Soonhwa Seok - Handbook of Research On Human Cognition and Assistive Technology - Design, Accessibility and Transdisciplinary Perspectives (Handbook of Research On... ) - Medic PDF

Handbook of Research
on Human Cognition and

Assistive Technology:
Design, Accessibility and
Transdisciplinary Perspectives
Soonhwa Seok
Center for Research on Learning - eLearning Design Lab, University of Kansas, USA
Edward L. Meyen
Kansas University, USA
Boaventura DaCosta
Solers Research Group, USA
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of research on human cognition and assistive technology : design, accessibility and transdisciplinary perspectives
/ Soonhwa Seok, Edward L. Meyen and Boaventura DaCosta, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: "The intent of this book is to assist researchers, practitioners,
and the users of assistive technology to augment the accessibility of assistive technology by implementing human cognition
into its design and practice"--Provided by publisher.
ISBN 978-1-61520-817-3 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-61520-818-0 (ebook) 1. Self-help devices for people with disabilities. 2.
Cognitive science. 3. Human engineering. I. Seok, Soonhwa, 1970- II. Meyen, Edward L. III. DaCosta, Boaventura.
HV1569.5.H364 2010
681'.761--dc22
2009054320
British Cataloguing in Publication Data

A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this book are those of the
authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
List of Reviewers
Brian Bryant, University of Texas, USA
Diana Bryant, University of Texas, USA
Muhammet Demirbilek, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Joan B. Hodapp, Area Education Agency 267, USA
Neha Khetrapal, University of Bielefeld, Germany
Carolyn Kinsell, Solers Research Group, USA
Angelique Nasah, Solers Research Group, USA
Brian Newberry, California State University San Bernardino, USA
List of Contributors
Banerjee, Rashida / University of Northern Colorado, USA ............................................................ 339

Belfi, Marcie M. / University of Texas, USA ...................................................................................... 325
Brown, Monica R. / New Mexico State University, USA................................................................... 374
Bryant, Brian / University of Texas, USA.......................................................................................... 264
Bryant, Diana / University of Texas, USA ......................................................................................... 264
DaCosta, Boaventura / Solers Research Group, USA .............................................................. 1, 21, 43
Delisi, Jennifer / Lifeworks Services, USA ........................................................................................ 121
Demirbilek, Muhammet / Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey .................................................... 109
Dotterer, Gary / Oklahoma State University, USA .................................................................... 299, 306
Dunn, Michael W. / Washington State University Vancouver, USA .................................................. 313
Estrada-Hernández, Noel / University of Iowa, USA ............................................................... 239, 286
Fitzpatrick, Michael / New Mexico State University, USA ....................................................... 179, 374
Hodapp, Joan B. / Area Education Agency 267, USA ............................................................... 199, 220
Horn, Eva / University of Kansas, USA ............................................................................................. 339
Johnson, Vivian / Hamline University, USA...................................................................................... 192
Jones, Kristen E. / University of Texas, USA .................................................................................... 325
Khetrapal, Neha / University of Bielefeld, Germany .......................................................................... 96
Kinsell, Carolyn / Solers Research Group, USA ................................................................................. 61
Kouba, Barbara J. / California State University, San Bernardino, USA .......................................... 360
Laffey, James / University of Missouri, USA....................................................................................... 76
Lowe, Mary Ann / Nova Southeastern University, USA ................................................................... 251
Nankee, Cindy / UTLL (Universal Technology for Learning & Living), USA .................................. 157
Newberry, Brian / California State University, San Bernardino, USA ............................................. 360
Okrigwe, Blessing Nma / Rivers State College of Education, Nigeria ............................................. 388
Pascoe, Jeffrey / Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA ................................................................... 132
Plunkett, Diane / University of Kansas, USA .................................................................................... 339
Price, Carol / Hamline University, USA ............................................................................................ 192
Rachow, Cinda / Area Education Agency 13, USA ................................................................... 199, 220
Schmidt, Matthew / University of Missouri, USA............................................................................... 76
Seok, Soonhwa / Center for Research on Learning - eLearning Design Lab,
University of Kansas, USA............................................................................................. 1, 21, 43, 264
Slotznick, Benjamin / Point-and-Read, Inc., USA ............................................................................ 169
Stachowiak, James R. / University of Iowa, USA ..................................................................... 239, 286
Stichter, Janine / University of Missouri, USA.................................................................................... 76
Theoharis, Raschelle / Gallaudet University, USA ........................................................................... 179
Wagner, Cynthia L. / Lifeworks Services, USA ................................................................................ 121
Wilson, Mary Sweig / Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA .......................................................... 132
Table of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xx
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi
Acknowledgment ..............................................................................................................................xxiii
Section 1
Human Cognition and Assistive Technology Design
Chapter 1
Human Cognition in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities ........... 1
Boaventura DaCosta, Solers Research Group, USA
Soonhwa Seok, Center for Research on Learning - eLearning Design Lab,
University of Kansas, USA
Chapter 2
Managing Cognitive Load in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those
with Learning Disabilities ..................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter 3
Multimedia Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities ............................. 43
Chapter 4
Investigating Assistive Technologies using Computers to Simulate Basic Curriculum
for Individuals with Cognitive Impairments ......................................................................................... 61
Section 2
The Internet, Media, and Cognitive Loads
Chapter 5
Social Orthotics for Youth with ASD to Learn in a Collaborative 3D VLE ......................................... 76
James Laffey, University of Missouri, USA
Janine Stichter, University of Missouri, USA
Matthew Schmidt, University of Missouri, USA
Chapter 6
Cognition Meets Assistive Technology: Insights from Load Theory of Selective Attention ............... 96
Chapter 7
Cognitive Load and Disorientation Issues in Hypermedia as Assistive Technology .......................... 109
Section 3
Software and Devices
Chapter 8
Multi-Sensory Environments and Augmentative Communication Tools ........................................... 121
Cynthia L. Wagner, Lifeworks Services, USA
Jennifer Delisi, Lifeworks Services, USA
Chapter 9
Using Software to Deliver Language Intervention in Inclusionary Settings ...................................... 132
Mary Sweig Wilson, Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA
Jeffrey Pascoe, Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA
Chapter 10
Switch Technologies ........................................................................................................................... 157
Cindy Nankee, UTLL (Universal Technology for Learning & Living), USA
Chapter 11
Point-and-Chat®: Instant Messaging for AAC Users ......................................................................... 169
Benjamin Slotznick, Point-and-Read, Inc., USA
Chapter 12
Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students ........................................................... 179
Michael Fitzpatrick, New Mexico State University, USA
Raschelle Theoharis, Gallaudet University, USA
Chapter 13
A Longitudinal Case Study on the Use of Assistive Technology to Support Cognitive
Processes across Formal and Informal Educational Settings .............................................................. 192
Vivian Johnson, Hamline University, USA
Carol Price, Hamline University, USA
Section 4
Evaluation and Assessment
Chapter 14
Impact of Text-to-Speech Software on Access to Print: A Longitudinal Study .................................. 199
Cinda Rachow, Area Education Agency 13, USA
Chapter 15
Measure It, Monitor It: Tools for Monitoring Implementation of Text-to-Speech Software.............. 220
Chapter 16
Evaluating Systemic Assistive Technology Needs ............................................................................. 239
Noel Estrada-Hernández, University of Iowa, USA
James R. Stachowiak, University of Iowa, USA
Chapter 17
Developing Electronic Portfolios........................................................................................................ 251
Mary Ann Lowe, Nova Southeastern University, USA
Chapter 18
Assistive Technology Solutions for Individuals with Learning Problems: Conducting
Assessments Using the Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology (FEAT) ............................. 264
Section 5
Teacher Education
Chapter 19
Improving Assistive Technology Training in Teacher Education Programs: The Iowa Model .......... 286
Chapter 20
Effects of Assistive Technologies Combined with Desktop Virtual Reality in Instructional
Procedures (1) ..................................................................................................................................... 299
Gary Dotterer, Oklahoma State University, USA
Chapter 21
Procedures (2) ..................................................................................................................................... 306
Chapter 22
Response to Intervention: Assistive Technologies which can Help Teachers with Intervention
Programming and Assessment ............................................................................................................ 313
Michael W. Dunn, Washington State University Vancouver, USA
Chapter 23
Assistive Technology for Teacher Education: From Research to Curriculum .................................... 325
Marcie M. Belfi, University of Texas, USA
Kristen E. Jones, University of Texas, USA
Chapter 24
Supporting Early Childhood Outcomes through Assistive Technology ............................................. 339
Diane Plunkett, University of Kansas, USA
Rashida Banerjee, University of Northern Colorado, USA
Eva Horn, University of Kansas, USA
Section 6
Past, Present, and Future
Chapter 25
Assistive Technology’s Past, Present and Future ................................................................................ 360
Barbara J. Kouba, California State University, San Bernardino, USA
Brian Newberry, California State University, San Bernardino, USA
Chapter 26
Digital Inequity: Understanding the Divide as it Relates to Culture and Disability........................... 374
Monica R. Brown, New Mexico State University, USA
Chapter 27
Cognition and Learning ...................................................................................................................... 388
Blessing Nma Okrigwe, Rivers State College of Education, Nigeria
Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 401
About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 443
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 451

Detailed Table of Contents
Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. xx
Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi
Acknowledgment ..............................................................................................................................xxiii
Section 1
Human Cognition and Assistive Technology Design
Chapter 1
Human Cognition in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities ........... 1
This chapter is the first of three serving as the introduction to this handbook which addresses the relation-
ship between human cognition and assistive technologies and its design for individuals with cognitive
disabilities. In this chapter the authors introduce the human information processing system, discuss the
modal model of memory, and describe ways in which to increase learning. Altogether, the authors pres-
ent the approach that assistive technologies for individuals with learning disabilities should be created
with an understanding of design principles empirically grounded in the study of how the human mind
works.
Chapter 2
Managing Cognitive Load in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those
with Learning Disabilities ..................................................................................................................... 21
This chapter is the second of three serving as the introduction to this handbook which addresses the
relationship between human cognition and assistive technologies and its design for individuals with learn-
ing disabilities. In this chapter the authors present strategies to manage cognitive load in the design of
instructional materials for those with learning disabilities by introducing cognitive load theory. Altogether,
the authors affirm the approach discussed in the last chapter—assistive technologies for individuals with
learning disabilities should be created with an understanding of design principles empirically grounded
in the study of how the human mind works.
Chapter 3
Multimedia Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities ............................. 43
This chapter is the last of three serving as the introduction to this handbook which addresses the relation-
ship between human cognition and assistive technologies and its design for individuals with learning
disabilities. In this chapter the authors build upon the last two chapters and focus specifically on research
investigating the visual and auditory components of working memory by presenting the cognitive theory
of multimedia learning (CTML). Altogether, the authors stress the common thread found throughout this
three chapter introduction—assistive technologies for individuals with learning disabilities should be
created with an understanding of design principles empirically grounded in the study of how the human
mind works. They argue that the principles emerging from the CTML may have potential benefits in the
design of assistive technologies for those with learning disabilities.
Chapter 4
for Individuals with Cognitive Impairments ......................................................................................... 61
For middle and high school students, learning is often conducted in traditional classroom settings. Peer
pressure is generally high and any lack of classroom participation or subject knowledge is quickly appar-
ent to other classmates. The cognitively impaired student who is behind is not always properly identified
nor is the learning solution readily available. It is the hope that assistive technologies can become more
common-place for cognitively impaired students left hanging in the balance in traditional classrooms.
This chapter addresses the use of computer-based simulations as an assistive technology solution for
the cognitively impaired student who is having difficulties.
Section 2
The Internet, Media, and Cognitive Loads
Chapter 5
Social Orthotics for Youth with ASD to Learn in a Collaborative 3D VLE ......................................... 76
James Laffey, University of Missouri, USA
Janine Stichter, University of Missouri, USA
Matthew Schmidt, University of Missouri, USA
This chapter describes the conceptualization as well as design and development work underway to ad-
vance the use and study of social orthotics as an assistive technology in 3-Dimensional Virtual Learning
Environment for youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The work to understand and develop
social orthotics is part of a larger effort to build iSocial, an online learning systems being developed to
implement a curriculum for developing social competence for youth with ASD. The chapter describes
the development of two forms of social orthotics, iTalk and iGroup. In their current forms, iTalk supports
conversational turn taking by constraining interruptions, and iGroup supports conversational turn taking
by supporting appropriate adjacency, distance and orientation behavior. This chapter describes results
from early tests of prototypes of the social orthotics and suggests directions for future research.
Chapter 6
Cognition Meets Assistive Technology: Insights from Load Theory of Selective Attention ............... 96
This chapter aspires to lay emphasis on transdignostic process as a means for diagnosis and for cogni-
tive intervention by modern technological tools. In this pursuit, it highlights the intimate links shared by
cognitive and emotional processes and brings in several examples for developing better understanding.
The attempt on encouraging cooperative ties among disciplines and various contemporary concepts
from cognition is also discussed.
Chapter 7
Cognitive Load and Disorientation Issues in Hypermedia as Assistive Technology .......................... 109
Hypermedia as an assistive technology has the potential to teach and train individuals with disabilities.
However, like every technology, hypermedia itself is not free from problems. Disorientation and cogni-
tive load are two of the most challenging problems related to hypermedia learning environments. The
purpose of this chapter is to highlight disorientation and cognitive load problems in hypermedia learning
environments where learners are usually faced a serious problem while navigating hypermedia systems.
This chapter includes a brief introduction of assistive technologies, hypermedia as a learning environ-
ment, human memory and hypermedia, usability issues, disorientation, and cognitive load in hypermedia
and hypermedia in inclusive education.
Section 3
Chapter 8
Multi-Sensory Environments and Augmentative Communication Tools ........................................... 121
Cynthia L. Wagner, Lifeworks Services, USA
Jennifer Delisi, Lifeworks Services, USA
This chapter puts forward the idea that use of a multi-sensory environment to decrease defensiveness in
the body can promote integration of the senses, and lead a person to be in a better position to communicate
their wants and needs. It has also been noted that adults with developmental disabilities or autism can
sometimes be overlooked as emerging communicators. Shifting this view will increase their access to
new tools and techniques for enhancing communication skills. People with severe disabilities can live,
work, play, communicate, and form relationships with a wide variety of people in their communities,
schools, and workplaces, and they deserve to be provided with opportunities to do so.
Chapter 9
Using Software to Deliver Language Intervention in Inclusionary Settings ...................................... 132
Mary Sweig Wilson, Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA
Jeffrey Pascoe, Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA
Using Software to Deliver Language Intervention in Inclusionary Settings Receptive language inter-
vention with an emphasis on syntax is essential when serving the educational needs of children with
language delays and disorders. Syntax mastery is necessary for sentence understanding and use as well
as for reading comprehension and writing. Yet there are challenges to providing individualized syntax
intervention on a daily basis in inclusionary settings. This chapter reviews the linguistic foundations and
instructional approaches used in language intervention software designed for preschool and elementary
school children. Also described are the results of classroom field-testing where regular use of the software
was found to be associated with accelerated language development.
Chapter 10
Switch Technologies ........................................................................................................................... 157
Cindy Nankee, UTLL (Universal Technology for Learning & Living), USA
This chapter provides information on best practices in the area of switch technologies including: (a) a
background of the what, why, when and where of switch accessibility; (b) a summary of five popular
assessment tools; and (c) an overview of types of switches and training strategies for the successful sus-
tained use of switches. Information included in this chapter will benefit assistive technology professionals,
case managers, educators, physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech and language pathologists,
rehabilitation counselors as well as students of these professions and consumers. The information will
apply to all age groups including birth to six, all levels of primary and secondary education, adulthood
and senior services. The goal of this chapter is to compile information in a concise step-by-step fashion
including information from assessment to implementation, additional resources, readings, and references
for further study.
Chapter 11
Point-and-Chat®: Instant Messaging for AAC Users ......................................................................... 169
Benjamin Slotznick, Point-and-Read, Inc., USA
This chapter details the design choices and user interfaces employed by Point-and-Chat® software to
make it easier to use by reducing cognitive load. Point-and-Chat® is software for Instant Messaging
(IM) which is especially designed to be used in conjunction with Augmentative/Alternative Communi-
cation (AAC) devices. The software includes a built-in screen reader and special picture-based control
and navigation for people who have difficulty reading or have cognitive limitations. This chapter also
discusses the challenges and opportunities to AAC users presented by the growing importance of IM, as
well as recent research which points out a need to develop special IM vocabulary interfaces to overcome
those challenges.
Chapter 12
Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students ........................................................... 179
Raschelle Theoharis, Gallaudet University, USA
This chapter discusses the reality that the majority of deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) students are edu-
cated in the public school setting. Unfortunately educators are often ill prepared to address the unique
technological needs of d/hh students. This chapter focuses on providing educators and other service
providers with an overview of various educational technologies that they can employ to increase the
academic and social outcomes for d/hh students.
Chapter 13
A Longitudinal Case Study on the Use of Assistive Technology to Support Cognitive
Processes across Formal and Informal Educational Settings .............................................................. 192
Vivian Johnson, Hamline University, USA
Carol Price, Hamline University, USA
This qualitative case study describes the challenges faced by one child with documented learning chal-
lenges and her parents in their ten-year struggle to include the use of assistive and repurposed technology
in the learning environment. Understanding the context of this challenge juxtaposed with the impact of
federal legislation can inform and encourage policy reform.
Section 4
Chapter 14
Impact of Text-to-Speech Software on Access to Print: A Longitudinal Study .................................. 199
This chapter examines the outcome of extended use text-to-speech software as an accommodation to
improve student access to core content. Using the Time Series Concurrent and Differential Approach,
this study examines the impact on student fluency and comprehension. In addition, multiple measures of
perceptual and objective data measures were collected from 20 middle school special education students
and nine teachers during the 27-week study.
Chapter 15
Measure It, Monitor It: Tools for Monitoring Implementation of Text-to-Speech Software.............. 220
This chapter examines a variety of innovative tools for monitoring successful implementation of assis-
tive technology that were field tested in the Iowa Text Reader Project. Explanations of each tool and its
use are provided. Strategies include measures to collect data from students, teachers, administrators,
and assistive technology team members.
Chapter 16
Evaluating Systemic Assistive Technology Needs ............................................................................. 239
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the concept and application of needs assessment, as well as the
benefits of conducting this type of research to improve the quality of assistive technology (AT) services.
This chapter begins with a discussion of what is AT and the role it plays in the life of a person with a
disability. This will include a discussion of the idea that the earlier AT is introduced to the individual,
the more likely it will continue to be used and the larger effect it will have on the individual’s future
education, employment, and independent living needs. Also, this chapter highlights the impact this type
of research has on teacher preparation.
Chapter 17
Developing Electronic Portfolios........................................................................................................ 251
Mary Ann Lowe, Nova Southeastern University, USA
This chapter explores the use of electronic portfolios as a way of documenting the use of Assistive
Technology / Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AT/AAC) for individuals with severe
physical needs and communication impairments. Documenting individual student characteristics, the
strategies used for successful implementation of AT/AAC tools, and the progress of these individuals
using technology via electronic portfolios can be a useful tool for service providers.
Chapter 18
Assistive Technology Solutions for Individuals with Learning Problems: Conducting
Assessments Using the Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology (FEAT) ............................. 264
This chapter provides information about how such an assistive technology (AT) assessment can be con-
ducted using the Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology (FEAT). Readers are provided with an
overview of the importance of person-centered assessments, and then are given a description of each of
the FEAT components. A case study is also provided, wherein the process of an effective and efficient
AT assessment is described.
Section 5
Teacher Education
Chapter 19
Improving Assistive Technology Training in Teacher Education Programs: The Iowa Model .......... 286
This chapter discusses the model that the College of Education at the University of Iowa is using to
provide assistive technology training to their preservice teacher education students. The College’s Iowa
Center for Assistive Technology Education and Research has developed an innovative hands-on project
that revolves around their Mobile AT Lab. This chapter will focus on how the project was developed, is
being carried out, and an evaluation of its success.
Chapter 20
Procedures (1) ..................................................................................................................................... 299
With the advancements in technology and the ability to use different training techniques in industry,
business, and educational environments, those who may need alternate methods of delivery of training
materials should also be considered. Individuals with impairment who rely on assistive technologies
could benefit from these alternative methods. Desktop virtual reality combined with assistive technolo-
gies could provide a safe, reliable, and productive opportunity while addressing the specific needs from
the safety of their own personal computer. This chapter introduces the merging of these technologies
and the opportunities that may be possible by providing viable training procedures and processes in the
workforce.
Chapter 21
Procedures (2) ..................................................................................................................................... 306
This chapter frames the structure of the study introduced in the previous chapter. The framework of the
chapter sets up the methodology (subjects, testing instruments, and procedures) and includes screenshots
of the three web-based instruments. The results and findings section contains detailed information with
illustrated tables containing the data generated from the statistical analysis program SPSS. The chapter
concludes with the discussion, further research directions, and conclusions based on the outcomes of
the findings.
Chapter 22
Response to Intervention: Assistive Technologies which can Help Teachers with Intervention
Programming and Assessment ............................................................................................................ 313
Michael W. Dunn, Washington State University Vancouver, USA
How to assess and provide intervention programming for students with characteristics of having a learn-
ing disability has been a long-standing challenge in education. Traditionally, students with a possible
learning disability completed assessments of IQ (i.e., intellectual potential) and academic achievement
(i.e., demonstrated ability) around the end of third grade; a discrepancy of 15 points or more would
typically provide for a student to be classified with a learning disability and receive special education
services. Due to systemic bias in standardized assessments, such as IQ tests as well as a desire to address
the needs of low-functioning students in the early/initial grades of school, educators have developed a
new intervention and assessment process called response to intervention. If students do not make good
progress with intervention programming, this curriculum-based data can be used to justify learning-
disability classification. Assistive technologies such as intervention software can help teachers manage
the provision of intervention programming and data collection.
Chapter 23
Assistive Technology for Teacher Education: From Research to Curriculum .................................... 325
Marcie M. Belfi, University of Texas, USA
Kristen E. Jones, University of Texas, USA
This chapter provides teacher educators with research on assistive technology in K-12 schools from two
different strands, and concludes with a model of teacher training to meet those needs. The first section
describes assistive technology needs for culturally and linguistically diverse families of children with
special needs. The second section highlights instructional and assistive technology for students with learn-
ing disabilities in the area of writing. Finally, the chapter concludes with a curriculum model for training
preservice teachers to use assistive technology across the lifespan of students within all populations.
Chapter 24
Supporting Early Childhood Outcomes through Assistive Technology ............................................. 339
Diane Plunkett, University of Kansas, USA
Rashida Banerjee, University of Northern Colorado, USA
Eva Horn, University of Kansas, USA
This chapter focuses on the application of assistive technology to meet the Office of Special Education
Programs early childhood outcomes with attention given to evidence-based strategies and practices in
the use of assistive technology. By offering case vignettes, early childhood professionals may reflect
upon their experience, and recognize the benefit that assistive technology has in meeting child develop-
mental outcomes. In presenting a firm understanding for assistive technology consideration, the early
childhood professional can assist children with disabilities and their families in meeting early childhood
outcomes.
Section 6
Chapter 25
Assistive Technology’s Past, Present and Future ................................................................................ 360
Barbara J. Kouba, California State University, San Bernardino, USA
Brian Newberry, California State University, San Bernardino, USA
The term assistive technology is relatively new, however the use of technology to assist humans to perform
better is certainly not. Throughout history we have been creating devices to assist us by augmenting our
senses, retaining information, accessing information, communicating and finding our way in the world.
Many technologies that were originally assistive have become mainstream. New technologies that are
being developed as assistive will no doubt also become mainstream in the future.
Chapter 26
Digital Inequity: Understanding the Divide as it Relates to Culture and Disability........................... 374
Monica R. Brown, New Mexico State University, USA
This chapter presents literature and research related to the digital divide for students from culturally
and linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds. This chapter discusses issues of access for CLD stu-
dents with disabilities, factors that have led to inequitable access to technology for those groups, and
provides solutions for increasing access to technology for students with disabilities and students from
CLD backgrounds.
Chapter 27
Cognition and Learning ...................................................................................................................... 388
Blessing Nma Okrigwe, Rivers State College of Education, Nigeria
Cognitivist theories have identified the cognitive skills—perception, conception, memory, language,
reasoning and creativity—as underlying all academic learning, and absence of these skills will result in
the child’s academic failure. Learners learning in different ways, which has an implication to personal-
ized learning with the teacher playing the role of a facilitator, can help the student construct knowledge
rather than the production of facts. This has thus led to a shift in paradigm from the traditional behavioral
approach, where learners are passive, to a paradigm where learners are active and empowered. Person-
alized learning is made possible through digital technology such as the Internet; hence, innovation in
teaching and learning has been dominated by the computer. Despite the numerous advantages of digital
technology, which can provide opportunities for individuals with disabilities to meet their full learning
potential, this has yet to be seen by most countries in the developing world.
Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 401
About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 443
Index ................................................................................................................................................... 451

xx
Foreword
This handbook is the realization of a year long unified learning endeavor of collaborative writing and
thinking from educators and professionals from around the world dedicated to the field of assistive
technology. The contributors of this handbook have been leaders and positive influences in the ever-
changing, transdisciplinary assistive technology landscape. We are grateful to have been able to harvest
such a wonderful collection of works into a single source.
This handbook is a collaboration of 27 empirically-supported chapters addressing the current issues
of human cognition and assistive technology design, the Internet, media, cognitive load, software and
devices, evaluation and assessment, teacher education, and the practices of assistive technology in the
past, present, and future. This handbook was written specifically for families, practitioners, and others
involved in aiding those with disabilities.
It is our hope that this handbook is a step forward in bettering the practice of assistive technology,
the lives of those with disabilities, and a positive influence towards the mission behind the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
Gary M. Clark
Gary M. Clark’s research focus is assessment for transition planning; consultation and training on using and interpreting the
Transition Planning Inventory. Teaching assignments over the 38 years at the University of Kansas have included courses at
the undergraduate and graduate levels. Most consistently, the courses assigned have been the introductory courses (UG and
G) to the field of special education and two core courses in transition education and services. One other course taught periodi-
cally has been a course on counseling individuals with disabilities. Visiting professorship teaching assignments have focused
on secondary special education and transition from school to adult living.
xxi
Preface
The Handbook of Research on Human Cognition and Assistive Technology: Design, Accessibility and
Transdisciplinary Perspectives marks a critical milestone in the history of implementation and practice
of assistive technology in this country. We have come a long way since the term universal design was
coined in the 1970s and linear perspectives and technology were at the forefront of assisting those with
disabilities.
Over the years, numerous studies have been conducted on assistive technology from a special educa-
tion perspective. With the unprecedented advancements in computing power coupled with the societal
movement towards inclusive settings, there is no better time than today to strive for assistive technology
equity in terms of universal implementation within a transdisciplinary perspective.
This edited book is borne from this opportunity and attempts to consolidate the relationships among
human cognition and assistive technology. The intent of this book is to assist researchers, practitioners,
and the users of assistive technology to augment the accessibility of assistive technology by implement-
ing human cognition into its design and practice. Consequently, this book presents assistive technology
as an intervention for people with disabilities from a transdisciplinary perspective.
This book is composed of 27 chapters prepared into six sections. Section 1 serves as the scaffolding
for the remainder of the book, by laying the theoretical foundation of human cognition and its direct ap-
plicability to the design of assistive technology. The chapters in this part are intended to align assistive
technology with the study of how the human mind works, discussing the importance of cognitive load
and knowing when to avoid it, how to managing it, and in some cases, promote it. The chapters also
delve into the understanding of empirically supported instructional principles that can be leveraged to
assist those with special needs. The use of simulation-based instruction is also introduced as a precursor
to Section 2 of this book, presenting the significant contributions simulation technology has towards
assisting those with learning disabilities.
Section 2 focuses specifically on the Internet, media, and continues the line of thinking behind the
management of cognitive load. The benefits of simulation-based instruction are expounded upon and
the utilization of 3D virtual environments is presented. There has been a surge of popularity with such
environments given the potentially limitless possibilities beyond that of entertainment. The chapters
in this part discuss how such environments may hold significant opportunities to assist those who are
challenged by traditional classroom instruction and interaction.
Section 3 looks at software and devices as tools to benefit interventions for individuals with disabili-
ties. The chapters in this part discuss the role of assistive technology practice in the field as it aligns with
research. That is, practice triggers motivation to conduct formative and experimental design research to
enhance the quality life of individuals with disabilities.
Section 4 emphasizes the changing culture of evaluation and assessment in the area of assistive
technology. In particular, the use of ecological evaluations and multi-model assessments reflect the
xxii
trend toward transdisciplinary perspectives. The chapters in this part present evidence-based systematic
research in the field.
Section 5 stresses the practice of assistive technology as a strategy for teaching and learning. The
chapters in this Section 1nitiate the development of formative instructional strategies using assistive
technology to achieve effective learning outcomes.
Finally, Section 6 summaries and describes what assistive technology looked like in the past, how
it looks now, and how it might look in the future. This includes a review of the history of assistive
technology-related legislation, research, and practice from traditional to modernist theories, from Helen
Keller to Steven Hawking. It also addresses the “digital divide” and equity as major issues in the history
of assistive technology.
There are many books providing insights into assistive technology. What sets this book apart from
other edited books is that this book has been forged from a transdisciplinary perspective. The editors
and contributing authors come from a number of disciples to include computer science, instructional
design, curriculum and special education, and psychology, to name only a few. This book is a collabora-
tion between researchers and practitioners alike and we hope that you enjoy reading it as much as we
enjoyed the delightful journey it was in getting it published.
Soonhwa Seok
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, USA
Edward L. Meyen
Boaventura DaCosta
Soler Research Group, USA
xxiii
Acknowledgment
First, special thanks go to the authors of the 27 chapters comprising this edited book. We especially thank
them for their support and encouragement through the writing and publishing process and their interest
in this effort. They were an inspiration to us as we carried out our research. This work is a reflection of
their vision in guiding our collaboration.
Sincere gratitude is extended to Julia Mosemann for her editorial efforts, her style, but most im-
portantly, her unwavering sense of humor. Special appreciation goes to Brian Bryant, for his support,
encouragement, and inspiration. He taught us how to turn water into wine.
Finally, we are grateful to our all of our research collaborators who donated their time and expertise
in this publication. “Thank You.”
Soonhwa Seok
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, USA
Edward L. Meyen
Boaventura DaCosta
Soler Research Group, USA
Section 1
Human Cognition and Assistive
Technology Design
To say that learning through the use of technology has had an intertwined past of failing to deliver on expectations is an un-
derstatement. History can provide a myriad of examples related to motion picture, radio, television, and computer-assistive
instruction that serve as a reminder to what many of us already know—using technology for the sake of technology does not
work. In fact, it can be detrimental to learning. Instead, the driving force behind technology should be the learner; namely, the
manner in which technologies can be used to promote human cognition. Instructional designers, educators, practitioners, and
others involved in the design of learning technologies know that the latest advancements in cutting-edge technology are simply
not enough, but rather, such knowledge must be coupled with an understanding of the human information processing system.
Such an argument could not be any more applicable to the design of assistive technologies for those with learning disabilities.
Firmly grounded in the field of cognitive psychology, the human information processing system provides a useful frame in which
to understand the mental processes involved in higher-order thinking and consequently, learning. Why is this important? Some
theories in cognitive psychology suggest that working memory, a system that temporarily stores and manages information for
performing complex cognitive tasks, is limited in capacity. When coupled with the deficits of those with learning disabilities,
such as difficulty with attention, memory, and problem-solving, all of which are vital factors in learning, the human information
processing system can prove invaluable to designers in understanding best practices in which to present information.
In the first part of this handbook, we present the relationship between human cognition and assistive technologies and
its design for individuals with learning disabilities. In the first chapter, we introduce the human information processing sys-
tem, discuss the modal model of memory, and describe ways in which to increase learning. In the second chapter, we present
strategies to manage cognitive load in the design of instructional materials for those with learning disabilities by introducing
cognitive load theory—a learning theory that proposes a set of instructional principles grounded in human information pro-
cessing research that can be leveraged in the creation of efficient and effective learning environments. In the third chapter, we
focus specifically on research investigating the visual and auditory components of working memory by presenting the cognitive
theory of multimedia learning—a learning theory proposing a set of instructional principles grounded in human information
processing research that provide best practices in designing efficient multimedia learning environments. While finally, in the
fourth chapter, we present the use of computer-based simulation as an assistive technology solution. Altogether, we present
the approach that assistive technologies for individuals with learning disabilities should be created with an understanding of
design principles empirically grounded in the study of how the human mind works.
1
Chapter 1
Human Cognition in the Design
of Assistive Technology for
Those with Learning Disabilities
Boaventura DaCosta
Soonhwa Seok
Center for Research on Learning - eLearning Design Lab,
AbstrAct
This is the first of three chapters serving as the introduction to this handbook which addresses the rela-
tionship between human cognition and assistive technologies and its design for individuals with cogni-
tive disabilities. In this chapter the authors introduce the human information processing system. They
discuss the modal model of memory, a basic framework offering the most popular explanations behind
the active processes used in the construction of new knowledge. In doing so, the authors examine the
three memory stores comprising the modal model which are responsible for the acquisition, storage, and
retrieval of information. The authors then discuss ways in which to increase learning. Altogether, they
present the approach that technology for learning should be created with an understanding of design
principles empirically grounded in the study of how the human mind works, particularly when it comes
to the design of assistive technologies for individuals with learning disabilities.
IntroductIon and since amended and replaced with the Assistive

