ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732

www.elsevier.com/locate/ergon

Physiological responses and performance of loading work in a severely

cold environment
T.G. Kima,, Y. Tochiharab,1, M. Fujitac,2, N. Hashiguchib,3
a
Technology R&D Team, Korea Sewing Technology Institute, 20-11 Nowondong-3ga, Buk-Gu, Daegu-city 702-813, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Ergonomics, Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
c
Department of Physiology and Biochemistry, School of Nursing, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
Received 8 December 2005; received in revised form 22 March 2007; accepted 11 May 2007
Available online 12 July 2007

Abstract

Human physiological responses and manual performance were measured during loading work in a severely cold environment. Eight
male students wearing standard cold-protective clothing (3.4 Clo) occupied a 20 1C room for 20 min, and were then transferred to an
extremely cold room (25 1C) for 30 min. This pattern of exposure was repeated three times, for a total time of exposure to extreme cold
of 90 min. In the cold room, the subjects transported 9 kg goods (Condition R1) and 18 kg goods (Condition R2) for 10 min, and
performed no work (Condition C).
At the end of the cold exposure rectal, mean skin and mean body temperatures in Conditions R2 and R1 were higher than in Condition
C. Cold stress declined due to an increase in heat production during work as observed when the subjects noted ‘less cold sensation’ with
loading work. Furthermore, increase in noradrenalin level in plasma was depressed according to the increase in work. On the contrary,
finger skin temperature did not change. Moreover, the precision of manual work decreased as the weight of the load increased.
Relevance to industry

The results of this study are pertinent to all industries involving performance of manual loading work in cold storage environments.
Since productivity, safety and efficiency in the workplace are directly related to the worker’s performance, it is important to consider how
cold exposure and varying work loads affect the worker’s physiologic response.
r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cold-protective clothing; Manual performance; Cold stress; Pain sensation; Lading work

1. Introduction to be taken for their safety must be designed to prevent

There has been an increase in the number of artificial
environments which do not comply with human physiolo-
gical and hygienic needs. Typically, workers in a cold
storage warehouse are exposed to cold environments which
result in extreme cooling of the body. The primary action
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 53 608 5588; fax: +82 53 608 5550.
E-mail addresses: ktg413@korea.com (T.G. Kim),
tochi@design.kyushu-u.ac.jp (Y. Tochihara),
fujita@faculty.chiba-u.jp (M. Fujita),
n-hashi@design.kyushu-u.ac.jp (N. Hashiguchi).
1
Tel.: +81 92 553 4522; fax: +81 92 553 4302.
2
Tel.: +81 43 226 2402; fax: +81 43 226 2403.
3
Tel.: +81 92 553 4522; fax: +81 92 553 4302.
their whole body or local areas of the body from being
exposed to severe cold. To that end, it is necessary to
encourage cold storage workers to wear cold-protective
clothing, to reduce their time exposed to cold, to equip
their resting rooms with a heating system, and to allow
them to have proper rest after working in cold storage.
Nevertheless, they have to enter and stay inside a cold
storage warehouse at 25 to 50 1C several times a day to
load and unload, carry, arrange, and inspect cold storage
products (Tochihara et al., 1979). As a result, they
complain of health problems in their circulatory functions
resulting from their exposure to severe cold environments
(Tochihara et al., 1979; Tochihara and Ohnaka, 1995;
Ozaki et al., 2001). In addition, due to the weight of

