identifying the practicality, risks, and ideal locations for sequestering CO2 in the
subsurface is something that both the private sector and the federal government are concerned
with. Depleted natural gas fields with weak to nonexistent water drive are appealing targets for
carbon sequestration by direct CO2 injection, according to Oldenburg and Benson (2001), because
of their proven records of gas recovery, demonstrated integrity against gas leakage, existing
infrastructure of wells and pipelines, and land use history of gas production and transportation
giving value-added possibility for improved gas recovery making these locations desirable from
an economic standpoint. Also, there are no technological obstacles to carbon dioxide injection,
although there are undoubtedly expenses involved with injecting an extremely corrosive gas like
carbon dioxide. One of the primary goals of this study is to assess any impacts that could arise
from injecting CO2 into a reservoir both during and after it has been done.
As geological carbon storage is not commonly used and CO2 is still a costly commodity,
these two factors—along with the possibility that CO2 injection would overly mix with primary
natural gas—are the main reasons CO2 enhanced gas recovery has never been tried in the field.
The method of injecting and storing CO2 in a gas reservoir will be appealing if it can benefit
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

operators economically. The primary goal of this initiative is to enhance ultimate recovery and
accelerate gas production by injecting CO2 into gas reservoirs.
According to Kheshgi et al. (2006), technologies that capture CO2 from the burning of
fossil fuels and afterwards store it underground could play a crucial role. The expense of CO2
capture with current technology limits its widespread application, but innovation will result in
better performance. CCS entails capturing CO2 from large stationary sources, transporting it to an
appropriate injection site, and injecting it into underground geological formations. Capturing a
CO2-dominated gas stream can be accomplished through separation from produced natural gas or
through flue gases from fossil fuels used in energy or chemical production. Capture in power
generation can be accomplished by separating CO2 from flue-gas with an amine absorbent. Once
captured, the CO2 can be delivered to on-land or offshore geological sites via high pressure
pipelines or tankers. The CO2 can then be injected for storage once on the site. Depleted oil and
gas fields, deep saline aquifers, and coal seams are a few examples of geological storage locations.
Nevertheless, CO2 must be delivered at a great speed to prevent hydrodynamic dispersion
and stop excessive gas mixing. In order to maximize the amount of CO2 pumped into the reservoir,
Oldenburg and Benson (2002) then expanded their model with more accurate reservoir conditions,
including a three-dimensional displacement model. It was concluded that permeability
heterogeneity accelerates breakthrough by forming fast flow paths. However, even in a
substantially heterogeneous system, one can benefit from fast repressurization effects by injecting
CO2 far from CH4 production wells before mass transfer causes CO2 to contaminate produced
gas. Oldenburg and Benson (2002) focused primarily on injecting CO2 into a depleted natural gas
reservoir, despite the fact that not every gas reservoir is depleted. This raises the question of when
EGR must be performed to maximize profitability. Clemens and Wit (2002) investigated the
effects of CO2 injection on methane recovery by assessing different CO2 injection strategies for
an example gas reservoir leading to incremental gas production from –320 to 700 million 𝑚3 (-4.2
% to +9.4 %). The figure below shows a Zero Emission Power plant Concept. Air is separated into
nitrogen and oxygen. The gas field's methane and oxygen are used to generate electricity. The flue
gases are partly recycled to cool the furnace. The CO2 and water-containing exhaust gases are
cooled to facilitate separation. Lastly, CO2 is injected into a gas field while under pressure. Early
CO2 injection was not a desirable alternative for enhanced gas recovery since it had a semi-sealing
defect corresponding to negative sweep efficiency. On the other hand, maximum incremental gas
recovery was achieved for CO2 injection after abandonment of the field for conventional gas
production.
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

Figure 1 shows the Zero Emission Power Plant Schematic by Clemens and Wit (2002)