Technology Act of 1998, assistive technology (AT)
the case for Human cognition in has been formally defined as “any item, piece of
the design of Assistive technology equipment, or product system, whether acquired
for those with Learning disabilities commercially, modified, or customized, that is used
to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabili-
First published in the Technology-Related Assis- ties of individuals with disabilities” (United States
tance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 Congress, 1998, Definitions and Rule section, para.
3). Although we typically think of technologies such
as wheelchairs and prosthetics to help those with
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch001
Copyright © 2010, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Human Cognition in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities
physical impairments, ATs can also have a signifi- nervous system dysfunction (National Joint Com-
cant impact on the lives of those with cognitive mittee on Learning Disabilities, 1991).
disabilities. If created with the abilities and deficits This brings up an important point. Learning
of those with cognitive disabilities in mind, ATs disabilities should not be used as a measure in
can remove obstacles and offer individuals greater which to gauge intelligence. Individuals with
independence which they might not otherwise LDs have average or above average intelligence,
be able to experience. Likewise, the opposite is but have difficulty with rudimentary skills that
also true. Assistive technologies created without those without LDs take for granted. Learning
an understanding of the cognitive disabilities of disabilities are typically considered to be less
individuals can become a hindrance. Unlike that severe cognitive disorders which can manifest
of AT, the mere act of defining the term “cognitive themselves in many different forms. Reading
disability” has proved troublesome. disabilities (dyslexia), writing disabilities (dys-
graphia), and math disabilities (dyscalculia), are
the broad nature of cognitive probably the most recognizable LDs owing their
disabilities and our Focus mainstream familiarity to the media and other
on Learning disabilities public channels.
Definitions for the term “cognitive disability”

vary by source. Generally speaking, a cognitive bAckground
disability is any disorder which affects mental
processing. There are different severities of What are Learning disabilities?
cognitive disabilities. Individuals with severe
disorders may need uninterrupted assistance and There have been a myriad of efforts to define
supervision by caregivers in almost every aspect LDs. The need for a definition has stemmed
of daily life, whereas individuals with minor from the fact that without one, LDs cannot be
cognitive disabilities may require very little if clearly recognized and measured for the purpose
any assistance. In fact, some cognitive disabilities of diagnosis and remediation (Wong, Graham,
may be so minor that they are never diagnosed Hoskyn, & Berman, 1996). As you might imagine,
(Rogers, 1979). obtaining consensus among professionals and
policy makers within the LDs community has been
Our Focus on Learning Disabilities difficult. In fact, some efforts have ignited fierce
debates, such as the 2004 reauthorization of the
In this three chapter introduction we focus on U.S. Individuals with Disabilities Act (Fletcher,
cognitive disabilities which impair learning. Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2006). Although varying
Specifically, children, adolescents, and adults di- definitions continue to exist among professional
agnosed with learning disabilities (LDs). We refer organizations and government agencies (see Wong
to children, adolescents, and adults because LDs et al., 1996, for an in-depth review), a definition
are considered to be lifelong disorders. Children that appears to have captured the essence of LDs
with LDs will someday grow up to become adults and received the broadest endorsement in the LDs
with LDs. Their brains are not defective or dam- community (Hammill, 1993, as cited in Wong et
aged. Instead, they see, hear, and understand things al., 1996) is the one by the National Joint Com-
differently. Learning disabilities are thought to be mittee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) (1991),
neurological in nature and are related to central which reads:
2
Learning disabilities is a generic term that refers a step back and examining these deficits further
to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested reveal that individuals diagnosed with LDs have
by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use difficulty with attention, memory, and problem-
of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reason- solving, all of which are vital factors in learning.
ing, or mathematical abilities. These disorders We once again stress that the utmost care must
are intrinsic to the individual and presumed to be be taken by designers involved in the creation of
due to central nervous system dysfunction. Even ATs. Designers must not only have a deep under-
though a learning disability may occur concomi- standing of the technologies currently available,
tantly with other handicapping conditions (e.g., but an even deeper functional understanding of
sensory impairment, mental retardation, social the abilities and deficits facing the individuals for
and emotional disturbance), or environmental whom they are designing. As commonsensical as
influences (e.g., cultural differences, insufficient/ this may sound, as we will discuss next, history
inappropriate instruction, psychogenic factors), has shown us quit the opposite.
it is not the direct result of those conditions or
influences (p. 3). the troubled Past of
technology and Learning
As seen in the definition, the NJCLD supports
the idea that LDs are not the direct result of other The potential for the improvement of learning
disabilities, but instead may occur alongside other through the use of technology within education
disorders. This is important in the context of this has not translated very well into everyday practice.
and the next two chapters because although we For the most part, technology and learning have
focus on children, adolescents, and adults diag- had an intertwined past of failing to deliver on ex-
nosed with LDs, we do not exclude more severe pectations. In fact, a mere cursory examination of
cognitive disabilities such as autism, Down the prospect of new technology for learning in the
syndrome, the most common form of dementia, 20th century would produce a myriad of examples
Alzheimer’s disease, and disorders resulting from relating to motion picture, radio, television, and
traumatic brain injury. computer-assisted instruction (see Cuban, 1986,
for an in-depth review). The example commonly
Viewing Learning Disabilities cited as evidence for this long-lasting, tempestu-
from a Functional Perspective ous relationship is the quote by Thomas Edition,
who in 1922 prophesized “…the motion picture is
Given the broad nature of LDs and the potential destined to revolutionize our educational system
degree of severity that can exist with these disor- and that in a few years it will supplant largely, if
ders, it goes without saying that individuals with not entirely, the use of textbooks” (cited in Cuban,
LDs interact with technology in different ways. 1986, p. 9).
So, in addition to viewing LDs from a clinical This quote serves as a reminder to what many
standpoint, as we just have, when developing of us all ready know—using technology for the
ATs, it might be more advantageous to view such sake of technology does not work. In fact, there is
disabilities from a functional standpoint. This a consequence when the technology-centered ap-
perspective focuses strictly on the abilities and proach is adopted over that of the learner-centered
deficits facing individuals with LDs. As defined one (Mayer, 2005b). Namely, the technology-
by the NJCLD (1991), deficits typically include centered approach does not generally lead to long-
difficulty with listening speaking, reading, writ- term advancements in education (Cuban, 1986, as
ing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. Taking cited in Mayer, 2005b). Hindsight has taught us
3
this lesson with the prediction made by Thomas able to designers in understanding best practices
Edison and the many other failed attempts at using in which to present information.
technology for learning that have followed. This is the first of three chapters serving as the
Needless to say, the driving force behind tech- introduction to this handbook which addresses
nology design should not be the technology itself, the relationship between human cognition and
but rather the learner. When the learner-centered ATs and its design for individuals with LDs. In
approach is taken, focus is placed on the manner in this chapter, we introduce the human information
which technologies can be used in the promotion processing system. We describe the most popular
of human cognition (Mayer, 2005b). This should explanations behind the acquisition, storage, and
come as no surprise to instructional designers, retrieval of information. We then discuss ways in
educators, practitioners, and others involved in which to increase learning. This chapter serves
the design of technology for the improvement as scaffolding for the subsequent two chapters
of learning. Understanding the latest advance- of which are both grounded in learning theory.
ments in cutting-edge technology is simply not In the second chapter, we focus specifically on
enough. Rather, such knowledge must be coupled the cognitive limitations of working memory. In
with an understanding of the human information doing so, we introduce cognitive load theory and
processing system. According to Mayer (2005b), its applicability in the design of ATs. Finally, in
“…designs that are consistent with the way the the third and final chapter in this introduction,
human mind works are more effective in fostering we discuss the importance of visual and auditory
learning than those that are not” (p. 9). If the full modality in the design of ATs. We go about this
potential of technology for learning is to be real- by offering an in-depth discussion of the cognitive
ized, there must be a clear understanding between theory of multimedia learning. In both chapters,
design principles and the means by which humans we focus predominately on those individuals who
acquire, store, and retrieve information. have been diagnosed with LDs, but as we have
discussed, may also include individuals diagnosed
Assistive technology, with more severe cognitive disabilities.
Learning disability, and Human We begin this chapter with a brief history of
Information Processing the field of cognitive psychology. To better under-
stand the most accepted theories behind human
We argue that this approach could not be any cognition, we feel it is prudent to first understand
more applicable to the design of ATs for those how the field came to be.
with LDs. Arising from work in cognitive psy-
chology, the human information processing
system and associated models provide a useful A brIeF HIstory oF
framework in which to understand the mental cognItIve PsycHoLogy
processes involved in higher-order thinking and
consequently, learning. This is important because As you might imagine, the study of the human
some theories in cognitive psychology suggest mind is centuries old. In fact, the study of human
that working memory, a system that temporarily cognition can be traced back as early as the ancient
stores and manages information for performing Greeks, with Aristotelian notions of the beginnings
complex cognitive tasks, is limited in capacity of empiricism, the belief that knowledge originates
(Baddeley, 1986, 1998, 2002). When coupled from experience (John Robert Anderson, 2004).
with the functional perspective of LDs, the human However, early study of the human mind was
information processing system can prove invalu- philosophical in nature, purely grounded in con-
4
jecture. According to Anderson (2004), “only in ers, such as the journal, Cognitive Psychology,
the last 125 years has it been realized that human first appearing in 1970 (John Robert Anderson,
cognition could be the subject of scientific study 2004). Another commonly cited milestone is that
rather than philosophical speculation” (p. 6). It of the publication of Ulrich Neisser’s Cognitive
was not conceived until the Nineteenth century, Psychology in 1967, which helped both legitimize
actually, that the study of the human mind could the field and define it (John Robert Anderson,
be grounded in scientific analysis (John Robert 2004; Brunning et al., 2004). Although cognitive
Anderson, 2004). psychology is still relatively young in American
This does not imply that cognitive psychology psychology, it has seen widespread growth. The
emerged right away as a major field of study in the field has far reaching implications, touching many
20th century. Instead, it would be half a century other disciplines such as computer science and
before the beginnings of such a movement would the study of artificial intelligence. The exception
be seen. According to Brunning, Schraw, Norby, is education, as Brunning et al. point out (2004),
and Ronning (2004), from 1920-1970, associa- which only until recently has become the target
tionism, the proposition that all consciousness of exploration (e.g., Brandt, 2000; Bransford,
can be explained by the association of sensory Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Jonassen & Land, 2000;
stimulus with responses, was the dominant, theo- Kirschner, 2002; Marshall, 1996).
retical, psychological perspective in America. So Unlike earlier portrayals, cognitive psychol-
it should come as no surprise that by the 1960s ogy views humans as information processors. The
(Brunning et al., 2004), behaviorism, the theory field of cognitive psychology is dedicated to the
that all behaviors are a result of conditioning, understanding of how information is represented
began to flourish. in the human mind. Thus, cognitive psychologists
As a matter of fact, during the behaviorism have developed numerous models aimed at ad-
movement, psychologists such as B. F. Skinner, equately depicting the active nature of cognition.
who were involved in one branch of stimulus- From this, cognitive learning models have been
response psychology called radical behaviorism, conceived, which attempt to explain the processes
were successfully applying behavioral principles of learning (Brunning et al., 2004). In the next
to a variety of settings, which included education section, we begin our discussion of these models
(Brunning et al., 2004). It was right about this time and their most common features.
that American psychologists, wanting to provide
plausible explanations of human memory, where
becoming increasingly disenchanted and bothered tHe HumAn InFormAtIon
with the strict stimuli-response framework gov- ProcessIng modeLs
erning behaviorism (Brunning et al., 2004). The
focus of behaviorism was external behavior. It Human memory has been traditionally depicted
was not concerned with the internal workings of as models composed of acquisition, storage, and
human memory that cause this behavior. Behavior- retrieval stages, otherwise collectively referred
ism, for that reason, was ill-equipped to provide to as information processing models (e.g., Atkin-
the necessary scaffolding needed to adequately son & Shiffrin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965).
describe human cognition. Although variations of these models have been
It is difficult to say exactly when the cognitive abundant (e.g., Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Nor-
revolution overthrew behaviorism. We know that man, 1968; Shiffrin & Atkinson, 1969; Waugh
the cognitive psychology movement took form & Norman, 1965), their common features have
between 1950 and 1970, with significant mark- influenced a basic framework made popular over
5
Figure 1. The modal model of memory (Adapted from Brunning et al., 2004, pg. 16; Clark, 2003, pg.
54-55; and Mayer, 2005b, pg. 37)
the past five decades called the modal model learning, for obvious reasons. Information found
of memory (Healy & McNamara, 1996). The in sensory memory is then brought into STM or
modal model offers a helpful way in which to working memory. Here, the information is further
describe the active processes that humans use to processed and potentially associated with relevant,
construct new knowledge. The model postulates prior knowledge, until it is permanently encoding
that information is processed by means of sensory into LTM.
memory, short-term memory (STM) (or what is As you may already have guessed, there is
more commonly referred to as working memory), much more to the modal model than our rushed
and long-term memory (LTM), all of which are explanation. In fact, Figure 1 could be very well
discrete memory systems each serving a specific argued as a gross oversimplification as to the
function (Healy & McNamara, 1996). The model actually mechanics behind human information
is typically compared metaphorically with that of processing. In the subsequent sections we intro-
the operations of a computer (Atkinson & Shif- duce each of the memory stores comprising the
frin, 1968; Shiffrin & Atkinson, 1969). Although modal model.
variations exist as to how learning takes place with
regard to the modal model, it is generally agreed An Introduction to sensory memory
upon that information is transferred between these
memory stores using a variety of encoding and We turn our attention to the first store of the modal
retrieval processes (see Brunning et al., 2004, model, sensory memory. We begin with a general
for an in-depth discussion of these processes). A discussion, describing sensory memory in terms
representation of the modal model of memory is of visual and auditory modality. We then present
depicted in Figure 1. the significant role that perception and attention
As the figure illustrates, for learning to take have in our ability to process information.
place, new information must first be brought into
sensory memory. This is accomplished through Visual and Auditory Modalities
what is seen and/or heard. While other senses
obviously play a role, sensory memory is typi- Information first enters sensory memory by means
cally described in terms of visual and auditory of the senses. Sensory memory is considered to be
modality, as these are the senses that have been a short-term buffer limited in both capacity and
studied the most with regard to cognition and duration. Stimuli entering sensory memory are
6
stored in what is referred to as sensory registers tion. Prior knowledge found in LTM has a direct
(Brunning et al., 2004). It is in these registers influence on perception and pattern recognition
where information is held until it can be processed. (Adams, 1990), helping us make sense of what we
Sensory memory is typically described in two see and/or hear. The significance of prior knowl-
modalities: iconic memory, which handles visual edge on sensory memory brings up and important
stimuli (see Sperling, 1960) and echoic memory, point. Although the modal model is depicted as a
which handles auditory stimuli (see Darwin, system composed of discrete memory structures,
Turkey, & Crowder, 1972). Overall, evidence in each serving a specific function, these stores do
support of echoic memory is much less impres- not operate in isolation. Instead, it is believed
sive than that of iconic memory (Pashler, 1998). that there is a substantial amount of interactivity
Furthermore, echoic information is considered that occurs between the memory stores. What’s
to be more persistent in sensory memory, last- more, attention is considered a key contributor
ing approximately one to two seconds (Pashler, in the interactivity between these stores; helping
1998), than that of iconic information, which is us focus only on what is relevant, mitigating the
believed to last approximately one to two tenths extent to which STM becomes overwhelmed. (The
of a second (Ware, 2004). Practically speaking, importance of attention will become clearer as we
however, this difference is negligible, and both progress through this chapter.)
are viewed as short-term buffers. Unfortunately, research focused on attention
has been controversial at best. In fact, research
Perception and Attention on the subject has yielded contradictory findings.
Brunning et al. (2004) explains that conflicting
Perception is considered vital in the success- findings frequently result from the extremely
ful processing of incoming stimuli. Perceptual susceptible nature of attention allocation to the
analysis occurs by means of attention and the type of task being carried out. So a commonly
recognition of patterns (Brunning et al., 2004). accepted explanation as to the mechanics behind
That is, we focus our attention on information attention has yet to be adopted (Clark, 2003). What
that we consider meaningful. For example, we is agreed upon, however, is that we are severely
are constantly inundated with visual and auditory limited as to the quantity of information that can
information. We are incapable of processing all be attended to at any given time (e.g., Friedman,
information that enters through our senses, so Polson, & Dafoe, 1988; Spear & Riccio, 1994).
instead we only focus on information that we Many of us have experienced this in our profes-
perceive as significant and useful (Brunning et sional lives when trying to juggle multiple tasks
al., 2004; Clark, 2003). Attention can, therefore, all at the same time. In the end, we may realize
be defined as the cognitive process involved in that we were only successful at carrying out
selectively focusing on relevant information, while everything poorly. (The exception to this is the
at the same time, ignoring information that is not ability to automatically process tasks, which we
relevant. We attend to only certain information that, discuss next in this chapter.) Instead, we think
one way or another stimulates us. Our level of at- most effectively and maximize our ability for
tention can, therefore, vary depending on our state learning when we are selective in our attention,
of arousal which can be inadvertently affected by only forwarding pertinent information into STM.
ailments such as fatigue and anxiety (Clark, 2003). Doing so, as we will soon discuss, does not guar-
What we already know or what we are currently antee learning, however. Short-term memory has
processing in STM can also play a significant role its own share of limitations.
on what sensory information we focus our atten-
7
An Introduction to short- 568-0854. Furthermore, since it is a local num-

term memory ber, we more than likely have already chunked
the area code. By grouping the individual units
In this section, we turn our attention to the second of information into large blocks (as we did in
store of the modal model, short-term memory. We our example from seven chunks to that of two)
begin with a discussion of the capacity and dura- we are capable of managing larger amounts of
tion limitations of the memory store. In doing so, information in STM.
we present chunking and automaticity, means by There is yet another way in which to deal with
which we can increase the efficiency of STM. We the seven (plus or minus two) limitation. Automa-
then discuss working memory, a theoretical model ticity is the belief that if a task is repeated enough
explaining the information processing mechanics times, it can be performed automatically, to the
behind STM. extent that it bypasses and no longer needs STM
(Brunning et al., 2004; Clark, 2003). Performing
Capacity and Duration Limitations such tasks with little or no conscious attention
or thought alleviates the burden placed on STM.
Short-term memory has long been viewed as These available resources can then be used towards
the store limited in both capacity and duration the processing of new information. An example
where information is processed for meaning. The is the decoding you are doing right now while
earliest quantification of the capacity limitations reading this chapter. Another example commonly
of STM is the landmark article by Miller (1956) cited (e.g., Brunning et al., 2004) is that of driv-
who proposed that an “informational bottleneck” ing. You might have, at some point in your life,
(Summary section, ¶ 2) exists with regard to STM. witness a driver making a turn, which may have
Miller had proposed that STM is limited to seven consisted of the driver: shifting gears, speaking to
(plus or minus two) chunks at any one time. Think their passenger(s) or on their cell phone, activating
of a chunk as a meaningful grouping of informa- their turning signal, making the actual turn, and
tion. This means that we can only handle 5 to watching out for other drivers and pedestrians,
9 units of information in memory. Fortunately, all while obeying local traffic laws! Without the
the capacity limit of STM can be stretched by ability to perform tasks automatically, the capacity
increasing chunk size, thus providing an outlet limitation of STM would severely cripple our abil-
in which to dramatically improve information ity to function. Much like attention, automaticity
processing (Miller, 1956). This is important, is considered essential to learning.
because although STM is limited in the number Research quantifying the duration limit of
of chunks that can be held, these chunks are not STM can also be found dating as far back as half
restricted in their size. a century. Early studies found that information is
The example of chunking most commonly incredibly volatile in STM. For example, Peterson
offered is probably that of telephone numbers. and Peterson (1959) had demonstrated in two
When initially learning a new local phone number, experiments that information in STM is quickly
such as 5-6-8-0-8-5-4, each individual digit must forgotten within about 20 seconds if not rehearsed.
be chunked because the number has not yet been (Take a moment to recall, if you can, the telephone
committed to memory (i.e., encoded into LTM). number used in our chunking example. Do you
Based on the format of telephone numbers, we remember it?) Early psychologists believed this
know that we can chunk these digits into groups decay of information was due to time (Waugh &
of three and four numbers. Using our example, Norman, 1965). Subsequent studies (e.g., Waugh
we could consequently chunk the number as & Norman, 1965), however, have suggested in-
8
terference caused by later information (i.e., items two subsystems, the visuospatial sketchpad and
in a series) is more than likely the culprit of this the phonological loop, hold and process informa-
information decay (Greene, 1992; Solso, 2001). In tion. Spatial information is handled by the visu-
other words, information is easily forgotten if it is alspatial sketchpad, whereas acoustic and verbal
immediately followed by other information. information are handled by the phonological loop.
According to Baddeley (1986, 1998, 2002), these
Working Memory three systems work collaboratively to process all
information in working memory.
As an assortment of operations were being attrib- Much like STM, working memory is believed
uted to STM, little was being offered as to how to suffer from the same capacity and duration
these operations occurred, and by the later half limitations. Cognitive psychologists see work-
of the 20th century, researchers were becoming ing memory as a limited capacity information
dissatisfied with the idea of STM (Brunning et processing system which temporarily stores and
al., 2004). The complexities of STM eventually processes information for encoding into LTM. It
led cognitive theorists and psychologists towards is limited to seven (plus or minus two) chunks of
proposing theoretical models explaining the in- information at any one time. It is believed that as
formation processing mechanics behind STM, storage demands increase, available processing
or what would be called working memory. Al- resources decrease (Niaz & Logie, 1993). This
though the distinction between STM and working poses a significant challenge, as these limitations
memory varies, in the broadest sense, STM can be can seriously hamper learning. Although Badde-
viewed as an abstract and theory neutral premise ley’s model is seen as one of the most influential
explaining the temporary storage of informa- contributions to cognitive psychology, many
tion within behavioral psychology (e.g., Miller, feel that working memory is not a distinct store
1956); whereas, working memory is much more composed of separated components. But instead,
theoretical in nature, explaining the processing tightly integrated with and strongly influenced by
of information within cognitive psychology (e.g., LTM. As we discuss next, LTM plays a vital role
Baddeley, 1986, 1998). Working memory is seen in the processing of information within working
as the store responsible for active processing, un- memory.
like STM, which has been seen as a much more
passive store, responsible for the maintenance of An Introduction to Long-
information. term memory
Although various models have been created
(e.g., MacDonald & Christiansen, 2002; Niaz & Thus far we have discussed the first two stores
Logie, 1993), one of the most prominent contribu- of the modal model: sensory memory and STM.
tors to the theory of working memory is Baddeley (We will use the term “working memory” from
(1986, 1998, 2002), who proposed the model of this point forward.) In this section, we turn our
working memory. A three system model composed attention to the third and final component of the
of an executive control system, a phonological model, long-term memory. We begin by presenting
loop, and a visuospatial sketchpad. The executive the different types of knowledge found in LTM.
control system manages the two subsystems along We then describe how this knowledge is stored
with deciding what information to allow into work- and organized. We finish this section with a brief
ing memory and what course of action to take to discussion of the connections between LTM and
process information once in working memory. The working memory.
9
Classifications of Knowledge we posses. Because it is implicit, procedural

knowledge cannot be easily communicated. For
Long-term memory is the persistent store of all example, if someone were to ask you to clearly
the information we have amassed over the course explain how to ride a bicycle, could you do it?
of a lifetime. We call it a persistent store because Could you provide an unambiguous explanation
LTM is not susceptible to the capacity and dura- on how to play a musical instrument, such as the
tion limitations which plaque sensory memory clarinet? When performing a task that requires
and working memory. Long-term memory is procedural knowledge, we are not consciously
composed of three different types of knowledge: aware of the individual steps which comprise
declarative, procedural (John R. Anderson, 1983; it, and consequently, have difficulty putting into
Squire, 2008), and conditional (see Brunning et words how we go about performing such a task.
al., 2004). Declarative and procedural knowledge Finally, conditional knowledge is best de-
are the most commonly discussed in cognitive scribed as knowing “when” and “why” to use and
psychology, whereas conditional knowledge has not use declarative and procedural knowledge
not been as widely talked about (Brunning et al., (Brunning et al., 2004). Conditional knowledge
2004), but as we will soon see, is just as important is knowledge about why we should use certain
if not more. strategies, under what conditions to use them,
Declarative knowledge is best described as and why we should use them over other strategies
“what” we know about things (Brunning et al., we have. Conditional knowledge can be easily
2004). It is factual knowledge that can be easily argued as the most important of the three for
recalled and explicitly articulated. Declarative obvious reasons. It goes beyond facts and skills.
knowledge has been further categorized into Unfortunately, as you might suspect, it is also the
semantic memory and episodic memory (Squire, one that individuals struggle with the most. Mean-
2008; Tulving, 2002). Semantic memory refers to ing, unlike the learning of factual information or
the generalization of knowledge. It is composed of a skill, learning to make decisions is incredibly
factual information and general knowledge that is difficult. Think about how you decide to use one
unrelated to personal events in our lives. Examples strategy over that of another? How did you learn
include geographic knowledge we have about to do this?
places we have visited (and not visited for that
matter). Episodic memory, on the other hand, is Organization of Knowledge
knowledge that is associated with personal events
from our past. Episodic knowledge is autobio- There have been a number of theories proposed
graphical in nature (Tulving, 1983) and may date which attempt to explain how knowledge is rep-
as far back as childhood or as recently as today. resented in LTM. These theories are best suited
Retrieving episodic knowledge can help activate towards the different classifications of knowl-
the reconstruction of personal events. The opposite edge we have discussed thus far. As Brunning
is also true. The recollection of personal events et al. (2004) explain, the theories—concepts,
can help in the retrieval of specific knowledge propositions, and schemata—best describe ways
which might otherwise be inaccessible. of representing declarative knowledge, most no-
Whereas declarative knowledge deals with tably semantic memory; whereas the theories—
factual information, procedural knowledge is the productions and scripts—best describe ways of
knowledge we have about “how” to do things representing procedural knowledge. While all of
(Brunning et al., 2004). Procedural knowledge is these theories have made significant contribu-
the implicit knowledge we have about the skills tions to the understanding of human memory and
10
cognition, we focus solely on schemata (sing., For example, a medical professional, such as a
schema), which are mental frameworks explain- dermatologist might have a much more sophis-
ing the means by which knowledge is organized ticated schema about the human face than most
in LTM. adults, but at the same time, the average adult
Schemata are cognitive structures we use to might have a much more complex schema of the
organize our knowledge so that we can understand human face than most young children.
the world around us. Schemata are representations
of our prior knowledge and experience and are Working Memory and Long-
responsible for the encoding, storage, and retrieval Term Memory Interactions
of information (Brunning et al., 2004). Needless to
say, schemata are viewed as essential to informa- The complexity of schemata also has an impact on
tion processing. It is through schemata that our working memory, since LTM and working memory
current knowledge influences new information interact with one another. Recall our discussion
we are trying to learn. on the chunking of information? (Were you able
Schemata are viewed as having relationships to remember that telephone number? If so, can
between variables called slots (Brunning et al., you recall it again?) In that although working
2004). Think of these slots as “placeholders” that memory is limited in the number of chunks that
house information associated with the schemata. can be held, chunks are not restricted in their
As you might expect, schemata can be composed size. This has direct applicability to schemata.
of an array of slots. The information stored in The more sophisticated our schemata, the more
these slots control what knowledge we encode, we can chunk and temporarily store in working
store, retrieve, and even attend to. For example, memory. Everything you know about the human
if you were to bring the schema of “human face” face could be retrieved into working memory as
to mind, the schema’s slots would be instantiated a single chunk of information, making best use
with information that you’ve associated with the of working memory’s limited resources.
human face. More than likely your array of slots Automaticity also plays a significant role in the
might have the values “eyes”, “ears”, “nose”, interactions between LTM and working memory.
“mouth”, and “hair”; you would also have slots We discussed that if a task is repeated enough
for “eye color”, “hair color”, and so on. While times, it can be performed automatically, requir-
this example is a gross oversimplification, it helps ing very little from working memory’s already
illustrate this concept. By bringing the schema of limited resources. This is applicable to schemata
the human face into the foreground, you retrieve all as well; alleviating resources than can be used in
the knowledge that you’ve associated with it. the processing of new information.
This also brings up an important point; sche- All in all, schemata theory is one of the more
mata vary in complexity (Jonassen, Louise, & compelling explanations to have emerged. This
Grabowski, 1993). They can represent relatively popularity stems from the fact that the theory
simply concepts or very complex ones to the views the encoding of information as a construc-
extent of comprising an infinite array of values tive process (Brunning et al., 2004). Information
and relationships. The complexity of a schema is stored in LTM as representations of knowl-
relies heavily on the personal experiences of the edge. For information to be retrieved, it must be
individual. The more an individual knows about re-created based on the schemata instantiated at
something, the more complex their schema will the time (Brunning et al., 2004). In attempting to
be. It is also believed that the more sophisticated understand how knowledge is organized in LTM
the schema, the better the learning (Clark, 2003). as well as how LTM and working memory interact
11
with one another, we can come closer to under- can be used to help us in learning. Metacognitive
standing the complex nature of learning. In the knowledge is knowledge about what we need to
next section, we briefly introduce metacognition, do to accomplish our goal of learning and what
a concept just as important as attention to human strategies we need to employ to meet that goal.
information processing and learning. It is knowledge and beliefs about us. Not surpris-
ingly, metacognitive knowledge is described as
An Introduction to metacognition three components: declarative, procedural, and
conditional knowledge (Brown, 1987; Jacobs &
Spawning a wealth of research since it was first Paris, 1987). In the case of our college student, she
proposed nearly four decades ago, metacogni- might decide to study at the local library because
tion refers to an individual’s awareness of his or she knows that she will be better able to focus
her own cognitive processes and strategies (e.g., on the material and consequently learn more in a
Flavell, 1979). Simply put, metacognition is shorter period of time than if she were to go home
“thinking about thinking” (Brunning et al., 2004; and be tempted by the many distractions she has
Clark, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, 2006). It is the become accustomed to.
means by which we know what we know, but more Metacognitive regulation, on the other hand, is
importantly, what we don’t know. Metacognition the means by which we control cognition (Brown,
makes us aware of our own cognitive processes 1987). These are strategies that we use to manage
and suggests strategies to help us with learning. our cognitive activities. Metacognitive regulation
Metacognition is typically best explained with allows us to plan appropriate strategies and allocate
an example. Imagine a college student studying resources, monitor our cognitive activities, and
for a final exam. During the final class lecture, reflect on the outcomes of those activities, making
she asks the professor if the final exam will be changes if necessary. Our college student might
cumulative, composed of all the material taught use a number of strategies to help her learn the
in the course to-date. She has done well during material while at the library. These strategies will
the semester, and in the days prior to the exam, help her gauge whether or not she has learned the
chooses to only study the material that she has material well enough to get a satisfactory score
struggled with. Another example is the rate at on the final exam. She may decide to self-test
which you are reading this chapter. Depending after reading each section, by mentally asking
on your familiarity with the material, you may be herself questions about what she has just read. If
reading each section carefully, highlighting and/ she answers the questions to her own satisfaction,
or taking notes, or you may be quickly reading she may decide to continue to the next section,
through each section, skipping passages you are otherwise, she may instead decide to read the
comfortable with. Both of our examples show material a second time.
how metacognition is important in determining Without metacognition, our ability to func-
what we know and don’t know. It allows us to tion, let alone learn, becomes stippled. We know
maximize our time and only focus on what we from research on the subject that individuals of
believe is important for our own learning. equal intellect can experience varying levels of
Metacognition has been traditionally described success in learning based on their metacognitive
as encompassing both knowledge and regulation skills (Clark, 2003). As a result, individuals who
(e.g., Flavell, 1979). Metacognitive knowledge is have problems with metacognition, such as those
what we know about cognition (Brown, 1987). It with LDs, cannot actively engage in the task of
is more than knowing factual information. It is learning (Reid & Lienemann, 2006), placing these
knowledge about our own cognitive processes that individuals at a severe disadvantage. Further
12
compounding matters, research has told us that our memory as efficiently as possible, also seri-
metacognition develops later in life (Alexander, ously hampering learning.
Carr, & Schwanenflugel, 1995). We are simply Despite these cognitive roadblocks, humans
not born with a repertoire of metacognitive skills, are obviously fully capable of learning. There
but instead these skills develop as we mature and are three ways in which to improve learning
gain experience. according to Brunning et al. (2004). These are:
There is a great deal more to metacognition increase the amount of attention, decrease the
than we have been able to present in this chapter. amount of attention being consumed by each task,
However, we trust that our discussion has painted and limit attention to only important and relevant
a picture of the undeniable importance metacog- information to be learned. It should come as no
nition serves in human information processing surprise that attention is the means by which we
and learning. can increase our learning potential. Attention al-
This section also completes our discussion of lows us to focus only on relevant information in
the modal model of memory. Next, we end this our environment. It also helps us in the retrieval
chapter with a discussion of the ways in which of relevant prior knowledge found in LTM.
we can increase learning based on what we have Although attention can and has been viewed
presented thus far. in a number of ways, from a learning standpoint,
attention is typically described in two forms:
selective and divided. Selective attention is the
concLusIon process of selecting from among many potentially
available stimuli while at the same time screen-
Ways to Increase Learning ing out other stimuli (Pashler, 1998). The most
common example given for selective attention is
As we have learned, human information processing that of a dinner party in which focus is placed on
is rather constrained. According to Brunning et a single voice, or a single conversation, among
al. (2004), there are three ways in which learning many voices or conversations being held at the
is hindered. First, working memory is seen as a same time. Divided attention, on the other hand,
contradiction in terms. Its limitations cause it to is just the opposite. As the name implies, is the
be a bottleneck (Miller, 1956); yet, it is also the selection of many stimuli all at once (Pashler,
conduit for learning. This is a problem because 1998).
the acquisition of new knowledge relies so heav- Needless to say, we can maximize our chances
ily on the processing and storage capabilities of of learning by avoiding divided attention and
working memory (Low & Sweller, 2005; Sweller using selective attention as much as possible.
& Chandler, 1994). New information may po- This is easier said than done, however. As Clark
tentially overload working memory capacity (2003) points out, when focused on new material,
and subsequently encumber learning (Kalyuga, learners must be able to handle both selective and
Chandler, & Sweller, 1999; Sweller, van Mer- divided attention. She further explains that success
rienboer, & Paas, 1998). Second, the organization at managing divided attention is dependent on a
of knowledge in LTM may also be problematic number of factors.
depending on the construction of schemata. Prior First, the difficulty of the task plays a significant
knowledge retrieved into working memory which role in managing divided attention. We can handle
is not efficiently chunked can cause severe limi- more tasks at once if they are simple. The opposite
tations in our ability to learn. Finally, a lack of is true as well. The more complex the tasks, the
metacognitive ability can prevent us from using less likelihood we can perform more than one at
13
a time. The exception to this is automaticity. We and its design for individuals with LDs. In this
know that tasks which have been automated re- chapter we introduced the most popular infor-
quire very little resources from working memory. mation processing model, the modal model of
Automaticity can be acquired through extensive memory, a helpful way in which to explain the
repetition and practice. However, if the tasks active processes involved in the construction of
have not been automated, complex tasks should new knowledge. The modal model is composed
be broken down into smaller chunks whenever of three memory stores: sensory memory, STM or
possible. A complex task separated into smaller working memory, and LTM, each of which serve
simpler tasks can be more easily learned (Brun- a specific function, but as we have learned, are far
ning et al., 2004). from being distinct from one another.
Second, experience level plays a critical role. For learning to take place, we know that new
Individuals with significant prior knowledge use information must first be brought into sensory
much less attentional resources than those who memory. Information, presented as words and
have little knowledge about the instructional pictures, enters sensory memory through the eyes
material. The same can be said about novice and ears. These visual and auditory stimuli are held
learners when the material is complex in nature. for a brief period of time in the sensory registers.
Fortunately, sound instructional practices can Depending on where attention is focused, a subset
help. Clark (2003) notes that strategies (cues) such of this information in the registers is selected and
as the use of topic headers, learning objectives, retrieved into working memory. Once again, we
and support questions that can be used to steer cannot over emphasis the importance of atten-
attention towards important instructional mate- tion. By focusing attention on what is significant,
rial, lessening divided attention and maximizing only relevant information is moved into working
selective attention. (This is called the signaling memory. This not only helps increase the chances
principle and we discuss it in the third chapter in of learning new information, but at the same time,
this introduction.) helps mitigate cognitive load on the already taxed
Finally, the means by which the instructional resources of working memory.
material is presented is very important. There Once in working memory, the information is
are known benefits to presenting instructional temporarily stored for further processing. To help
material both visually and auditorially. Presenting facilitate learning, prior knowledge in LTM that
information in dual modality can best help utilize is relevant to new information currently stored
the limited resources of working memory (Mayer in working memory is stimulated. By stimulated
& Moreno, 2003) and thus mitigate cognitive we mean that schema relevant to new information
overload. Learning theories have emerged from is activated. This activated prior knowledge is
the study of working memory. These theories temporarily retrieved into working memory where
offer best practices in the design of instructional it is integrated with new information. Depending
material. In the next two chapters we will expound on how well the schema has been chunked will
upon this in significant detail. determine the degree to which prior knowledge
impacts the limited resources of working memory.
The more efficiently prior knowledge is organized,
summAry the more resources are left on hand in working
memory for use in learning new information.
This chapter is the first of three serving as the While in working memory, new information
introduction to this handbook addressing the must be rehearsed if it has any chance of being
relationships among human cognition and ATs encoding in LTM. Rehearsal helps in the integra-
14
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The more new information in working memory P. J. (1995). Development of metacognition in
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and instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/
observable behaviors are a result of conditioning;
Merrill/Prentice Hall.
the theory discredits mental activities.
Clark, R. (2003). Building Expertise: Cognitive Cognitive Disability: Any disorder which
Methods for Training and Performance Improve- affects mental processing.
ment (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: International Cognitive Psychology: A branch of psychol-
Society for Performance Improvement. ogy dedicated to the study of the human mind
focused on the acquisition, processing, and storage
Greene, R. L. (1992). Human memory: Para-
of information.
digms and paradoxes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Cognitive Load Theory: A theory proposed
Erlbaum.
by John Sweller and his colleagues focused on
Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2005). The Cambridge the limitations of working memory during in-
handbook of multimedia learning. New York: struction.
Cambridge University Press. Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning:
A theory credited to Richard E. Mayer and his
Pashler, H. E. (1998). The psychology of attention.
colleagues focused on best practices in the use
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
of visual and auditory information in multimedia-
Reid, R., & Lienemann, T. O. (2006). Strategy based instruction.
instruction for students with learning disabilities. Conditional Knowledge: A classification of
New York: The Guilford Press. knowledge found in long-term memory; can be
best described as knowing “when” and “why” to
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning
use declarative and procedural knowledge and
difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and
when not to use those (Brunning et al., 2004).
Instruction, 4(4), 295–312. doi:10.1016/0959-
Chunk: A meaningful grouping of informa-
4752(94)90003-5
tion; originally proposed in the 1956 paper “The
Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some
Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Informa-
key terms And deFInItIons tion” by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller
as the means to quantify the capacity limitations
Associationism: The theory that all conscious- of working memory.
ness can be explained by the association of sensory Declarative Knowledge: A classification of
stimulus with responses. knowledge found in long-term memory (John R.
Assistive Technology: Any form of technol- Anderson, 1983; Squire, 2008); deals specifically
ogy which can be used to aid individuals with with factual information and can be best described
disabilities. as knowing “what” (Brunning et al., 2004).
Attention: The cognitive process involved Divided Attention: The selection of many
in selectively focusing on relevant information, stimuli all at once (Pashler, 1998).
while at the same time, ignoring other irrelevant Echoic Memory: The temporary storage of
information. auditory stimuli in sensory memory.
18
Empiricism: The belief that knowledge origi- Metacognitive Regulation: A dimension of

nates from experience (John Robert Anderson, metacognition; the means by which we regulate
2004). our cognition (Brown, 1987).
Episodic Memory: A categorization of Modal Model of Memory: A widely accepted
declarative knowledge; knowledge associated representation of the information processing
with personal, autobiographical events (Tulving, model typically referred to as the classic Atkinson
1983). & Shiffrin (1968) model; depicted as three distinct
Executive Control System: One of three memory stores: sensory memory, STM or working
components comprising the model of working memory, and long-term memory.
memory; manages the visuospatial sketchpad and Perception: The process to recognize, store,
the phonological loop in addition to controlling and get meaning from sensory information.
information flow in working memory (Baddeley, Phonological Loop: One of three components
1986, 1998, 2002). comprising the model of working memory; respon-
Iconic Memory: The temporary storage of sible for the management of acoustic and verbal
visual stimuli in sensory memory. information (Baddeley, 1986, 1998, 2002).
Information Processing Models: Models of Prior Knowledge: Information already
human memory portraying the acquisition, stor- learned and held in long-term memory.
age, and retrieval of information (e.g., Atkinson Procedural Knowledge: A classification of
& Shiffrin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965). knowledge found in long-term memory (John R.
Learner-Centered: An instructional approach Anderson, 1983; Squire, 2008); deals specifically
which places focus on the manner in which tech- with skills and can be best described as knowing
nologies can be used in the promotion of human “how” (Brunning et al., 2004).
cognition (Mayer, 2005b). Radical Behaviorism: A branch of stimulus-
Learning Disability: A heterogeneous group response psychology credited to American psy-
of disorders manifested by significant difficulties chologist, B. F. Skinner which postulated that
in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, all measurable behavior can be predicted, and
reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical consequently controlled.
abilities (National Joint Committee on Learning Selective Attention: The process of selecting
Disabilities, 1991). from among many potentially available stimuli
Long-Term Memory (LTM): A memory while at the same time screening out other stimuli
store responsible for the persistent storage of the (Pashler, 1998).
personal experiences, general and factual knowl- Semantic Memory: A categorization of de-
edge, and skills accumulated over the course of clarative knowledge; refers to factual and general
a lifetime. knowledge unrelated to personal, autobiographi-
Metacognition: Refers to an individual’s cal events.
awareness of his or her own cognitive processes Sensory Memory: A temporary memory store
and strategies (e.g., Flavell, 1979); commonly responsible for the handling of visual and auditory
referred to as “thinking about thinking” (Brun- sensory information.
ning et al., 2004; Clark, 2003; Reid & Lienemann, Sensory Register: A temporary buffer respon-
2006). sible for the storage of sensory stimuli (Brunning
Metacognitive Knowledge: A dimension of et al., 2004).
metacognition; refers to what we know about our Schemata (sing., Schema): A popular expla-
own cognitive processes (Brown, 1987). nation as to the organization of knowledge found
in long-term memory.
19
Short-Term Memory (STM): A memory Technology-Centered: An approach which

store responsible for the temporary, passive stor- places focus on the capabilities of the technol-
age of information; cognitive psychologists have ogy and not necessarily on the capabilities of the
since adopted a much more active view–working learner (Mayer, 2005b).
memory. Visuospatial Sketchpad: One of three compo-
Signaling Principle: An instructional principle nents comprising the model of working memory;
proposing that learners learn more when cues are responsible for the handling spatial information
added to highlight the organization of the essential (Baddeley, 1986, 1998, 2002).
material (Mayer, 2005a). Working Memory: A temporary memory store
Slot: The core component of schemata; responsible for the active processing of informa-
considered “placeholders” containing specific tion; the most widely accepted model is that by
information about the concept represented by the cognitive psychologist Alan D. Baddeley who
schema (Brunning et al., 2004). proposed the model of working memory.
20
21
Chapter 2
Managing Cognitive Load
in the Design of Assistive
Technology for Those with
Learning Disabilities
Boaventura DaCosta
Soonhwa Seok
AbstrAct
This is the second of three chapters serving as the introduction to this handbook which addresses the
relationship between human cognition and assistive technologies and its design for individuals with cog-
nitive disabilities. In this chapter the authors present strategies to manage cognitive load in the design of
instructional materials for those with learning disabilities. The authors introduce cognitive load theory,
which proposes a set of instructional principles grounded in human information processing research
that can be leveraged in the creation of efficient and effective learning environments. They attempt to
separate conjecture and speculation from empirically-based study and consolidate more than twenty-
five years of research to highlight the best ways in which to increase learning. Altogether, the authors
affirm the approach discussed in the last chapter—that technology for learning should be created with
an understanding of design principles empirically supported by how the human mind works, particularly
when it comes to the design of assistive technologies for individuals with learning disabilities.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch002
Managing Cognitive Load in the Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities
IntroductIon have examined cognitive load under the premise