0169-8141/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2007.05.009
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
726 T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732
general storage products—approximately 10–20 kg—many
workers complain of muscular pain (Tochihara, 1986). To
investigate the potential hazardous effects of the cold
working environment on the workers, particularly on
health and work efficiency, surveys (Tochihara et al.,
1979; Tochihara, 1986) and experiments involving cold
exposure while at rest have been conducted (Tanaka et al.,
1983; Tochihara et al., 1993, 1995). However, data from
evaluation and observation of actual work performance in
cold storage warehouses are still limited.
Recently, a shift towards automation in warehouses has
been observed. However, the construction of the already
existing warehouses will still need manual labor in handling
stocks to and from the boxes which are placed in racks
along with the other boxes. Furthermore, the space design
of the current warehouses would still require manpower to
maneuver in narrow spaces in getting or placing stocks and
during inventory work. Cold storage warehouse workers
spend most of their time transferring and stacking cargo to
and from fork-lift trucks and conveyor belts (Tochihara
et al., 1990). They have to perform both fork-lift truck
driving task and loading work task. Thus, workers in cold
storage warehouses are not only exposed to extremely cold
conditions but also to significant physical stress from
loading work and machine operation. However, there have
only been a handful of researches aimed at further
understanding the complex work in extremely cold
environments. Therefore, the present study set out to
evaluate the effects of repetitive handling of heavy goods
on manual performance and workers physiological re-
sponse in an extremely cold environment.
2. Methods
2.1. Subjects and clothing
A group of eight healthy male students volunteered as
subjects. All were university students, and all gave their
informed consent following a detailed orientation. The
mean (standard error of the mean, SEM) of age, height,
body mass, and body surface area were 23.1(0.8),
167.7(1.9) cm, 59.2(1.7) kg, and 1.73(0.03) m2, respectively.
All subjects were dressed in trunks (86 g), long under-
pants (563 g), a long-sleeved shirt (304 g), socks (60 g), a
pair of gloves (118 g), a hood (195 g), cold-protective
trousers (888 g), and a cold-protective jacket (1227 g). The
total clothing mass was 3.491 kg, and the total insulation
value estimated from this mass was about 3.4 Clo. The
subjects also wore cold-protective boots (1293 g).
2.2. Procedure
After resting in a room at a thermoneutral air
temperature (20 1C) for 20 min, the subjects entered a
room with an air temperature set at 25 1C for 30 min. The
subjects remained seated for 10 min, then performed
loading work for 10 min (Condition C: control without
work, Condition R1: 9 kg loading, and Condition R2: 18 kg
loading), and then sat for 10 min again. This pattern was
repeated three times, for a total time of exposure to
extreme cold of 90 min. The last set was followed by a
20 min recovery time at a temperature of 20 1C as the final
procedure. The total time of the experiment was 170 min.
Each subject participated in all three conditions, randomly.
Subjects underwent one condition per day with an interval
of 3 days in between conditions. Simulation of loading
work was conducted in a thermal chamber.
The relative humidity and air velocity in all rooms were
kept at 50% and 0.2 m/s, respectively. The subjects were
not permitted to eat and drink 2 h before the experiment.
2.3. Experimental work
The work in this study simulated conveyance of goods
from shelf to conveyor or fork lift. The work factors were
as follows:
 Weight of goods loaded (none, 9 or 18 kg).
 Size of goods loaded (530  366  320 mm3, Fig. 1A).
 Distance goods were lifted (770 mm, from the floor to
hand level).
 Distance goods were carried (1000 mm diagonal path,
measured from the center of point x to the center of
point y, with the starting position and ending position at
right angles to one another; Fig. 1B).
 Frequency of loading (10 reciprocating motion/min,
operating for 10 min).
2.4. Physiological and subjective measurements
Rectal temperature (Tre) was recorded using a thermistor
probe inserted in the rectum to a depth of 120 mm. Skin
temperatures at the forehead, cheek, chest, abdomen, back,
forearm, hand, thigh, leg, foot, finger, and toe were
measured. The mean skin temperature (T̄ sk ) was calculated
according to the following equation (Teichner, 1958):
T̄ sk ¼ 0:07T forehead þ 0:175T chest þ 0:175T back þ 0:14T forearm
þ 0:05T hand þ 0:19T thigh þ 0:13T leg þ 0:07T foot .
530mm
366mm
x
320mm
770mm
1000mm
y
Fig. 1. Diagram of the experimental set-up showing the position of the
worker with respect to the load and the movement from point x to point y
(A) and the dimensions of the load (B).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732 727