CO2 Sequestration

Additionally, mature natural gas fields are potential sites for CO2 sequestration through
the direct injection of CO2. Storing CO2 can be accomplished by the injection of supercritical
CO2 into a geological formation capable of permanently trapping it (Oldenburg and Benson,
2002). Storing and injecting carbon dioxide at supercritical conditions allows for greater
geostorage capacity. According to Mamora and Seo (2002), this is because supercritical CO2
concentrations are higher than gaseous CO2 concentrations. As a result, more carbon dioxide is
stored at supercritical conditions compared to that in the form of a gas for a given amount of fluid.
Due to its gas-like and liquid-like density, supercritical CO2 is appropriate since it exhibits both
liquid and gas-like behavior.
At pressures and temperatures above its critical values (7.38MPa and 310 𝐶, respectively),
the supercritical condition of CO2 occurred. Al-Hashami, Ren, and Tohidi (2005) stated that many
gas reserves already have wells and pipelines, making geostorage a low-cost and high-volume
option. Solomon (2006) suggested that the criteria for injection depth and CO2 density can vary.
A single miscible fluid phase composed of both natural gas and CO2 is formed within a gas
reservoir if CO2 is injected into it. Due to their similar storage properties to natural gases, depleted
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

gas reserves at depths of 800-1000 meters can be prospective candidates for intermediate storage
of carbon dioxide.
Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are deemed the most realistic targets in subsurface storage
of carbon dioxide and would be useful in the enhancing of hydrocarbon production since these
reservoirs provide pressure support and displacement of the remaining hydrocarbon in the
reservoir. Furthermore, Depleted reservoirs have the advantages of having a known storage
capacity, proper sealing structures to ensure that storage capacity is maintained, and the ability to
reuse existing infrastructure for storage operations. The utilization of carbon dioxide to reduce
emissions from industrial and industry transformation processes is the most cost-effective
solution available. Amirlatifi et al. (2022) also stated that the need for a suitable trap capable of
containing the injected fluids, adequate storage capacity, and high enough temperature and
pressure to assert supercritical storage of CO2 are crucial factors. The interpretation of
simulation results serves as the foundation for the design of gas-reservoir pilot injection tests.
These findings and conclusions will be employed to develop designs and technical constraints
for a prototype carbon dioxide injection feasibility into a depleted gas reservoir.
Methane (CH4) is still present in the target gas reservoirs for carbon sequestration despite
existing at low pressures. This is due to the reservoirs' capacity to saturate gas while production
occurs and its demonstrated capacity to entrap trap gas therefore preventing subsequent escape
Oldenburg and Benson (2001).

Reservoir Processes

The static pressure and gravity factors will induce the CO2 injection to flow into the
reservoir if there is sufficient permeability. Liquid Carbon dioxide at the wellbore will significantly
increase the cascading effect through the hydrocarbon reservoir because of the high carbon
dioxide density. Carbon dioxide will replace CH4 in the gas reservoir and repressurize it
because of gravity displacement and the fact that it is denser than methane at all pertinent
pressures.
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

Figure 2 depicts the density of Carbon Dioxide and Methane versus pressure for varying temperatures Vargaftik et al.
(1996).

Furthermore, the flow of carbon dioxide tends to flow down due to density effects, which can be
used in carbon sequestration to improve gas recovery by injecting carbon dioxide at a lower
layer of the reservoir and producing methane at the upper layer as this is done to prevent
excessive water coning. The injecting and producing wells would be controlled effectively and
observed during the simulation in order to establish the best recovery for the depleted gas
reservoir. A mature gas reservoir will be injected with CO2 in a simulation.