of the working memory overload hypothesis (e.g.,
cognitive Load, Assistive Niaz & Logie, 1993), the most predominant work
technology, and those with on cognitive load can be attributed to cognitive
Learning disabilities load theory (CLT) (e.g., Chandler & Sweller,
1991; Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller,
In the last chapter, we learned that human informa- 2001; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995; Sweller,
tion processing is constrained in both capacity and 1999; Sweller et al., 1998)—a learning theory
duration. We explained how working memory, a focused on the limitations of working memory
system that temporarily stores and manages infor- during instruction.
mation for performing complex cognitive tasks, This is the second of three chapters serving as
is a contradiction in terms. Its limitations cause the introduction to this handbook which addresses
it to be a bottleneck, restricted to seven (plus or the relationship between human cognition and
minus two) chunks of information at any given assistive technologies (ATs) and its design for
time (Miller, 1956); yet, it is also the conduit for individuals with cognitive disabilities. In this
learning. This is a problem because the acquisition chapter we present strategies to manage cognitive
of new knowledge relies so heavily on the process- load in the design of instructional materials for
ing and storage capabilities of working memory those with LDs. We introduce CLT, which pro-
(Low & Sweller, 2005; Sweller & Chandler, 1994). poses a set of instructional principles grounded in
New information may potentially overload work- human information processing research that can
ing memory capacity and subsequently encumber be leveraged in the creation of efficient and effec-
learning (Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1999; tive instructional material. We attempt to separate
Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). conjecture and speculation from empirically-based
While we are all confronted by these infor- study and consolidate more than twenty-five years
mation processing roadblocks, individuals with of research to highlight the best ways in which
cognitive disabilities are at particular risk. There to increase learning. This chapter also serves as
has been considerable research focused on work- scaffolding for the next chapter where we pres-
ing memory and children with learning disabilities ent the cognitive theory of multimedia learning
(LDs). Generally speaking, research on the matter (CTML), a learning theory which focuses on
suggests that children with LDs have difficulty best practices in the use of visual and auditory
with working memory in areas such as reading and information in multimedia-based instruction.
mathematics (e.g., Bull, Johnston, & Roy, 1999; Altogether, we affirm the approach discussed in
de Jong, 1998; Hitch & McLean, 1991; Keeler & the last chapter—that technology for learning
Swanson, 2001; McLean & Hitch, 1999; Passol- should be created with an understanding of de-
unghi & Siegel, 2004). For example, those with sign principles empirically supported by how the
reading disabilities are not poor readers, but have human mind works, particularly when it comes
less working memory capacity than more skilled to the design of ATs for individuals with LDs.
readers (Swanson & Siegel, 2001). Before we present these instructional principles,
Fortunately, there has been considerable re- we begin this chapter with an in-depth discussion
search in the study of cognitive load with regard to of CLT and its history.
working memory. Even though some researchers
22
bAckground of which have been published in peer-reviewed

journals that have been available for scrutiny by
What is cognitive Load theory? researchers, educators, and practitioners for the
last 25 years.
Originating in the 1980s by John Sweller and Since the theory is firmly grounded in the
undergoing substantial growth in later decades study of human cognition, it is based on a num-
by researcher from around the globe (F. Paas, ber of assumptions: cognitive tasks are carried
Renkl, & Sweller, 2003) (see Clark, Nguyen, & out in working memory (Shiffrin & Atkinson,
Sweller, 2006, for an in-depth historical account), 1969); working memory is limited in capacity
CLT is grounded in aspects of human cognitive (Baddeley, 1986, 1998) and is only capable of
architecture and information structure to provide processing a finite amount of information (recall
instructional principles best facilitating learning our discussing of chunking in the last chapter) at
given the limitations of working memory (Pollock, any one time (Miller, 1956); working memory is
Chandler, & Sweller, 2002). Put simply, CLT is composed of both visual and auditory information
a learning theory. It is grounded in the belief that processing channels (Paivio, 1990); efficiency and
instructional design needs to be driven by an under- unlimited capacity of long-term memory (LTM)
standing of human cognition because improperly to hold knowledge can be leveraged to overcome
presented instructional material may impose too working memory capacity limitations (Pollock
great a burden on working memory, subsequently et al., 2002); schemas held in LTM, which allow
leading to higher information processing load on multiple elements of information to be categorized
the already limited cognitive resources of working as a single element (Sweller, 2005a), require less
memory (Sweller et al., 1998). Without knowl- working memory capacity (Pollock et al., 2002);
edge of the relevant aspects of human cognitive and cognitive load can be reduced through auto-
structures and their organization into a coherent mation, which allows schemas to be processed
cognitive architecture, it is thought that the effi- automatically rather than consciously (Kotovsky,
ciency of instructional material is likely to suffer. Hayes, & Simon, 1985; Schneider & Shiffrin,
Consequently, information should be structured 1977; Richard M. Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977).
to reduce preventable load on working memory While the goal of CLT is the reduction of
(Kalyuga, Chandler, & Sweller, 1998; Sweller, preventable load on working memory through the
1999; Sweller et al., 1998) by designing instruc- structuring of information (Kalyuga, Chandler,
tional material in such a way that it is processed & Sweller, 1998; Sweller, 1999; Sweller et al.,
more easily in working memory (Chandler & 1998), not all types of cognitive load are bad. As
Sweller, 1991). Cognitive load theory has thereby we will discuss next, some cognitive load can be
been used to bridge the gap between instructional beneficial (Clark et al., 2006).
principles and knowledge of human cognition
(Sweller, 2005a).
This is what sets CLT apart from other theo- tHe tHree tyPes oF
ries. While it may be easy to find information cognItIve LoAd
on instructional design, such information may
be solely based on conjecture and speculation. Cognitive load theory distinguishes between
Cognitive load theory, on the other hand, is em- three types of load: (a) extraneous, (b) intrinsic
pirically grounded in research found in the field (Pollock et al., 2002; Sweller, 2005a; Sweller
of cognitive psychology. Research, we might & Chandler, 1994; Sweller et al., 1998), and (c)
add, that can be found in dozens of articles, most germane (Sweller, 2005a; Sweller et al., 1998).
23
Each of these must be accounted for in the design with a single source, thus reducing extraneous load
of instructional material if the instruction is to be because learners do not need to mentally integrate
efficient and effective. multiple sources of information. The modality
principle reduces extraneous load through using
extraneous Load both the visual and auditory processors of working
memory. While finally, the redundancy principle
Extraneous load (also called irrelevant load) is replaces multimodal sources of information that
caused in situations where instructional material are self-contained (i.e., can be understood in
is created using instructional design that ignores isolation) with a single source of information,
the limitations of working memory and conse- reducing extraneous load typically caused by the
quently fails to focus working memory resources unnecessary processing of superfluous informa-
on schema construction and automation (Sweller, tion (van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005).
2005a). As the name implies, extraneous load is
irrelevant to the learning goals at hand (Clark et Intrinsic Load
al., 2006). In fact, extraneous load is detrimental
to learning. It can result in longer learning times, Unlike extraneous load, intrinsic load is caused
unsatisfactory learning outcomes, or both (Clark by the natural complexity of the information that
et al., 2006). Extraneous load is the worst of the must be processed. Intrinsic load is not under the
three types of cognitive load because it wastefully control of the instructional designer, but instead
consumes the already limited resources of working is determined by levels of element interactivity
memory. Fortunately, extraneous load is consid- (Sweller, 2005a). Think of an element as a single
ered to be under the control of the instructional unit of information to be processed in working
designer (Pollock et al., 2002) and is therefore memory. To an extent this is similar to the chunking
avoidable if proper steps are taken. concept that we discussed in the last chapter.
There has been extensive research on extrane- These elements may interact with one another at
ous load (van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005). From different levels of complexity. For instance, some
this research, a number of effects have emerged information can be learned individually, element
to include worked examples (e.g., Cooper & by element (Pollock et al., 2002). Sweller (2005a)
Sweller, 1987; Kalyuga et al., 2001; Stark, Mandl, has provided the example of learning nouns of a
Gruber, & Renkl, 2002; Van Gerven, Paas, Van foreign language to demonstrate this idea. Each
Merrienboer, & Schmidt, 2002), split-attention noun translation can be learned independent of
(e.g., Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper, other translations. For example, the noun “cat”
1990), modality (e.g., Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & can be learned independently of the noun “dog.”
Sweller, 1997), and redundancy (e.g., Chandler Element interactivity in this case is low because
& Sweller, 1991). These effects can yield better only a limited number of elements need to be
schema construction and a decrease in extraneous processed in working memory at any given time
load (van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005) when ap- to learn the information. As a result, cognitive
plied correctly as instructional principles. load on working memory is also low (Pollock et
For example, the worked examples principle al., 2002; Sweller, 2005a).
replaces conventional practice problems with Some information, however, cannot be
worked-out examples, reducing extraneous load learned in isolation, but instead must be learned
by focusing the learner’s attention on problem in the context of other material. In other words,
states and useful solution steps. The split-attention meaningfully learning of an element cannot oc-
principle replaces multiple sources of information cur without simultaneously learning other ele-
24
ments (Sweller, 2005a). Take the construction of first in the lesson. This allows instructional design-
sentences, an example provided by Clark et al. ers to establish prerequisites, sequence content,
(2006). The composition of sentences requires and scaffold complex information (Clark et al.,
more than the mere understanding of words. 2006). The segmenting principle, on the other
There are grammar and syntax rules that must hand, affords the learner greater control during
be taken into consideration as well. Unlike the the learning process by allowing the learner to
learning of words that may be done in isolation decide potentially what instructional material to
of one another, the composition of sentences is a receive and when.
much more complex task, requiring the juggling
of multiple elements simultaneously. Pollock et germane Load
al. (2002) provide the example of understanding
an electric circuit to further demonstrate this idea. Germane load (also called effective load) is caused
Components of a circuit may be learned in isola- by instructional design implementations that aid
tion of one another; however, an understanding in meaningful learning. Clark et al. (2006) de-
of the entire electrical circuit cannot be achieved scribe germane load “as relevant load imposed by
without simultaneously considering several com- instructional methods that lead to better learning
ponents and their relations. Element interactivity outcome” (p. 11). Germane load is meaningful
in this case is high because many elements must learning resulting from schema construction and
be processed in working memory simultaneously. automation (F. Paas et al., 2003; Sweller, 2005a).
As a result, cognitive load on working memory is Like extraneous load and unlike intrinsic load,
also high (Pollock et al., 2002; Sweller, 2005a). germane load is considered to be under the control
This is why complex instructional material is dif- of the instructional designer. Whereas extrane-
ficult to comprehend, because of the high element ous load interferes with learning, germane load
interactivity and the resulting heavy cognitive enhances learning. Extraneous load can tax the
load it imposes on working memory (Chandler & limited resources of working memory; whereas
Sweller, 1996; Marcus, Cooper, & Sweller, 1996; in germane load, those resources are devoted to
Sweller & Chandler, 1994). schema acquisition and automation (F. Paas et
Intrinsic load cannot be avoided or changed al., 2003).
(Clark et al., 2006); however, it can be managed. If used properly, germane load can prove
There is research which has investigated various advantageous to learners in applying what they
instructional methods on intrinsic load, although have learned to new tasks. Ironically, germane
not to the extent that can be found with extrane- load is the least studied to date with regard to
ous load. From this research, the pre-training and instructional methods. However, as we will soon
segmenting effects have emerged. These effects learn, the effect that has shown promise thus far
can be used to manage intrinsic load on the lim- is worked examples. This effect can be used to
ited resources of working memory when applied promote germane load on the limited resources of
correctly as instructional principles. working memory when applied correctly as an in-
For example, the pre-training principle can structional principle. Overall, when implemented
help manage intrinsic load when complex in- properly into instructional material, germane load
formation is decomposed into smaller, simpler, allows learners to build a repertoire of skills and
and more manageable named concepts. These knowledge which they can apply to different situ-
concepts and their behaviors can then be taught ations (Clark et al., 2006).
25
AvoIdIng extrAneous, into consideration in the design of instructional

mAnAgIng IntrInsIc, And material, because this helps in determining the
PromotIng germAne LoAd level of intrinsic load (van Merrienboer & Ayres,
2005). It also aids in determining to what effort
When handling extraneous, intrinsic, and germane extraneous load should be avoided.
load it is important to understand that these types What’s more, research has shown that instruc-
of cognitive load are additive (Clark et al., 2006; tional principles used to avoid extraneous load only
Paas et al., 2003). We learned earlier in this chapter improve the learning of complex tasks (Clark et al.,
that intrinsic load is not under the control of the 2006). To compound matters further, extraneous
instructional designer, but is instead caused by the load should only be avoided when it helps in miti-
natural complexity of the information that must gating the complexity of the instructional material
be processed. Although there are instructional if the learners are considered novices. Employing
principles that can be used to help with intrinsic instructional principles to avoid extraneous load
load, such as the pre-training and segmenting prin- when learners are experts in the subject matter
ciples, in general, if the information to be learned is may actually impede learning (Clark et al., 2006;
complex and intrinsic load is high, actions must be Paas et al., 2003; van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005).
taken to lower extraneous load (van Merrienboer This is because experts have more sophisticated
& Ayres, 2005). If extraneous load is not lowered, schemata as a result of their prior knowledge,
the total intrinsic and extraneous load may leave requiring far less cognitive resources than those
little, if any, cognitive resources available within of novices (Clark et al., 2006).
working memory for the incorporation of germane As it can be seen from our discussion, though,
load. For the best learning outcome possible, and the application of CLT is in no way “cookie-cutter”,
to avoid cognitive overload, it is vital to manag- but instead must be tailored to the situation at
ing intrinsic load by incorporating instructional hand (Clark et al., 2006). Avoiding extraneous,
principles that help avoid extraneous load and managing intrinsic, and promoting germane load
that help in promoting germane load whenever are dependent on the learners expertise level or
possible (Clark et al., 2006; F. Paas et al., 2003; prior knowledge, the complexity of the informa-
van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005). tion to be learned, and the instructional environ-
This is easier said than done. The problem- ment (Clark et al., 2006). We dedicate the rest of
atic nature of extraneous load on the learner is this chapter to discussing each of these types of
dependent on the level of intrinsic load or the cognitive load in detail, outlining the instructional
complexity of the information to be learned (van principles most applicable to these types of load
Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005); and herein lies the in the design of instructional materials.
rub, in that the complexity of a task is relative
to the expertise level or prior knowledge of the
learner. In the last chapter we discussed the con- AvoIdIng extrAneous LoAd
cept of schemata, which are mental frameworks
explaining the means by which knowledge is Extraneous load is the most detrimental of the
organized in LTM. Depending on our experience three cognitive loads because it wastefully con-
level or prior knowledge, our schemata about a sumes limited resources in working memory. It is
subject may be elementary or sophisticated. While completely under the control of the instructional
some information may be relatively complex to a designer and consequently can be avoided with
novice, the same information may be rudimentary initial forethought in the design of instructional
for an expert. The level of expertise must be taken material. Research into extraneous load has re-
26
sulted in the discovery of a number of effects that problems (Renkl, 2005). These are called worked
if implemented as instructional principles can be example-problem pairs and are implemented by
used to help alleviate cognitive load. We mentioned altering a worked example with a similar practice
these principles briefly earlier in this chapter. These problem (Clark et al., 2006).
principles are: worked examples, split-attention, One of the drawbacks with worked examples
modality, and redundancy. We discuss each of is that they must be studied in-depth to be of any
these principles next in greater detail. value. This becomes a problem if learners do not
make the effort to first study the presented worked
the Worked examples Principle example(s). This dilemma can be addressed with
the use of completion examples. Clark et al. (2006)
The worked examples principle (also referred to describe completion examples as a hybrid between
as the worked-out-examples principle) proposes worked examples and practice problems. The idea
that learners learn more deeply when studying behind the completion example is simple—some
worked examples than studying practice prob- steps are provided as worked example, whereas
lems (Sweller, 2005a). A worked example is a others are presented as practice problems. To-
“step-by-step demonstration of how to perform gether, worked and completion examples can be
a task or solve a problem” (Clark et al., 2006, p. used to help deal with the problem of the learner
190). Firmly grounded in CLT, it is believed that gaining experience and prior knowledge. Although
individuals gain a better understanding when ex- this is the goal of instruction, as we have already
posed to worked examples in initial cognitive skill discussed, worked examples can have negative
acquisition (Renkl, 2005). This is because novice effects on learning when learners have transitioned
learners have the most to learn. They typically have from novices to experts.
little experience with or prior knowledge of the Sweller and his colleagues call out the approach
information to be learned. So, as you might expect, of backwards fading, to help handle this situation.
as experience and prior knowledge increases, Backwards fading is a strategy in which worked
the benefits of worked examples decrease. This examples become gradually replaced with practice
should not be surprising. We learned earlier in the problems in a lesson as the learner gains expertise
chapter that employing instructional principles in the subject matter (Clark et al., 2006). Clark
to avoid extraneous load may actually impede et al. (2006) demonstrates this concept with an
learning when learners are experts in a subject example lesson composed of four problems. The
matter (Clark et al., 2006; Paas et al., 2003; van first problem may be a full worked example. The
Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005). next two problems may be completion examples,
Renkl (2005) explains that worked examples in which the second of the two examples includes
are normally composed of a problem formation, more practice than completion steps. Finally, the
solutions steps, and a final solution. Typically fourth step is a full practice problem.
applied in the mathematics and physics domains, Care should be taken when applying worked
worked examples are generally applied in the fol- examples. Worked examples which are improperly
lowing way: first, the principle, rule, or theorem is formatted may cause more harm that good (Clark
first introduced to the learner; a worked example et al., 2006). To help aid the formatting of worked
is offered; and then one or more to-be-solved examples, other instructional principles can be
problems are given. Worked examples are most applied, such as the two principles we will discuss
efficient when offered in a series or paired with next, the split-attention and modality principles.
27
Empirical Support for the practice problems depended on prior knowledge

Worked Examples Principle and experience level.
There is wealth of researching investigating the the split-Attention Principle

effects of worked examples on learning dating back
25 years. We discuss three here, but you can find Examined in a number CLT related studies, the
an in-depth discussion of these studies and others split-attention principle is derived from the worked
in Sweller (2005b) and Clark et al. (2006). example principle (Sweller et al., 1998). Split-
The earliest quantification was that of Sweller attention occurs when multiple sources of informa-
and Cooper (1985) who used algebra to show tion must be mentally integrated in a simultaneous
that worked examples could be used more con- manner before meaningful learning can take place.
structively than practice-based problems. In the Because multiple sources of information must be
study, one group was assigned eight practice-based mentally integrated, extraneous cognitive load is
problems, whereas the other group was assigned increased, negatively impacting learning (Ayres
four worked example-problem pairs. Findings & Sweller, 2005). Clark et al. (2006) uses the
showed that those who received the worked ex- example of having to look at an illustration on
amples completed a test of six new problems in one page, while reading the accompanying text
significantly less time than those who had not. on another. This causes split-attention because
In a study conducted by Paas (1992), practice both the illustration and text cannot be learned
problems, worked examples and practice pairs, in isolation, but are dependent on one another,
and completion example and practice pairs were causing additional load on working memory as a
compared for their learning effectiveness in the result of having to integrate the disjointed sources
study of statistical concepts. The completion of of information.
the practice problem took significantly more These multiple sources of information are fre-
time than completion of the worked examples or quently represented as pictures and accompanying
completion examples. In fact, more was learned text (Ayres & Sweller, 2005; van Merrienboer &
from the worked and completion examples than Ayres, 2005), but can also be represented as text
the practice problems. with text, or different forms of multimedia. Since
Finally, Kalyuga et al. (2001) studied instances there are always at least two sources of information
where practice problems were superior over that involved in multimedia, it is very susceptible to
of worked examples. The researchers studied split-attention (Sweller, 2005a). Split-attention can
worked examples to practice problems over a be avoided, however. If the instructional material
period of time. Apprentices of mechanical trade is presented as a figure and text, split-attention can
were presented with one of two lessons, composed be circumvented by integrating the figure and text
of a series of worked examples or practice prob- together (Sweller & Chandler, 1994). This is the
lems. Test findings showed that learners initially premise behind the split-attention principle.
benefited most from the worked examples, show- It is important to understand that split-attention
ing lower cognitive load than those who solved is only applicable when the sources of informa-
the practice problems. However, as time passed tion are unintelligible from one another. If a
and experience grew, worked examples proved figure and text can be learned in isolation of one
less beneficial and the problem-solving became another, meaning they are both self-explanatory,
superior. All in all, Kalyuga et al. (2001) con- split-attention will not occur (Clark et al., 2006).
cluded that the benefits of worked examples and In addition, split-attention is only applicable with
28
complex information. This should come as no The study by Sweller et al. (1990) would soon
surprise. We learned earlier in this chapter that follow, which reproduced the study by Tarmizi
extraneous load should only be avoided when and Sweller (1988), but used coordinated geom-
it helps in mitigating the complexity of instruc- etry examples instead. They found that worked
tional material when the learners are considered examples depicted in the traditional way did
novices. not provide learners with an advantage. Instead,
The example commonly provided by Sweller what proved beneficial was an integrated worked
and his colleagues (see Ayres & Sweller, 2005; example format, in which text was placed on
Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Sweller et al., 1998) the diagrams, reducing unnecessary searching,
has been that of geometry instruction. The study of consequently reducing cognitive load and help-
geometry typically requires the learner to examine ing learners master the information. The findings
a figure and associated text. Neither the figure of the Sweller et al. (1990) study showed that
nor text are intelligible in isolation, but instead learners who received the integrated worked ex-
need to be mentally integrated for meaningful amples performed significantly better than those
learning to occur. This involves finding relation- who received those traditionally formatted. More
ships between elements of the figure and text. If studies would follow, such as that by Ward and
these relationships are not formed, meaningful Sweller (1990), who showed similar findings to
learning does not occur. Geometry instruction that of Sweller et al. (1990). Other studies include
is considered inherently complex by nature and, the CTML related studies by Richard E. Mayer
therefore, an amount of intrinsic cognitive load and his colleagues, most notably that by Mayer
is unavoidable. However, in separating the figure and Moreno (1998), which pioneered the way for
and text, extraneous cognitive load is also im- the modality principle.
posed. If the split-attention principle is followed
and the figure and text are incorporated together, the modality Principle
it is believed that extraneous cognitive load can
be greatly reduced if not eliminated (Sweller & The modality principle proposes that presenting
Chandler, 1994). information in dual modalities (i.e., partly visual
and partly auditory) spreads total induced load
Empirical Support for the across the visual and auditory channels of working
Split-Attention Principle memory thereby reducing cognitive load (Low &
Sweller, 2005; Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Sweller
The earliest research on split-attention was et al., 1998).
conducted by Tarmizi and Sweller (1988) who In other words, a modality effect occurs when
examined the effectiveness of worked examples material, such as text, is presented in an auditory
on learning geometry. Their findings showed rather than written mode when integrated with
that learners who studied worked examples did other non-verbal material (Sweller et al., 1998;
not have an advantage over those who did not. Tindall-Ford et al., 1997), such as illustrations,
A finding that contradicted earlier investigations photos, animations, or video. This is important as
of the benefits of worked examples. Tarmizi and learning novel material can be impeded due to the
Sweller (1988) concluded that their findings were capacity limitations of working memory (Low &
a result of participants having to integrate two Sweller, 2005; Sweller & Chandler, 1994). Much
sources of information, diagrams and text, which like split-attention, the modality principle is only
resulted in a split-attention. applicable when both sources of information are
essential to learning. Both visual and auditory
29
sources must be unintelligible when in isola- Mousavi et al. (1995), who has examined presen-
tion requiring mental integration for meaningful tation sequence and modality and split-attention
learning to occur. If both sources are intelligible, effects using geometry instruction. Their findings
other principles, such as the redundancy principle have shown instructional material presented in
should be leveraged instead (Low & Sweller, visual and auditory modes is significantly better
2005). Furthermore, as you probably have already than the same instructional material presented
guessed, the use of audio is only beneficial for in a visual manner only. Their research has also
novice learners, or those with little prior knowl- enforced the idea that the benefits of multimodal
edge (Clark et al., 2006). material occurred irrespective of either sequential
The modality principle has been thoroughly or simultaneous presented information. Similar
examined in numerous studies in past decades. studies would follow, examining the modality
Some of the earliest research focused specifically effect in the context of CLT (e.g., Jeung & Chan-
on the notion of distinct, yet interrelated infor- dler, 1997; Leahy, Chandler, & Sweller, 2003;
mation processing channels in working memory Tindall-Ford et al., 1997).
for visual and auditory information (see Penney, It should come as no surprise that the modal-
1989, for an in-depth review). Much of the early ity principle is extremely relevant in the context
research demonstrated that a dual mode of pre- of learning through multimedia (Low & Sweller,
senting information can result in increased perfor- 2005). Consequently the modality principle is
mance, suggesting that there are modality specific grounded in a wealth of research, thoroughly stud-
processing resources in working memory (Low & ied in number of experiments (Jeung & Chandler,
Sweller, 2005). This is consistent with Baddeley’s 1997, see experiments 1, 2, and 3; Kalyuga et al.,
(1986, 1998, 2002) model of working memory. 1999, see experiment 1; Mayer, Dow, & Mayer,
(We will learn in the next chapter that the modality 2003, see experiment 1; Mayer & Moreno, 1998,
principle is also consistent with Paivio’s (J. M. see experiments 1 and 2; Moreno & Mayer, 1999,
Clark & Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1971, 1990) dual see experiments 1 and 2; 2002, see experiments
coding theory, the idea that cognition is composed 1a, 1b, 1c, 2a, and 2b; Moreno, Mayer, Spires, &
of verbal and non-verbal subsystems.) Lester, 2001, see experiments 4a, 4b, 5a, and 5b).
Cognitive load theory leveraged this early These experiments have studied a wide variety
work, which established the premise that perfor- of instructional topics to include math problems,
mance can be increased by presenting information the formation of lightning, a car brake system,
in dual rather than single modalities, to suggest electrical engineering, an aircraft simulation, an
that a modality effect can be obtained under environmental science game, and the mechanics
occurrences of split-attention (Low & Sweller, behind an electric motor (see Mayer (2005b) for
2005). In fact, according to Clark et al. (2006), a discussion of the these experiments and Mayer
the most compelling finding of CLT research is (2005c) for an in-depth discussion of the modality
the modality effect. principle). While we do not provide a discussion
of each of the studies, we can tell you that across
Empirical Support for the all experiments, learners who received animation
Modality Principle with concurrent narration multimedia presenta-
tions performed better on transfer tests than did
Perhaps the most well-known study addressing learners who received the text-based presentations
split-attention and modality (using CLT as the theo- (Mayer, 2003).
retical foundation) is the research conducted by
30
the redundancy Principle Empirical Support for the

Redundancy Principle
The redundancy principle proposes that learners
learn more deeply when identical information is Although signs of a redundancy effect can be
not presented in more than one format (Mayer, seen in a number of studies spanning the last two
2005a). The redundancy principle is based on decades, the redundancy principle did not formally
the premise that less is more. When it comes to emerge until recently. Sweller (2005b) blames this
instructional material, however, this practice can on a lack of a theoretical explanation. The principle
be sometimes difficult to accept, primarily because was thought as a new discovery each and every
those who develop instruction sometimes want to time it appeared, but each subsequent discovery
include as much information as possible. Accord- was not linked to the last. Sweller (2005b) points
ing to Sweller (2005b), this is typically done as to a number of studies to substantiate this claim,
a way to enrich or elaborate upon information. among them the study by Chandler and Sweller
However, research on the matter suggests that (1991). Although the study focused on the effect of
the use of redundant information in instructional split-attention, Chandler and Sweller (1991) noted
material can interfere with learning (Sweller, that with some types of instructional material (i.e.,
2005b). the flow of blood in the heart, lungs, and body),
We have learned that working memory is there was no difference between integrated mate-
limited in both capacity and duration. Redundant rial and material that imposed a split-attention. The
information places unnecessarily load on work- cause for this was the redundancy effect.
ing memory. Therefore, the redundancy principle According to Sweller (2005b), since the Chan-
should be applied in the design of instructional dler and Sweller (1991) study, the redundancy
materials. The redundancy principle advocates the effect has been shown in a variety of context to
replacement of multiple sources of information include the experiments by Sweller and Chandler
that are self-contained with a single source of (1994), Chandler and Sweller (1996), and Kalyuga
information; reducing extraneous load typically et al. (1999). There have also been a number of
caused by the unnecessary processing of redundant studies by Mayer and his colleagues examining
information (van Merrienboer & Ayres, 2005). In the redundancy effect with regard to multimedia.
other words, only present the minimum informa- These studies have been conducted by Mayer,
tion that is required to meet the instructional goals Heiser, and Lonn (2001) and Moreno and Mayer
at hand, distinguishing between “need-to-have” (2000a, 2000b). For an in-depth discussion of
information and information that is “nice-to-have” these studies and others in the context of the
(Clark et al., 2006). Adding any more than is es- redundancy principle, see Sweller (2005b) and
sential to the understanding of the information Clark et al. (2006).
to be learned and you risk unnecessary load on
the already taxes resources of working memory.
Instructional material should be concise, clear, and mAnAgIng IntrInsIc LoAd
to the point. This is particularly important to those
with LDs in mathematics, for example, who may Recall from our earlier discussion that intrinsic
have problems in the ability to inhibit extraneous load is not in the control of the instructional de-
information due to a general working memory signer because it is based on the complexity of
deficit (Passolunghi & Siegel, 2004). the information to be learned. Further recall that
31
the pre-training and segmenting principles are or perhaps even how you go about doing your
two instructional principles that have emerged grocery shopping.
from the research that can be leveraged to help in
managing the amount of intrinsic load on work- Handling Process and
ing memory. One promotes deeper learning when Procedure Knowledge
named concepts are presented first, whereas the
other promotes deeper learning when learners To avoid cognitive overload when dealing with
are allowed to pace themselves through instruc- process knowledge, the individual components
tion. We describe each of these principles next comprising a system should be first introduced
in greater detail. before the rest of the system. Clark et al. (2006)
point to the study by Mayer, Mathias, and Wet-
the Pre-training Principle zell (2002) as empirical support for this strategy,
who recommend “providing pre-training aimed
The pre-training principle is a load reducing at clarifying the behavior of the components of
method typically described as an instructional the system” (p. 154). To accomplish this, they
principle in the context of CTML. The principle propose that three steps be followed: decompose
proposes that learners learn more deeply when the system into components, visually segregate
they are aware of names and behaviors of main and name the components, and represent the
concepts (Mayer, 2005a; Mayer & Moreno, 2003). state change in each of the components (Mayer,
According to Mayer (2005b), the theoretical Mathias et al., 2002).
foundation for the pre-training principle is that it To avoid cognitive overload when dealing with
allows learners to build schemata or prior knowl- procedure knowledge, Clark et al. (2006) present
edge about essential concepts or components that two alternative strategies based on the findings of
can be applied later in the learning process, thus Pollock et al. (2002, see experiments 2 and 3). In
decreasing the amount of cognitive load. This the first strategy, each step should be first taught,
strategy may be particularly useful to individuals the learner should be allowed to practice each step,
who have difficulty processing information as and then each step should be taught again, but this
continuous units of information, such as those time accompanied by supporting information. In
with LDs. the second strategy, the support information is
Clark et al. (2006) describe this concept as first taught and then each step (Clark, 1999, as
segmenting. Furthermore, they indicate that it cited in Clark et al., 2006).
should be implemented differently depending on These strategies have their advantages and
whether you are dealing with process or procedure disadvantages. Both divide the complex informa-
knowledge. They define process knowledge as “a tion to be learned into two major segments, that
flow of events that summarize the operations of of steps and supporting information (Clark et al.,
business, scientific, or mechanical systems” (p. 2006). However, in implementing the first strategy,
163) and procedure knowledge as “knowledge the learner may not fully grasp the steps because
underpinning performance of a task that is com- they are taught out of context of the supporting
pleted more or less the same way each time” (p. information. On the other hand, in implementing
168). Examples of process knowledge are how the second strategy, hands-on experience is post-
a car break system and bicycle tire pump work, poned because the steps are not taught until after
while examples of procedure knowledge are the supporting information is presented (Clark et
the steps you take to start your car, computer, al., 2006). So, which strategy should be used? It is
32
really up to you to decide. As Clark et al. (2006) phase focused on how the individual components
indicate, there is insufficient research suggesting worked together within the entire system. The
one strategy is better than the other. second group received the same lesson, how-
ever, both phases focused on how the individual
Empirical Support for the components worked together within the entire
Pre-Training Principle system. The group who received the pre-training
lesson outperformed those who did not receive
The empirical basis for the pre-training principle the pre-training lesson on a problem-solving test.
lies in the studies conducted by Mayer, Mathias Although the findings presented in these seven
et al., (2002, see experiments 1, 2, and 3), Mayer, experiments are promising, further research is
Mauntone, and Prothero (2002, see experiments 2 needed in studying the conditions in which the
and 3) and Pollock et al. (2002, see experiments pre-training principle is most effective.
2 and 3). We have already discussed the Mayer,
Mathias et al., (2002) study to some extent. In the the segmenting Principle
study, learning outcomes were compared between
two groups who viewed a multimedia presentation The segmenting principle is also a load reducing
on a car break system or a bicycle pump system. method typically described as an instructional
In the car break system experiment, those in the principle in the context of the CTML. The principle
pre-training group were exposed to the names and proposes that deeper learning can occur when a
states of the components comprising the break lesson is presented in learner-controlled segments
system before viewing the presentation. In the rather than continuous units (Mayer, 2005a; Mayer
bicycle pump system experiment, those in the & Moreno, 2003). This strategy allows learners
pre-training group were exposed to a model of to pace themselves as they move through instruc-
a bicycle pump and allowed to operate it before tion. The premise behind the principle is to slow
viewing the presentation. In both experiments, the pace of instruction so that learners have more
the pre-training groups outperformed the other time to process the information to be learned.
two groups in problem-solving tests. This is especially useful in situations where the
In the Mayer, Mauntone, et al. (2002) study, instructional material is presented at too fast a
learning outcomes were compared between two rate for the learner. The principle places learners
groups who played a simulation game to learn in control of the learning process. Learners can
about geology. Both groups were asked to identify decide when (i.e., at what speed) the instructional
a geological feature found on the earth’s surface. material is presented, but could also be given the
One group was afforded pre-training in the form capability to decide what instructional material
of illustrations depicting geological features, should be presented. This makes the segmenting
while the other was not. The group who received principle an attractive and commonsense concept,
the pre-training outperformed the group who did particularly for those with LDs, who may have
not on a problem-solving test. difficulty keeping pace with instruction, and con-
Finally, in the Pollock et al. (2002) study, sequently, are unable to engage in the processing
learning outcomes were compared between two needed to learn new information.
groups who viewed a two-phase multimedia les- There is a potential pitfall with the principle,
son on how to conduct safety tests for electrical however. Clark et al. (2006) share the concern
appliances. The first group received the lesson that for a novice, deciding the order in which
in which the first phase focused on how each instructional units will be taught may impose too
individual component worked and the second much of a cognitive load, because these novice
33
learners may not understand the subject matter group outperformed those in the continuous group
well enough to be able to make such decisions. across all experiments. Although these findings
However, they do agree with research on the are promising, Mayer (2005b) is quick to point out
matter—in that allowing a novice to decide at what that evidence for the segmenting principle is still
speed to proceed through instructional material preliminary and further research is warranted.
may be advantages to learning. Probably the most
common way to implement self-pacing in instruc- the modality Principle
tion, at least from a computer-based standpoint,
is with “Continue” or “Next” buttons. All of us We end our discussion of instructional principles
have probably experienced this implementation that help manage intrinsic load with the modality
at some point in our lives. principle. We have already discussed this principle
in the context of avoiding extraneous load and so
Empirical Support for the we do not repeat the effort here. We know that the
Segmenting Principle modality principle, under certain conditions, can
effectively mitigate certain loads leaving more
The empirical basis for the segmenting principle resources for other processing in working memory.
are the studies conducted by Mayer and Chan- Through presenting material in dual modalities,
dler (2001, see experiment 2) and Mayer, Dow, the total induced load is spread across the visual
and Mayer (2003, see experiments 2a and 2b). and auditory components of working memory,
In the Mayer and Chandler (2001) study, learn- thereby reducing cognitive load. The modality
ing outcomes were compared between a group principle, can therefore, prove advantages in
who viewed a 140-second narrated animation on managing intrinsic load.
lightning formation as a continuous presentation
and a group who received the same presentation
divided into 16 segments, each lasting approxi- PromotIng germAne LoAd
mately 10-seconds and sequenced by clicking a
“Continue” button. The group who received the We end our discussion of CLT with the most ben-
segmented presentation performed better on a eficial of three cognitive loads, germane load. As
problem-solving test than the group who viewed we have discussed, if used properly, germane load
the continuous presentation. can prove advantageous to learners in applying
In the Mayer, Dow, and Mayer (2003) study, what they have learned to new tasks, or what is
learning outcomes were compared between groups called the transfer of learning. This is essentially
who learned about electronic motors while inter- the ability to apply what has been learned to new
acting with an avatar within a simulation game. settings or situations. This may include the transfer
One group was offered a continuous version of of skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes. Transfer
the simulation game in which the avatar showed of learning can be decomposed into two types
how the electronic motor worked when clicked. of transfer, near and far. Near transfer of skills
The other group was offered a segmented version and knowledge is typically applied the same way
of the same game which displayed questions that each and every time the skills and knowledge
corresponded to the segments of the narrated ani- are used. Near transfer is procedure-based, and
mation. Students in the segmented group could consequently, order is significant. Far transfer,
control what segments to view based on the ques- on the other hand, is applied under conditions of
tion clicked. Like the findings of the Mayer and change. Learners must be able to apply the skills
Chandler (2001) study, those in the segmented and knowledge that they have learned to new
34
situations. As you might expect, far transfer is the intrinsic and germane load, CLT was once used
harder of the two to teach, but the most advan- to predominately study instructional methods
tages. To foster transfer of learning, specifically intended to decrease extraneous load (van Mer-
far transfer, Clark et al. (2006) propose the use rienboer & Ayres, 2005). Consequently, we revisit
of diverse worked examples. the study conducted by Paas (1992), who showed
that practice problems took significantly more
diverse Worked examples time to complete than that of worked examples
or completion examples, and that participants
Far transfer requires the forming of new schemata. learned more from the worked and completion
We learned in the last chapter that the formation examples than the practice problems.
of new schemata imposes additional cognitive Paas (1992) also investigated near and far
load on working memory. Although we typically transfer with regard to worked and completion
want to avoid any kind of unnecessary impact on examples. Test findings showed that scores for
working memory, the load in question is that of problems dealing with near transfer did not
germane and is both helpful and necessary for vary. However, scores did vary significantly for
learning. Diverse worked examples can be used to problems which dealt with far transfer for those
help minimize extraneous load and in the process participants who were exposed to the worked
offset the additional load imposed in the format- and completion examples. The rationale behind
ting of new schemata resulting from germane load this finding was that the examples required fewer
(Clark et al., 2006). resources from working memory, leaving more
As the name implies, diverse worked examples resources for learning the information.
are varied worked examples and practice prob-
lems that help in the application of skills and
knowledge to varied scenarios. Because diverse concLusIon
worked examples are so diverse, they impose
much more of a cognitive load. However, these Applying What We Have Learned
diverse examples can lead to greater transfer of
learning than examples which are all similar in In this chapter, we learned that CLT can be used to
nature (Clark et al., 2006). All in all, when learners bridge the gap between instructional principles and
are expected to transfer the skills and knowledge knowledge of human cognition (Sweller, 2005a).
they have learned to new situations, a series of We discussed a number of instructional principles
diverse worked examples and practice problems coming out of the research on CLT. Instructional
should be used to promote germane load and principles that if used properly can help manage
at the same time help mitigate extraneous load intrinsic, avoid extraneous, and promote germane
(Clark et al., 2006). load. Although considerations for cognitive load
should be part of the design of all instructional
Additional Empirical Support for material, we argue that such principles hold even
the Worked Examples Principle more weight in the design of instruction to assist
those with learning disabilities.
Unfortunately, germane load is the least empiri- For example, a possible explanation for the
cally supported of the three loads (Clark et al., inability of some children to meet mathematical
2006). The reason for this is quite simple; although literacy standards is that cognitive load on math-
more and more CLT related studies are now in- ematics curriculum may be too high and these chil-
vestigating the effects of instructional methods on dren may not be able to keep up with instructional
35
activities that are otherwise optional to learning reFerences