Tre and T̄ sk were measured every minute during the 0 # ## ##

experiment (LT-8A; Gram Co., Tokyo, Japan). Mean body A * ** * **

Rectal temperature ( )
temperature (T̄ b ) was calculated from Tre and T̄ sk . The
weight ratio of 2:1 for Tre:T̄ sk was adopted (Ozaki et al.,
1998).
Oxygen consumption (VO2) was determined by collect- –1
ing expired air into a Douglas bag over a 5-min period +
time : p < 0.01 +
during each rest period at a 20 1C room, and during each
condition : p < 0.01 C
cold exposure (25 1C) loading work period. Expired air condition* time : p < 0.01 R1
was analyzed for CO2 and O2 by an expired-gas monitor R2
(Minato, AE-300s, Tokyo) and volume was determined by 20
Ex
20
Ex
20
Ex
20
-25 -25 -25
a wet-gas meter (Shinagawa NWK-10A, Tokyo). Perfor- –2
mance in the counting task measured and thermal comfort
and pain sensations were recorded several times during the B
##

Mean Skin temperature ( )

experiment. The manual performance test consisted of a
1
counting task using a circular hand tally counter held by * * ** *
the subject in one hand (Tanaka et al., 1983). The subjects 0
were asked to push the button on the counter with the
thumb as quickly as possible for 15 s. The number of times ###
–1
the button was pushed is reflected on the counter and was
then recorded manually. The subjects performed the –2
time : p < 0.01
counting task three times in the 20 1C room and four times condition : p < 0.05
in the 25 1C room for a total of 24 times. Prior to the –3 condition* time : p < 0.01
experiment, the subjects emptied their bladders completely 20
Ex
-25 20
Ex
-25 20
Ex
-25 20
and performed no physical activity. Blood samples were –4
taken before and after the experiment, noradrenalin was 1
C
Mean Body Temperature ( )

analyzed. # ##
* ** ** *
2.5. Statistical analysis 0

Each item of measurement was repeatedly analyzed as a

–1
dual distribution placed under factors of working condi-
tion (three conditions) and time. The parameters were + +
time : p < 0.01
measured at different times. The mean values of Tre, T̄ sk , –2 condition : p < 0.05
T̄ b , Tforehead, Tchest, Tback, Tforearm, Thand, Tthigh, Tleg and condition* time : p < 0.01
Tfoot, were obtained for every 5 min from 0 to 170th min. Ex Ex Ex
20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20
VO2 values were obtained once every period at 10, 35, 60, –3
85, 110, 135 and 160 min. Values of noradrenalin were 20 50 70 100 120 150 170
measured twice. Values of counting task, thermal comfort, Time (min)
and pain sensations were obtained each period two–three Fig. 2. Changes in D rectal temperature (A), D mean skin temperature (B)
times, except during exercise period, for a total of 24 times. and D mean body temperature (C). po0.01 and po0.05 indicate
When a significant main effect or interaction in distribution significant main effect (time or condition) and interaction with ANOVA.
*
analysis was obtained, post hoc Turkey honestly significant C significantly (po0.05) different from R1, **C significantly (po0.01)
different from R1, #C significantly (po0.05) different from R2, ##C
difference (HSD) test was used over the comparisons significantly (po0.01) different from R2, +R1 significantly (po0.05)
between conditions over time. Results were considered different from R2, and ++R1 significantly (po0.01) different from R2.
statistically significant at po0.05. All of the results in
connection with physiological responses were expressed as
means7SEM
significant difference in average rectal temperatures among
3. Results the conditions (37.370.1 1C). The final rectal temperature
was 1.1 1C lower under Condition C, 0.8 1C under
3.1. Rectal, mean skin, and mean body temperatures Condition R1, and 0.6 1C under Condition R2. Significant
differences in the rectal temperature among the conditions
As soon as the experiment began, the average rectal were observed in the following occasions: after 55 min of
temperature of eight subjects started decreasing and kept the experiment, between Conditions C and R2; after
falling until the experiment was completed (po0.01, 100 min of the experiment, between Conditions C and
Fig. 2A). When the experiment started, there was no R1; and after 160 and 170 min of the experiment, between
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
728 T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732