Computer Modeling Group (CMG)

The Computer Modeling Group (CMG) tool has all aspects that you can expect from a full field
compositional simulator (Amer et al., 2018). It has been acknowledged that using the reservoir
simulation software CMG is an effective approach of comprehending and maybe resolving these
issues that come up in this study. Reservoir simulation is based on well-known equations and
procedures from reservoir engineering, which the reservoir engineer has been employing for a
very long time. Simulating a process typically involves representing it via a theoretical or
physical model. The creation and application of models that explain reservoir performance
under diverse operating conditions are of relevance to us. CMG software can be utilized for
numerical modeling and simulation, according to Amer et al. (2018). GEM Simulator, a
comprehensive equation of state compositional reservoir simulator with cutting-edge capabilities
for simulating recovery processes where the composition affects the recovery, can be used to
conduct the simulation process. GEM can be used to forecast reservoir performance and
assess the accuracy of such predictions.
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

Methodology

Research Methodology

The feasibility analysis of the reservoir is intended to exceed the depth of 2600 feet for the
research of enhanced gas recovery. The phase diagram for CO2 in Figure 3 below
demonstrates that supercritical conditions will predominate in a conventional gas reservoir.

Figure 3 demonstrates CO2 phase diagram and initial reservoir conditions Lau, Zhao, and Lau (2017).

For the reservoir simulation, a starting scenario with 310 𝐶 and a pressure of 7.36MPa should be
chosen. This is performed to guarantee that the carbon dioxide is being injected at supercritical
conditions.

The following phase, as illustrated in the picture below, can be used to summarize the approach
being used to assess and complete the project:
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

INITIAL STUDY

PLANNING OF PROJECT

LITERATURE REVIEW

CHARACTERIZATION OF BASE RESERVOIR

MODEL

RESERVOIR SIMULATION

COMPOSITIONAL MODEL PREPARATION

UTILIZING SOFTWARE TO RUN

COMPOSITIONAL SIMULATION

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION

Figure 4 displays the workflow of the methodology for this research.

816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

RESERVOIR SIMULATION

The Compositional Model was simulated using GEM as a tool. In this study, CO2 will be injected
to enhance the gas recovery into a 3D homogeneous model. In order to improve the gas
recovery in a 3D homogenous model, Carbon dioxide will be injected in this study. The base
model will then be modified in order to examine how the simulator responds when carbon
dioxide injection rates are varied and the effect of reservoir pressure on storage of CO2.
The main tasks of the simulation are to investigate the potential of CO2 Enhanced Gas
Recovery (EGR) and storage. It is advisable to use Didger to digitize structure maps. The
structure maps can then be griddled using Builder. By entering reservoir properties, the full
equation of state compositional reservoir simulator GEM can be utilized to simulate the
compositional model. A Winprop model should be created utilizing the composition of natural
gas in order to simulate PVT data. The Winprop model and other fluid data should be entered
into Builder. Pure CO2 is required to be injected into a homogenous 3D model to improve
natural gas recovery. To get relative permeability correlations, the table requires exponents and
saturations. The original oil in place for the reservoir would then be calculated using the initial
circumstances that were inserted. To establish how the simulators would respond, the reservoir
pressure and injection rate effects on CO2 storage should be adjusted. A pair of injector and
producer wells would be appropriately placed at the corners opposite to each other. The injector
well would then be perforated in the bottom layers while the production well would be at the top
layer to take into account gravity effect. The porosity of the reservoir should be determined from
well logs or core data as well as permeability which can be determined from pressure transient
analysis test or core data.

Compositional
Modeling

Base Case
Homogeneous

The effect of CO2 The effect of

injection rate reservoir pressure
Figure 5 shows the Modeling Flowchart
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

PROJECT ACTIVITIES
(Yossof 2013)
The literature review and involvement in the reservoir simulation were both crucial to the
project's objectives. Published articles and online publications from the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) are the primary resources utilized for the development of this study. The main
tool to be used for this project's numerical modeling and simulation is Computer Modelling
Group (CMG) software.

The following table explains the steps that were done throughout each phase of the research
methodology:

Figure 6 displays the activities that lead to the completion of this study.