(Woodward, 2006; Woodward & Montague, 2002,
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to ensure that, for example, a split-attention effect
ploring the roles of the visual-spatial sketch pad and
is not inadvertently created. The pre-training and central executive in children’s arithmetical skills:
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menting, pretraining, and modality principles. In
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multimedia learning (pp. 169–182). New York: worked examples become gradually replaced
Cambridge University Press. with practice problems in a lesson as the learner
gains expertise in the subject matter (Clark et
Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2005c). The Cambridge
al., 2006).
handbook of multimedia learning. New York:
Cognitive Load: Refers to the amount of cog-
Cambridge University Press.
nitive resources imposed on working memory.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways Cognitive Load Theory (CLT): A theory
to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learn- proposed by John Sweller and his colleagues
ing. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. focused on the limitations of working memory
doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6 during instruction.
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning:
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cogni-
A theory credited to Richard E. Mayer and his
tive load theory and instructional design: Recent
colleagues focused on best practices in the use
developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1),
of visual and auditory information in multimedia-
1–4. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1
based instruction.
Completion Examples: A hybrid approach
between worked examples and practice problems
40
where some steps are provided as worked example visual and auditory channels of working memory
and others are presented as practice problems. thereby reducing cognitive load (Low & Sweller,
Diverse Worked Examples: Varied worked 2005; Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Sweller et al.,
examples and practice problems that help in the 1998).
application of skills and knowledge to varied Near Transfer: The transfer of skills and
scenarios. knowledge that are typically applied the same
Dual-Coding Theory: The theory proposed way each and every time the skills and knowledge
by Allan Paivio that cognition is composed of are used.
verbal and non-verbal subsystems. Pre-training Principle: An instructional prin-
Element Interactivity: Used to measure ciple proposing that learners learn more deeply
intrinsic load; think of an element as a single when they are aware of names and behaviors of
unit of information to be processed in working main concepts (Mayer, 2005a; Mayer & Moreno,
memory. 2003).
Extraneous (Irrelevant Load) Load: One Procedure Knowledge: “[K]nowledge under-
of three types of cognitive load that is caused in pinning performance of a task that is completed
situations where instructional material is created more or less the same way each time” (Clark et
using instructional design that ignores the limita- al., 2006, p. 168).
tions of working memory and consequently fails Process Knowledge: “[A] flow of events that
to focus working memory resources on schema summarize the operations of business, scientific,
construction and automation (Sweller, 2005a); or mechanical systems” (Clark et al., 2006, p.
this load is irrelevant to the learning goals at hand 163).
(Clark et al., 2006) and is considered to be under Redundancy Principle: An instructional prin-
the control of the instructional designer (Pollock ciple proposing that learners learn more deeply
et al., 2002) and, consequently, is avoidable if when identical information is not presented in
proper instructional methods are applied. more than one format (Mayer, 2005a).
Far Transfer: Transfer of skills and knowledge Segmenting Principle: An instructional prin-
that is applied under conditions of change; learners ciple proposing that deeper learning can occur
must be able to apply the skills and knowledge when a lesson is presented in learner-controlled
that they have learned to new situations. segments rather than continuous units (Mayer,
Germane (Effective) Load: One of three types 2005a; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
of cognitive load that can prove advantageous to Split-Attention Principle: An instructional
learners in applying what they have learned to new principle proposing that if the instructional mate-
tasks; it is caused by instructional design imple- rial is presented as a figure and text, split-attention
mentations that aid in meaningful learning and is can be circumvented by integrating the figure and
under the control of the instructional designer. text together (Sweller & Chandler, 1994).
Intrinsic Load: One of three types of cogni- Transfer of Learning: The ability to apply
tive load that is caused by the natural complexity what has been learned to new settings or situa-
of the information that must be processed or the tions.
amount of element interactivity involved; this Worked (Worked-out) Examples: A step-
load is not under the control of the instructional by-step example that demonstrates how a task is
designer. performed or how to solve a problem (Clark et
Modality Principle: An instructional principle al., 2006); the principle proposes learners learn
proposing that presenting information in dual more deeply when studying worked examples than
modalities spreads total induced load across the studying practice problems (Sweller, 2005a).
41
Worked Example-Problem Pairs: The strat-

egy of altering of worked example with similar
practice problems (Clark et al., 2006).
42
43
Chapter 3
Multimedia Design of Assistive
Technology for Those with
Learning Disabilities
Boaventura DaCosta
Soonhwa Seok
AbstrAct
This is the final of three chapters serving as the introduction to this handbook which addresses the rela-
tionship between human cognition and assistive technologies and its design for individuals with cognitive
disabilities. In this chapter the authors build upon the last two chapters and focus specifically on research
investigating the visual and auditory components of working memory. The authors present the cognitive
theory of multimedia learning, a learning theory proposing a set of instructional principles grounded
in human information processing research that provide best practices in designing efficient multimedia
learning environments. Much like the last chapter, the instructional principles presented are grounded
in empirically-based study and consolidate nearly twenty years of research to highlight the best ways
in which to increase learning. Altogether, the authors stress the common thread found throughout this
three chapter introduction—that technology for learning should be created with an understanding of
design principles empirically supported by how the human mind works. They argue that the principles
emerging from the cognitive theory of multimedia learning may have potential benefits in the design of
assistive technologies for those with learning disabilities.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch003
Multimedia Design of Assistive Technology for Those with Learning Disabilities
IntroductIon non-verbal subsystem, organizes information in

nested sets, processed either synchronously or in
multimedia, Assistive technology, parallel. Examples include pictures and sounds
and those with Learning disabilities (Paivio, 1971, 1990; Paivio, Clark, & Lambert,
1988). Multimodal instructional material, which
Unlike early theories which viewed short-term can be coded in both subsystems, rather than
memory as a single store capable of performing just one, is more easily recalled. By leveraging
numerous operations (Sweller, 2005a), working both the verbal and non-verbal subsystems, more
memory is assumed to be composed of multiple information can be processed.
stores (Baddeley, 1986, 1998, 2002; Paivio, 1990; Studies examining dual-coding have shown
Penney, 1989; Sweller, 2005). Baddeley’s model greater performance can be achieved when learn-
of working memory portrays numerous opera- ers are presented with instructional material that
tions by handling visual and acoustic informa- takes advantage of both the verbal and non-verbal
tion individually with the visuospatial sketchpad subsystems (e.g., Frick, 1984; Gellevij, Van Der
and phonological loop subsystems. Making use Meij, De Jong, & Pieters, 2002; Leahy, Chandler,
of partial autonomy for processing visual and & Sweller, 2003; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Moreno
auditory information is believed to be a way & Mayer, 1999). These findings are promising,
in which to address the limitations of working as they suggest the limited capacity of working
memory. For example, Frick (1984) had inves- memory can be addressed by presenting instruction
tigated the idea of separate visual and auditory in a verbal and non-verbal manner (Mayer, 2001,
memory stores, showing how digit-span recall 2005e; Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998).
could be increased; Penney (1989), in a review, More importantly, the converse has also been
had provided evidence that appropriate use of the shown. The verbal and non-verbal subsystems
visual and auditory stores can maximize working are believed to pool from the same processing
memory capacity. Although researchers seem to resources. As such, multimodal information that
disagree on a common nomenclature, using terms is not interrelated can negatively impact working
such as stores, channels, bisensory, dual-coding, memory performance (Morey & Cowan, 2004).
and dual-processing (e.g., Allport, Antonis, & Thus, the non-verbal presentation of information
Reynolds, 1972; Baddeley, 1986, 1998; Jones, should be relational to the verbal (textual), for
Macken, & Nicholls, 2004; Mayer & Anderson, it has a significant impact on working memory
1991; Paivio, 1971; Penney, 1989) to represent and learning.
the components of working memory, they do seem This is the final of three chapters serving as
to agree with the premise that dual-processing the introduction to this handbook which addresses
is vital towards overcoming the limitations of the relationship between human cognition and
working memory. assistive technologies (ATs) and its design for
This dual-processing assertion is best repre- individuals with cognitive disabilities. In this chap-
sented in Paivio’s dual-coding theory (Clark & ter we build upon the last two chapters and focus
Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1971, 1990), which proposes specifically on research investigating the visual
that cognition is composed of verbal and non- and auditory components of working memory.
verbal subsystems. These two subsystems are We present the cognitive theory of multimedia
considered distinct, but interrelated. The verbal learning (CTML), a learning theory proposing a
subsystem favors organized, linguistically-based set of instructional principles grounded in human
information, stressing verbal associations. Ex- information processing research that provide best
amples include words, sentences, and stories. The practices in designing efficient multimedia learn-
44
ing environments. Much like the last chapter, the then integrated with relevant existing knowledge
instructional principles presented are grounded in (Marshall, 1996; Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Moreno,
empirically-based study and consolidate nearly 2003; Wittrock, 1990). Meaningful learning is
twenty years of research to highlight the best distinguished by good retention and transfer per-
ways in which to increase learning. Altogether, formance. Retention is reflected in the ability to
we stress the common thread found throughout remember pertinent presented material. Transfer
this three chapter introduction—that technology is reflected in the ability to understand what was
for learning should be created with an understand- learned and apply it to new situations (Mayer,
ing of design principles empirically supported by 2002, 2005b). Transfer includes being able to solve
how the human mind works. We argue that the new problems with knowledge that is not explicitly
principles emerging from the CTML may have presented in the material (Mayer, 2005b).
potential benefits in the design of ATs for those Multimedia learning can therefore be described
with learning disabilities (LDs). as the building of mental representations from
Before we delve into the principles composing the amalgamation of words and pictures, which
the CTML, we begin by first defining multimedia induces the promotion of meaningful learning
learning itself. We then provide a brief expla- (Mayer, 2001, 2005b). As we will see later in this
nation of the theory and discuss its theoretical chapter, many CTML studies measure multimedia
foundation. learning in terms of retention and transfer through
post-tests.
bAckground
WHAt Is tHe cognItIve tHeory
What is multimedia Learning? oF muLtImedIA LeArnIng?
In the broadest sense, multimedia can be defined The CTML has shown steady growth since its earli-
as the presentation of both words and pictures to est studies in the 1990s exploring the plausibility
a learner in a variety of ways. Words can be pre- of multimedia learning. The premise that learners
sented in verbal form and can be written or spoken. learn more deeply from words and pictures than
Either their phonological or semantic aspects can from words only was one of the first predictions
be emphasized. Pictures are presented in pictorial made by Richard E. Mayer and his colleagues
form and can consist of static or dynamic objects to based at the time on his generative theory. This
include illustrations, photos, animations, or video. would later become known as the multimedia
The pairing of presentation mode and sensory principle, serving as the founding principle behind
modality allow for many conceivable permuta- the CTML. Mayer and his colleagues continued
tions (Mayer, 2005b; Reed, 2006). to explore numerous effects while developing
Meaningful learning involves remembering recommendations and guidelines throughout the
and understanding instructional material. Whereas remainder of the twentieth century. These effects
remembering is the ability to recognize or repro- would later be described as principles and encom-
duce instructional material, understanding is the pass over 80 individual experiments (Veronikas
ability to construct sound mental representations & Shaughnessy, 2005).
from the material (Mayer, 2005b). Meaningful In recent years, research in the CTML has sig-
learning occurs when important aspects of the nificantly grown. Although a substantial amount
material are cognitively recognized, when the of research can be found exploring advanced
material is organized into a coherent structure, and effects and posturing new principles for how to
45
design multimedia learning, an emerging trend For example, learners initially process presented
points to the study of existing principles in various material through their eyes or ears. One channel
content areas. One such example is the study of processes verbal represented material, whereas
multimedia learning in the context of advanced the other channel processes auditory represented
computer-based environments (Mayer, 2005b). material. This notion is consistent with Baddeley’s
For example, Mayer and his colleagues have of late (1986, 1998, 2002) model of working memory
been examining the use of animated pedagogical and borrows from the distinctions between the
agents (Moreno, 2005). Mayer hypothesizes that visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop
the basic principles can be applied in the use of (Baddeley, 2002; Mayer, 2001, 2005a).
these agents (Veronikas & Shaughnessy, 2005). The second assumption, limited capacity, has
Other such examples include the examination of already been discussed to some degree in the last
multimedia learning in the context of virtual reality two chapters. The assumption posits that working
(Cobb & Fraser, 2005) and games, simulations, memory is limited in how much information can
and microworlds (Rieber, 2005). These contexts be processed within each channel. Unprocessed
have already fueled a number of studies (e.g., information that cannot be handled immediately
Atkinson, Mayer, & Merrill, 2005, Experiments decays over time. This notion is most consistent
1 and 2; Dunsworth & Atkinson, 2007; Mayer, with Baddeley’s model of working memory as
Dow, & Mayer, 2003, Experiments 1, 2a and 2b, 3, well as cognitive load theory (CLT) (Mayer,
and 4; Merrill, 2003; Moreno & Flowerday, 2006; 2001, 2005a).
Moreno & Mayer, 2004; 2005, Experiments 1, 2, The last assumption, active processing, posits
and 3; Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001, that humans must actively engage in cognitive
Experiments 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5). processing for learning to occur. Mayer has
identified three processes required for this to
dual-channels, Limited capacity, take place. First, relevant incoming information
and Active Processing Assumptions must be cognitively recognized and selected. In
other words, the learner must be actively paying
Three cognitive learning principles provide the attention for the relevant information to be brought
theoretical underpinnings for the CTML. The into working memory. Second, the incoming
first of these assumptions, dual-channels, posits information must be organized into a coherent
that the human information processing system is structure. This involves constructing a logical
composed of a separate processing channel for mental representation (i.e., model) of the elements
visual and auditory represented material. Mayer composing the selected information within work-
(Mayer, 2001, 2005f) has conceptualized these ing memory. Finally, the organized information
dual-channels as a presentation mode and a sen- must be integrated with relevant existing knowl-
sory modality. The presentation mode addresses edge found in long-term memory (LTM) (Mayer,
verbal (e.g., spoken or written words) and pictorial 1996, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Wittrock,
(e.g., illustrations, photos, animations, or video) 1990). These three assumptions can be found in
representations of presented material. This notion Mayer’s cognitive model of multimedia learning
best resembles Paivio’s dual-coding theory (Clark (see Mayer, 2001).
& Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1971, 1990) and borrows Mayer (2001) provides a rather straightforward
from the distinctions between the verbal and non- example of his cognitive model. Multimedia
verbal subsystems (Mayer, 2001, 2005a). Sensory (presented in words and pictures) enters sensory
modality, on the other hand, deals with the sense memory through the eyes and ears. This permits
through which the presented material is processed. the information to be held as visual and auditory
46
images for a brief period until such time that the manage the extraneous processing of multimedia
relevant incoming information is selected and instructional material (we presented these in the
brought into working memory. Once in working last chapter in our discussion of cognitive load
memory, the incoming information is stored as raw theory), whereas the coherence, contiguity, redun-
material based on the visual and auditory sensory dancy, and signaling principles can be effectively
modalities. This information is then organized used in reducing it (Mayer, 2005f). The advanced
into coherent mental representations as verbal principles, conversely, mark some of the most
and pictorial models. Finally, the organized verbal current research being conducted in multimedia
and pictorial information is integrated with each learning. These principles, as expected, are the
other and relevant existing knowledge from LTM. weakest in terms of empirically-based research.
This newly integrated knowledge is persistently These principles include the animation and interac-
stored in LTM resulting in multimedia learning. tivity principles, collaboration principle, guided-
As you may have already realized, this process is discovery principle, navigation principles, prior
very similar to that discussed in the first chapter in knowledge principle, self-explanation principle,
this introduction in which we presented the modal site map principle, worked-out example principle,
model of memory. We turn our attention next in and the cognitive aging principle (see Mayer,
this chapter to the instructional principles. 2005b, for an in-depth review).
In the following sections, we briefly discuss
each of the principles. We present the basic prin-
bAsIc And AdvAnced PrIncIPLes ciples in terms of managing and reducing extrane-
ous processing of multimedia-based instructional
Mayer (2005b) has logically divided the effects material. We pay particularly attention to the
emerging from the research into two groups of coherence, contiguity, and signaling principles as
principles, basic and advanced. The basic prin- these have not yet been discussed in this three part
ciples make up the cornerstone of the CTML. chapter introduction, whereas the modality, pre-
In fact, some of the basic principles serve as the training, redundancy, and segmenting principles
theoretical foundation for other principles. For have. Finally, we end by briefly introducing each
example, the multimedia principle is the basis of the advanced principles.
for all the CTML principles. It is embodied in 11
experiments across six studies (e.g., Mayer, 1989, reducing the extraneous
Experiments 1 and 2; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, Processing of multimedia
Experiments 2a and 2b; 1992, Experiments 1 and
2; Mayer & Gallini, 1990, Experiments 1, 2, and According to Mayer (2005d), there are five ways
3; Moreno & Mayer, 1999, Experiment 1; 2002, in which situations that cause extraneous load on
Experiment 1). It is one of the well-documented working memory can be handled. First, irrelevant,
principles in the CTML along with the modality extraneous instructional materials should be
and the contiguity (spatial and temporal) prin- eliminated whenever possible. This can be ac-
ciples. Other basic principles include the coherence complished by applying the coherence principle.
principle, pre-training principle, personalization, Second, signals and cues can be inserted into the
voice, and image principles, redundancy principle, instructional material to emphasis the importance
segmentation principle, and the signaling principle of certain instruction. This can be accomplished
(see Mayer, 2005b; Mayer & Moreno, 2003, for an by applying the signaling principle. Third, related
in-depth review). The modality, pre-training, and instructional content can be placed next to one
segmenting principles can be used effectively to another. In the case of multimedia, text would
47
be placed next to graphics or as part of anima- lesson on lightning formation. Whereas one lesson
tions. This can be accomplished by applying the was concise, void of extraneous information, the
spatial contiguity principle. Finally, the temporal other was embellished. Both groups were given
contiguity principle, when applied appropriately, a transfer test upon reading the lesson. The group
can be leveraged to avoid the holding of crucial who was given the concise lesson outperformed
information in working memory for long periods the group who was given the embellished one.
of time. Overall, these principles point out that A similar study was conducted a year earlier by
in the design of multimedia, less is more (Mayer, Mayer et al. (1996) resulting in the same finding.
2005d). We describe each of these principles next The group who read the concise, paper-based les-
in greater detail. son outperformed the group who had been given
the embellished one.
Coherence Principle In the study by Moreno and Mayer (2000),
two groups were exposed to multimedia presen-
The coherence principle is a basic instructional tations depicting lightning formation and a car’s
principle proposing that learners learn more deeply brake system. Each presentation was delivered
when extraneous information is excluded (Mayer, as animation and narration. One presentation
2005d). If used properly the coherence principle included background music and environmental
can reduce extraneous cognitive load on work- sounds, whereas the other did not. The group who
ing memory. The principle is similar to that of received the presentation without the extraneous
the redundancy effect, in which learning may be sound outperformed the group who had. Finally,
hindered if identical information is not presented a similar study was conducted by Mayer et al.
in more than one format (Mayer, 2005b). In the (2001), who used extraneous video clips of light-
case of the coherence principle, learning may be ning formation. The group who was exposed to
hindered if irrelevant information is included in the extraneous information performed poorer on
the instructional material. This may include words a transfer test than the group who had not.
and pictures, but may also include animation and
audio as well. A common example is the presenta- Redundancy Principle
tion of video prior to instruction. Mayer (2005d)
cites the example of showing a video of lightning The redundancy principle was discussed in the last
storms during an instructional animation that de- chapter and so we do not duplicate the effort here.
picts the formation of lightning. Such extraneous This instructional principle proposes that learners
information can serve as a distraction, hindering learn more deeply when identical information is
learning, and should be removed. not presented in more than one format (Mayer,
There have been a number of CTML studies 2005b). While this is sometimes a difficult concept
focused on the coherence principle (e.g., Harp & to accept, because those who develop instruction
Mayer, 1997, experiment 1; 1998, experiments sometimes want to include as much information
1, 2, 3, and 4; Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & as possible, research on the matter suggests that
Tapangco, 1996, experiments 1, 2, and 3; Mayer, the use of redundant information in instructional
Heiser, & Lonn, 2001, experiment 3; Moreno & material can interfere with learning (Sweller,
Mayer, 2000, experiments 1 and 2). In the studies 2005b). In a nutshell, redundant information places
conducted by Harp and Mayer (1997, 1998), two unnecessary load on working memory and should
groups of students were asked to read a paper-based be eliminated whenever possible.
48
Signaling Principle We learned in the last chapter that a split-attention

effect is created when the learner must expel cogni-
The signaling principle proposes that learners tive resources accessing instructional content that
learn more deeply when cues are added to high- is physically placed in different locations. This
light the organization of essential instructional case is no different. Learners must spend cogni-
material (Mayer, 2005d). The recommendations tive resources to search for words connected to
behind the signaling principle can help learners pictures or visa versa. To avoid extraneous load
focus attention on instruction important in meeting when presenting words and pictures, ensure they
the objectives of the lesson. Examples of signals are integrated with one another. Like the name
that can be incorporated into instructional material implies, the spatial contiguity principle is con-
include the use of highlighted, bolded, underlined, cerned with space.
or italicized text, circles or arrows pointing to There have been a number of CTML studies
specific text, and the use of paragraph headings focused on the spatial contiguity principle (e.g.,
(Clark, Nguyen, & Sweller, 2006). By inserting Chandler & Sweller, 1991, experiment 1; Mayer,
cues into the instructional material, learner atten- 1989, experiment 2; Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, &
tion can be directly away from content that may Mars, 1995, experiments 1, 2, and 3; Moreno &
be extraneous. Mayer, 1999, experiment 1; Sweller, Chandler,
There have been a number of CTML studies Tierney, & Cooper, 1990, experiment 1; Tindall-
focused on the signaling principle (e.g., Harp & Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997, experiment 1).
Mayer, 1998, experiment 3a; Mautone & Mayer, In the studies conducted by Chandler and Sweller
2001, experiments 3a and 3b). In the study by (1991), Mayer (1989), Mayer et al. (1995), Sweller
Harp and Mayer (1998), two groups were offered et al. (1990), and Tindall-Ford et al. (1997), stu-
paper-based lessons on the formation of lighting. dents were exposed to paper-based lessons across
One of the lessons used an organizational sentence three different content areas. In the Chandler and
listing the main steps of lightning formation, Sweller (1991) and Tindall-Ford et al. (1997)
whereas the other did not. The group who was studies, students were exposed to a lesson on
offered the paper-based lesson that included the topics from electrical engineering; in the Mayer
signaling strategy performed better on a transfer (1989) study, students were exposed to a lesson
test than the group who had not. A similar finding on a car’s break system; in the Mayer et al. (1995)
was found by Mautone and Mayer (2001), who study, students were exposed to a lesson on the
incorporated signaling techniques into multi- formation of lightning; whereas in the Sweller et
media presentations delivered as animation and al. (1990) study, students were exposed to worked
narration. The signaling group outperformed the examples showing how to solve geometry prob-
non-signaling group. lems. Across all five studies, students were divided
into two groups—those who received paper-based
Spatial Contiguity Principle lessons in which the text was placed next to the
corresponding graphic, and those in which text
The spatial contiguity principle proposes that was placed outside of the graphic. For example, in
learners learn more deeply when related words the case of the Chandler and Sweller (1991) study,
and pictures are presented near one another than the text was placed after the geometric diagram.
far apart (Mayer, 2005d). The goal in the spatial Across all the experiments, those who received
contiguity principle is to create instructional mate- the integrated lessons outperformed those who had
rial where all pertinent information is integrated. received the separated lessons. Similar findings
49
were also found by Moreno and Mayer (1999), managing the extraneous
who examined the contiguity principle with a Processing of multimedia
multimedia presentation delivered as animation
and on-screen text. The group who received the The modality, pre-training, and segmenting
animation with integrated text performed better principles can be used effectively to manage the
on a transfer test than the group who had not. extraneous processing of multimedia instructional
material (Mayer, 2005f). These principles were
Temporal Contiguity Principle presented in detail in the last chapter in the discus-
sion on the avoidance of extraneous, management
The temporal contiguity principle is an instruc- of intrinsic, and promotion of germane load, and
tional principle proposing that learners learn more so we only briefly define them here. Furthermore,
deeply when related animation and narration are to complete our discussion of the basic principles,
presented concurrently rather than consecutively we also briefly define the multimedia and person-
(2005d). According to the CTML, simultaneous alization, voice, and image principles.
presentation of words and pictures increases
the odds that the information will be stored in Modality Principle
the visual and auditory components of working
memory, unlike the successive presentation of The modality principle is one of the most important
information, in which the learner must hold the instructional principles to have emerged from the
information presented as auditory in working CTML. It proposes that presenting information in
memory until the animation is presented. Visual dual modalities spreads total induced load across
and auditory information presented at the same the visual and auditory channels of working
time allows learners to build mental connections memory thereby reducing cognitive load (Low &
between the materials, whereas the same informa- Sweller, 2005; Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Sweller,
tion presented successively makes the formation van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). For an in-depth
of mental connections much more difficult. While discussion of the modality principle, please see
the spatial contiguity principle is focused on the Low and Sweller (2005), Clark, Nguyen, and
proximity of words and pictures, the temporal Sweller (2006), and Mayer (2005c).
contiguity principle is focused on time.
There have been a number of CTML studies Pre-Training Principle
focused on the temporal contiguity principle (e.g.,
Mayer & Anderson, 1991, experiments 1 and 2; The pre-training principle proposes that learners
1992, experiments 1 and 2; Mayer, Moreno, Boire, learn more deeply when made aware of names and
& Vagge, 1999, experiments 1 and 2; Mayer & behaviors of main concepts prior to presenting the
Sims, 1994). The Mayer and Anderson (1991, main lesson (Mayer, 2005b; Mayer & Moreno,
1992), Mayer et al. (1999) and Mayer and Sims 2003). For an in-depth review of the principle,
(1994) studies all had similar findings. Those please see Mayer (2005c).
exposed to the animation with synchronized nar-
rations outperformed those on transfer tests who Segmentation Principle
received the animations with narrations that were
presented in sequence. The segmentation principle proposes that deeper
learning occurs when a lesson is presented in
50
learner-controlled segments rather than continuous Animation and Interactivity Principles

units (Mayer, 2005c; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
For an in-depth review of the principle, please The animation and interactivity principles pro-
see Mayer (2005c). vide guidance on the design of multimedia that
incorporate sophisticated animated graphics. The
Multimedia Principle principles focus on the complexities of learner
interactivity during learning. For an in-depth
The multimedia principle is the cornerstone discussion of the principles, please see Betran-
principle in which the CTML is founded. The court (2005).
principle proposes that learners learn more deeply
from words and pictures than from words only. Cognitive Aging Principle
For an in-depth review of the principle, please
see Fletcher and Tobias (2005). The cognitive aging principle is focused on helping
older learners by effectively managing working
Personalization, Voice, memory resources (Mayer, 2005b). Subscribing to
and Image Principles the idea that working memory capability declines
with age (Paas, Van Gerven, & Tabbers, 2005;
The personalization, voice, and image principles Van Gerven, Paas, Van Merrienboer, & Schmidt,
provide recommendations based on social cues. 2006), the principle suggests that some instruc-
According to Mayer (2005e), the personalization tional materials presented in multiple modalities
principle proposes that learners learn more deeply may be more efficient than instructional material
when words are presented in a conversational presented in a single modality for older learners.
style as opposed to formally; the voice principle For an in-depth review of the principle, please see
proposes that learners learn more deeply when Paas et al. (2005) and DaCosta (2009).
words are spoken in a human voice void of ac-
cent, opposed to an accented voice or a machine Collaboration Principle
voice; while the image principle proposes that
learners learn more deeply when a speaker’s In recent years, online collaboration has taken
image can be seen by the learner on screen. For root. The collaboration principle proposes a
an in-depth review of the principles, please see variety of recommendations that support online
Mayer (2005e). multimedia-based collaborative learning environ-
ments (Jonassen, Lee, Yang, & Laffey, 2005). For
Advanced Principles an in-depth review of the principle, please see
Jonassen, Lee, Yang, and Laffey (2005).
The advanced principles, as we mentioned
earlier, mark some of the most current research Guided-Discovery Principle
being conducted in multimedia learning. These
principles, as expected, are the weakest in terms The guided-discovery principle proposes that
of empirically-based research. We briefly define learners learn more deeply when using the strategy
them here. of directing the learner toward discovery (Jong,
2005). For an in-depth review of the principle,
please see Jong (2005).
51
Navigation Principles Worked-out Example Principle
The navigation principles provide recommenda- We discussed the worked-out example principle in
tions on the use of navigational aids. These aids the last chapter. A worked-out example is a step-
include a broad category of visual and auditory by-step example that demonstrates how a task is
devices ranging from local cues (e.g., headings performed or how to solve a problem (Clark et
and subheadings) to global content (e.g., tables al., 2006). The principle proposes learners learn
and outlines) (Rouet & Potelle, 2005). For an in- more deeply when studying worked examples
depth review of the principle, please see Rouet than studying traditional practice problems
and Potelle (2005). (Sweller, 2005a). For an in-depth review of the
principle, please see Renkle (2005) and Clark et
Prior Knowledge Principle al. (2006).
The prior knowledge principle is focused on the

effects of learner prior knowledge on the CTML cHALLenges In APPLyIng
principles (Kalyuga, 2005). The principle has tHe PrIncIPLes
emerged from consistent research findings sug-
gesting that instructional principles may not Although these principles and recommendations
benefit or adversely impact learners with high are grounded in a number of experiments span-
prior knowledge of the content to be learned. For ning many studies over two decades, care should
an in-depth review of the principle, please see be exercised when applying these principles. As
Kalyuga (2005). with all empirically-based research, methodologi-
cal limitations exist. Although limitations could
Self-Explanation Principle easily be described in the context in which they
are studied (e.g., multimedia learning as it applies
The self-explanation principle proposes that to reading or mathematics), we discuss limitations
learners learn more deeply when engaged in self- commonly cited. We do this independent of their
explanation, a strategy which aids in attention and application. This amounts to four major categories:
promotes meaningful learning though knowledge (a) setting and content, (b) sampling, (c) time, and
construction and integration activities (Roy & Chi, (d) individual differences.
2005). For an in-depth review of the principle, Laboratory versus real-world settings has long
please see Roy and Chi (2005). been a methodological concern. Early experiments
were performed in controlled laboratory-like en-
Site Map Principle vironments suggesting that principles need further
examination in real-world settings, such as the
The site map principle proposes that learners learn classroom. Content has also been an issue, as early
more deeply when appropriately structured site treatments typically dealt with cause-and-effect
maps are used. It is suggested that these maps aid subject matter. This has brought about the need
in learning because they provide learners with to test the principles in the context of authentic
overarching view of the information to be learned learning environments using real-world content.
(Shapiro, 2005). For an in-depth review of the The need for real-world testing and the exploration
principle, please see Shapiro (2005). of advanced content have been explicitly noted
in a number of studies (e.g., Mautone & Mayer,
2001; Mayer & Chandler, 2001; Mayer, Heiser,
52
& Lonn, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer and Gallini (1990) (and subsequently Mayer and
& Sims, 1994; Moreno et al., 2001). Sims (1994)), which concluded that learners with
Sampling has also been a voiced methodologi- low prior knowledge had shown improved perfor-
cal concern (e.g., Dunsworth & Atkinson, 2007; mance over those with high prior knowledge. This
Mayer et al., 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 1998). Early is in line with our discussions in the last chapter.
experiments typically used college students from Many studies, however, still argue the point that
the psychology subject pool at the University the CTML principles need to be examined with
of California, Santa Barbara. Consequently, the high prior knowledge learners.
principles have been predominately tested with
younger learners 18 and 19 years of age (e.g.,
Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Chandler, concLusIon
2001; Mayer, Fennell, Farmer, & Campbell,
2004; Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, & Campbell, 2005; Final thoughts
Mayer & Jackson, 2005; Mayer, Johnson, Shaw,
& Sandhu, 2006; Mayer & Massa, 2003; Mayer, In this three chapters introduction we have pre-
Sobko, & Mautone, 2003; Moreno & Mayer, sented a number of theories, with each chapter
2004, 2005). Furthermore, other concerns have building on the last. In the first chapter, we offered
stemmed from sample size. These limitations have the most popular beliefs about human informa-
established the need to test the principles with tion processing, presenting the modal model of
larger samplings across different demographics, memory. Along the way we learned that working
to include age, gender, and language. memory is both a blessing and a curse, in that its
The implication of time on multimedia learn- limitations cause it to be a bottleneck, but it is also
ing has also been noted in studies (e.g., Craig, the means for learning. This is a serious problem
Gholson, & Driscoll, 2002; Mayer & Chandler, because the acquisition of new knowledge relies
2001; Mayer & Sims, 1994). Early experiments so heavily on the processing and storage capabili-
typically administered measures of multimedia ties of working memory (Low & Sweller, 2005;
learning immediately after exposure to multime- Sweller & Chandler, 1994). In the second chapter,
dia presentations. In other cases, presentations we presented cognitive load theory, a learning
themselves were relatively short in length. As a theory proposing a set of instructional principles
result, the depth of learning measured in these rooted in human information processing research
studies has been a concern, suggesting the need that can be used to create sound instructional ma-
to test the principles in consideration to time. For terials that take into considerations the limitations
example, would the principles produce the same of working memory. We presented a number of
depth of learning if delayed testing were used or recommendations that can help in avoiding extra-
if exposed to multimedia learning presentations neous, managing intrinsic, and promoting germane
for longer periods? load—three types of cognitive load that learners
Finally, the matter of individual differences must deal with during the learning process. While
has been commonly identified as a limitation finally, in this chapter, we presented the CTML,
(e.g., Craig et al., 2002; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; another learning theory focused specifically on
Mayer et al., 2001; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Moreno the design of multimodal instructional materials
et al., 2001). Many experiments have procedures that take into account human information process-
to identify and preclude learners who can demon- ing theories and focuses specifically on taking
strate a predetermined level of prior knowledge. advantage of the visual and auditory components
This exclusion is based on the study by Mayer of working memory.
53
Our goal has been to separate conjecture DaCosta, B. (2009). The effect of cognitive ag-
and speculation from empirically-based study ing on multimedia learning: An investigation of
and consolidate more than twenty-five years of the cognitive aging principle. Germany: VDM
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herence, signaling, redundancy, spatial contiguity,
Veronikas, S., & Shaughnessy, M. F. (2005). An and temporal contiguity principles. In Mayer, R.
interview with Richard Mayer. Educational Psy- E. (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia
chology Review, 17(2), 179–189. doi:10.1007/ learning (pp. 183–200). New York: Cambridge
s10648-005-3952-z University Press.
Mayer, R. E. (2005d). Principles of multimedia
learning based on social cues: Personalization,
AddItIonAL reAdIng voice, and image principles. In Mayer, R. E. (Ed.),
The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning
Betrancourt, M. (2005). The animation and in- (pp. 201–212). New York: Cambridge University
teractivity principles of multimedia learning. In Press.
Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2005e). The Cambridge hand-
book of multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Jonassen, D. H., Lee, C. B., Yang, C.-C., & Laffey,
Moreno, R. (2005). Multimedia learning with
J. (2005). The collaboration principle in multimedia
animated pedagogical agents. In Mayer, R. E.
learning. In Mayer, R. E. (Ed.), The Cambridge
University Press.
57
Paas, F., Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Tabbers, H. K. Cognitive Aging Principle: An instructional
(2005). The cognitive aging principle in multime- principle focused on helping older learners by
dia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge effectively managing working memory resources
handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 339-354). (Mayer, 2005b). Subscribing to the idea that
New York: Cambridge University Press. working memory capability declines with age
(Paas et al., 2005; Van Gerven et al., 2006), the
Rieber, L. P. (2005). Multimedia learning in games,
principle suggests that some instructional mate-
simulations, and microworlds. In R. E. Mayer
rial presented in multiple modalities may be more
efficient than instructional material presented in
learning (pp. 549-567). New York: Cambridge
a single modality.
University Press.
Cognitive Load Theory: A theory proposed
Rouet, J.-F., & Potelle, H. (2005). Navigational by John Sweller and his colleagues focused on
Principles in Multimedia Learning. In Mayer, R. the limitations of working memory during in-
E. (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia struction.
learning (pp. 297–312). New York: Cambridge Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
University Press. (CTML): A theory credited to Richard E. Mayer
and his colleagues focused on best practices in
Roy, M., & Chi, M. T. H. (2005). The self-
the use of visual and auditory information in
explaination principle in multimedia learning. In
multimedia-based instruction.
Coherence Principle: An instructional prin-
ciple proposing that learners learn more deeply
when extraneous information is excluded (Mayer,
Shapiro, A. M. (2005). The site map principle in 2005d).
multimedia learning. In Mayer, R. E. (Ed.), The Collaboration Principle: An instructional
Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning principle proposing a variety of recommendations
(pp. 313–324). New York: Cambridge University that support collaborative learning (Jonassen et
Press. al., 2005).
Dual-channels Assumption: One of the three
theoretical assumptions underpinning the cogni-
tive theory of multimedia learning; proposes
key terms And deFInItIons
that the human information processing system is
composed of a separate processing channel for
Active Processing Assumption: One of the
visual and auditory represented material.
three theoretical assumptions underpinning the
Dual-coding Theory: A theory proposed by
cognitive theory of multimedia learning; proposes
Allan Paivio, which proposes that cognition is
that humans must actively engage in cognitive
composed of verbal and non-verbal subsystems.
processing for learning to occur.
Guided-discovery Principle: An instructional
Animation and Interactivity Principles: A
principle proposing that learners learn more deeply
set instructional principles providing guidance
when using the strategy of directing the learner
on the design of multimedia that incorporate so-
toward discovery (Jong, 2005).
phisticated animated graphics while at the same
Limited Capacity Assumption: One of the
time taking into account learner interactivity
three theoretical assumptions underpinning the
(Betrancourt, 2005).
cognitive theory of multimedia learning; pro-
poses that working memory is limited in how
58
much information can be processed within each image principle proposes that learners learn more
channel. deeply when a speaker’s image can be seen on
Meaningful Learning: The remembering screen by the learner.
and deep understanding of instructional material; Pre-Training Principle: An instructional
occurs when important aspects of the material principle proposing that learners learn more deeply
are cognitively recognized, when the material when they are made aware of the names and be-
is organized into a coherent structure, and then haviors of main concepts in the lesson before they
integrated with relevant existing knowledge are presented with the main lesson itself (Mayer,
(Marshall, 1996; Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2005a; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
2003; Wittrock, 1990). Prior Knowledge Principle: An instructional
Modality Principle: An instructional principle principle focused on the effects of learners’ prior
proposing that presenting information in dual knowledge on the cognitive theory of multimedia
modalities spreads total induced load across the learning principles (Kalyuga, 2005). The principle
visual and auditory channels of working memory stems from consistent research findings that sug-
thereby reducing cognitive load (Low & Sweller, gest instructional principles may not benefit or
2005; Sweller & Chandler, 1994; Sweller et al., adversely impact learners with high prior knowl-
1998). edge of the content to be learned.
Multimedia: Broadly speaking, it is the pre- Redundancy Principle: An instructional prin-
sentation of both words and pictures to a learner ciple proposing that learners learn more deeply
in a variety of ways. when identical information is not presented in
Multimedia Learning: The building of mental more than one format (Mayer, 2005a).
representations from the amalgamation of words Segmentation Principle: An instructional
and pictures, which induces the promotion of principle proposing that learners learn more deeply
meaningful learning (Mayer, 2001, 2005b). when a lesson is presented in learner-controlled
Multimedia Principle: An instructional prin- segments rather than continuous units (Mayer,
ciple proposing that learners learn more deeply 2005a; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
from words and pictures than from words only. Self-Explanation Principle: An instructional
Navigation Principles: A variety of instruc- principle proposing that learners learn more deeply
tional principles providing recommendations on when engaged in self-explanation, a strategy which
the use of navigational aids which include a broad aids in attention and promotes meaningful learning
category of visual and auditory devices ranging though knowledge construction and integration
from local cues (e.g., headings and subheadings) activities (Roy & Chi, 2005).
to global content (e.g., tables and outlines) (Rouet Signaling Principle: An instructional principle
& Potelle, 2005). proposing that learners learn more deeply when
Personalization, Voice, and Image Prin- cues are added to highlight the organization of
ciples: Three instructional principles providing the essential material (Mayer, 2005d).
recommendations based on social cues. According Site Map Principle: An instructional principle
to Mayer (2005e), the personalization principle proposing that learners learn more deeply when
proposes that learners learn more deeply when appropriately structured site maps are used because
words are presented in a conversational style as these maps provide learners with overarching
opposed to formally; the voice principle proposes view of the information to be learned (Shapiro,
that learners learn more deeply when words are 2005).
spoken in a human voice void of accent, opposed Spatial Contiguity Principle: An instructional
to an accented voice or a machine voice; and the principle proposing that learners learn more deeply
59
when related words and pictures are presented near Worked-out Example Principle: A step-
one another than far apart (Mayer, 2005d). by-step example that demonstrates how a task is
Temporal Contiguity Principle: An instruc- performed or how to solve a problem (R. Clark
tional principle proposing that learners learn more et al., 2006); the principle proposes learners learn
deeply when related animation and narration are more deeply when studying worked examples than
presented concurrently rather than consecutively studying practice problems (Sweller, 2005a).
(Mayer, 2005d).
60
61
Chapter 4
Investigating Assistive
Technologies using
Computers to Simulate Basic
Curriculum for Individuals
with Cognitive Impairments
Carolyn Kinsell
AbstrAct
Providing assistive technologies to cognitively impaired students, in the form of computer-based simula-
tions, may improve the transfer of learning at a greater rate than other training media. The underlying
premise for using computer-based simulations is that the cognitively impaired student is no longer the
passive learner normally found in traditional classrooms. Instead, the cognitively impaired student
becomes an active participant with the simulation and learning. In addition, this type of assistive tech-
nology provides the student with an opportunity for repeated exposure and practice at a speed in which
the student feels comfortable. This chapter discusses the benefits of using computer-based simulations,
defines the theoretical foundations that support the transfer of learning, and presents the processes that
facilitate individual acquisition and refinement of knowledge and skills. It concludes with a review of
the cognitive elements in the creation of mental models and schema.
IntroductIon to comprehend. He gets picked on in class and is