Conditions R1 and R2 (po0.05). Overall, rectal tempera- Mean body temperature started from 35.5 1C, but
ture was highest for Condition R2, followed by R1, then C. Condition C fell to 34.6670.08 1C, Condition R1 fell to
After entering the experimental environment, the mean 34.9070.19 1C, Condition R2 fell to 34.9070.19 1C at the
skin temperature continued to decrease, and the difference end, and Condition R2 was higher than any other
between conditions was significant (po0.01, Fig. 2B). conditions (po0.01, Fig. 2C).
When the experiment began, there was no significant
difference in mean skin temperature among the conditions 3.2. Local skin temperatures
(32.370.21C). The mean skin temperature rose under the
three conditions until the first cold environment, but after Among the local skin temperatures, the abdomen and
that, while going in and out of the cold environment, the chest temperature were higher under Condition C than
temperature repeatedly showed a sudden change of an under any other conditions (po0.05). In addition, after the
average of 3 1C. When the subjects left the last cold subjects entered the cold environment, the leg temperature
environment (after 150 min of the experiment), their mean decreased rapidly. There were slight differences along the
skin temperature was 29.5–30.0 1C. Significant differences extremities (the second finger and second toe) but these
in the mean skin temperature between conditions occurred were not significant. The results for each local skin
in the following cases: After 45 min of the experiment, temperature according to time elapsed are shown in Fig. 3.
between Conditions C and R2 (po0.01); and after 90 min In the case of chest skin temperature (Fig. 3A), C was the
of the experiment, between Conditions C and R1 (po0.05). highest during the loading work period with repeated
However, there was no significant difference between cold exposure (po0.01), but there were no significant
Conditions R1 and R2. differences between Conditions R1 and R2. Abdominal

35
time : p < 0.01 35
Abdomen skin temperature ( )

condition* time : p < 0.05

Chest skin temperature ( )

## # ** ##
34
**
* 34
**
33
*
* 33
**
32 *
time : p < 0.01
32 condition : p < 0.01
31
condition* time : p < 0.01
Ex Ex Ex Ex Ex Ex
20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20 20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20

34 # ## 34 ## # ## # # #
** * **
Forearm skin temperature ( )
Leg skin temperature ( )

33 ** * ** ** *

32
32

31
30
30
time : p < 0.01 29
28 condition* time : p < 0.01 time : p < 0.01
condition* time : p < 0.01
+ ++ + ++ + 28
Ex Ex Ex Ex Ex Ex
20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20 20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20
35
)

30 time : p < 0.01 30

Finger skin temperature (

time : p < 0.01

)
Toe skin temperature (

25 25 C
20 R1
20 R2
15
15
10

5 10
Ex Ex Ex Ex Ex Ex
20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20 20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20
0 5
20 50 70 100 120 150 170 20 50 70 100 120 150 170
Time (min) Time (min)

Fig. 3. Changes in chest (A), abdomen (B), leg (C), forearm (D), finger (E), and toe (F) local skin temperature. po0.01 and po0.05 indicate significant
main effect (time or condition) and interaction with ANOVA. *C significantly (po0.05) different from R1, **C significantly (po0.01) different from R1,
#
C significantly (po0.05) different from R2, ##C significantly (po0.01) different from R2, +R1 significantly (po0.05) different from R2, and ++R1
significantly (po0.01) different from R2.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732 729

skin temperature showed the smallest (32–34 1C) range 14 ##

++ ## C
of temperature change among all skin temperatures ++
throughout the experiment. Condition C did not show 12 ## R1
any significant temperature decline even with repeated cold ++ R2
10
exposures, and remained near 34 1C until the end of the

VO2 (ml/kg/min)
time : p < 0.01
experiment. This was higher than the other two conditions 8 condition : p < 0.01
(po0.01, Fig. 3B). condition* time : p < 0.01
In the case of leg skin temperature, Condition C 6
maintained a lower temperature compared to the other
two conditions from the 30-min mark: the end of the first 4
cold exposure loading work (po0.01, Fig. 3C). In the last
cold exposure, which showed the lowest temperature, 2
Ex Ex Ex
Condition R2 was 30.6370.30 1C, Conditions R1 was 20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20
0
29.6070.52 1C, and C was 27.8070.33 1C. R2 was highest 20 50 70 100 120 150 170
among all the conditions (po0.01). In the case of forearm Time (min)
skin temperature (Fig. 3D), Condition C showed contin-
uous decline with repeated cold exposures, and Conditions Fig. 4. Changes in oxygen consumption (VO2). po0.01 indicates
significant main effect (time or condition) and interaction with ANOVA.
R1 and R2 showed a rise for 10 min during the loading ##
C significantly (po0.01) different from R2 and ++R1 significantly
work period. Thirty minutes after the experiment started, (po0.01) different from R2.
Condition C showed a pattern of decline and rise at a lower
temperature range than the two other groups (po0.01).
Condition C was 28.3270.29 1C, R1 was 29.6470.55 1C, 0.8
and R2 was 29.60761 1C at the end of the third cold Before After
exposure, 150 min after the start of the experiment. 0.7
Finger skin temperature showed the most drastic time : p < 0.05
differences in decline and rise among local skin tempera- 0.6 condition: p < 0.01
tures (Fig. 3E). In all three conditions, a decrease of about condition * time : p < 0.01
Noradrenalin (ng/mL)