Figure 7 displays the Gantt Chart

816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

Results and data analysis

Discussion

Conclusion

Recommendations

References
Abba, M K, A J Abbas, and G G Nasar. 2017. "Enhanced Gas Recovery by CO2 Injection and
Sequestration: Effect of Connate Water Salinity on Displacement Efficiency." Society of
Petroleum Engineers.
Abba, Muhammad Kabir, Abbubakar Jibrin Abbas, Athari Al-Otaibi, and Ghasem Ghavami Nasr.
2018. "Enhanced Gas Recovery by CO2 Injection and Sequestration: Effects of
Temperature, Vertical and Horizontal Orientations on Dispersion Coefficient." Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal. https://watermark.silverchair.com/spe-192699-
ms.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAvw
wggL4BgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggLpMIIC5QIBADCCAt4GCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZ
QMEAS4wEQQM0sbrFMT4K48A5D-
JAgEQgIICr1Ri4nBeMlZSzgRDja5MK7XfUg8QJIrMKgrCWQdKOf.
Al-Hashami, A, S R Ren, and B Tohidi. 2005. "Co2 Injection for Enhanced Gas Recovery and
Geo-Storage: Reservoir Simulation and Economics." Society of Petroleum Engineers
Journal.
Amer, Muhammad Attique, Shahid Ghazi, Shahid Ali, Tehseen Zafar, and Muhammad Riaz.
2018. "Enhanced Gas Recovery by CO2 Injection Method in Depleted Gas Reservoirs."
Archives of Petroleum & Environmental Biotechnology.
https://www.gavinpublishers.com/article/view/enhanced-gas-recovery-by-co2-injection-
method-in-depleted-gas-
reservoirs#:~:text=CO2%20injection%20will%20increase,2%20injected%20for%20EGR
%20purpose.
Amirlatifi, Amin, Adriana Ovalle, Somayeh Bakhtiari Ramezani, Ibrahim Mohamed, and Omar
Abou-Sayed. 2022. "General Considerations for the Use of Offshore Depleted
Reservoirs for CO2 Sequestration." Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal.
https://watermark.silverchair.com/spe-210059-
ms.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAvw
wggL4BgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggLpMIIC5QIBADCCAt4GCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZ
816012749 PENG6023 Research Methods

QMEAS4wEQQMerfPWzNaQEXoUoTGAgEQgIICr459tfEZNWf1hfMQOS4G7ZVnh6Aw
8odQdfVpID36be.
Clemens, Torsten, and Krijn Wit. 2002. "CO2 Enhanced Gas Recovery Studied for an Example
Gas Reservoir." Society of Petroleum Engineer Journals.
Gallo, Yann Le, Phillippe Couillens, and Taoufik Manai. 2002. "CO2 Sequestration in Depleted
Oil or Gas Reservoirs." Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal.
Kalra, Sumeer, and Xingru Wu. 2014. "CO2 Injection for Enhanced Gas Recovery." Society of
Petroleum Engineers Journal.
Kheshgi, H, F Cappelen, A Lee, S Crookshank, A Heilbrunn, T Mikus, W Robson, B Senior, T
Stileman, and L Warren. 2006. "Carbon Dioxide Capture and Geological Storage:
Contributing to Climate Change Solutions." SPE 98583.
Lau, Hon Chung, Chaobin Zhao, and Samuel W Lau. 2017. "Coalbed Methane Recovery by
Injection of Hot Carbon Dioxide." Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal.
Mamora, D D, and J G Seo. 2002. "Enhanced Gas Recovery by Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
in Depleted Gas Reservoirs." Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal.
Oldenburg, C M, and S M Benson. 2001. "Carbon Sequestration with Enhanced Gas Recovery:
Identifying Candidate Sites for Pilot Study." Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.
https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/821005.
Oldenburg, Curtis M, and Sally M Benson. 2002. "CO2 Injection for Enhanced Gas Production
and Carbon Sequestration." Society of Petroleum Engineers Journal.
Solomon, Semere. 2006. "Criteria for Intermediate Storage of Carbon Dioxide in Geological
Formations." The Bellona Foundation.
Yossof, Sarah Adiba Binti Mohammed. 2013. "Simulation of CO2 Injection in Gas Reservoir
Using ECLIPSE."

Appendix