tired of it! Thomas has been heard saying, “I just
Let me set the stage for this chapter—Thomas is can’t keep up”! Unfortunately, Thomas is not alone.
a middle-school student who has been labeled as Based upon my readings, many individuals are not
a slow learner, not only by his teachers, but by aware they have a learning disability and many are
his classmates. Thomas is not slow at all of his never diagnosed. In 1997, the Individuals with Dis-
school subjects, but reading is the hardest for him abilities Education Act (IDEA) helped to broaden
the definition of the use of assistive technologies
(AT) in the educational system to include special
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch004
education “services” (Rapp, 2005). According to and how and when to implement. Many teachers,
Families and Advocates Partner (FAPE, 2001), AT it appears, rely on specialists in the area of AT to
includes “any service that directly assists a child implement the program, thus eliminating the im-
with a disability in the selection, acquisition, or mediate connection the teacher may have in the
use of an assistive technology device.” This act classroom to identify AT services and devices for
helped to open many doors for students who are their students. However, this gap is another topic
considered cognitively impaired. As noted in most of discussion. This chapter addresses a narrow part
AT literature, AT devices are widely used in the of AT devices, classified as computer-based simu-
educational system but have mainly been provided lations, that can provide the cognitively impaired
for those who are physically challenged, such as a method for learning in their own context—a
computer screen readers for the visually impaired. style of learning that could benefit a student like
However, there is an entire student body with Thomas. Context is referring to a preferred method
learning disabilities at the cognitive level, such of learning on subjects in which the cognitively
as those with attention deficit disorders (Harty, impaired individual is weak; subjects such as
Miller, Newcorn, & Halperin, 2008), that are math, science, and reading. These contexts can
not being targeted as candidates for AT devices use a single piece of media or hybrid approach
(Bausch & Hasselbring, 2004). to include animation, graphics, audio and text as
Addressing the concern of Thomas for “just a way to impart information that is in alignment
not getting it” can be supported by the longi- with the person’s cognitive impairment.
tudinal study conducted by Juel (1988) which As clarification, and for the purposes of this
indicated that over eighty-eight percent of first chapter, computer-based simulations or systems,
graders who were noted to be poor readers were although there are many, only refer to desktop or
still considered poor readers as fourth graders. personal computers. This topic does not address
To further complicate the situation, you have the console systems, large immersive systems, or
cycle of a student who is unlikely to fit in with systems using haptics or head-mounted displays.
their peers (especially if there are feelings of In addition, the focus of the cognitively impaired
low self-esteem, like Thomas) as they continue examples will be on the task of reading in which
to lag behind. Stanovick (1986) supports Juel’s the student should be able to grasp principles and
(1988) findings by calling this continual lag as the derive meaning from text. The proposed chapter
“Matthew Effect”—those who excel at reading addresses: (a) a brief background on simulation
continue to do so, while those who lag behind history, its limitations, and benefits, (b) the theo-
continue to do just that. retical framework fundamentals in the process
It was noted in a report generated by the of learning, (c) the mechanics of the transfer of
National Institute of Child Health (2005) that learning that promotes knowledge/skill acquisi-
although assistive devices for those with mental tion, and (d) a cognitive perspective.
retardation and development disabilities exists,
it is not always easy for the Mental Retardation
and Development Disabilities (MRDD) individual bAckground
or for those involved in their health care or as
care-givers to gain access or to know these de- Why computer-based simulation
vices exist. Hasselbring and Bausch (2005) also
indicated that it is not the lack of availability of Simulation devices provide a means to replicate
AT services and devices that have caused this gap some form of reality so that an individual, or in-
but the lack of knowledge by teachers about AT dividuals, can increase their ability by applying
62
accurate actions through repeated exposure in a those with cognitive impairments who otherwise
safe environment. Simulations have been used to would not be capable of obtaining the right ex-
facilitate learning as far back as the 17th century, perience for learning in a traditional classroom
such as those demonstrated by sand tables used environment.
for “war games” in the 1600s, up to the complex The benefits of using simulations often allow a
hybrid systems of today that involve a live, virtual, person to practice and improve on their knowledge
and constructive (DoD Modeling and Simulation and skills in an environment that is safe (in this
(M&S) Glossary, 1998)) integration into a single case without the pressure of peers) yet duplicates
exercise. As noted by Ausburn and Ausburn (2004) a specific performance context (reading). For
simulations are often a choice for tasks involving this chapter, simulation is defined as interactive
complex equipment or areas that are not easily computer-based product that helps to engage the
accessible, or simply too dangerous to practice student in an active, not passive, learning mode—
in real life, such as emergency room procedures, thereby increasing the potential for transferring
war tactic practice with improvised explosive knowledge and skills to the student above other
devices, to name a few. The problem with simula- types of passive media (such as lecture or book
tions that support these types of tasks is that they reading). The design of AT tools that target the cog-
are usually expensive to build, and as noted by nitively impaired needs to consider, for example,
Cloud and Rainer (1998), require built-in dynamic reading level as well as reading skill as defined
interactions that are limited by the model, behavior, by the International Patient Aid Standards (IPAS)
and capabilities of the computer-based system. Collaboration. Although IPAS is a regulatory body
However, simulations that are effective as training for medical education, these standards should be
modalities are designed with a specific objective implemented into training materials created for
supporting a finite set of conceivable options with the use of AT—in other words, consider the target
a finite set of reactions (Cloud & Rainer, 1998), audience and their specific needs.
which is in alignment with educational purposes One consideration by Herczeg (2004) defines
for those with cognitive impairments. And, with the strategy for design of interactive user friendly
the advancement of computer processing technol- computer programs for those who are challenged
ogy of the personal computer, simulations can either cognitively or are new to computers and the
now be rendered, displayed, and engaged using technology to include special design in the areas
desktop computers—which are commonly found of audio for voiceover narration matching text
in school classrooms. and illustrations; limited text at a level designed
Simulations should only be considered if for the target audience; enhancements to support
this type of medium will assist in the transfer text through the use of graphics/illustrations to
of learning at a greater rate than other training include animations, two-dimensional and three-
media. As noted by Kritzenberger, Winkler, & dimensional images, video/photographic stills;
Herczeg (2002) and Herczeg (2004), if training and a graphical user interface that incorporates
can involve the “real environment” or simulation simple navigation, easy to read icons, and an
of a real environment, learning expectations are uncluttered interface. The simpler design reduces
higher. There are several conditions under which cognitive load and thus allows the student to
simulations are viable, which include training process training content (Jibaja-Weiss, & Volk,
complex or unexpected events (not in scope with 2007) without regard to computer issues. Without
this chapter), to using simulations as a method for the target audience being considered in the design
practice in a safe environment. For the purposes parameters, the cognitively impaired student,
of AT, simulation should be considered for aiding
63
such as Thomas, can quickly become lost and process in which knowledge is gained. Knowl-
unmotivated, thus hindering learning. edge is integrated at all three cognitive levels of
There is also a learning progression student’s Rasmussen’s (1986) categories as one is exposed
advance through to gain knowledge and skills to new information.
that is covered under the theoretical foundation Rule-based learning combines new informa-
in this chapter. This is followed by the transfer of tion-based upon responses, such as the feedback
learning process concluding with how information or outcomes provided. For rule-based learning
is cognitively linked. to work there must be a foundation of previously
acquired rules that are then built upon, in what may
Theoretical Foundation be referenced as logical thinking (Hong, 1998).
Skill-based learning looks at the rules and proce-
The basis of this section will focus on determining dures (specified order for accurate performance).
how computer-based simulations can help in the In the case of reading, it would be the student’s
actual transfer of knowledge and skills for those ability to identify and comprehend a word,
who are cognitively impaired. Based upon a review pronounce a word, and fluently read. It is these
of learning theories, there are several that support types of phonological processing inefficiencies
the transfer of learning. Prior to reviewing those (as noted by (O’shaughnessy & Swanson, 2007)
theories, we must note that in regards to issues that contribute to reading disabilities.
on transfer of learning, Carraher and Schliemann To support Rasmussen’s (1986) theory, it is
(2002) indicate that transfer is a theory and cannot stated by Ackerman (1992) and Anderson, (1980)
provide a solid foundation for explaining how that individuals record environmental stimuli in
prior knowledge and experience accounts for order to advance among the three categories pro-
learning. As noted, for many years, transfer was posed by Rasmussen. If knowledge is not gained,
not validated in research environments (Carraher then new information cannot be combined with a
& Schliemann, 2002). However, Simons (1999) response, especially a correct response in order to
believes that optimized transfer will occur once formulate heuristics. Finally, correct skills cannot
it is determined how to work through problems be built if rules and procedures cannot be followed
that are encountered. With that caveat, we will set and completed. In theory, as one is exposed to
out under the guise that the transfer of learning more practice, they become more proficient at a
is being achieved as one progresses through the task—a task that is usually measured by a skill-
stages of the theories listed. based behavior. This behavior becomes automated
One theory, by Rasmussen (1986), has pro- in response to environmental stimuli that one has
claimed that learning can be divided into three now become familiar.
cognitive categories: knowledge-based, rule- Using Thomas as our example, to improve
based and skill-based. Knowledge can be clas- his reading skills, he must first build upon his
sified in types, yet there is no one defined set of reading foundation with exposure and practice
types in use (Jorna, 2001). Examples of varying to reading concepts and rules. To achieve this, if
types of knowledge include, but are not limited Thomas was provided a computer-based simula-
to terms such as logical, semantic, systematic, tion that contained audio and speech recognition
empirical (Pecorino, 2000); explicit and tacit capabilities, he could listen to the pronunciation
(Edvinsson & Malone, 1997); theoretical (Jorna, of a word, practice pronouncing the word using
2001); to the general to specific (Gagne, 1962), speech recognition tools, and receive immediate
and declarative, procedural, and conditional. auditory feedback. One would think that the likeli-
These types are in some way connected in the hood of transfer would be greater if exposed to the
64
Figure 1. Theoretical framework and study measures
AT tool than remaining in a traditional classroom. rule-based behavior. Hence, simulated devices
In theory, Ackerman (1992) states there are three used as AT can aid in repeated exposure to build
levels to the transfer of learning for skill acquisi- and move forward in learning.
tion: cognitive, associative and autonomous. As Collectively, Ackerman’s (1992) three levels
one understands instruction, goals and formalizes define a cognitive process that distinguishes a
strategies (cognitive phase) they can then move on novice from an expert. The phases of the process
to actual practice for skill acquisition (associative build upon one another to the point that skill-
phase). As they become more proficient (autono- based behavior eventually becomes automated
mous) at the task, it will require very little attention in response to environmental stimuli. Figure 1,
to perform—a task that is usually measured by provides a graphic representation of this theoretical
a skill-based behavior. This skill-based behavior framework including the relationship of the three
becomes automated in response to stimuli. But, phase cognitive process, specifically focused on
as Hockey, Healey, Crawshaw, Wastell and Sauer verbal and mechanical cognitive applications.
(2003) indicate, when uncertainty in a situation As shown, the initial cognitive phase, typical
increases, cognitive demand increases and the of novice behavior, is focused on formulating
individual will fall back on knowledge-based concepts and developing procedural skill, such
processes (if they exist and are correct) and not as attention to semantics for verbal information
65
related to the text-based description lecture or specific content for a particular reading ability.
written instruction. During the associative phase One key, to successful transferal, as defined in the
basic skill and knowledge become engrained. study conducted by Sumrall and Curry (2006),
There is less deliberate cognitive focus and more is that transferal should be defined by how the
of an emphasis on increasing speed and accuracy knowledge and skills gained through classroom
through practice or exposure to the learning mate- training can be synthesized and transferred into
rial. With continued practice, the novice moves the real-world. For instance, a student who is us-
toward mastery, or the autonomous phase exem- ing AT to gain knowledge and skills required of
plified by expert behavior. In this phase actions a particular subject should be able to eventually
are automatic and there is no attentional effort. blend in with the regular classroom and be a part of
Overall, the use of a computer-based simulation the teacher-student classroom learning process.
would afford Thomas this exposure. As early as the 1900’s, Thorndike studied
Based upon the example shown in Figure 1, similarities between facts and skills for transfer
the advancement through the cognitive phase is attainment and also researched the theory of Be-
depicted in two areas: (a) the verbal context where tween-Subjects Variability, measuring if subjects
information is introduced, in our example, either converge or diverge in performance over time with
through lecture or written instruction, and, (b) in training. Although there were no conclusive find-
the mechanical phase where a student can interact ings from Thorndike’s research, Ackerman (1986,
with a computer-based training program. When a 1987, 1988) found that interindividual variability
cognitively impaired student experiences anxiety of performance did decrease with practice if the
in a classroom, there will be a high cognitive task was within the abilities of the individual. Ad-
demand once in that setting, especially if that ditionally, novel tasks, combined with complex
information is not being comprehended at the tasks, required greater attention, which led to an
speed in which the rest of the students experience. increase in errors and a decrease in speed with
With practice, transition to the associative phase which the task was accomplished. What should
of increased knowledge and skill may well begin also be considered, is that when implementing
at the point where the student grasps the concepts a computer-based simulation, as an AT training
and increases performance, which, in the case of device, cognitive demand will increase if the
content knowledge (comprehension), could be student is not familiar with using computers.
shown through testing. It is anticipated that some This will also be a contributor to the student’s
students will not experience or may take longer to slower performance. However, as the student is
transition to the associative phase due to the limited able to practice, their abilities should improve
amount of time in which they are exposed to the based upon exposure to not only content, but to
material or due to their more advanced cognitive the technology.
challenges. Therefore, if, after testing, there is no Ability determinants of performance, also
improvement in a student’s score from the first known as Simplex theory, was further studied by
measure to the second measure, then the student Humphreys (as cited in Ackerman, 1988). Sim-
is considered to still be in the cognitive phase. plex theory suggests that as one gains practice,
To aid in a person’s ability to gain proficiency ability determinants of performance are chang-
with a particular curriculum component (such as ing but not in a linear fashion. Another theory,
reading), computer-based simulations are being Ability-Performance Correlations (Fleishman,
used to increase an individual’s knowledge and 1972; Fleishman, & Quaintance, 1984), ties in a
skill through repeated exposure and practice to cognitive assessment, such as identifying broad
a set of conditions for learning, such as using intellectual abilities during initial learning of a
66
simple, consistent task. Ackerman (1986) deter- There are key elements to transfer that are
mined that there is an alignment between ability, highlighted that may help to explain ‘why’ transfer
performance, and information-processing, espe- would or would not take place. This discussion
cially for those tasks that are inconsistent (not begins with an exploration of the three dimensions
route processes). of transfer; (a) positive and negative transfer, (b)
As a final theory, a theory that could be ap- simple to complex transfer, and (c) near and far
plied to the research of computer-based simu- transfer.
lated training and transfer to real situations is
the expectancy-value theory, as first coined by Positive and negative transfer
Fishbein (1967). As an individual continues to
learn, they also acquire and build upon expecta- Positive transfer occurs when stimuli and respons-
tions resulting from actions and the consequences es are similar (Leberman et al., 2006; McKeachie,
of those actions—which becomes the founda- 2001; Royer, 1986). Ansburg and Shields (2003)
tion for behavioral choices in the future. As for examined the transfer of principles between differ-
Thomas, without being identified as a student with ent reasoning tasks. In their experiment they stud-
a cognitive impairment that requires alternative ied the transfer abilities of 84 subjects (students
learning methods, he not only remains behind in in an introduction psychology course) trying to
reading but becomes slower over time than those solve six permission problems under four training
considered typical readers. conditions (combination of problem comparison
with and without feedback). Those who received
Transfer of Learning training on the problem comparison solved 15%
more of the target problems (solutions) than those
Transfer of learning is the process of applying what who did not receive the training, indicating posi-
has been learned (carried over) to a new or similar tive transfer.
situation, problem, or setting. It is this transfer, Reinforced skills can produce a measure of suc-
or carry-over, from an instructional situation to cess in the transference between learning and per-
the real-world setting that is the goal of training. formance. In the case of the cognitively impaired
In essence the transfer process occurs when an student with a reading disability, such as dyslexia
individual builds requisite associations, or mental or a short term memory problem, may require the
schema, that enhances storage and retrieval from use of an AT tool to aid the student in learning in
memory. In effect this mental framework helps in- a different way other than a traditional classroom
dividuals learn related subject matter more rapidly setting. Assistive technologies may offer a method
(Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Hume & by which the word on the screen is highlighted and
Shepard, 2001; Leberman, McDonald, & Doyle, through audio, is heard. If this type of interactive
2006; McKeachie, 2001). Transfer of learning is a technology is supported, the student can speak
key ingredient in a training environment intended the word aloud into a microphone for capture and
to facilitate individual acquisition and refinement computer analysis for immediate feedback. When
of knowledge and skills. As noted by Leberman, using a computer-based simulation as an AT tool,
McDonald, and Doyle (2006), “transfer is the link the cognitively impaired student can practice over
between learning and the performance.. .” (p. 31). time to become positively qualified (tested) for
Although transfer has been studied for decades, it their grade level; hence, allowing, Thomas to fit
is still a process that is not completely understood into the classroom with his classmates. When
(McKeachie, 2001; Salomon & Perkins, 1989). these reinforced reading skills, that are gained in
67
the simulation and are applied to the real-world, Simple transfer, for the purpose of this chap-
a positive transfer is then fully realized. ter, is illustrated when a student’s fundamental
While positive transfer facilitates learning or knowledge of reading comprehension in the
performance in another situation, negative transfer simulated environment is easily duplicated in
means that a learned response actually hinders different real-world environments, such as being
appropriate performance. For example, people able to participate in reading in a classroom set-
who learn a second language typically apply pat- ting and then being able to transfer that reading
terns of speech production characteristic of their to the real-world, such as a grocery store. This
native tongue, thus giving them a foreign accent, would be inclusive of Thomas as he continued to
Ormrod (as cited in Schmidt, Young, Cormier, & improve upon his reading knowledge and skills.
Hagman, 1987). The cognitively impaired student, Conversely, complex transfer may be illustrated
for example, who can read but not comprehend when students, who can read, comprehend, and
spatial concepts, may have a difficult time with test positively on a computer-based program and
the statement, “She knew that she had to succeed can transfer their acquired knowledge to the real-
at this task!” How does the cognitively impaired world without transition to the regular classroom.
student comprehend “succeed”? Finally, if stimuli Further cognitive extension would include the
and responses are significantly different, neither student’s ability to comprehend (construct mean-
positive nor negative transfer occurs, causing a ing) and decode (recognize) more difficult words,
transfer gap. such as “succeed” described earlier. As students
seek extended applications of their reading abil-
simple to complex transfer ity to the real-world, a “complex” integration of
knowledge is formed.
Leberman et al. (2006) define simple transfer
as occurring when previous knowledge can be near and Far transfer
used in a new situation with little to no effort.
This is in alignment with Salomon and Perkin’s Near transfer is posited to take place when previ-
(1989) “low road transfer” concept when tasks are ous knowledge is being applied to situations that
performed effortlessly. The effortless transfer to are similar to what is being newly experienced
related situations may be termed automatization, and takes minimal cognitive effort (Leberman et
as noted by Salomon and Perkin’s (1989), as the al., 2006; McKeachie, 2001; Royer, 1986). For
“automatic triggering of well learned behavior example, near procedural transfer, is indicated by
in a new context” (p. 113). This is similar to the the student that is already proficient in reading at
definition of expert behavior as noted by Acker- a particular grade level (previous knowledge and
man (1988). skills) and then is required to read similar material
Leberman et. al, (2006) define complex transfer at a high grade level.
as using the previously acquired knowledge in a Far transfer is essentially the process of apply-
new situation while seeking extended applications ing existing knowledge to a novel learning situa-
in which that knowledge can be used. This process tion which takes a high cognitive effort (Leberman
of complex transfer is defined by Salomon and et al., 2006; McKeachie, 2001). This concept is
Perkin’s (1989) as “high road transfer”, which suggested to occur when knowledge gained from
requires greater cognitive processing and may previous experiences is put into a dissimilar situa-
be detected in situations in which individuals are tion, and the individual is expected to successfully
learning rules and principles. apply this acquired knowledge.
68
Far transfer, which requires a high cognitive to (c) autonomous. These phases are parallel to
effort, is posited to occur if a cognitively impaired the elements described below: (a) cognition, (b)
student, who is not given the simulated reading situativity (also considered the associative phase),
assistance but remains in the regular classroom and (c) automaticity. The following paragraphs
under difficult odds, is able to acquire classroom describe the mental process involved as to how
knowledge and transfer that information to the real- these cognitive elements are linked with the
world. Now that the three dimensions of transfer transfer of learning.
have been explored, the cognitive elements that
aid in transfer will be examined: cognition, situ- Cognitive Elements
ativity, and automaticity. As noted in Figure 1 of
Ackerman’s (1992) theory, the transfer of learning From a cognitive perspective, and related to
and the cognitive elements that aid in that transfer Ackerman’s (1992) definition of the cognitive
are required to becoming an expert. phase, as individuals are learning, they create
mental models and structures (schema) to make
experts vs novices connections with various pieces of information.
Schema originated from elements of semantic
Bransford et al. (2000), report in great detail memory which contains the “knowledge of con-
the characteristics that distinguish experts from cepts, rules, principles, generalizations, skills, and
novices. There is strong evidence to suggest that metacognitive skills” (p. 7) that are based on the
experts interpret information differently, as well as extraction of experience (Andre & Phye, 1986).
organize, represent, and create mental models of Schema is often triggered by stimulation in our
a situation differently than that of novices (Hinds, environment, which, when drawn upon can result
Patterson, & Pfeffer, 2001; Novick, 1988; Schoe- in three types of cognitive mechanics: assimila-
nfeld, 1987). Experts tend to create schema from tion, accommodation, or equilibration. Lunzer
similarities that are perceived, whereas, novices (1986) provided explanations of the mechanics
are too concerned with seeing the smaller pieces, in the following manner: (a) assimilation takes
such as facts (Schoenfeld, 1987). However, as existing schema and creates new schema that is
noted by Bransford et al., experts become expert extended to the existing situation; (b) accommo-
through the use of cognitive thinking, starting dation adapts existing schema to fit a novel situ-
with basic learning, moving on to the association ation through trial-and-error or systemic inquiry
of stimuli with responses, and finally, practicing or through logical inferences and creates a new
to the point that performing a task becomes au- schema; (c) equilibration is the balancing act of
tomated. Experts generally demonstrate reduced separating two conflicting schemas, known as
stimuli interference and reduced errors (Correll et cognitive dissonance, that have been triggered
al., 2007); just like experts, novices, can become by the same stimulation and creating yet another
expert through the same process. But, we cannot schema. Exposure to stimulation, both new and
forget, underlying this process is the science of existing, evokes these cognitive mechanics that
transfer. If transfer is not taking place, one can- lead to higher order thinking.
not move from one cognitive element to the next, In a situated learning condition, the focus is
which is also supported in Ackerman’s (1988) then on the development of higher order think-
theory and in Ackerman’s (1992) description of ing (Leberman et al., 2006) in which real-world
cognitive phases. According to Ackerman, transfer conditions are presented and aligned with existing
occurs in skill acquisition in the three phases, prior knowledge. Under this type of optimized
from (a) cognitive, to (b) associative, and finally learning environment, schema building, as noted
69
by Clark (2003), allow one to interpret their of the higher level cognitive perspective when
environment and to make sense of what is being one participates in regular patterns of activities,
experienced-based upon their prior knowledge. which is characterized as communities of practice
Eventually, schema or sequences are stored in (Greeno, 1998). In addition, with cognitively
long-term memory and, through practice, become impaired students, there may be little to no exist-
over-learned and turn into automated processes ing schema to draw from to aid in a successful
(Phye, 1986). As adult learners, Clark (2003) and outcome. However, over time, if enough practice
Huitt (2003) indicate there are three primary stages could be afforded, it would be expected to see
to process information: encoding, storage, and some form of improvement. Finally, the higher
retrieval; as a learner receives new information, it order thinking involved with situativity eventually
is the integration with prior knowledge that results encompasses automaticity, characteristics of an
in encoding, and the creation of a new schema into expert (Leberman et al., 2006).
long-term memory. When information is needed Automoticity, which is related to Ackerman’s
from recall, it is retrieved from long-term memory (1992) definition of the autonomous phase, is
and aids in higher order thinking. an unconscious process that experts tend to use
Engaging in higher order thinking forms con- based on a highly organized structure of chunked
nections between an environment and experience, information, stored as schemas, that was developed
and is known as critical thinking (Desse, 2001), over years of experience, (Bransford et al., 2000;
problem-solving, (Price & Driscoll, 1997) and Salomon & Perkins, 1989). Automaticity involves
reasoning (McKeachie, 2001). It has also been less routine cognitive processing (Ferguson, 2000)
noted that higher levels of cognitive processes and is individual to each person. Automaticity is
require higher demands on cognitive skills, and created either through (a) intentional goal-directed
therefore, a novice may be ill-equipped, lacking processes that require an act, or (b) preconscious
these skills (Kuhn, Black, Keselman, & Kaplan, processing that only requires the environment as
2000). As with cognitively impaired students, they a trigger (Bargh & Chartrand, 1999). However,
are not afforded the opportunity to grasp concepts tasks that are not consistent in nature and that have
or knowledge within a regular classroom. In these many possibilities with various responses are not
circumstances this is when simulations can allow as easy to learn (Halff, Hollan, & Hutchins, 1986;
practice, and at length, thereby helping to form Tubau, Hommel, & Lapez-Moliner, 2007).
connections regarding the concept at hand. To increase the likelihood of automaticity,
However, at the onset, when a cognitively repeatable actions and higher-order thinking need
impaired student begins using AT (such as simula- to be infused into the learning situation. The more
tions), they may experience a higher demand on we learn about AT, transfer of learning, simulated
their cognitive resources by the mere fact of being environments, and real-world problems and out-
exposed to the AT tool itself. This in turn could comes, the more adept the training industry will
produce higher adrenaline that may interfere with become at designing training systems that get
their initial learning. These students may require to the heart of what is now missing; a learning
time to become familiar with the tool, the com- continuum for students of all learning capabili-
puter, and the navigation within the simulation. ties. As for our hypothetical example, Thomas’s
Once these factors are overcome, the progression advancement in reading could be dependent upon
through learning of the content can begin. two things, (a) the identification of his cognitive
Situativity, which is related to Ackerman’s condition, and (b) the implementation of AT ser-
(1992) definition of the associative phase, is part vices and devices.
70
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Section 2
The Internet, Media, and
Cognitive Loads
In the first part of this handbook, we emphasized a common quandary found in education—the technology-centered approach
typically trumps that of a learner-centered one—which has left the better half of the 20th century littered with examples as
to why this does not work. Implementing the latest advancements in cutting-edge technology are not enough, but instead,
such knowledge must be coupled with an understanding of the human information processing system. In the first part of this
handbook, we focused on theoretical scaffolding, presenting the importance of managing cognitive load and best practices
in the design of multimedia-based instruction and its applicability in assisting those with learning disabilities. We also
introduced the use of simulation-based instruction, and the significant contributions it has towards assisting those with
learning disabilities. In the second part of this handbook, we continue this line of thinking and elaborate further on the use
of 3D virtual environments. These environments have been made popular in recent years by advancements in software and
computing power, and while typically seen as a form of entertainment and a means for social networking by many, these
environments, such as SecondLife, have also lend themselves to businesses as well as educational institutions, because of
the potential limitless possibilities such virtual environments may bring. These environments may very well hold significant
opportunities to assist those who are challenged by traditional classroom instruction and interaction. Overall, we continue
to merge cognitive architecture with assistive technologies and describe how this marriage can aid those with special needs.
We accomplish this through the presentation of three chapters. In the fifth chapter, we present findings in the development
of a 3D virtual learning environment to help develop and practice social competence (i.e., social interaction and social
learning) for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders through the iSocial project. The goal of the project is for youth
to transfer lessons learned in a virtual environment to the real world. In the sixth chapter, we present the nature of treating
disorders through the aid of virtual reality in a rehabilitative focus. Highlighted are the clinical, social, and technological
issues in the hope of gaining a better understanding of the coupling between cognitive architectures and rehabilitation. While
finally, in the seventh chapter, we present advancements in information and communication technologies and their impact
on inclusive education and how such technologies can assist those with special needs. Specifically, hypermedia learning
environments as an assistive technology are discussed along with the disorientation and cognitive load problems faced by
learners in navigating such environments.
76
Chapter 5
Social Orthotics for Youth
with ASD to Learn in a
Collaborative 3D VLE
James Laffey
University of Missouri, USA
Janine Stichter
Matthew Schmidt
AbstrAct
Online systems, especially 3D virtual environments, hold great potential to enrich and expand learn-
ing opportunities for those who are challenged by traditional modes of instruction and interaction. In
the process of developing a 3D Virtual Learning Environment to support the development and practice
of social competence for individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders, the iSocial project explored
and advanced ideas for social orthotics in virtual environments. By social orthotics the authors mean
structures in the environment that overcome barriers to facilitate social interaction and social learning.
The vision of social orthotics in a 3D world is to be both assistive and adaptive for appropriate social
behavior when the student, peers and guide are represented by avatars in a 3D virtual world designed
to support learning and development. This chapter describes the formulation of social orthotics for
avatar orientation and conversational turn-taking and describes experiences and lessons from early
tests of prototype orthotics.
IntroductIon Learning Environment (3D-VLE) to assist youth

with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in their devel-
A multi-disciplinary team including special educa- opment of targeted social competencies. The project,
tors and learning technologist at the University of iSocial (http://isocial.rnet.missouri.edu/), seeks to
Missouri are developing a 3-Dimensional Virtual take a successful face-to-face program delivered
over a 10-week period by a trained guide to groups
of 4 to 5 youth and deliver the program online via a
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch005
Social Orthotics for Youth with ASD to Learn in a Collaborative 3D VLE
3D Internet-based virtual world (Laffey, Schmidt, bAckground