10 1C was observed after each cold exposure. At the 0.5

150 min mark, after the last cold exposure, Condition C
was 8.5970.91 1C, R1 was 9.8071.26 1C, and R2 was 0.4
9.8870.72 1C. Condition R2 showed a slightly higher
distribution for the third period and recovery in the 20 1C 0.3
environment, but every condition showed the same
tendency during each cold exposure. Thus, there were no 0.2
significant differences among all three conditions.
0.1
In the case of toe skin temperature (Fig. 3F), every
condition was 27–29 1C at the start and 12.5–14.5 1C at the
0
end of the experiment. There were no significant differences C R1 R2
among the conditions. There was some slowdown of
temperature decline during loading work and in the 20 1C * p < 0.05
environment.
*
3.3. Oxygen consumption and noradrenalin *
Change of Noradrenalin (ng/mL)

Fig. 4 shows rates of oxygen consumption (VO2). 0.3

Condition R2 recorded the highest VO2 consumption at
all loading work periods (po0.01). However, there was no
significant difference between Conditions R1 and R2. 0.2
After the experiment, noradrenalin increased (po0.01,
Fig. 5A) in all conditions. The amount of the increase
0.1
was highest in Condition C at 0.4270.13 ng/mL. There
was a slight increase in R1 at 0.3170.06 ng/mL and in R2
at 0.2970.09 ng/mL. The amount of increase in noradre- 0.0
nalin before and after the experiment was significantly C R1 R2
different in each condition. Furthermore, significant Fig. 5. Before and after plasma concentration levels (A), and change in
difference in the amount of change in noradrenalin plasma concentration of noradrenalin before and after the experiment (B).
levels was also observed between C and R1 (po0.05, *Significant difference between conditions (po0.05).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
730 T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732

Fig. 5B), and between C and R2 (po0.05, Fig. 5B). 3.5. Subjective responses
However, no significant difference was observed bet-
ween Conditions R1 and R2. Level of noradrenalin is Fig. 7 shows the results for changes in whole body
affected by exposure to cold environments and has been thermal sensation and finger pain sensation, all according
observed to increase due to cold stress (Jurankova et al., to the elapsed time. In the case of whole body thermal
1995). sensation (Fig. 7A), responses indicating a difference
among the conditions occurred only during loading work,
3.4. Counting task Condition R2 being the highest followed by R1 and then C,
at 35, 85, and 135 min. There was a significant difference
The results of the counting task during the experiment between Conditions R2 and C at 35 min (po0.05).
were presented as a percentage of the pre-cold exposure In the case of finger pain sensation (Fig. 7B), Condition
control value, as shown in Fig. 6. There were significant C showed the lowest value distribution, but there were no
decreases in task performance over time under the three significant differences among the conditions.
conditions (po0.01). At the end of the cold exposure
(150 min), average counting task result were highest in 4. Discussion
Condition C at 78.4% (59.3 counts/15 s), followed by R2 at
70.8% (53.3 counts/15 s), and R1 at 63.6% (49.8 counts/ There have been studies of exposure to cold environ-
15 s). There was a significant difference between Conditions ments and the risks of low temperatures (CDC, 2003), but
C and R1 (po0.05). there are currently no available studies on human physical

110

100

90
*
Count value (%)

80

70

60 C
time : p < 0.01
R1
50 condition* time : p < 0.01
R2
40
Ex Ex Ex
20 -25 20 -25 20 -25 20
30
20 50 70 100 120 150 170
Time (min)

Fig. 6. Changes in counting task value. po0.01 indicates significant main effect of time and interaction with ANOVA. *C significantly (po0.05) different
from R1.
extreme
very

8
hot

pain

time : p < 0.01 C 10

6 condition* time : p < 0.01 R1 9 time : p < 0.01
4 R2 8
2 7
0 # 6
–2 5
4
–4
3
very very

no pain

–6 2
cold

–8 20
Ex
20
Ex
20
Ex
20 1 20 Ex 20 Ex 20 Ex 20
-25 -25 -25 -25 -25 -25
–10 0
20 50 70 100 120 150 170 20 50 70 100 120 150 170
Time (min) Time (min)

Fig. 7. Changes in whole body thermal sensation (A) and finger pain sensation (B). po0.01 and po0.05 indicate significant main effect (time or condition)
and interaction with ANOVA. #C significantly (po0.05) different from R2. Subjective sensations as references: thermal sensation (8: very hot; 6: hot; 4:
warm, 2; slightly warm; 0: neutral, 2: slightly cool; 4: cool; 6: cold; 8: very cold; 10: very very cold); pain sensation (0: no pain; 2: mild pain; 4:
moderate pain; 6: considerable pain; 8: severe pain; 10: extreme pain).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732
responses to repeated work with heavy manual loading
during repeated cold exposures. The present study exam-
ined the responses of rectal temperature, skin temperature,
manual performance, and noradrenalin according to the
delivery of different weights of sample cold storage
products.
Subjects wore protective clothing, and the lowest core
temperature remained over 36 1C under every condition.
There was a significant difference among conditions in the
case of rectal, mean skin, and mean body temperatures
(Fig. 2). In the case of repeated cold exposure, the results
showed a slowdown of temperature decline as weight of the
load increased. That is, the decline in temperature was
smallest under Condition R2, which had the heaviest
loading work, followed by Condition R1 (lighter loading
work), and then C (no loading work). With the increase in
these body temperatures, the subjects during Conditions
R1 and R2 did not complain than Condition C (Fig. 7A).
Noradrenalin increased after exposure to cold, but the
amount of increase became smaller as the weight of the
load increased (Fig. 5). This result is the opposite of the
phenomenon observed with loading work in a normal
temperature environment wherein noradrenalin is expected
to increase (Tom et al., 2000). The reason could be that the
stress of work at 25 1C temperature declined according to
the increase in heat production resulting from loading
work (Fig. 4), and so some degree of loading work could
reduce production of noradrenalin under an extremely cold
environment. It has been shown that the rise of blood
pressure slows as loading work becomes heavier, and the
rise of noradrenalin also slows down. The present research
confirmed these results of a study by Jurankova et al.
(1995) which showed noradrenalin in the constituent part
of blood increases in a cold environment due to cold stress.
Since the effect of cold stress declined due to the increase of
heat production during work, the density of noradrenalin
in plasma was seen to decrease according to the increase
in work.
In this study, chest and abdomen skin temperature under
Condition C, which did not involve any loading work, were
higher than the other conditions (Fig. 3A and B). This
phenomenon probably arose from the effect of forced
convection by body movement during loading work, which
facilitated skin temperature decline. This is particularly
relevant for the temperature decline in the fore torso
(abdomen and chest) and thigh, which, although heated by
protective clothing, were subject to an inflow of cold air
through the lower part of the protective jacket during
loading work.
There were significant differences in forearm and leg skin
temperatures among the three conditions (Fig. 3C and D).
The decrease in skin temperatures was greater with higher
work load. Heat production by performing work might
increase the limb skin temperatures.
On the other hand, the results reveal that increasing
the work load has no significant effects on the periphery
(Fig. 3E and F). Moving out towards the peripheral body
731
area, the effect of varying work loads in the cold
environment on finger and toe skin temperature was less
profound as compared to the higher and more central
body parts.
At peripheral skin temperature less than 16 1C, finger
dexterity decreases (Gaydos and Dusek, 1958; Havenith et
al., 1995). Similarly, in this study, the results show that the
lower the drop in the finger skin temperature, the greater
the decrement in the counting value. Reductions of count
value for Condition C were smaller than for Conditions R1
and R2 (Fig. 6).
In addition, Tanaka et al. (1983) reported that the
decline in manual performance in a cold warehouse is
affected by mean body temperature. Ozaki et al. (2001) also