Stichter, Schmidt, Oprean, Herzog, & Babiuch,
in press; Laffey, Schmidt, Stichter, Schmidt, & Literature
Goggins, 2009; Schmidt, Laffey, Stichter, Gog-
gins, & Schmidt, 2008). A key goal of building As a collaboration of researchers in the field of
an online program is to increase access to the Special Education with researchers in the field
program. To engage in iSocial the youth must of Learning Technologies we consider the role of
work cooperatively in the online environment, technology in assisting social performance as an
including following directions from an online integration of both traditions. In special education,
guide and collaborate on many online learning assistive technology refers to devices that increase,
activities with other youth with ASD. maintain, or improve capabilities of individuals
While a key goal of iSocial is for the youth to with disabilities for those performances. Learning
transfer lessons and competencies learned in the technologies are generally seen as a means for
online environment to their traditional face-to- augmenting human capabilities. Donald Norman,
face settings with parents, teachers, friends and a noted human interface guru, wrote a book about
classmates, in planning for iSocial, the develop- “Things that make us Smart” (Norman, 1994),
ers recognized a need for design features to help articulating the view that the design quality of de-
the youth interact and be social during the online vices impacts human capability both for good and
learning processes. Youth who do not readily take for worse. These two world views of technology
turns, attend to social cues and expectations nor assisting individuals to overcome disabilities and
cooperate effectively in face-to-face settings are augmenting individuals to enhance their abilities
also likely to struggle with social practices in combine to sensitize the design of iSocial to the
the online setting. The challenge, of course, is general impact of all design decisions on human
to assist youth with ASD, who have traditional capability and the specific potential of a class of
social performance deficiencies, to be social while devices that may shape targeted social behavior.
learning social performance competencies. This is Researchers in the field of assistive technology
a key feature of the face-to-face curriculum and for individuals with ASD pay particular attention
an essential requirement in the translation to the to communication functions and have asserted the
online environment. We articulated a concept of value of augmenting language input through visual
social orthotics to represent types of structures devices (Hodgdon, 1995; Quill, 1997; Mirenda,
that might be needed to facilitate social interaction 2001). Mirenda’s (2001) review of literature from
and social learning in iSocial. The vision of social prior to 1999 showed the potential of visual cues
orthotics in a 3D VLE is to be both assistive and to support comprehension of speech, managing
adaptive for appropriate social behavior when activity and choice making. Methods to stimulate
the student, peers and guide are represented by language production with symbols and augment
avatars in a 3D virtual world designed to support language by using voice generation devices also
learning and development. This chapter describes showed some evidence of support for communi-
how we are thinking about and developing early cation. Two conclusions seem apparent from the
implementations of social orthotics. The chapter review: (a) communication-related behaviors can
also shares what we are learning about these be augmented and visual cues seem especially
ideas and their potential to support appropriate promising for individuals with ASD and (b) the
online behavior. Additionally we discuss some benefits of any assistive technology is highly
key challenges for design and development of dependent on the fit between the form of the
social orthotics. technology intervention and the individual’s needs
77
and capabilities. The importance of the fit between only implements a set of rules for finding a seat,
technology and individual needs has been further rather than possibly providing opportunities for
supported by research in the promising domain greeting others, leaving others, or practicing how
of using robots to foster communication practice to act in a café with peers taking on other roles in
for youth with ASD. Examinations of robots as the scene. The majority of 3D VLE prior work has
assistive technology (Robins, Dautenhahn, te viewed VLEs as an experience of a single-user
Boekhorst & Billard, 2004) confirm the need to sitting at a computer to take on a specific task
fit the technology to the individual characteristics with a physically-present adult assistant. iSocial,
of the child. More recently (Mirenda, 2009), the however, seeks to immerse the youth in a VLE
evidence for assistive technology for communica- for multiple and integrated experiences as well as
tion and social skills has increased and the forms support these youth as they learn collaboratively
of devices have become more sophisticated and with and from other members within the VLE.
integrated. Since Douglas Engelbart wrote the seminal
Another review and effort to guide the applica- work on augmenting human intellect with tech-
tion of assistive technology (Pierangelo & Giulani, nology (Engelbart, 1962) the idea of technology
2008) emphasizes matching technologies (both assisting or augmenting human capabilities has
low and high technology) with the needs of the been a core principle in the field of designing
child and attending to developmental progression computer systems for learning and performance.
in the use of forms of the technology. In addressing In this sense, the notion of assistive technology
the use of assistive technologies for the develop- is much broader and general than in the field of
ment of social skills, Pierangelo and Giulani (2008) special education and is viewed as amplifying
recommend low-tech strategies such as reading human capacity rather than as compensating for
social stories, using comic strip conversations disabilities. However, in the practice of design,
and having social scripts. Numerous software the blending of affordances and constraints to
systems have been developed as high-tech ways customize support for unique forms of human
to enhance these low-tech strategies. capability is common to both special education and
Some researchers in the field of assistive tech- more general design work. Two tracks of work in
nology for youth with ASD have also examined computer systems design for learning and perfor-
the capability of youth with ASD to work and mance seem appropriate to mention as foundations
learn in a 3D VLE as a means for developing for our conceptualization of social orthotics—
social skills and competencies. These studies have performance support and scaffolding.
demonstrated that participants with ASD can use Performance support has been a design ap-
and interpret VLEs successfully and use VLEs proach since the late 1980’s and early 1990’s in
to learn simple social skills (Cobb, S., Beardon, response to the growing presence of computers
L., Eastgate, R., Glover, T., Kerr, S., Neale, H., in the workplace and the need to improve pro-
Parsons, S., Benford, S., Hopkins, E., Mitchell, ductivity. We do not often speak of this approach
P., Reynard, G., & Wilson J., 2002; Mitchell, now as a separate form of design because it has
Parsons, & Leonard, 2007). However, this prior generally been incorporated into most approaches
work has addressed the teaching of skills but not to the design of modern computer systems. Tax
structures and mechanisms (orthotics) for actually preparation software, such as TurboTax by Intuit,
being social in a 3D environment. For example represents a canonical example of the application
Parsons, Leonard, and Mitchell (2006) use a café of performance support in that it is meant to act as
scene to teach skills of finding an appropriate a butler assisting with tasks that the user knows
seat, but the scene is a single-user context and how to perform and acts as a coach for tasks un-
78
familiar or challenging to the user (Laffey, 1995). enjoyable. However we also found many chal-
Scaffolding is the other construct from learning lenges for social interaction and specifically for
technology that shapes our thinking about social executing appropriate turn-taking behavior and
orthotics. Collins, Brown, and Newman (1989) the coordination of activity. During the lessons
characterized instructional scaffolding as a pro- there were numerous instances when youth would
cess where an expert performs part of a complex interrupt each other, fail to initiate conversation
task for which a learner is unprepared, thereby when needed and fail to respond appropriately.
allowing the learner to engage in work that would The online guide had difficulty facilitating these
normally be outside his/her grasp. Scaffolding can exchanges as she could only see avatar behavior
take the form of a suggestion or other discourse and it took time to determine if the youth were
based assistance or specialized devices such as participating appropriately, inappropriately, or
the short skis used in teaching downhill skiing were just not attending. The online guide also had
(Burton, Brown, & Fischer, 1984). Explicit forms trouble coordinating activity in the VLE, due to
of instructional scaffolding—those delivered a lack of traditional control mechanisms, such as
primarily through interaction with an advisor or nonverbal cues. For example, in the classroom,
expert—represent only one kind of scaffolding. the guide notices subtle cues from students as
Procedure and task facilitation, realized through they are starting to drift from instruction, and she
physical and structural supports that are implicit can use those cues to start processes to bring the
to the design of an interface, are also forms of student back to attention. However, when learners
scaffolding. This extended notion of scaffolding engaged in undesirable behavior in their physical
(Quintana, C., Reiser, B. J., Davis, E. A., Krajcik, environment, such as gazing out the window or
J., Fretz, E., Duncan, R. G., Kyza, E., Edelson, D., excessively clicking mouse buttons or keyboard
& Soloway, E., 2004; Hmelo-Silver, 2006; Lin, keys, the online guide often did not know these
2004), which includes both advisor-like expertise behaviors were occurring and could only try verbal
delivered via agents in the 3D VLE and structures prompts to keep the youth on track. In addition,
designed to constrain and invite appropriate behav- the youth were both curious about the environment
ior, are a basis for conceptualizing and designing and uncertain about how to move effectively. As
social orthotics. a result, learners often were missing in action,
sometimes out exploring and sometimes trapped
early Field experience for isocial in walls or other dead ends in the iSocial environ-
ment. Such issues of navigation and inappropri-
A unit on conversational turn-taking, from the ate behavior were distracting, which typically
five-unit SCI-CBI curriculum (Stichter, Herzog, slowed the rate of instruction and impeded the
Visovsky, Schmidt, Randolph, Schultz, & Gage, flow of the lessons. Consequentially, the online
in review; Stichter, Randolph, Gage & Schmidt, guide was unable to address the same amount of
2007) was developed for delivery in the iSocial instruction in one-hour in the VLE as is typical
VLE prior to our implementation of explicit de- in a face-to-face class, causing instruction to be
vices for social orthotics. Four youth in pairs of sometimes rushed.
two (boys on the autism spectrum, ages 11-14)
undertook the lesson facilitated by an online guide.
For each pair, the unit consisted of two training socIAL ortHotIcs
sessions of one hour and then four one-hour lessons
delivered in a two-week period. Our findings for In our early conceptualization of iSocial, we
system usage show iSocial to be easy to use and envisioned devices for mediating the learning
79
Figure 1. A conversation console as an early prototype of social orthotics
activities in ways that provided scaffolding for Based on our early field tests of the turn-taking
the youth in the learning process. For example, unit, the need for support for core aspects of social
Figure 1 shows an early prototype of how a con- engagement and interaction became apparent.
versation console could be used to both constrain We still envision scaffolding for learning such
and support turn-taking and facilitate empathy as the conversation console, but we turned our
during various interactive exercises that made immediate attention to devices that might help
up the curriculum. This form of scaffolding was keep students together, focused, and provide er-
directly linked to the instructional objectives of rorless learning (something not available in natural
the curriculum, such as to support appropriate contexts) to better scaffold instruction and hence
turn-taking and trying to understand what others avoid initial excessive and distracting behavioral
might be thinking or feeling. You might imagine errors such as interruptions. Our primary focus
the conversation console operating like an expert in developing social orthotics was to assist the
coach or advisor helping the youth make sense of youth in being social and to support the online
the situation and suggesting attention to certain guide, whose role it was to manage youth behavior
aspects of the situation. Following from our review and facilitate learning in the 3D VLE. Since the
of the literature, which showed the potential of nature of a computing environment affords the
visual representations and the need for tailored potential to vary the implementation and intensity
assistance, we envisioned varying the implementa- of the implementation, our view was to customize
tion and intensity of the visual representation so orthotics to the individual youth’s needs, present
as to customize the mediation to the individual and future, and to provide the orthotic in the most
youth’s needs.
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Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of social orthotics for iSocial: Round 2
appropriate way for the youth, social competency competency with software mechanisms geared
development level and activity. towards facilitating pro-social behavior. For our
second round of prototyping and field testing to
conceptual Framework for be undertaken in 2009 and early 2010, we are
social orthotics in isocial focused on two essential skills for basic social
practice: (a) avoiding interruptions (iTalk) and
Social orthotics are pieces of software tools and (b) exhibiting proper adjacency, distance and
customizations to the virtual environment which orientation behavior (iGroup).
are integrated into the interface and virtual world All activity in a 3D VLE is mediated by
in such a way as to support social interaction and designed spaces and devices. Since it is the in-
mediate acquisition of social competency from tention of the design work to make all elements
coaching, on-demand assistance and just-in-time work toward the desired ends of competent social
feedback. A goal of these orthotics is to enable practice within the system and practice for social
learners to engage in effective social practice competency beyond the system, it is important to
for which they do not have full competence. distinguish between three major design aspects
Figure 2 provides schemata for how these tools related to assisting social practice. The three design
pair pedagogical strategies for teaching social elements related to the role of social orthotics are:
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Figure 3. An example of a “virtual” physical social orthotic
general environment, physical devices for targeted orientation to other members in the circle and
behavior and dynamic agents. We will illustrate focus on aspects in the user view. An example of
these three design approaches by describing work an agent, for being in the appropriate place and
completed from round one to round two of the keeping an appropriate focus, will be described in
design in addressing the problem of youth getting the next sections, but it includes monitoring user
lost or wandering in the space, thus delaying the behavior and providing feedback and guidance.
progress of lessons. While all three of these approaches are meant to
As an approach to general environment design be “assistive” for social practice, we consider
we went from an environment that had numer- the latter two to be social orthotics and for the
ous rooms related to specific elements of the purposes of this chapter, we will focus solely on
curriculum to a more open layout. In this new agent-based forms of orthotics.
environment it was easier for the online guide to
see where the students were, and it was less likely igroup
that students would get lost in rooms or stuck in
walls. An example of physical devices for targeted Avatar Orientation, Adjacency
behavior can be seen in Figure 3. Here the circle and Distance
indicates a space for the youth to enter which in
turn changes their perspective from a third-person A key problem observed during the field test was
view of themselves and others in the scene to a the difficulty of having the target youth learn in
point of view perspective of the materials of the a group when he or she struggled with rudimen-
lesson. Entering the circle can also have other tary behaviors and orientations necessary for
properties such as not allowing the user to leave group activity, such as facing another youth and
until the guide permits it as well as managing not invading another’s space. In the case of our
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field test the group was limited to two youth and individual needs of the youth, one child might be
an online guide. We anticipate groups of 5 to 6 provided text messages reminding him of more
youth with a guide, so mechanisms are needed appropriate behavior while another child with a
for helping users manage the non-verbal aspects record of inappropriate behavior might be “virtu-
of group interaction. iGroup is a software-based ally” physically restrained from moving outside
means to reinforce desired adjacency, distance and the circle or have a specific orientation imposed
orientation behavior and constrain undesirable on his avatar in response to a series of undesir-
behavior. Orientation refers to the directionality of able behaviors.
the user’s avatar towards a speaker. For instance, Given a conversation between users with the
a user having his or her avatar’s back turned to iGroup tool enabled, inappropriate adjacency,
a speaker is considered undesirable behavior as distance or orientation behaviors during a conver-
opposed to desirable behavior of looking at the sation will be identified and the user exhibiting
speaker. Adjacency refers to how close users’ these behaviors will be provided with a notifica-
avatars are to one another. For example, a user tion. From the user’s perspective, iGroup sends
having his or her avatar directly in front of the notifications to the user’s screen when undesirable
speaker’s avatar or touching the speaker’s avatar adjacency, distance, or orientation behaviors are
is considered undesirable behavior as opposed detected. From the guide’s or administrator’s
to having the avatar approximately within one perspective, iGroup is configured using a settings
virtual meter of the speaker (desirable behavior). panel which can be selected from the iSocial client
Distance refers to the area between users’ avatars. window’s menu.
For example, a user having his or her avatar across
the room from the speaker’s avatar is considered Use Case
undesirable behavior as opposed to having the
avatar within three or four virtual meters of the In the case described here, the guide has sets the
speaker (desirable behavior). time before notification for orientation, adjacency.
The iGroup tool provides users with mecha- and distance to three seconds. If one user remained
nisms that constrain inappropriate adjacency, too close to another user for three seconds, that
distance and orientation behavior and encourage user received a notification. If a user began speak-
users to follow the rules for appropriate adja- ing and another user was far away and did move
cency, distance and orientation when holding to within an appropriate distance of the speaker
a conversation. iGroup monitors users’ avatar within three seconds, that user received a noti-
adjacency, distance and orientation in respect to fication. If a user began speaking and another
other users, notifies users when they are displaying user’s avatar was not oriented towards the speaker
inappropriate adjacency, distance and orientation and/or did not turn his or her avatar to face the
behaviors and constrains their ability to continue speaker within three seconds, that user received
these behaviors. In addition, iGroup provides a notification.
coaching and assistance by sending notifications In our example, Joe and Ryan were present
to users such as, “Someone is speaking, but my in a virtual space, were approximately eight
back is turned. I should turn around and face the virtual meters apart and were facing away from
speaker or else they may think that I am not in- one another. Joe began speaking to Ryan. Ryan
terested or I am being rude.” Finally, iGroup can listened to Joe, but did not turn to face him or
be fit to users’ differing abilities for managing move any closer to him. Joe continued speaking
their avatars’ orientation, adjacency and distance. for more than three seconds. Ryan then received
As an example of fitting the functionality to the two notifications: One prompting him to orient
83
Figure 4. Illustration of an iGroup notification prompting re-orientation
his avatar towards Joe (see Figure 4) and the other is used to set the orientation settings, adjacency
prompting him to move closer to Joe. After the settings and distance settings, as well as to set no-
notification Ryan then moved very close to Joe tification messages customized to the pedagogical
and properly oriented his avatar. Because Ryan levels of learning for the youth. Figure 5 shows
was too close to Joe, he received a notification the options for setting orientation controls.
after three seconds elapsed. Because his avatar was The orientation settings make it possible to set
correctly oriented to Joe, Ryan did not receive a the amount of time that can elapse when a user
second notification regarding orientation. exhibits undesirable orientation behavior before
Over time Ryan improved his orientation a notification is sent. Acquisition, maintenance
and adjacency behavior and received fewer and and fluency are pedagogical levels which will be
fewer notifications related to these behaviors. The discussed in the section on pedagogical strategies,
iGroup software detected this change in behavior but the mock-up in Figure 4 shows that they have
and decreased the frequency of notifications that default duration settings which can be overridden
Ryan received for these behaviors. However, manually. The notifications area toggles notifica-
Ryan continued to move away from the speaker tions on/off, sets the duration that the notification
and received notifications related to distance. is displayed on the client’s screen and sets custom
The iGroup software detected this and increased notification messages. In practice, the iGroup tool
the frequency of notifications that Ryan received determines if others’ avatars are appropriately or
regarding his distance behavior. inappropriately oriented to the speaker (see Figure
6). The software allows the pre-determined “No-
Settings Panel tification Duration” setting time to elapse prior
to sending a notification to any users exhibiting
The guide or administrator is able to configure inappropriate orientation behavior. This delay
iGroup using a settings panel. This settings panel provides users the chance to appropriately orient
84
Figure 5. Mock-up of the iGroup settings panel
Figure 6. Top-down view of avatars exhibiting inappropriate orientation behavior (left) and appropriate
orientation behavior (right)
their avatar without receiving a reminder notifica- from sending a notification if, for example, the
tion from the system. For example, if a user hears speaker is only making a brief statement and not
someone speaking and turns to face the speaker beginning a continued discourse.
within the given time limit, that user would not The settings under the adjacency tab define a
receive a notification. However, if the user does personal space for the avatars, such as a diameter
not turn his or her avatar to the speaker within of one virtual meter from the center of the avatar.
the given time allotted, that user would receive a A proximity trigger is activated in the iGroup tool
notification. The delay also constrains the system if another avatar enters and stays in the space
85
beyond the threshold time. The settings under does not have the speaking floor, the utterance is
the distance tab control the behavior or pop-up detected on that user’s microphone channel and
notifications related to users’ avatar distance from is counted as an interruption. Obviously, this is a
one another. The distance settings make it pos- gross oversimplification of conversation dynamics
sible for an administrator or instructor to set the and turn-taking behavior and has the potential for
distance diameter and the amount of time that can falsely identifying interruptions if, for example, a
elapse when a user exhibits undesirable distance user accidentally brushes his or her microphone,
behavior before a notification is sent. The distance there is a loud noise in the background, or the
diameter is defined as a space around an avatar user makes a common interjection such as “uh
that is speaking. When one user begins speaking, huh” or “yeah.” To control for this, the sensitiv-
the iGroup tool determines if others’ avatars are ity can be adjusted within the tool. The tool can
appropriately or inappropriately distanced from be configured to allow for a certain degree of
the speaker based on the value provided in the conversational overlap. For instance, the tool can
settings panel for “Distance Diameter.” be configured to allow for one user to interject
during a conversation for less than one second,
italk In addition, using frequency thresholds, which
allow the user to make a few interruptions before
Speaking/Listening Tool the system sends a notification helps to control
for falsely identified interruptions.
iTalk is a software-based means to reinforce de-
sired speaking and listening behavior and constrain Use Case
undesirable behavior. The first iteration of iTalk
focuses specifically on eliminating audio inter- The instructor set an interruption threshold of
ruptions. This tool will monitor conversation; five interruptions in 30 seconds in the iTalk set-
will inform users when they are interrupting and, tings panel. If a user interrupted five times in 30
if needed, will constrain their ability to continue seconds, a notification displayed on his or her
speaking out of turn. Moreover, iTalk will provide screen informing that the interruption threshold
coaching and assistance by sending notifications was met and provided coaching hints and tips for
to users such as, “I just interrupted my partner. avoiding future interruptions. Joe and Ryan began
Maybe I should wait for a pause in conversation speaking and a progress meter showed the amount
before I speak.” In addition, iTalk will be able to of time left until the interruption threshold resets
dynamically adjust its settings to fit users’ differing began to count down. Joe interrupted frequently
conversational abilities. From the user’s perspec- during the conversation. Each interruption caused
tive, iTalk displays the frequency of conversational a separate progress meter showing the number of
interruptions to the screen and presents the user interruptions to increment by one. When Joe made
with a notification when a specified threshold five interruptions within 30 seconds, a notification
of interruptions is met. From the instructor’s or pop-up displayed on his screen that states that
administrator’s perspective, iTalk is configured the user interrupted too frequently and provided
using a settings panel which can be selected from tips on avoiding interrupting. If Joe continued to
the iSocial client window’s menu. The iTalk tool receive notification pop-ups for three consecutive
monitors audio by hooking in to the microphone 30-second intervals, iTalk dynamically adjusted
channel on user’s clients. Assuming silence, when the interruption threshold to meet Joe’s level of
one user begins speaking, that user is assigned the ability. Ryan did not interrupt frequently. In this
speaking floor. If another user begins speaking but case, iTalk hypothesized that Ryan’s threshold was
86
too easy for his level of ability. The exact way that client’s display of interruption progress meters.
iTalk will work is not completely specified, but Notifications can be toggled on/off, can be set for
in this case Ryan might have received a token as a display duration on the client’s screen and have
a reward for his performance and is dynamically custom notification messages. In addition to the
moved to a more challenging threshold. interruption threshold, progress meters and noti-
fications, the settings panel allows the instructor
Settings Panel or administrator to mute a user for a given time
duration when an interruption threshold is met.
The iTalk settings panel shown in Figure 7 is used Figure 8 shows how the progress indicators and
to set the interruption threshold, enable/disable pop-up notifications are displayed on the user’s
progress meters, set a custom notification message screen. When iTalk is enabled, the user sees two
and enable/disable user muting. progress meters on the bottom-right portion of
The interruption threshold makes it possible the iSocial client window. The meter on the right
for the instructor or administrator to set the is a timer and represents the time interval set by
number of interruptions that are allowed within the administrator or the instructor in the settings
a given time period before a notification is sent. panel. The meter on the left indicates the number
The three pedagogical levels have default settings of times a user has interrupted in a given time
which can be overridden manually. The progress interval. When the time interval reaches zero,
meters check box toggles the visibility on the both meters reset.
Figure 7. Mock-up of iTalk settings panel
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The meters indicating the interruption thresh- The acquisition phase is for users who have not
old is color coded (green, yellow and red) in yet acquired the ability; hence, the times that
order to convey how close a user is to receiving elapse before a notification is sent are short and
an interruption notification. The interruption the goals for appropriate behavior may be lower
indicators use an incremental model; that is, or less refined. The maintenance phase is for
given an interruption threshold of five interrup- users who have acquired rudimentary ability, so
tions in 30 seconds for the first interruption, the the times that elapse before a notification is sent
progress meter will display in green. For the next are moderate. The fluency phase is for users who
two interruptions, the progress meter displays in have become adept at the competency and long
yellow. For the fourth and fifth interruptions, the times can elapse before a notification is sent. By
progress meter displays red. Green indicates a the fluency phase goals for appropriate behavior
lower interruption frequency, yellow a moderate are quite refined and expectations are as close to
interruption frequency and red a severe interrup- those in typical environments as possible. The
tion frequency. support, prompts and scaffolding provided by the
orthotics fade across the phases of acquisition,
Pedagogical strategy being heavy yet tolerant during the acquisition
phase, moderate during the maintenance phase
The social orthotics tools are designed with a and light during the fluency phase. An overview
three-phase model of capability. The phases are: of how fading works across phases of acquisition
(a) acquisition, (b) maintenance and (c) fluency. is provided below:
Figure 8. Mock-up of iTalk progress meters and pop-up notifications as seen by the user
88
• Acquisition behavior, iGroup will adjust in order to increase

◦ Shorter times before notifications are the frequency of notifications that user receives.
sent, If a user is in the acquisition phase and receives
◦ More specifically and clearly word- very few or no notifications, iGroup will adjust
ed notifications (e.g., “You are too in order to decrease the frequency of notifications
close to the speaker.” and “You have that user receives.
interrupted.”) The social orthotic tool also maintains a log of
◦ Additional hints and strategies for user’s behavior related to that orthotic and is able
avoiding inappropriate behavior. to create a report for the guide at the end of a lesson
◦ Specific hints and strategies provided or for review before the next session. The online
to avoid inappropriate behavior (“pre- guide can use this report to determine changes
corrects”). over time for a given user’s social behavior. For
◦ More tolerant expectations. instance, if a user is not making progress and
• Maintenance exhibits little or no change in behavior over time,
◦ Moderate times before notifications the guide can be made aware of this through the
are sent. reporting functionality. The guide and researchers
◦ Less specific worded notifications can also use the social orthotic reports to deter-
(e.g., “If you stand so close to some- mine specific times or parts of lessons that cause
one, you might make them uncom- difficulty for users and use this information to
fortable or they might think you are specifically focus on these issues.
being rude.”)
◦ Some hints and strategies (“pre-cor-
rects”) for avoiding inappropriate usAbILIty testIng
adjacency, distance, orientation and
interrupting behavior. In the spring of 2009 a usability test was undertaken
• Fluency for the iTalk social orthotic. Two youths from the
◦ Longer times before notifications are previous field test were invited to participate. The
sent. study included an online guide and both partici-
◦ Few notifications. pants simultaneously and collaboratively worked
◦ Occasional and generalized “pre- through two usability protocols. The screens of
corrects.” the participants were recorded using Screen-
◦ Expectations most resemble those of Flow screen-recording software that allowed for
typical environments. keyboard and mouse tracking. ScreenFlow also
Unless there is some basis for choosing a dif- enabled the computer’s web camera to record the
ferent phase, at the beginning of the curriculum physical behavior of the participant working at his
orthotics are set to the acquisition phase. There- computer. Each protocol lasted approximately one
after, the behavior of the orthotic is dynamically hour. During each usability test, the iTalk software
adjusted within a phase and when moving to an- tool was enabled for the full duration of the test. A
other phase based on the youth’s performance. The default setting for receiving pop-up notifications
orthotic tool is able to determine a user’s ability from iTalk was used for the entirety of protocol
by the number of times a user receives a notifi- one. Three different notification settings were used
cation of inappropriate behavior. For instance, for protocol two—high notification frequency,
if a user is in the acquisition phase and receives medium notification frequency and low notifica-
five notifications of inappropriate adjacency tion frequency. Participants received no training
89
on iTalk for the first protocol, but did receive participant one first claimed that he did not try, but
training for the second protocol. In the second participant two claimed, “I tried. Didn’t work.”
usability protocol, participants first reviewed a Participant one corrected himself by saying that
short video of their experience in the first usability “I tried too. But it didn’t work.”
protocol and then received training on using iTalk. Prior to protocol two, the two participants
Following the training, participants engaged in a watched a video of some of their activity in pro-
conversation intense, game-like, activity using the tocol one with the guide using the video to show
iTalk software set at a high notification frequency. how iTalk worked. After the guide illustrated the
The notification frequency was set to medium on functionality of the two meters, Participant two
the second iteration as the participants worked acknowledged, “it makes sense.” And participant
through the activity a second time. one was able to restate the functionality of the two
Participants were able to complete all of the meters correctly. He explained that “when you
tasks from both protocols in the iSocial environ- speak when other person spoken, then this timer
ment, although not without help. Participant one [the yellow bar] goes down. The green one goes
needed more help than participant two. Both par- up.” Upon prompting from the physical facilitator,
ticipants characterized their experience as easy and both participants understood that they were going
enjoyable and both said they would like to return to to try to not interrupt during the session.
continue using iSocial. During protocol, one both After the first activity in protocol two, neither
subjects noticed the pop-up text notifications and participant received any pop-up text notifications
the meters. They understood the text messages, for verbal interruptions. They reported that they
but expressed confusion about the meaning and attended to changes in the meters and they tried
purpose of the meters. They both saw changes not to interrupt. Participant two said, “That’s
in the meters but did not readily understand how [the change of the meters] why I was silent for a
changes in the meter representation related to their few times.” Participant one also reported “when
own behavior. When asked about their opinions I noticed the yellow one went down, that means
about the meters, participant two said that “they’re I was interrupting. So I shut up my mouth and
distracting, and they’re bright. I hate bright.” Par- just pay attention.” After the second activity of
ticipant one agreed with the negative sentiment the protocol, both participants reported that the
saying “They get annoying too.” orthotics were less sensitive than before. Partici-
Participant two thought the social orthotic was pant two described it as “the thing didn’t pop-up,
too sensitive and gave too many notifications. He but it still says that I’m talking”, and he also de-
stated that the pop-up message appeared when he scribed it as “looks like if I did it multiple times,
“didn’t mean to interrupt,” explaining that he was it just says ‘you have interrupted’ once”, which
just “moving the microphone.” Indeed, participant indicated that he understood the functionality of
two touched his microphone to get the pop-up the meters. However, participant one thought the
message deliberately several times. Participant orthotics were shut down.
one seemed to take the orthotic more seriously.
At one time, he tried to say something while the key Lessons for social orthotics
online guide was talking, but when he noticed a
change in his meters, he gave up the attempt and The purpose of a usability test was to develop in-
kept quiet. Participant two, on the other hand, ap- sights for improving the human-computer interac-
peared to be enjoying getting the pop-up window tion of a system and not to draw conclusions about
by moving or touching his microphone. When the value of the concepts and principles in play.
asked about whether they tried to interrupt less, Keeping this purpose in mind the findings from the
90
usability test suggest several results about the use acterizes “ownership” or “appropriation” as one
of iTalk. In protocol one, although the participants of the most profound relationships that users can
did not fully understand the mechanisms they have with the tools they use to interact in their
did attend to them. However, there did not seem socio-cultural milieu. Having ownership of the
to be any substantial regulation of interruption tools gives the user a sense of power and author-
behavior even from text that specifically told the ity to act. While we may not want to make too
participants they were interrupting. In protocol two much of the small set of data we have collected
the participants better understood the mechanisms in the usability test, it makes sense to use a “sense
and seemed to self-regulate their interruption be- of ownership” as an attribute to be examined
havior by attending to the physical cues from the and strived for in the design, development and
meters. It is hard to tell if there was any impact implementation of social orthotics. Is the orthotic
from the text messages, but the meters seemed to appropriated as empowering by the user or seen
establish a feedback loop that was attended to and as a constraining annoyance in the service of
used in regulating verbal behavior. Additionally others? A third lesson suggests the relevance of
in protocol one the participants complained that customization and adaptability in orthotics. We
iTalk was annoying and too sensitive. However, see this lesson in three forms, the first being that
in protocol two they no longer complained about the youths have different capabilities relevant to
iTalk being annoying and saw it as less sensitive the social practices and that they experience the
or even turned off (although it was not). These VLE in different ways, thus the participants need
assertions suggest that as the youth were able to orthotics that fit their individual profiles. The
understand and thus use the visual cues from the computer environment affords the potential to
meters that iTalk started to become effective and match orthotics to profiles, but we still have much
accepted by the participants. to learn about just what is relevant in the student
Taken together, our lessons from the reviews profile of experience and capability and how best
of literature and from the usability results suggest to match characteristics of the orthotic, such as
several assertions about the design and develop- duration and form of feedback, to meet individual
ment of social orthotics for youth with ASD in needs. A second form of lesson three is that the
virtual environment for learning social compe- orthotics should also match the task and environ-
tence. First, the visual nature of the representa- ment. For example, orthotics for not interrupting
tion seems to have some impact. This assertion is during turn-taking in game playing may require
strongly suggested in the literature and seems to different features than for not interrupting when
be borne out with the role of the meters in iTalk. the youth is talking with a teacher or counselor.
The text messages from the pop-up notifications A third form of this lesson is that in the iSocial
provided information to the participants and context some of the capabilities that the orthotics
may have provided some regulatory influence is supporting are also the target of the curriculum.
on their behavior, but the regulatory influence of Thus one might expect an upward trajectory for
the meters in protocol two seemed much more these capabilities as the youth progress through
profound. A second assertion is that when the the curriculum. What is the relationship between
participants understood the relationship between the curriculum and the orthotics? For example, if
the visual meters and their behavior they created the youth gets to a later unit in the curriculum, but
a feedback loop that was a dynamic mediator of the orthotic still needs to apply methods from the
their own behavior. In this sense they seemed to “acquisition” phase, are new approaches needed
take ownership of the meters as their own tools. from the curriculum, orthotics or both?
In Mind as Action, James Wertsch (1998) char-
91
Future reseArcH And desIgn for exploring these and other design principles. A
final area for continued research and development
It is quite obvious that there is much more “fu- stems from the lesson described above related to
ture” than “past” in research and design for social customization and adaptability. These concepts
orthotics in support of social practice and learning seemingly hold great promise, yet we are just at
in a 3D VLE by youth with ASD. Our designs the beginning of imagining how to best support
for iTalk and iGroup, while quite exciting to us, individual differences, contextual relevance and
are still fairly rudimentary. We will continue a trajectories of development.
process of research and design iteration as we
seek to articulate our vision into software tools.
A first step is to take the lessons learned from the concLusIon
usability test and re-implement iTalk and imple-
ment iGroup for a next field test. Fortunately, with The many special education researchers who have
support from AutismSpeaks and the Institute for contributed to advances in assistive technology
Educational Sciences of the U.S. Department of do so because they see the potential of design and
Education, we have resources to both investigate engineering to overcome disabilities and provide
best approaches to social orthotics and to develop more normal functioning to those otherwise lim-
a full implementation of iSocial. The social or- ited or deprived. For individuals with ASD these
thotics we have described and specified need to designs and engineering efforts primarily attend to
be fully and well implemented, but we also need mechanisms for communication and social interac-
to think beyond the current aspects to see if there tion. As computers have moved from devices that
are other important features to grouping beyond simply calculate and word process to environments
adjacency, distance or orientation and to talk- that support communication and being social, at-
ing beyond interruptions. Obviously there are, tention to how software design best supports social
but can we find effective ways to monitor and behavior is warranted and is especially important
provide feedback for them. Beyond extending for individuals who are non-typical in the way
the capabilities that orthotics can help regulate, they interact and process information for social
we also need research on how best to implement interchange. These new computer environments
the orthotics. For example, under our lessons will increasingly be called upon as supplements
learned we speculate that the meters had a special to traditional forms of work and learning or in
prominence in regulating interruptions because some cases entirely replace traditional forms of
of their visual cues and the match that visual work and learning. For example, K-12 education
information has with the ways the individual’s is increasingly being delivered online and outside
with ASD process information. However, the of traditional schools. The Sloan Consortium
influence on interruptions may also have come estimates that over one million K-12 students
because the meters represented a scoring-like were engaged in online learning in the 2007-2008
function that made the action game-like. In our school year (Picciano & Seaman, 2008). Further,
results both mechanisms may have been at work. Christensen, Horn, and Johnson (2008), predict
Can we isolate the impact of visual representation that by 2013 10% of all K-12 school enrollments
from game-like challenge? Can we find the best will be online and that by 2018 the number will
ways to harness both mechanisms for the power be 50% of all enrollments.
of orthotics? Is there something else going on Our particular interest in social orthotics is to
that we have not considered? These questions build a custom 3D VLE for youth with ASD to
are quite exciting and iSocial is a good laboratory develop social competence in a way that over-
92
comes limited access to these forms of educational Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., & Johnson, C.
support. However, as suggested by the statistics on W. (2008). Disrupting class: How disruptive in-
the growing use of online education in K-12, social novation will change the way the world learns.
orthotics offers great potential to assist students New York: McGraw-Hill.
with special needs to participate in new and more
Cobb, S., Beardon, L., Eastgate, R., Glover, T.,
effective ways with others in many forms of online
Kerr, S., & Neale, H. (2002). Applied virtual
education. For example, can social orthotics help
environments to support learning of social inter-
a student and his mathematics teacher achieve
action skills in users with Asperger’s Syndrome.
better teaching and learning outcomes by using
Digital Creativity, 13(1), 11–22. doi:10.1076/
online aids for lessons? However, while we are
digc.13.1.11.3208
excited about what we are learning about how
to do social orthotics in a 3D environment for Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E.
youth with ASD, speculation must be tempered (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the
by how much we still need to learn about how crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In
youth will use these tools, what impact they may Resnick, L. B. (Ed.), Knowing, learning, and
have on social interaction and learning, and the instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glasser
potential for unintended consequences. Clearly (pp. 453–494). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
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94
key terms And deFInItIons iTalk: A form of software-based social or-

thotic to reinforce desired speaking and listening
3-Dimensional Virtual Learning Environ- behavior and constrain undesirable behavior such
ment (3D-VLE): A software system representing as interrupting others.
dimensionality for simulating physical movement Pedagogical Strategy: A method for support-
and interaction with objects and other members ing learning outcomes. In iSocial we implement
designed to support teaching and learning activ- a method for differentially constraining and
ity. providing feedback for behavior based on a users
Avatar: A user’s representation on a computer. learning phase of (a) acquisition, (b) maintenance
In a 3D VLE avatars are usually virtual repre- or (c) fluency.
sentations of humans that can move throughout Scaffolding: Types of structures that support
a virtual space. advanced performance when the users may be
Dynamic Agents: Used here to represent social novice or in a learning process.
orthotics that monitor user behavior and intervene Social Orthotics: Types of structures that fa-
based on a set of variables that may change through cilitate social interaction and social learning when
the interaction and over time. there is an expectation that a natural and effective
iGroup: A form of software-based social or- process is unlikely; used here to represent unique
thotic to reinforce adjacency, distance and orienta- computational functionality to support talking and
tion behavior and constrain undesirable behavior orientation to others in a 3D VLE.
such as looking away from the speaker.
95
96
Chapter 6
Cognition Meets Assistive
Technology:
Insights from Load Theory
of Selective Attention
Neha Khetrapal
University of Bielefeld, Germany
AbstrAct
This chapter deals with the issue of treating disorders with the help of virtual reality (VR) technology.
To this end, it highlights the concept of transdiagnostic processes (like cognitive biases and perceptual
processes) that need to be targeted for intervention and are at the risk of becoming atypical across
disorders. There have been previous theoretical attempts to explain such common processes, but such
theoretical exercises have not been conducted with a rehabilitative focus. Therefore, this chapter urges
greater cooperation between researchers and therapists and stresses the intimate links between cognitive
and emotional functioning that should be targeted for intervention. This chapter concludes by providing
future directions for helping VR to become a popular tool and highlights issues in three different areas:
(a) clinical, (b) social and (c) technological. Coordinated research efforts orchestrated in these direc-
tions will be beneficial for an understanding of cognitive architecture and rehabilitation alike.
IntroductIon how these could give rise to disorders. A major