reported though that the decline is related more to the
decline of mean body temperature than finger temperature.
Fig. 8 shows the direct linear relationship between counting
value and mean body temperature with the varying weight
of the work load under the three conditions. Significant
differences in the slope of counting value vs. mean body
temperature (F(2,68) ¼ 22.26, po0.01) showed a steeper
slope for Conditions R2 and R1 than Condition C. When
the mean body temperature decreased to 34 1C, counting
value for Conditions R1 and R2 was about 70%. However,
counting value for Condition C was 80%. The increase in
mean body temperature was not able to minimize the
decrease in the counting values. The study by Oksa et al.
(2002) showed similar results which elucidate how repeti-
tive work and cold exposure is more harmful when
combined than when either factor is alone.
The reason why manual performance was impaired more
by the loading work is not clear. However, early onset of
fatigue due to increased agonist–antagonist muscle pairs
(Oksa et al., 1998), increase in finger synovial fluid viscosity
by loading work (Hunter et al., 1952) and impaired sensory
integration between the fingers (Cain and McLellan, 1998)
would explain these phenomena.
110
100
Counting value (%)
90
80
70
C y = 11.383x – 305.4 r = 0.93 (p < 0.01)
60 R1 y = 20.629x – 636.3 r = 0.92 (p < 0.01)
R2 y = 19.748x – 606.3 r = 0.89 (p < 0.01)
50
33.5 34 34.5 35 35.5 36 36.5
Mean body temperature ( )
Fig. 8. Relationships between counting value and mean body temperature
under the three conditions.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
732 T.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 37 (2007) 725–732
It is concluded that workers who did loading work
(Conditions R1 and R2) were more likely to feel less
cold sensation of the whole body by increase in mean
body temperature. However, finger pain sensation and
finger skin temperature were not changed, and manual
performance in cold environment was impaired by the
loading work.
In lieu of the adverse effect of the cold environment on
manual performance as elucidated in this research, the use
of ergonomic personal protective equipments, particularly
for the hand and torso, and proper work–rest cycle are
necessary for both health and safety reasons of the worker.
However, while the immediate solution is the use of
thermal protective gloves, further development is needed in
terms of design and engineering of cold-protective equip-
ment for the hand and body which can effectively maintain
the heat from the hands and minimize decrease in finger
skin temperature while maintaining dexterity and allowing
sufficient mobility.
On the other hand, planning of the work–rest period of
workers in the cold industry also demands equal attention
in terms of additional research in order to minimize the
negative effect of cold stress on dexterity and manual
performance. Works in cold warehouses are varied and the
physical load is dependent on several factors such as the
weight of the goods carried. Thus, planning and organiza-
tion of the work–rest cycle may be different for varied
groups of cold storage workers. Work which involves
lifting of heavier work loads, for example, is suggested to
have shorter work periods. It is recommended though that
further investigation be conducted to understand what
duration of the work–rest period is effective in minimizing
thermal stress on the hand and digits.
5. Conclusions
The findings of the study reveal that with loading work
in a cold environment, mean body temperature increases,
thus making the subjects feel less cold. The finger skin
temperature did not show any adequate changes due to the
loading work. Moreover, loading work in severely cold
environments for prolonged periods leads to a reduction in
manual dexterity. Reduced manual dexterity may decrease
work efficiency and productivity; and increases the risk for
accidents in cold work environments. Furthermore, this
health and safety risk of manual workers in the cold
storage warehouse industry may even be increased without
adequate personal protective equipment, and properly
spaced and timed work–rest periods. Thus, it is necessary
to address the importance of having adequate personal
protective equipment, especially for the hand and torso,
and having an effective work–rest period.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the
patients and staff members for their cooperation. The
authors wish to acknowledge research grants from the
Grant-in-Aid for 21st Century COE program, a Grant-in-
Aid for Scientific Research (16107006) and the Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science Fellowship for
Foreign Scientist.
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