focus of the chapter is to highlight the manner
This chapter will begin with background on the in which various disorders could be treated in a
concept of cognitive rehabilitation and will serve similar manner and how technology could aid this
to illustrate a recently successful popular example process—bringing in the concept of transdiagnostic
of it. It will then describe cognitive models that approach—the basic tenet of which is to emphasize
explain cognitive and emotional functioning and that the processes that serve to maintain disorders
cut across these disorders and hence could be dealt
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch006
Cognition Meets Assistive Technology
with a single appropriately built technology. cognitive training could be of immense help in this
Though there has not been much research in this endeavor. Cognitive tasks could thus be designed
direction because therapists prefer to specialize to deal with cognitive functions like memory,
in particular treatment approaches and disorders, attention, language, and so on, and the level of
this kind of work has picked up momentum (due difficulty could also be varied to suit individual
to the recent scientific focus on an interdisciplin- specification (Clare & Woods, 2004).
ary framework). This chapter will make an initial
attempt in this direction by describing how cogni- techniques for cognitive
tive theories could be applied in understanding the rehabilitation
transdiagnostic processes like attentional biases
and perceptual processing. An exciting new development in the field of
This chapter will also attempt to describe the cognitive rehabilitation is the use of virtual reality
merger of cognitive architecture, specially the (VR). Virtual environments (VE) could be built
transdiagnostic processes and recent rehabilita- by keeping in mind the needs of the individual.
tive tools. Since there remains much work to be Examples include presenting a specific number
done in this direction, this chapter will highlight of stimuli to an autistic child that can be gradu-
the areas that require much needed research at- ally increased as the treatment progresses (Max
tention, and at the same time, will provide future & Burke, 1997) or virtual wheelchair training for
directions for embarking upon this process. This people afflicted by physical disabilities (Stephen-
chapter will provide an important resource for son, 1995). Schultheis and Rizzo (2001) define
understanding the transdiagnostic process in VR for behavioral sciences as, “an advanced
terms of assistive technology to psychologists, form of human-computer interface that allows the
cognitive scientists, teachers, parents, students user to interact with and become immersed in a
of psychology, neuroscientists and rehabilitation computer-generated environment in a naturalistic
professionals. fashion.”
Virtual reality could also be viewed as an excel-
lent example of assistive technology (AT) because
bAckground it can be used to build upon the existing strengths
of an individual who in turn helps in offsetting the
cognitive rehabilitation disability or, in other words, provides an alternate
way of completing a task which also helps in
The aim of rehabilitation is to maintain an opti- compensating for the disability (Lewis, 1998).
mal level of functioning in domains like physi- Virtual reality technology has yielded promising
cal, social and psychological (McLellan, 1991). results in terms of cognitive functioning (Rose,
Therefore, a rehabilitation program is designed Attree, & Johnson, 1996), social benefits (Hirose,
for a particular individual and is conducted over a Taniguchi, Nakagaki, & Nihei, 1994), and has
period of time based on the nature of impairment. proved to be less expensive than the real-world
The basic goal is not to enhance performance on simulators.
a set of standardized cognitive tasks, but instead The previous discussions show that VR as AT
to improve functioning in the day-to-day context could be fruitfully employed to treat disabilities.
(Wilson, 1997). Models of cognitive rehabilitation But it is also important to take into account the
stress the need to address cognitive and emotional functioning of human cognitive systems while
difficulties in an integrated manner and not as designing the VR/VE or any other AT and reha-
isolated domains (Prigatano, 1999). Therefore, bilitation program. So far in the scientific literature
97
there have been discussions about both cognitive cognItIve modeLs For
psychology and AT, but each one has remained emotIonAL ProcessIng
isolated from the other. Due to the significant
contributions from both fields, it becomes essential Any program of cognitive rehabilitation is built
that both are discussed in relation to each other upon a comprehensive understanding of the
so that each of these fields could be utilized to cognitive and behavioral processes/architecture.
maximize the benefits that the other can confer. Cognitive models that explain cognitive function-
To begin with, one needs to adopt a good ing and behavior are good candidates on which
working definition of deficient cognitive com- rehabilitation endeavors could be built. Current
ponents that require rehabilitative attention and scientific theorizing proposes a more intimate
which also cut across various disabilities. An link between cognition and emotion than has been
important concept in this regard is the concept proposed before. Therefore, it may be useful as
of “transdiagnostic approach.” According to this rehabilitation programs are planned to keep both
approach, behavioral and cognitive processes that cognitive and emotional processing in mind be-
serve to maintain disorders are transdiagnostic cause of the intimate interaction. Describing all
in nature (Mansell, Harvey, Watkins, & Shafran, such theories is outside the scope of this paper;
2008). The transdiagnostic approach has many however, the following discussion will touch upon
advantages to itself and these include a better some of these theories.
understanding about comorbidity—generalization
of knowledge derived from cognitive model(s) to A cognitive model for selective
explain a particular disorder. Therefore, when the Processing in Anxiety
processes are seen as cutting across the disorders,
it becomes easier to generalize one explanation Mathews and Machintosh (1998) proposed a
to other processes that are similar in nature. The cognitive model to explain selective processing
next advantage is the development of treatment in anxiety. Anxiety is usually the experience
approaches. If the processes are assumed to of unpleasant feelings of tension and worry in
be common, then it becomes easier and even reaction to unacceptable wishes or impulses. A
cost-effective to treat various disorders. Stud- popular finding in anxiety research is attentional
ies in cognitive psychology indeed support the bias towards anxiety relevant concerns only under
transdiagnostic approach. For instance, attention competitive conditions (where the competition is
to external or internal concern related stimuli between neutral and anxiety relevant stimuli). The
have been found to be common across various Mathews and Macintosh (1998) model provides
psychological disorders like social phobia, panic a parsimonious explanation for this finding. The
disorder, depression, eating disorder, psychotic model essentially explains that stimuli attributes
disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder and so on. are processed in a parallel manner and compete
Other processes that are also transdiagnostic are for attention due to the involvement of two differ-
memory, thought, reasoning and the like (Mansell ent routes. A threat evaluation system (TES) is in
et al., 2008). But how exactly are transdiagnostic place that provides help in easing the competition
processes implicated in disorders? How could such between the two routes by interacting with the
processes serve as targets for rehabilitation? The level of anxiety and consequently strengthens
following discussion on cognitive models will activations of anxiety relevant attributes. Within
make this clearer. their model, a slower route is used when the threat
value is appraised by the consciously controlled
98
higher level, such as in a novel anxious situation. account of the how treatment will counteract the
Repeated encounters with similar situations will effects of anxiety. Their model entails a link be-
store the relevant cues in the TES and, therefore, tween cognitive and emotional processing, but a
a later encounter will produce anxiety through different model proposed by Power and Dalgleish
the shorter route bypassing the slower one. As a (1997) serves to document a closer relationship
result, attention will be captured automatically between cognitive and emotional processing. The
in a competing situation (where the competition model proposed by Power and Dalgleish (1997)
is between neutral and anxiety relevant stimuli). deals with explaining the processing of five basic
Cues encountered in a novel situation that re- emotions, such as sadness, happiness, anger, fear,
semble attributes already stored in TES will also disgust, as well as complex emotions. Since this
tend to elicit anxiety automatically and receive model is more comprehensive in nature it will be
attentional priority. In the model, some danger detailed here rather than other models designed to
related attributes are innate while the others are explain processing in specific disorders.
learned. At the same time, other neurobiological
evidence suggests that the threat value of a stimulus the sPAArs Approach
is evaluated and determined in two distinct ways
(LeDoux, 1995). One is a shorter and quicker SPAARS (Schematic, Propositional, Analogical
route that directly runs from the thalamus to the and Associative Representational Systems) is the
amygdale and the other is a slower route, which integrated cognitive model of emotion proposed
is mediated by higher cortical level resources. by Power and Dalgleish (1997). It is a multi-
The proposal of two routes within the model level model. The initial processing of stimuli
proposed by Mathews and Machintosh (1998), occurs through specific sensory systems that are
implies that a threatening cue that matches the collectively termed the analogical processing
current concern of anxiety disordered people will system. This system can play a crucial role in
sufficiently attract attention under competing situ- emotional disorders, for instance, where certain
ations due to the involvement of the shorter route sights, smells, noise, etc. become inherent parts
and will counteract the functioning of the higher of a traumatic event. The output from this system
level; but following treatment, these patients would then feeds into three semantic representation
no longer show the attentional effects mediated by systems. These systems operate in parallel. At
the shorter route. This is because in the later case, the lowest level is the associative system which
the higher level counteracts the processing of the takes the form of a number of modularized con-
faster route. Their model also implies that when nectionist networks. The intermediate level has
people encounter threatening cues (no neutral cue), the propositional system that has language like
the most threatening one will capture attention representation though it is not language specific.
and the least threatening one will be inhibited. There is no direct route from intermediate level to
The model is also applicable in an evolutionary emotions, but they feed either through appraisals
framework because it is certainly more adaptive at the schematic level or directly through the as-
to process the most potent source of danger and sociative system. The highest level is called the
its consequence as a result of mutual inhibition Schematic Model level. It has the merit of storing
within the TES. information in a flexible manner along with the
The model proposed by Mathews and Machin- traditional schema approach. At this level, the
tosh (1998) deals exclusively with selective generation of emotion occurs through the ap-
processing in anxiety and even though it has im- praisal process. Appraisal refers to the evaluation
plications for treatment, it does not give a detailed of meaning of affective stimuli and is considered
99
causal in the generation of an emotional response. elicited automatically. These two routes are not
Different types of appraisals exist for eliciting the completely separable. Thus genetics provides a
five basic emotions of sadness, happiness, anger, starting psychological point, though the subse-
fear and disgust. quent developmental pathways may be different
An appraisal for sadness would focus on the for each individual.
loss (actual or possible) of some valued goal An additional way in which emotions might
to an individual and pathological instances, for come to be generated through the direct route is
sadness appraisal could be termed as depression. from repeated pairings of certain event-emotion
An individual will feel happy when he or she suc- sequences that eventually leads to the automa-
cessfully moves towards the completion of some tization of the whole sequence. This repetition
valued goal. When an appraisal of physical or bypasses the need for any appraisal. An example
social threat to self or some valued goal is done of the involvement of the direct route in an emo-
by the person, then he or she will experience fear tional disorder, which is an instance of phobia or
and, when such an appraisal is done for a harmless anxiety where the automatic processing of the
object, it could result in instances of phobia or objects is anxiety provoking even though it is
anxiety. The appraisal of blocking or frustration non-threatening—but due to previous encounter
of a role or goal through an agent leads to feelings with the object in an individual’s past always in
of anger. A person will feel disgust when he or an anxiety provoking situation—it comes to be
she appraises elimination from a person, object associated with anxiety. The two routes, for ex-
or idea, repulsive to the self or some valued goal ample, can also sometimes generate conflicting
(Power & Dalgleish, 1997). emotions as in when the individual may appraise
These appraisals provide the starting point for a situation in a happy way, while the direct route
complex emotions or a sequence of emotions. is generating a different emotion.
In this scheme, complex emotions as well as The therapeutic technique for working with
the disorders of emotions are derived from the emotional disorders varies depending on which
basic emotions. A second important feature of route the emotion is involved in the disorder. For
emotional disorders is that these may be derived instance, the person can be provided with a new
from a coupling of two or more basic emotions schematic model for the appraisal of events. Once
or appraisal cycles that further embroider on the this model has been accepted the recovery is faster.
existing appraisals through which basic emotions This type of therapy will work in situations where
are generated or through the integration of apprais- the schematic level is involved in the disorder.
als which include the goals of others. Examples This is an example of fast change processes oc-
include the coupling of happiness and sadness, curring in therapy. But the patient may continue to
which can generate nostalgia. Indignation can experience the maladaptive emotions through the
result from the appraisal of anger combined with activation of the direct route that is slow to change
the further appraisal that the object of anger is an and is an example of slow processes in recovery.
individual who is inferior in the social hierarchy. In such cases, exposure-based techniques (as used
Empathy results from sadness when combined in the case of phobias) can be helpful. There may
with the loss of another person’s goal. also be cases in which a combination of the two
The model acknowledges the need for two techniques will be most effective. Therapies that
routes for the generation of emotions and this try to focus on the propositional level of repre-
need is based in part on the fact that basic emo- sentation only may not be successful if the higher
tions have an innate pre-wired component; schematic models are flawed.
additionally, certain emotions may come to be
100
The description of the SPAARS approach (Lavie & Tsal, 1994). Loading perception would
shows various similarities with the model pro- require either adding more items to the task at
posed by Mathews and Machintosh (1998). Both hand or a more perceptually demanding task on
the models posit two different routes for emotion the same number of items.
generation. The models are parsimonious since The second mechanism of attentional control
they advance the same explanation for both normal is more active in nature and is evoked for the
and disordered cognition, though the SPAARS purpose of rejecting distractors that have been
approach has a broader scope and also gives more perceived under low perceptual load. This type
detailed specification for treatment choices. of control depends on higher cognitive functions,
like working memory. Therefore, loading higher
cognitive functions that maintain processing pri-
AssIstIve tecHnoLogy orities result in increased distractor processing.
And HumAn cognItIon The effect occurs because the reduced availability
of control mechanisms in turn reduces the ability
Current rehabilitative tools and assistive technolo- to control attention according to the processing
gies could be significantly improved by consider- priorities.
ing the architecture of human cognition during Supporting the theory, Lavie and Cox (1997)
the design. The principles derived from cognitive have shown that an irrelevant distractor failed
models described, if incorporated into AT tools will to capture attention under high perceptual load
help the tools to serve effectively with the target conditions as compared to low perceptual load.
population. Before embarking on the process of The load was manipulated by either increasing
merging the nature of human cognition with as- the number of stimuli among which the target
sistive tools, I will discuss another popular theory had to be detected or by increasing the perceptual
of how selective attention operates—load theory similarity between the target and distractors mak-
of selective attention, which could be utilized to ing the task increasingly perceptually demanding
explain the nature of emotional and cognitive in nature. This result was cited as a support for
functioning in both order and disorder. passive distractor rejection in contrast to active
inhibitory mechanisms that are employed for
Load theory of selective Attention the purpose of rejecting distractors under low
perceptual load conditions.
Goal-directed behavior requires focusing atten-
tion on goal relevant stimuli. The load theory of Load theory and disorders
selective attention proposes two mechanisms for
selective control of attention (Lavie, Hirst, Fockert, The two mechanisms of selective attention could
& Viding, 2004). The first is a perceptual selection be distributed in disorders and hence the load
mechanism, which is passive in nature and ensures theory of selective attention could serve as an aid
the exclusion of distractors from perception under while describing the attentional deficits encoun-
high perceptual load (Lavie, 1995). The distrac- tered in both cognitive and emotional disorders. A
tors are not perceived under high perceptual load complete description of all the disorders and how
as the target absorbs all the available processing these attentional deficits are present in each are
capacity. But under conditions of low perceptual out of the scope of this chapter, but for illustrative
load, spare processing capacity left over from purpose, a few disorders will be chosen here to
processing task relevant stimuli “spills-over” to further illustrate the transdiagnostic processes.
irrelevant stimuli that are processed accordingly
101
Consistent with the theories previously in- merging technology and cognition
troduced, Bishop, Jenkins, and Lawrence (2007)
showed that anxiety modulated the amygdalar Having described the intimate role between cogni-
response to fearful distractors that interfered with tive and emotional processing in both order and
the task performance only under low perceptual disorder and their interaction with perceptual and
load conditions. But this effect was observed for cognitive load, what should be the next step if we
state anxiety (current anxious state) rather than need to plan a rehabilitative program considering
trait anxiety (a permanent personality feature). the aforementioned principles of human cogni-
Trait anxiety, on the other hand, correlated with tion? Therapy with VR, as previously described,
reduced activity in brain regions responsible for has shown promising results. For instance, VR
controlled processing under low perceptual load. has been employed effectively for the treatment
This result implies that trait anxiety is associated of phobias, that are usually described as intense
with poor attentional controls. Therefore, state and and irrational fears of objects or events, like acro-
trait anxiety potentially produce interactive effects phobia (Emmelkamp, Krijn, Hulsbosch, de Vries,
and disturb task performance because of the dis- Schuemie, & van der Mast, 2002), fear of flying
turbed passive mechanisms and faulty attentional (Rothbaum, Hodges, Smith, Lee, & Price, 2000),
control which in turn does not prevent irrelevant spider phobia (Garcia-Palacios et al., 2002) and
emotional distractors from capturing attention social phobia (Roy, Légeron, Klinger, Chemin,
under conditions of load. Deficient attentional Lauer, & Nugues, 2003). Clinicians also consider
control was also observed for aged participants phobias as part of anxiety disorders. VR as a po-
by Lavie (2000; 2001). Maylor and Lavie (1998) tential tool for dealing with phobias has several
investigated the role of perceptual load in aging. advantages. Because the essential component in
They showed that distractor processing was de- the treatment of phobias is exposure to the threat
creased for older participants at lower perceptual related object (like spiders in case of spider phobia)
loads as compared to the younger ones. either in the form of imagery or in vivo (the lat-
Similarly high level affective evaluation (ap- ter involves graded exposure), VR as a treatment
praisals that are necessary for emotion generation device could be employed effectively. When work-
as described in the SPAARS approach) requires ing with VR/VE, the therapist can control feared
attention and working memory, and as a result, situation and graded exposure with a significant
is disrupted under high cognitive load. Kalisch, degree of safety. VR thus turns out to be more ef-
Wiech, Critchley, and Dolan (2006) varied cog- fective than the imagination techniques/sessions,
nitive load, while at the same time, anxiety was where the patients are simply left to themselves to
induced with the help of anticipation of an impend- imagine the feared object. Under the imagination
ing pain. They observed no change in subjective procedure the therapist not only lacks control on
and physiological indices of anxiety expectations the imagination of the patient, but it also becomes
under conditions of load. They did obtain reduc- hard for the therapist to determine whether the
tions in the activity of brain areas responsible patient is actually following the imagination pro-
for controlled processing under conditions of cedure leading to poor treatment generalization
high load indicating that high level appraisal outside the treatment clinics. On the other hand,
was suppressed. Their results did not only show real exposure to the feared object could lead the
dissociation between brain areas responsible for patient to be traumatized, making him/her more
higher and lower level appraisals, but also how fearful of it. Consequently VR could be employed
these interact with the manipulations of load. fruitfully to overcome the difficulties of both the
102
imagination techniques and real exposure. The (Roy et al, 2003). What the literature lacks cur-
other most important advantage that VR confers rently is an intimate link between cognitive archi-
on the treatment process is the opportunity for tecture and the basis for VR successes. Cognitive
interoceptive exposure (Vincelli, Choi, Moli- psychologists, rehabilitative therapists, and VR
nari, Wiederhold, & Rive, 2000). This becomes professionals will stand to gain much if more
important given the fact that bodily sensations studies are planned in this direction. For instance,
are interpreted as signs of fear in the presence of VR is a good choice in exposure techniques for
feared object. Virtual reality also turns out to be phobias, but since the SPAARS framework and
effective when higher level distorted cognitions the model proposed by Mathews and Machin-
need to be challenged (Riva, Bacchetta, Baru, tosh (1998) show that there could be two routes
Rinaldi, & Molinari, 1999). to emotions—and exposure technique is useful
when the faster route that runs from thalamus to
amygdala is involved—it will be fruitful to plan
Future reseArcH dIrectIons future VR studies as was done by Bishop et al.
(2007). If such studies show improved attentional
Future research efforts on VR as a successful ap- control under different conditions of load and
plication for rehabilitation should concentrate on prevent anxiety from modulating amygdalar re-
three major issues and associated problems: (a) sponse to anxiety relevant distractors (that disrupt
clinical, (b) social and (c) technological issues. task performance under low perceptual load) with
VR treatment, then this will strengthen the link
clinical Issues between cognitive models and rehabilitation.
The prior theorizing also shows that for suc-
The previous discussion clearly shows that VR as cessful treatment, practitioners need to provide
a rehabilitative tool has shown promising results the patient with a new schematic model for the
and, therefore, has implications for further im- appraisal of events other than exposure techniques.
provement. Virtual reality could be better suited Once this model has been accepted, recovery is
to rehabilitate a range of disorders by meshing it faster. This type of therapy will work in situations
with the functioning of human cognition. Much where the schematic level is involved in the dis-
remains to be done in order to pinpoint the specific order. This is an example of fast change processes
transdiagnostic processes that cuts across disorders occurring in therapy. For the future, VR could be
and are also found to be deficient. A promising used in conjunction with brain imaging techniques
direction in this regard is the application of load to study the brain responses along with behavioral
theory of selective attention. Though the studies responses before and after treatment. Researchers
conducted by Bishop et al. (2007) and Kalisch need to meticulously plan such studies by manipu-
et al. (2006) show that atypical cognitive bias lating cognitive load in participants to study the
interacts with behavior and neural responses under effect of treatment on cognitive appraisals as was
differing conditions of load, these kinds of results done by Kalisch et al. (2006). Once such future
still await to be incorporated into a rehabilitative endeavors show successful results for anxiety
VR endeavor. treatment, practitioners will be more confident
As we have previously stated, VR has been about the transdiagnostic processes that become
used successfully for treating various phobias atypical and give rise to cognitive biases.
like acrophobia (Emmelkamp et al., 2002), fear How do researchers and practitioners know
of flying (Rothbaum et al., 2000), spider phobia which route to emotion (faster or slower) is in-
(Garcia-Palacios et al., 2002) and social phobia volved in atypical functioning before embarking
103
on such endeavors? This again calls for stronger might be to adopt VR in conjunction with other
links with neuropsychology and thorough as- traditional modes of rehabilitation.
sessments before chalking out a treatment plan.
Finally, if both the routes are involved, then a technological Issues
mixture of techniques can be used. If the deci-
sion is to concentrate on both the routes, then Research on social and clinical issues is not enough
it is essential to increase the load on perceptual to promote VR; it is also essential to concentrate
and cognitive processes parametrically in an or- on the technological aspects of it. Currently, VR
thogonal manner; this is a very important concept devices and protocols lack standardization, while
because if both kinds of load were to be increased many others are developed for a specific context
simultaneously, then it would become difficult to making generalization poor (Riva, 2005). Though
discern the effect of each individually. Moreover, VR systems cost less than real world simulators,
since VR allows for interoceptive exposure, which VR is expensive considering that many are built
becomes important given the fact that bodily for specific purposes only. In addition, VR is very
sensations are interpreted as signs of fear in the time-consuming to build.
presence of feared object, it would make sense to
study the effect of treatment on the schematic level
while the bodily responses are also monitored. If concLusIon
the treatment also shows improvement in bodily
responses, then one can be even more confident Given that VR research proceeds along three dif-
of the VR intervention. ferent directions, the future of VR as a rehabilita-
tive tool is promising. Current research efforts and
social Issues scientific discussions do focus on VR and human
cognition, but these have so far remained isolated
Before VR could become a part of mainstream from each other. But the advent of cognitive sci-
use, researchers and practitioners need to over- ence and multidisciplinary frameworks calls for a
come several social obstacles. In many traditional better cooperation between the two. First, fruitful
schools of therapies, a personal relationship be- research direction in this regard will be to focus on
tween the therapist and the client is given a high transdiagnostic processes that cut across various
degree of importance. For some, VR could be disorders and need to be targeted with rehabili-
viewed as disruptive to this relationship. This tative efforts. This will bring down the cost of
issue is even more important for a culture that building rehabilitative tools for specific contexts
does not emphasize individualism, for instance in and will also save precious time. Next, once the
some Eastern societies. In this scenario, it becomes transdiagnostic processes have been examined,
important to consider even technologically less practitioners would apply these as models of hu-
developed societies. Apart from this hindrance, man cognition that explain typical and atypical
any new therapy initially faces resistance from cognition. There have been few theories, and some
the broader clinical society. This was even true popular ones have been described, but still a lot
for behavioral therapy when it was introduced, work needs to be done to develop them further
and hence in the field of mental health, there are and make them the basis of cognitive rehabilita-
other issues that determine the acceptance of a new tion with VR. Once such efforts are in place,
rehabilitative method rather than just documented we will truly be able to understand comorbidity,
efficacy. Until the relevant social problems con- generalize knowledge, and bring down the cost of
nected to VR are solved, the best course of action treating various disorders. The day is not far off
104
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109
Chapter 7
Cognitive Load and
Disorientation Issues
in Hypermedia as
Assistive Technology
Muhammet Demirbilek
Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
AbstrAct
Advances in information and communication technologies have raised the quality of inclusive education
programs. Inclusive education, a recent advance in educational technology, has served to increase the
ability of students with special needs. Hypermedia as an assistive technology has the potential to teach
and train individuals with disabilities. However, like every technology, hypermedia itself is not problem-
free. Disorientation and cognitive load are two of the most challenging problems related to hypermedia
learning environments. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight disorientation and cognitive load
problems in hypermedia learning environments where learners usually face a serious problem while
navigating such environments.
IntroductIon Hypermedia presents information in an interactive

way, and it is accessible to all types of learners. It
Information and communication technologies, provides a combination of text, sound, graphics, and
and in particular computers, have an undeniable motion video that can be controlled by the user.
impact on integrating learners with barriers into With a minimum of training, hypermedia can be
the mainstream education system. One of the most used to create very individualized learning environ-
useful information and communication technolo- ments and tools. This gives teachers the capability to
gies for teachers of individuals with disabilities is create computer programs to teach the specific objec-
hypermedia learning environments (HLEs). Hyper- tives that are needed to advance their curricula and
media learning environments can be the vehicle for individualized learning plans. Hypermedia learning
inclusive education as an assistive technology (AT). environments can also be used to compensate for
some disabilities (Perkins, 1995).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch007
Cognitive Load and Disorientation Issues in Hypermedia as Assistive Technology
AssIstIve tecHnoLogIes classified in categories such as writing, computer

access, reading, communication, and electronic
In today’s information age, AT is not a luxury for aids for daily living, mobility, and leisure. Ulti-
students with disabilities. Assistive technology mately, with this extreme amount of information, it
is a necessity for their growth and development. takes adequate knowledge of AT to best determine
The use of AT enables these students to participate the AT needs of students with disabilities.
in activities typical of their age group. Assistive As a category of Assistive Technology Aids
technology also provides a way by which these and Devices, Educational and Vocational Aids
students can succeed academically as well as include computers, adaptive software and job
socially. Basically, the use of AT enables these modifications. If used appropriately, AT can
students to do things and experience successes facilitate a child’s development by providing
they would otherwise have been unable to do access to developmentally appropriate activities
(Kelker, 1997). (Simms, 2003). Behrmann (1998) emphasizes
Assistive technology provides creative solu- the importance of AT as a means of inclusion
tions that enable individuals with disabilities to into age-appropriate classrooms as well. Assis-
be more independent, productive, and integrated tive technologies can provide the tools to bring
into the mainstream of society and community more young children with disabilities into the
life. The benefits of AT have been recognized as general educational setting (Behrmann, 1998). The
a vital part of special education. Assistive tech- benefits of AT for students are cognitive as well
nologies include devices used by children and as social and emotional. Hetzroni and Schrieber
adults with disabilities. Namely, these types of (2004) state that with the use of a word processor,
devices are designed to compensate for functional students were able to produce material that was
limitations and to enhance and increase learning, more acceptable and coherent in comparison to
independence, mobility, communication, and prior work samples.
environmental control and choice.
Weikle and Hadadian (2003) reported that
there is valuable evidence supporting the use HyPermedIA LeArnIng
of AT devices for communication, as functional envIronments
tools, to promote social outcomes, and as reten-
tion aids for learning activities in young children What is hypermedia? The history of hypermedia
with disabilities. has roots traced back to 1945. Vannevar Bush
The Technology-Related Assistance for In- proposed a machine called “Memex” in his At-
dividuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (Public lantic Monthly article titled “As we may think”
Law, 100- 407, 1988) describes an AT device (Dix, Finlay, Abowd & Beale, 1998). According to
as “any item, piece of equipment, or product Bush, “a memex is a device in which an individual
system whether acquired off the shelf, modified, stores all his books, records and communications
or customized that is used to increase, maintain and which is mechanized so that it may be con-
or improve functional capabilities of individuals sulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is
with disabilities.” In very basic terms, AT can be an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory”
thought of as products that assist in eliminating the (Bush, 1945). After 50 years, Bush’s vision turned
effects of a disability or most simply as products into effective models. Today’s technology allows
that make life easier for persons with disabilities. reading, browsing, and linking in a non-linear
This broad definition comprises thousands of electronic environment.
devices—both high- and low-tech—that can be
110
Hypermedia is a combination of networks of 1996). Hypermedia is flexible in terms of repre-

nodes including information (e.g., text, graphics, senting information, navigating the structure, and
video, sound, etc.) for the purpose of facilitating storing the data. Media can be represented in a
access to, and manipulation of, the information variety of forms. Hypermedia gives flexibility and
encapsulated by the data. While hypertext is a freedom to the user for learning and information
text-only electronic environment, hypermedia retrieval (Conklin, 1987). The user has flexibil-
encompasses other media such as graphics, video, ity in choosing the sequence in which to access
and sound. The World Wide Web is a version information (Kim, 2000). Hypermedia learning
of hypermedia extended to a huge network of environments let the learner control navigation,
computers connecting millions of users from all media, and content selection. Hypermedia offers
around the world. Hypermedia is different from such a high level of learner control that users are
traditional paper. While information on traditional required to apply higher-order thinking (Mar-
paper is limited to a linear, sequential format, chionini, 1988). Hypermedia has the capability
hypermedia is free from such linear restrictions to associate links with other links, graphics, and
(Eveland & Dunwoody, 2001). audio and video files. Hypermedia may contain
Hypermedia is a more general concept than a variety of media, such as graphics, pictures,
hypertext. Hypermedia is a combination of video, and audio. Marchionini (1988) suggests
multimedia components using computers’ in- that “hypermedia systems allow huge collections
teractive characteristics, dynamic display, and of information in a variety of media to be stored in
user interface. Hypermedia is an extension of an extremely compact form that can be accessed
hypertext, including: visual information, sound, easily and rapidly” (p.9). Navigation allows us-
video, animation, and other forms of data. Basi- ers to explore links, backtracking allows users to
cally, hypermedia refers to the non-linear format return to the previously visited nodes, annotation
of all forms of electronic media and text (Dix et allows users to bookmark and comment, whiles
al., 1998); thus making the World Wide Web a structural features enable uses to navigate through
multimedia-based (non-linear) HLE. Web brows- local and global paths (Beiber, 2000).
ers are the tools used to access information across Hypermedia learning environments contains
the Web. A node is an individual unit of text within nodes of information connected by links. A node
a hypertext document. Nodes contain text informa- may be text, a graphics, an audio clip, a video clip,
tion sometimes enriched with media. Links refers a photo, or a combination of these components.
to electronic connections among nodes. A link is an electronic connection between two
nodes.
Hypermedia Features Hypermedia learning environments offer great
potential for individualized learning. Adaptive
The features of HLEs are non-linearity (Foltz, characteristics of hypermedia allow instructors to
1996), flexibility (Conklin, 1987; Kim, 2000), adapt course presentation, navigation, and content
learner control (Marchionini, 1988), variety of to suit individual students’ needs and preferences.
media (Marchionini, 1988), navigation, backtrack- Having adaptive features, hypermedia has the abil-
ing, annotation, and structure (Beiber, 2000), to ity to accommodate students’ individual learning
name a few. differences and to help students with disabilities
Non-linearity allows the user to control what develop complex learning skills to acquire com-
path to take when searching for information (Foltz, plex knowledge.
111
Human memory and Hypermedia (1983) stated that as more complex connections
among existing knowledge is stored in memory
Human memory is associative. It works by asso- and as new information, the more learners will
ciating pieces of information with other informa- retain in memory. Research on learning shows that
tion and creating complex knowledge structures meaningful learning is accomplished when new
in memory (Lowe & Hall, 1999). Like human information is associated to existing knowledge
memory, hypermedia interconnects nodes using or node structures (Caudhill & Butler, 1990;
computer supported links and allows people to Jonassen, 1989).
partially mimic the writing and reading processes Hypermedia also has an ability to incorporate
as they take place during cognition (Lowe & various media, interactivity, vast data sources,
Hall, 1999). By creating non-linear information distributed data sources, and powerful search
structures—associating chunks of information in engines. These make hypermedia a very power-
different ways using links in combination with ful tool to create, store, access, and manipulate
media consisting of text, images, video, sound, and information.
animation—a person can enrich the representation
of information. Therefore, structured HLEs may usability Issues with Hypermedia
help learners to create their own representation
of knowledge and to integrate it into existing Usability in hypermedia refers to developing easy,
knowledge structures. efficient, memorable, error-free, and pleasant
The proposed memory models for humans are user experiences (Neilsen, 1995). A HLE has an
generally based on information-processing theory. interface element with which the user interacts.
Jonassen (1989) stated that learning occurs when Windows, (i.e. computer dialogue boxes) are used
new information is linked to existing knowledge, extensively in HLEs as a part of the user inter-
structured by associative networks. The semantic face to present graphics, images, text, audio, and
network structure and non-linearity features of video. Windows include nodes and links between
HLEs resembling theories of memory and cogni- them. The user interface is a key factor to HLEs,
tion may be a fruitful educational tool. It has been in terms of usability, efficiency, user comfort,
claimed that the idea of the structure of human and orientation. Navigation disorientation and
memory and the process of learning is consistent cognitive overload are major problems that limit
with the process of using HLEs (Jonassen, 1989; the usefulness of hypermedia (Conklin, 1987;
Marchionini, 1988). Both hypermedia and human Neilsen, 1995; Dix et al, 1998; McDonald &
memory are created by nodes of information con- Stevenson 1996; McDonald & Stevenson 1998).
nected by links (Eveland & Dunwoody, 2001). Researchers have looked for solutions to these
The similarity between memory and hypermedia problems in HLEs.
may allow the designer and the learner to estab- Developing well-structured and well-designed,
lish essential relationships between memory and effective HLEs is not an easy process because of
hypermedia. On the contrary, physical textbooks the number of associative links that exist among
and media can only allow the learner to represent nodes, non-linearity, and the number of design pos-
information in a linear way. sibilities. Providing screen displays to construct an
The principle of the semantic-network model operating environment for the user, configuring a
suggests that a key to learning new information clear visual image, and creating a working context
is associating it to existing knowledge, by se- for the user’s action are the goals of graphic user
mantically related links (Daniels, 1996). Norman interface design (Lynch, 1994).
112
disorientation in Hypermedia dependent problems in terms of limiting the use-

Learning environments fulness of HLEs.
Furthermore, Foss (1989) characterized the
Disorientation refers to an experience by users not disorientation problem and the undesirable results
knowing where they are within hypermedia and not of navigating noticed in users during the use of
knowing how to move to a desired location (Theng, hypermedia system into two categories: (a) the
Jones, & Thimbley, 1995a). As expected, the embedded digression / choice multiplicity problem
experience of being lost in hypermedia may lead and the (b) art museum phenomenon. The embed-
users to feel that they are wasting time, overlook- ded digression/choice multiplicity problem refers
ing important information, and may influence the to the user feeling distracted, lost, and forgetful
way they interact with hypermedia (Theng, 1997). of his paths and goals when he pursues multiple
Consequently, the disorientation problem has the ways and movements that take him away from
potential of interrupting navigation and browsing the main topic. The embedded digression prob-
in HLEs (McDonald & Stevenson 1998). lem is associated with difficulties occurring from
Elm and Woods (1985) outlined three differ- the abundance of path choices that hypermedia
ent forms of disorientation in HLEs. These are: causes. The art museum phenomenon, on the
(a) not knowing where to go next; (b) knowing other hand, is a metaphor of what occurs in a
where to go, but not knowing how to get there; similar way when spending a whole day visiting
and (c) not knowing where one is in the overall an art museum without giving special attention
structure of the document. Disorientation is one to a particular drawing or a model. The next day
of the most cited problems with HLEs. In fact, the visitor probably would not be able to describe
learners’ disorientation is a commonly reported any painting that he saw in the museum (Dias
problem in hypermedia research (Daniels & Moore & Sousa, 1997). In the context of HLEs, the art
2000; Neilsen, 1995). museum phenomenon refers to problems related
For example, studies by Nielsen (1990) showed to the act of browsing and seeking information
that 56 percent of readers of HLEs agreed that and involves the user’s ability to recognize which
they were often confused about where they were. nodes have been visited or which parts remain to
Many researchers also observed that users may be visited.
become confused, lost, or disoriented in hyper- Foss (1989) defined the problems that disori-
media systems (Elm & Woods, 1985; Conklin, ented users may also suffer in HLEs. Limitations
1987; Neilsen, 1990; Gupta & Gramopadhye, on short-term memory of humans may lead to the
1995; McDonald & Stevenson, 1996; McDonald following problems:
& Stevenson, 1998; Theng, 1997; Dias & Sousa,
1997; Ahuja & Webster, 2001; Baylor, 2001; • Arriving at a specific point in a hypertext
Chen, 2002). document then forgetting what was done
Gupta and Gramopadhye (1995) mentioned there.
two categories of hypermedia related problems: • Forgetting to return to a departure point.
(a) implementation dependent and (b) endemic. • Forgetting to pursue departures that were
The implementation dependent category contains planned earlier.
display restrictions and browser limitations. The • Not knowing if there are any other relevant
endemic category includes disorientation and frames in the document.
cognitive overload that impact the usability of • Not remembering which sections have
HLEs. Authors stated that the endemic problems been visited or altered.
are more challenging than the implementation
113
Trip and Roby (1990) also point out that disori- of mental activities during learning (Renkl &
entation will cause amplified cognitive overload Atkinson, 2003). And germane load refers to the
that may reduce the mental resources available capacity of working memory (Renkl & Atkinson,
to process information. 2003). Brunken, Plass, & Leuter (2003) stated
that learner experience, prior domain specific
cognitive Load in Hypermedia knowledge, and individual differences influence
Learning environments cognitive load that results in more effort, more
errors, and less knowledge acquisition.
Cognitive load is a term that refers to the load Mayer and Moreno (1998) and Mousavi, Low,
on working memory during instruction (Sweller, and Sweller (1995) investigated ways to reduce
1998). In a hypermedia learning environment, cognitive overload and found that physical in-
cognitive overload can be defined as being con- tegration of visual and verbal information (i.e.,
fused or overwhelmed by the available options split-attention effect), representing information
(Murray, 2001). both visual and auditory (i.e., modality effect),
Cognitive overload can effect orientation of and abandoning verbal information (i.e., redun-
users within HLEs. Cognitive overload refers to dancy effect) are the ways to decrease cognitive
being overwhelmed or confused by the options overload.
available in multi-path, multi-tool environments Cognitive load theory highlights several prac-
such as hypermedia (Murray, 2001). Thuring, Han- tices that can be applied to inclusive education and
nemann, and Haake (1995) stated that increased using hypermedia as an AT to train and to improve
cognitive load results in an inability to orient within performance of students with disabilities. There are
hypermedia or navigate through hypermedia. methodologies for reducing the effects of the ex-
Cognitive overload is one of the main obstacles traneous cognitive load of instructional materials
to learning (Clark, 2003). to ensure optimal learning. These effects include
Cognitive overload happens when the learner split attention, redundancy, and modality.
is “bombarded with too much information at
once” (Clark, 2003, p. 3). Additionally, Daniels The Split-Attention Effect
and Moore (2000) stated that cognitive overload
is one of the main barriers for hypermedia users. The split-attention effect can be defined as how
Furthermore, researchers noted that the non- the use of materials that require learners to split
linearity aspect of hypermedia system often results their attention between two sources of informa-
in learner disorientation and cognitive overload tion causing a higher cognitive load on working
(Beasley & Waugh 1995; Conklin, 1987; Tripp memory, impedes the learning process (Chandler
& Roby, 1990; Zhu, 1999). & Sweller, 1992; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
Cognitive load theory was broadly elaborated
by John Sweller in (1988). The theory sheds The Redundancy Effect
light on the limitations of working memory
capacity (Sweller, 1988; Sweller, 1994; Sweller An illustration of the redundancy effect is when
& Chandler, 1994). There are three types of one source of instruction, whether textual or
cognitive load: (a) intrinsic, (b) extraneous, and graphic, provides full intelligibility, suggesting
(c) germane (Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, that one source of instruction should be used
1998). “Intrinsic load refers to the complexity (Chandler & Sweller, 1991). Redundant sources
of learning material.” (Renkl & Atkinson, 2003, should be removed from the instructional materials
p. 17). Extraneous load refers to the complexity
114
in order to reduce cognitive load (Mayer, Heiser, read, with communications disorders, and those
& Lonn, 2001). with cognitive or physical disabilities.
Through non-linearity of hypermedia, learners
The Modality Effect who have certain disabilities can choose different
ways to pursue the subject matter based upon their
According to the modality principle, learning is own interests and objectives. Thus, hypermedia
more efficient when multiple sensory pathways environment can better accommodate individu-
are used to present information (Moreno & Mayer, als’ different needs and different learning styles
1999; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995). and is more suitable for discovery learning (Liu,
1994).
Hypermedia in Inclusive education The associativity of hypermedia is similar to
the functions of human memory. With this feature,
Hypermedia learning environments have gained related information can be linked together to form
popularity since the Internet was introduced to a network. This feature can enable learners to
schools. Hypermedia learning environments have construct their own knowledge base, by making
been used as tutorials for classes to create interac- meaningful connections among the ideas as they
tive and individualized lessons. Hypermedia can see fit. Students can navigate from one node to
be used to communicate and instruct as to improve another without any limitation. This feature allows
access or productivity. Hypermedia learning en- a teacher to present the to-be-learned subject in
vironments can be used in different ways to train different ways.
or teach individuals who have special education The efficiency of hypermedia allows teachers
needs. According to Perkins (1991, 1993) these to present the information in different forms such
ways include the creation of computer-aided as text, graphics, video, sound, and animation in
instruction as a communication device and as a a single page. These features make hypermedia
menu to launch other applications. It also includes a powerful tool in inclusive education. Along
stacks that can be operated by students with with these advantages, however, hypermedia is
cognitive disabilities, communication disorders, not free from disadvantages. Disorientation and
physical disabilities, and those students who are cognitive load are the main disadvantages of HLEs.
unable to read. Learners with disabilities can easily become lost
Hypermedia learning environments can pro- (disoriented) in the hypermedia learning context.
vide educators the ability to author their own The complex and non-linear structure of HLEs
tutorials and training to teach specific objectives may also lead inclusive education students to
in their classrooms (Perkins, 1993, 1991). Due to cognitive overload.
its flexibility, hypermedia can be one of the best
tools for teachers and parents to utilize in aiding
individuals with disabilities. Studies show that the concLusIon
introduction of technology, such as hypermedia-
based interactive learning environments in at-risk When HLEs are not well structured for usability
settings, enhances both self-image and locus of through adherence to instructional design prin-
control with pupils engaged in computer-applied ciples, the probability of learner disorientation
instructional activities (Furst, 1993; Klein, 1992). and cognitive overload is very high during naviga-
Hypermedia can be used to teach and train indi- tion. Nunes and Fowell (1996) describe that these
viduals with disabilities such as those unable to problems may result in the learning process being
interrupted. Learners may end up studying less
115
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Section 3
The chapters in Section 3 focus on the use of assistive technology tools in conjunction with the use of a multi-sensory
environment or multi-sensory pedagogy. The purpose is to address the essential characteristics of assistive technology
implementation, such as software and devices, embedded in inclusive settings and its relevance to practitioners’ collective
and individual responsibilities in this area. Little is known about coupling software and devices to the related research.
Section 3 pursues new research directions that augment the benefits of assistive technology tools in inclusive education.
The chapters in Section 3 mainly attempt to develop promising approaches to implementing software and devices to answer
the following research questions: (a) Who should use software or devices as assistive technology for intervention? (b) How
should ‘‘using software or devices as assistive technology’’ be operationalized and measured? (c) What intervention or staff
development program should be conducted to decrease the prevalence of malfunctioning software or devices during assistive
technology implementation? (d) How should the best match between software and devices and students with disabilities be
defined? Thus, the major themes of Section 3 are research, implementation, intervention, and assessment. In conclusion, the
chapters in Section 3 assert that “Technology makes things easier for everyone. Assistive technology makes things possible
for individuals with disabilities.”
121
Chapter 8
Multi-Sensory Environments
and Augmentative
Communication Tools
Cynthia L. Wagner
Lifeworks Services, USA
Jennifer Delisi
Lifeworks Services, USA
AbstrAct
This chapter discusses the use of augmentative communication tools in conjunction with use of a multi-
sensory environment. Though little has been written about the pairing, the authors discuss related lit-
erature, the history of their program’s use, the emerging communicators with whom they notice a great
benefit, and the challenges of implementation. The purpose of this chapter is to open the discussion about
the relationship between the two, to examine some of the related research, and to propose new research
directions which could benefit adults who face communication challenges due to sensory issues. The
focus is on the issues faced by adults with developmental disabilities and autism.
IntroductIon Every day we take in sensory information

through sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch. Some
Lifeworks is a non-profit organization that helps people with developmental disabilities, or those on
people with disabilities live fuller lives that are the autism spectrum, face sensory challenges. Sen-
integrated into the flow of community experience. sory sensitivity makes it difficult to communicate
Lifeworks provides the tools clients need to build if you cannot focus or attend to detail. Integration
the lives they want to live, through employment of senses allows a person to take in what is going
at area businesses, customized support services, on around them and communicate effectively. The
and social enrichment opportunities. Our goal is authors implemented a program addressing the
to support clients to achieve their communication sensory needs with communication goals.
goals using the tools that suit them best. This chapter is based on multi-sensory environ-
ments (MSEs) which were introduced in 2007 in our
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch008
Multi-Sensory Environments and Augmentative Communication Tools
day program setting for adults with developmental of production issues. Koul, Schlosser, and San-
disabilities, autism, and/or traumatic brain injuries. cibrian (2001) discuss motor issues specifically
We will discuss basic sensory needs, how they can in relation to people with autism, but it affects
be addressed in a MSE, and relate to better use individuals with other disorders as well. When
of augmentative communication tools. Helping looking at selection options for communication
people to fulfill their sensory needs and com- devices, for example, “The movement of the body
municate to their full potential empowers them part or body-part extension (e.g., the headstick)
to achieve their hopes and dreams. must be sufficiently controllable so that only a
single item is activated with each depression”
(Beukelman & Mirenda, 1992, p. 58).
bAckground Finally, sensory impairments prevent us from
acquiring all the information that the environment
Communication difficulties can be caused by presents. Iglesia et al. (2005) state that “if more
physical impairments, cognitive impairments, senses are engaged in receiving the information
and/or sensory impairments. Physical impairments (e.g., sight, hearing), the recall of story details
can impact the productive communication skills will be facilitated” (p. 199). The opposite is true
of a person with communication challenges. Such as well—when fewer senses are engaged in re-
impairments may prevent them from physically ceiving the information, we take in fewer details.
producing certain sounds. These impairments also These details could be facial expressions which
can limit use of augmentative communication tools denote sarcasm, inflections which communicate
because the person may have difficulty pointing to questions versus statements, or endings of words
objects, manipulating their hands to form words which detail the tense. This is not just the case
in sign language, or accessing a communication for visual impairments and auditory impairments,
device through alternative access methods such as but also for those who have Central Auditory
switches or a head mouse. For some people with Processing Disorder, those not taking in enough
developmental disabilities and autism, physical of a particular sense, and for those who take in
impairments complicating communication may too much of one sense.
not be visible. Physical and cognitive impairments affecting
Cognitive impairments can affect language communication are those which have more tradi-
acquisition in multiple ways. For people with tionally been addressed through speech therapy.
Down syndrome (DS), short-term memory may As more has become known about the nature
be a concern (Iglesia, Buceta, & Campos, 2005). of sensory impairments and how they relate to
Short-term memory is how we initially store communication, clinicians have been better able
new verbal vocabulary, navigate through a new to address these needs. Studies are being done
communication device, or remember the mean- which are investigating the relationship between
ing of new picture symbols. Another concern is sensory impairments and language acquisition, but
the processing of language. Research “suggests this is a complex issue. Each diagnosis (such as
that participants with DS have a deficit in verbal DS, autism, etc.) appears to have pieces of sensory
processing” (Iglesia et al., 2005, p. 201). This issues affecting their language impairments (when
has also been discussed for individuals with they are present), but isolating each of these is-
other cognitive impairments. Much of the new sues and accounting for the individuality of the
vocabulary we acquire comes from things we have way they present in each person is a challenge. In
heard others say. Motor speech deficits, such as terms of augmentative communication tools with
apraxia, can cause difficulty with multiple types these types of diagnoses, Beukelman and Mirenda
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(1992) found that “examining the requirements Tactile sensations are located in the skin and are
(sensory, motor, cognitive, and language) and the made up of light and pressure touch. Light touch
effects (rate, accuracy, and fatigue) of various activates the autonomic nervous system, eliciting
access options is still limited” (p. 67). Seventeen a sympathetic response. Pressure touch occurs
years later we have a few more studies, but not through joint as muscle sensations, eliciting a
as many as necessary. parasympathetic response. People can react dif-
ferently when these sensations are processed and
sensory perceived as too much or too little.
Many of our clients experience some kind of
All behavior is accompanied by an autonomic sensory processing sensitivity. “When the brain
nervous system reaction. The sympathetic, para- is not processing sensory input well, it usually is
sympathetic, and reticular activating systems make not directing behavior effectively. Without good
up the autonomic nervous system, located in the sensory integration, learning is difficult and the
brain stem. The sympathetic system is responsible individual often feels uncomfortable about him-
for “fright, flight or fight” arousal. The body reacts self, and cannot easily cope with ordinary demands
to adrenaline release by sweating, dilating pupils, and stresses” (Ayres, 1985, p. 51).
increasing heart rate, and respiration. The para- When a person is uncomfortable in his or her
sympathetic system works with the sympathetic body they can be defensive. The nature of this
providing balance for arousal levels. Together they defensiveness may be, for example, vestibular,
work for the just right combination that allows visual, auditory, or tactile in nature. What some-
for doing and learning. The reticular activating times appears to be learning or behavioral issue
system is responsible for sleep/wake cycles and may actually be a sensory processing issue.
modulates sensitivity to sensory signals depending Gravitational insecurity can be caused by poor
on importance for survival. The limbic system is processing of vestibular sensation. This can make
located just above the brain stem and is responsible a person unsure of where their body is in space,
for the emotional component of behavior. Past leading to fear, clumsiness and difficulty with
experiences create a memory that sets the basic social relationships. Visual perception problems
mood for present behavior and reactions to events. can cause someone to become lost easily and
New sensory input is interpreted by comparing it decrease their willingness to be in strange places
to past experiences. These systems work together or try new things (Ayres, 1985). Auditory de-
using an unconscious process to prepare a person fensiveness reduces the verbal communication
for fleeing, or on a conscious cognitive level, for perceived by the listener. A defensive person may
higher function (Messbauer 2005). not actually cover his or her ears or look away, but
How we respond to our environment depends may focus peripherally or on another object. We
on how we are taking in, and processing, sensations have observed that being tactilely defensive may
from receptors throughout our body. Vestibular prevent a person from touching a communication
sensations are closely associated with auditory device. Interestingly, some defensive behaviors
sensations, arising from the inner ear, informing may only be present at certain times or situations.
the brain of movement, and influencing all other Overall, defensiveness can make a person focus
systems. Proprioceptive sensations arise from so much on avoidance behaviors they are unable
receptors in our tendons and ligaments around to attend to communication. It decreases a per-
our joints and tell our brain where our body parts son’s interaction with people and objects, thereby
are. Proprioception helps us to feel grounded limiting the opportunities to practice communica-
and secure, modulating our vestibular system. tion skills. When we can help a client relax and
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decrease their defensiveness, they are better able public school. That being said, the continual
to increase integration of senses and awareness invention of new ways to communicate through
of their environment. This can ultimately lead to assistive technology, and the developments in
increased communication skills. treatment through MSEs and other techniques,
which aid life-long learning, will ensure that
communication and there will always be individuals who require more
developmental disabilities opportunities and tools than are available while
they are in school.
Only a few of the individuals we currently serve There have been studies done about com-
at Lifeworks had access to a wide variety of munication skills of people with developmental
augmentative communication tools while in the disabilities and autism. Some of these studies
public school system. Some of our clients lived have included adults or have solely studied them.
in state hospitals; others were in school programs There are both positive findings, and interesting
which were just beginning to have students with discoveries:
special needs in the public schools. Access to aug-
mentative communication tools is always limited Despite the variety of participants and methodolo-
to what is available to that individual, what the gies used, research findings are broadly consistent.
supporting staff know about, and what is invented First, people with intellectual disabilities can
at the point that people are seeking solutions. New and do acquire basic pragmatic language skills,
pieces of technology, software, and techniques are although more subtle aspects of conversational
being developed all the time, but new solutions competence are less commonly displayed. Second,
for an individual are not always being sought out. the communicative environments of children and
Because of the move to community integration, adults with intellectual disabilities appear to
communication requirements for people with inhibit the acquisition and display of pragmatic
disabilities changed dramatically. skills (Hatton, 1998, p. 79).
Adoption of a community-referenced approach to Pragmatic skills are “the knowledge of how

instruction has a direct impact on the quantity and communication works” (Beukelman & Mirenda,
quality of the participation and communication 1992, p. 337). There are some draw backs to the
opportunities that are available. Suddenly, the available literature in this area. “Relatively few
individual needs to order food in a restaurant, studies have investigated the pragmatic language
cheer for the basketball team, ask for help at the use of adults with intellectual disabilities” (Hat-
library, greet the school secretary when bringing ton, 1998, p.84). The studies that have been done
the attendance list, chat with co-workers at break with adults with cognitive impairments are rela-
time – the list of natural opportunities for things tively few, and in each the sample size is small.
to say and people to say them to becomes endless Iglesia et al. (2005) discuss this in reference to
(Beukelman & Mirenda, 1992, pp. 254-255). studies of people with DS, but it applies to other
groups as well. More research needs to be done,
Some of the communication challenges people so that intervention success can be measured.
are facing now will not occur in 30 years. In the This should not disqualify the already published
coming years, the majority of individuals being studies which show that adults with cognitive
served in day programs will be those who have impairments do increase their communication
always lived at home and have always gone to skills in adulthood.
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There are also no comparative data from the have expanded their vocabulary verbally or with
population without disability against which to the support of augmentative communication
judge the conversational competence of people tools. When time in the MSE is paired with the
with intellectual disabilities…(making) it difficult appropriate communication tools, a person’s com-
to determine the extent to which ‘incompetent’con- munication skills may expand, and there may be
versations are due to the incompetence of people an increase in the type of conversations in which
with intellectual disabilities, the stereotypes of the person participates. When this occurs at 40
people without disabilities, or the interactions years of age, for a person with a developmental
between the two (Hatton, 1998, p. 87). disability, it is an exciting development.
We do fall into line with some of Dowden’s
At Lifeworks, we began to use the term (1999, as cited in UW Augcomm, n.d.) thinking,
“emerging communicator” to identify adults who when stating “some emerging communicators
were developing communication skills later than fall within this category because they do not yet
during the developmental norms. Others in the have access to appropriate AAC strategies and
fields of speech therapy and augmentative com- technologies.”
munication use that term with a slight difference. If we expand the concept of technologies to
Dowden (1999, as cited in UW Augcomm, n.d.) also include access to the equipment in a MSE,
defines an emerging communicator as “An indi- as well as qualified therapists and staff who work
vidual who does not yet have any reliable means in an interdisciplinary model, then this brings our
of symbolic communication, although he/she concepts of “emerging communicator” closer to-
typically has non-symbolic communication. This gether. The types of skill development emerging
communication, for example using gestures and communicators increase could include an increase
facial expressions, can be very useful with highly in vocabulary, sentence length, pragmatics, and/
familiar partners, but it tends to be limited to the or social-communication skills.
‘here and now’ or rely heavily on the partner’s
shared knowledge.” multi-sensory environments
Adults in our program generally fall into two
categories: those who have some good commu- Multi-Sensory Environments used at Lifeworks
nication skills and those with quite limited skills. evolved from the European Snoezelen concept.
The third group, emerging communicators, are As stated by Messbauer (2008) for the American
often overlooked. They have quite limited skills Association of Multi-Sensory Environments:
(for a variety of reasons), but display hints that
they have a greater ability than we had previously It is a dedicated room that attempts to block out
helped them access. This differs from Dowden’s noise, control space, temperature and lighting. It
(1999, as cited in UW Augcomm, n.d.) definition brings multi-sensory equipment together in one
in that they may be communicating using sign place to stimulate the senses, promoting pleasure
language, picture symbols, augmentative com- and feelings of well-being. It can be utilized as
munication devices, and/or speech; but they have part of the learning or treatment experience or
a limited vocabulary. Sometimes the individual for leisure and relaxation. It is controlled sensory
has a moderate vocabulary and ability to com- input, especially designed to promote choice,
municate, but they are ready to add more. These interaction, and relationships through planned
opportunities for new language development are stimulation of the senses. It relieves stress, anxiety
occurring quite a bit later than the developmental and pain. MSEs have been shown to help with
norms. For example, some people in our program autism, brain injury, challenging behaviors, de-
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mentia, developmental disabilities, mental illness, The MSE definitely has a documented calming
PTSD, special education. It aims to maximize a effect. In a study of 15 children with traumatic
person’s potential to focus, and then act on this brain injury, it was found that the MSE evoked a
change through an adaptive response to their relaxation response as well as decreased heart rate
environment. Multi-Sensory Environments help and agitated behaviors (Hotz et al., 2006). There
change behavior, increase focus and attention, has been a contribution to a sense of control as
and add to feelings of positive self-esteem and well as a calming response noted in children with
well-being (Messbauer, 2008). Rett syndrome (Lotan & Shaprio, 2005).
In addition to decreasing stress, MSEs have
Equipment used in the MSE works to alert the been used to help decrease self-injurious behaviors
brain and create a memorable experience. The solar and agitation. A statistically significant reduction
projector throws images on the wall that can be in self-injury was found following MSE expo-
changed by replacing the image wheels to alter sure with adults with severe or profound mental
arousal levels. A six foot tall bubble tube with retardation and mental illness (Singh, 2004). In
changing lights provides intensity and vibration a group study of 24 participants with moderate
with auditory and tactile opportunities. A two to severe dementia, greater independence in
hundred strand light spray with color changes activities of daily living was observed, as well
engages the tactile sense and provides proprio- as reduced agitation and apathy (Staal, 2005).
ceptive input when it is laid across someone’s One study did find carryover for two of three
lap. A vibro-acoustic recliner or mat uses sound participants in post-session engagement as well as
vibration to relax and help define body awareness. daily frequency of challenging behaviors on days
Mirrors provide multiple-imagery and add to the following their MSE and OT sessions (Kaplan,
complexity of the room. A motorized mirror ball 2005). There is much anecdotal success with
can intensify visual and vestibular input to the behavioral improvements using the MSE. There
nervous system. A Catherine-type wheel, which are, however, few published studies demonstrating
is choice driven, can be used for evaluation, statistical significance.
exploration, and changing arousal level. Power The MSE has also been beneficial in increas-
links to various pieces of equipment are used to ing communication. The sensory systems—
encourage interaction and shape behavior. The auditory, vestibular, proprioceptive, tactile, and
equipment in the MSE is introduced slowly, one visual—develop interdependently. The auditory
piece at a time, for client evaluation, self-direction, and vestibular systems work closely together.
and motivation (Messbauer, 2005). Speech and language depend upon the integra-
Lifeworks began by establishing an MSE in tion of auditory sensations within the vestibular
one of our centers. We brought our clients into system (Ayres, 1985, p. 63). A number of studies
the MSE individually and in small groups. In have shown sensory integration to be significant
tracking our statistics, we were able to determine in developing language skills. Ayres and Mail-
that behavioral incidents in the center decreased loux (1981) found a consistent increase in the
by 50% overall, regardless of whether the clients rate of growth in language comprehension and
had been in the MSE or not. Our clients and staff expression in children receiving occupational
enjoyed days that were calmer and allowed for therapy sensory integration treatment. In a study
more productive programming. This amazing of children attending school for remedial educa-
transformation enabled us to write grants to help tion, language was found to be the primary deficit
fund MSEs at four additional sites. area, acknowledging the interrelationship among
auditory, visual, somatosensory, motor, and lan-
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guage skills. Integration of the sensory and motor to communicate as a young child. “Initially, self-
systems weighs heavily in the development of directed child behaviours are treated by caregivers
academic skills (Kruger, 2001). as having a communicative intent, introducing
Using the MSE contributes to integration of the child to the notion that language can be used
senses by the use of sensory pleasurable experi- to do things” (Hatton, 1998, p. 81). In the MSE,
ences. The client chooses which piece of equip- moving towards an object indicates enjoyment or
ment to use as a mode of sensory input as well attraction. This can be built upon by using a switch
as how much they receive. By stimulating the which activates that piece of equipment. Later,
visual, vestibular, and auditory systems, clients can using sign language, picture symbols, or voice-
increase their ability to communicate their needs. output devices to request “more” of the desired
The neuroplastic quality of the brain allows for activity, the more integrated individual has moved
growth in areas that have been damaged or not from a self-directed behavior, to a communication
previously accessed. A person is encouraged to which can now be understood by others. As this
use the MSE to reduce stress, promote pleasure, integrated motion and intent of communication
control their own environment, and support moti- is practiced, it leads to further integration, and
vation, creating an environment where they will be natural development of skills. Generalization can
more accepting of treatment, thereby making that occur within the room, and more communication
treatment more effective (Messbauer, 2005). skills can be developed. This type of intervention
(starting with items of high interest, though not
Augmentative communication in an MSE) was studied by Koul, Schlosser, and
Sancibrian (2001), when looking at individuals
Augmentative communication tools include with Rett Syndrome. This study found that “indi-
gesture and sign language, picture symbols, and viduals with Rett syndrome acquire initial lexical
voice-output devices. They can range from quite items with an opaque symbol-referent relationship
simple, to quite complex. more readily if the referents are of high interest”
(Koul et al., 2001, pp. 164-165). Further support
The work of Christopher Nolan, Anne McDon- for this concept comes from Beukelman and
ald, and others who use ‘low technology’ (i.e., Mirenda (1992):
non-electronic) systems reminds us that the ulti-
mate goal of an AAC intervention is not to find There is simply no doubt about it: The availability
a technological solution to the communication of genuine and motivating communication op-
problem, but to enable the individual to efficiently portunities in integrated and inclusive settings
and effectively engage in a variety of interactions is at least as important to the success of a com-
(Beukelman & Mirenda, 1992, p.7). munication intervention as is the availability of
an appropriate access system (p. 258).
Tool selection is based on many things, and
is usually assessed by a speech and language Koul et al. (2001) also state that the advantage to
pathologist. Selection is based on the skills of “the relatively ‘unnatural’ behavioral approaches
the individual in the areas of motor skills, cogni- offer the advantage of eliminating any distracters
tive skills, visual and auditory. All of these skills and making the linguistic stimuli highly salient”
are impacted by sensory challenges, as stated (p. 165). The concept of distractibility and impact
earlier. of stimuli was also discussed by Kruger, Kru-
The development of communication skills ger, Hugo and Campbell (2001). In reference to
within the MSE is similar to the process of learning problems with attention during their study, they
127
wrote “this fact suggests that attention skills are The most favored approach. .. Unfortunately, it
also important in academic performance and for requires more funds and skilled human resources
language ability, central auditory processing, and than are presently available. .. An effective,
sensory integration” (Kruger et al., 2001, p. 96). resource-efficient, transdisciplinary model for
The MSEs have the advantage that the therapist helping children with CAPD, language disorders,
is manipulating the room to have the optimum LD, and sensory integration dysfunction will aid in
amount of stimuli for that individual, and can providing an evaluation and intervention program
ensure that the focus is on the items of interest, that may be easily implemented using existing
and distractions are eliminated. resources (Kruger et al., 2001, p. 87).
Cognitive skills such as choice-making, reason-
ing, and planning often require us to communicate Despite the different disciplines being exam-
with others, take in information before using it to ined in the interdisciplinary research, many of the
problem-solve, and then communicate back what complications and issues are the same. Kruger et
we came up with to others. As a person’s body is al. (2001) discuss how the “individual perspec-
working more efficiently once their sensory needs tives” of different specialists has them providing
have been addressed and they have gained the ap- “isolated and inefficient treatment” (p. 97). Pena
propriate communication skills through verbal or and Quinn (2003) state “effective collaboration
augmentative communication tools, they are now between teachers and SLPs can have positive
able to participate more actively in these types of benefits for children with language impairment
higher cognitive tasks. in daily communicative events and academic
Addressing both sensory and communication achievement” (p. 53). “For groups that function
needs in this way requires a team approach. The as teams, collaboration is a dynamic learning
team needs to address the needs of the whole process” (Pena & Quinn, Winter 2003, p. 61).
person, in as many environments as possible. Each team member at Lifeworks interacts
This enables everyone to get a more complete with the individual in different circumstances,
picture of both the person’s skills and areas that requiring different vocabulary, different social-
need to be developed. Team members may in- communication events, and they see the individual
clude an occupational therapist, speech therapist, working on these skills in different environments.
music therapist, physical therapist, parents or Each has valuable input, and can positively impact
guardian, staff/teachers, social worker, and most the communication development of the individual
importantly—the individual. In day programs for as they progress. We are all learning, as well, as a
adults with developmental disabilities, this team part of the process, especially since certain team
meets for an annual meeting. Combining MSEs members are more experienced with particular
with the use of augmentative communication types of augmentative communication tools. The
tools often requires more frequent communica- therapists bring in cutting edge treatment tech-
tion among team members. This concept of a niques, and the individual, the direct care staff,
team approach has been looked at by others, but and family or guardian are often implementing
not in terms of combining MSE and augmenta- similar strategies in the creative fashion required
tive communication tools. In referring to treating in the day-to-day usage of these tools.
people with CAPD, language disorders, sensory A device lending library, or access to one, is
integration dysfunction and learning disabilities, a fundamental piece to this approach. Sometimes
an interdisciplinary approach is: adults with developmental disabilities have dif-
ficulty being approved through medical assistance
for devices in a timely manner. Others have a
128
slower learning curve and need more opportunity Future reseArcH dIrectIons
to practice with a device before being able to
prove it is a good choice for them. Also, if work- More research is necessary to support the advan-
ing in an MSE, they may need multiple devices tages of access to augmentative communication
in a short period of time. Lending libraries enable tools for adult emerging communicators. There
more flexibility during this time of learning, and is some research supporting the use of MSEs to
prevent the purchase of a device which would integrate the senses, however, more needs to be
be only a short-term investment. Lifeworks has done regarding how they specifically impact com-
a range of devices in their lending library, which munication skills. This research would validate
include voice output devices, alternative access using the MSE in this manner, making reim-
methods such as switches, software such as those bursement easier for these services. Ultimately,
to make picture symbols and displays, and others. additional documentation will support increased
We are grateful to our donors and those who have access and improved techniques for individuals
given us grants to purchase this equipment. When with communication challenges.
we do not have something in our own library, we
access outside lending libraries, and have really
appreciated their support. concLusIon
Finally, some portions of the therapy work we
are able to do at Lifeworks is due to being free This chapter puts forward the idea that use of a
from the confines of working within a direct bill- MSE to decrease defensiveness in the body can
ing system, such as through medical assistance or promote integration of the senses, and lead a
insurance billing. Though coverage is available for person to be in a better position to communicate
adults with developmental disabilities and autism their wants and needs. We have also noted that
to see a speech therapist, it is difficult to obtain adults with developmental disabilities or autism
funding for other traditional therapies. Donations can sometimes be overlooked as emerging com-
and grants have enabled us to equip our MSEs, municators. Shifting this view will increase their
our device lending library, and fund a portion of access to new tools and techniques for enhancing
our therapy staff salaries. In addition, this type of communication skills. “People with severe dis-
team approach in an interdisciplinary fashion is abilities can live, work, play, communicate, and
difficult to fund when the therapists are contracted form relationships with a wide variety of people in
for individual or group treatment. Looking at com- their communities, schools, and workplaces, and
munication, we need to start with the senses as they deserve to be provided with opportunities to
integrated as possible, which sometimes requires do so” (Beukelman & Mirenda, 1992, p. 254).
multiple therapists working together at different
points in the process. To make reimbursement
for these services possible, the entire system will reFerences
need to change to accommodate these treatment
techniques. Though there are more costs up front, Augcomm, U. W. (n.d.). Augmentative and
in the long run, people who can communicate alternative communication at the University of
their needs more effectively will draw less on Washington, Seattle. Retrieved October 5, 2009,
the health care system and can be more active from http://depts.washington.edu/augcomm/00_
members of society. general/glossary.htm
129
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adults with mental retardation and mental ill-
bauer, L., & McPherson, K. (2006). Snoezelen
ness. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25,
multi-sensory environments: Task engagement
285–293. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2003.08.003
and generalization. Research in Developmen-
tal Disabilities, 27, 443–455. doi:10.1016/j. Staal, J. A., Sacks, A., Matheis, R., Calia, T.,
ridd.2005.05.007 Hanif, H., Collier, L., & Kofman, E. (2005, July).
The effects of Snoezelen (Multi-Sensory Behav-
Koul, R., Schlosser, R., & Sancibrian, S. (2001).
ior Therapy) and psychiatric care on agitation,
Effects of symbol, referent, and instructional
apathy, and activities of daily living in dementia
variables on the acquisition of aided and un-
patients on a short term geriatric psychiatric
aided symbols by individuals with autism
inpatient unit. Poster session presented at the
spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other
Alzheimer’s Association International Confer-
Developmental Disabilities, 16(3), 162–169.
ence, Washington, DC.
doi:10.1177/108835760101600304
130
key terms And deFInItIons Multi-Sensory Environment: A designated

space designed to alert, or calm the senses.
Augmentative Communication Tools: Pic- Proprioception: Sensory information received
ture symbols, sign language and gesture, voice from joints and muscles telling the body about
output devices, which can be used to assist in pressure, movement and changes in position in
communication. space.
Autism: A developmental brain disorder Sensory Issues: Difficulty taking in and
characterized by impaired social interaction and interpreting sights, sounds, touch, taste and
communication, and restricted and repetitive be- movement.
havior. The autism spectrum includes Asperger’s Vestibular: Input from the inner ear telling
Syndrome, Rett Syndrome, Childhood Disinte- the body about balance, change in gravity, move-
grative Disorder and Pervasive Developmental ment around the body as well as movement of
Disorder—Not Otherwise Specified. the body.
Developmental Disability: Lifelong disabil-
ity due to cognitive and/or physical impairments
beginning early in life.
131
132
Chapter 9
Using Software to Deliver
Language Intervention in
Inclusionary Settings
Mary Sweig Wilson
Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA
Jeffrey Pascoe
Laureate Learning Systems, Inc., USA
AbstrAct
Language intervention focusing on syntax is an essential component of programs designed to meet the
educational needs of children with language disabilities as it provides a foundation for improved com-
munication and literacy. Yet there are challenges to providing individualized syntax intervention on a
daily basis in inclusionary settings. The use of assistive technology in the form of language intervention
software provides one means to address these challenges. This chapter describes the background, rationale,
and use of software designed to provide receptive syntax intervention to build sentence comprehension
and use in pre-school and elementary children with disabilities. The software is also appropriate for
at-risk students in districts providing early intervening services in a response to intervention model as
well as English language learners. Included is an overview of advances in linguistic theory and research
that have dramatically increased our understanding of language and how it is acquired by typically and
atypically developing children, and which informed the curricular design of the software described. The
results of field-testing under naturalistic conditions in classrooms, where regular use of the software
was associated with accelerated language development, are also reviewed.
IntroductIon als with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) is

the direct descendent of PL94-142 and the current
Since the landmark passage of Public Law 94-142 law ensuring services to children with disabilities.
(Education of All Handicapped Children Act) in The law governs how states and public agencies
1975, society has supported the belief that all chil- provide early intervention and special education
dren are entitled to a public education. The Individu- to the millions of eligible children from birth to
21. Students from 3-21 receive special education
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch009 and related services through Part B of IDEA. The
Using Software to Deliver Language Intervention in Inclusionary Settings
most important mandate in the law covering Part bAckground

B is that students with disabilities are entitled to
a free appropriate public education (FAPE) in the Advances in linguistic theory and psycholin-
least restrictive environment (LRE). While “inclu- guistic research over the past quarter century
sion” does not appear in the legislation, clearly have dramatically increased our understanding
LRE means that to the extent possible children of language and how it is acquired by typically
with disabilities should be educated with their and atypically developing children. Children all
neurotypically developing peers. As a society, we over the world learning any one of thousands of
don’t believe that children with disabilities should different languages do so in a remarkably similar
be isolated from their peers but many schools manner. First words emerge, word combinations
encounter difficulties in providing education to occur, and syntax is mastered at about the same
children with disabilities in the general education age regardless of the language or culture. What
classroom. Despite general commitment to inte- exactly is the nature of the human biological
gration, difficulties are frequently encountered in endowment that enables very young children to
meeting the needs of children with disabilities in acquire their first language on such a strikingly
inclusionary environments. Among the difficulties consistent timetable? Since its inception (Chom-
are feelings of regular educators that they lack the sky, 1955; 1957), generative grammar theory has
skills to deal with special needs students in their tried to explain this phenomenon (see Chomsky,
classrooms (Hanson, Horn, Sandall, Beckman, 2004 for a brief review). A fundamental assertion
Morgan, Marquaart, Darnwell, & Chou, 2001). emerging from this work is that the rapidity and
Children with disabilities are most successfully uniformity of first language acquisition is possible
included when regular and special educators work because human infants are born with an innate
together on developing classroom-teaching strate- language faculty (Universal Grammar) that drives
gies (Goodman & Williams, 2007; McCormick, and shapes the course of language development
Won, & Yogi, 2003). (Hauser, Chomsky, & Fitch, 2002). Although this
One promising approach to meeting the needs premise was in doubt fifty years ago, today it is
of students with disabilities in the general educa- accepted with discussion centered only on the
tion classroom is through the use of assistive tech- precise nature of this innate endowment (Boeckx
nology (AT) in the form of language intervention & Piattelli-Palmarini, 2005; Jenkins, 2004; Laka,
software. Before adopting software for use in the 2009).
classroom, however, speech-language patholo- Because our inborn human language capacity
gists and special educators must be sure that the orchestrates language acquisition, neurotypically
programs will deliver research-based intervention developing children need only language exposure
that can address a student’s language acquisition to acquire language, at least insofar as acquisition
needs. This chapter will describe the background, of the formal grammar component (vocabulary
rationale, and use of software designed to provide and syntax) of language is concerned. The gram-
receptive syntax intervention to build sentence mar of a language is composed of the lexicon
comprehension and use in pre-school and elemen- (the “dictionary” of lexical items/words in the
tary children with disabilities. The programs are language) and the syntactic computational system
also appropriate for at-risk students in districts that assembles lexical items into sentences. The
providing early intervening services in a response important distinction here is that, while the ability
to intervention (RTI) model as well as students to use words for communication in social settings,
who are English language learners. (i.e., pragmatics) is developed through communi-
cative interaction, acquisition of the grammar of a
133
language is accomplished through listening; it is universal principle is the Structure Dependence

dependent upon receptive language input (Pinker, Principle, holding that all grammatical operations
1994; Radford, 1990; Wexler, 1998). are structure dependent. Regardless of language,
Problems with acquiring the grammatical all syntactic operations are sensitive to the gram-
component of language are characteristic of a matical structure of the sentences to which they
broad range of children with language impair- apply. For example, in English we form a yes/no
ments regardless of etiology. For example, while question by interrogative inversion:
the communication profiles of children with
Autism Spectrum Disorders, specific language She is working at home. → Is she working at
impairment, Down Syndrome, and deafness may home? Children will love this game. → Will
differ, their patterns of language acquisition and children love this game? Small children who play
deficits are similar (Geurts & Embrechts, 2008; with dolls are fun to watch. → Are small children
Tager-Flusberg & Calkins, 1990; Tager-Flusberg, who play with dolls fun to watch?
2004). The LanguageLinks®: Syntax Assessment &
Intervention and Prepositions! programs (Wilson In forming a question from a statement, we
& Fox, 2007a; 2007b) are designed to assess and don’t simply move the second word to the front
train the syntax forms that these children typically of the sentence as it may appear in the first two
struggle with, and yet need to become competent sentences above; rather the operation is structure
communicators. In designing and developing Lan- dependent. In the case of a standard yes/no ques-
guageLinks and Prepositions!, the goal was to use tion, we move the auxiliary (is, are) or modal (will,
evidence-based instructional strategies to deliver might, should) in front of the subject phrase.
a syntax assessment and intervention curriculum Unlike universal principles that require no
based on current linguistic theory, language language experience, parameters do require lan-
acquisition research, and clinical research. Here guage input or primary linguistic data for their
we will review the theoretical and research bases setting. Since all parameters have two possible
of LanguageLinks and Prepositions! programs, settings, children need language input to select
present field-testing data demonstrating their ef- the proper setting. A fixed set of parameters ac-
fectiveness, and review their use in instructional count for most of the syntactic variations among
programs. human languages (Atkinson, 1992; Baker, 2001;
Chomsky, 1981; Crain, 1991; Leonard & Loeb,
universal grammar Principles 1988; Radford, 1990; 2004; Roeper & Williams,
and Parameters 1987; Wexler, 1998). Parameters determine such
things as word order in a language and whether
Linguists and biologists believe the innate Uni- question words (e.g., who, what, how) move to
versal Grammar that humans are born with is the front of a sentence (they do in English, they
composed of principles that are not dependent don’t in Chinese).
upon language input, and a small set of parameters The Minimalist Program (Chomsky, 1995)
that vary in a binary fashion across languages provides a framework for much of the current
(Baker, 2001; Hornstein, Nunes, & Grohmann, linguistic research concerning universal principles
2005). Universal principles unite all languages. and parameters. Important in the Minimalist Pro-
They don’t have to be learned because they are an gram is the concept of heads. The head of a phrase
invariant component of the genetically endowed is the key word that determines the properties of
language faculty and consequently are known the phrase. The universal Headedness Principle
without language experience. One important stipulates that every phrase must have a head;
134
when two elements combine, one becomes the the Lexicon

head. Two parameters that determine word order
in a language are associated with this principle. In the Minimalist model, the lexicon (the mental
English follows a pattern of subject-verb-object dictionary of lexical items or words with their
(SVO). This order is determined by two different linguistic properties) has taken on a greater role
parameters. The Head-Directionality Parameter in grammar than it had in earlier generative gram-
determines whether a head of the phrase comes mar theory. Each representation of a word in the
before or after its complement (Object). In English, lexicon consists not only of phonological and
the head comes before its complement(s). In Eng- semantic properties (sound and meaning), but also
lish we say “hit the ball” where “hit” is the Verb syntactic features such as categorial membership
head and “the ball” is its Complement so English (i.e., whether it is a noun, verb, determiner, etc.),
is a “head first” language. The specifier-head or inflectional behavior (e.g., how it is marked for
subject side parameter determines whether speci- number, person, and gender), and in the case of
fiers (subjects) come before or after the head of the verbs, syntactic argument structure (e.g., run
phrase. English is a “specifier-first” language in requires only one argument, a subject “The girl
that specifiers or subjects come before their head. runs”; kiss requires two arguments, a subject and
For example, in English we say “The boy hit the an object “The father kisses the baby”; and give
ball” where “The boy” is the specifier and comes typically requires three arguments “The girl gives
before the Verb “hit.” The two parameters, heads the baby a toy”). In other words, the Minimalist
and specifiers, along with their settings determine Program assumes that a complete lexical entry
word order in all languages. includes the specific roles a word can play in the
The acquisition of language competence can structure of language and the appropriate form
be viewed as a matter of “setting” grammatical of that word in a given grammatical context. Un-
parameters through exposure to appropriate recep- like in past generative grammar theories, lexical
tive language input, combined with the learning entries are now posited to enter the grammatical
of a lexicon. In children with language disorders, computational system or sentence forming process
exposure to the language surrounding them, that already marked with syntactic features (Abraham,
is, primary linguistic data alone, is clearly not Epstein, Thráinsson, & Zwart, 1996; Chomsky,
adequate. Understanding parameters and the 1995).
receptive language experiences that “trigger” or Developing an early core lexicon is an impor-
“set” them can lead to intervention strategies that tant step in the acquisition of language. Many think
are more effective because they target the specific of word learning as simply a process of linking
linguistic experiences that may optimize or correct a word’s sound to meaning. The acquisition of
the process of language acquisition on a fundamen- word meaning, however, describes only part of
tal (versus symptomatic) level. This suggests that what a child is learning even in the single-word
the most successful language intervention should stage of language development. Contemporary
emphasize linguistic input that is likely to interact linguistic theory emphasizes that the child must
with innate factors shaping language acquisition, also be learning the syntactic features of words in
and is likely to “set” the grammatical parameters relation to the parameter settings of the language
of the child’s native language (Atkinson, 1992; being acquired—the grammatical options that
Hyams, 1986; Lightfoot, 1991; Roeper & Wil- distinguish one language from another. Further,
liams, 1987; Roeper, 2007). children are learning a great deal about the inflec-
135
tional properties of the language they are acquir- the various syntactic relations that take place in
ing. That includes such things as how a language the phrase” (p. 165). The Functional Categories
marks number agreement of subjects and verbs include determiners, tense (in earlier work called
(e.g., “The boy_ runs / The boys run_”) and how inflection or INFL), and complementizers:
time is expressed (e.g., “The boy is playing / The
boy played”). That some grammatical learning • Determiners are associated with nouns and
occurs during the single-word stage is evidenced are so-called because they specify (or de-
by the rapid progression of syntactic competence: termine) that to which a Noun expression
typically, at about 12 months a child will begin to refers. Determiners include, for example,
produce isolated words with no evidence of gram- articles (a, the), prenominal determiners
matical marking. Within another six months or so, (this, that, these, those) and pronouns (I,
however, the child will begin to produce forms you, me, his, her). A Determiner Phrase
such as Determiner “No” (e.g., “No shoe”), the (DP) is headed by a determiner.
progressive Verb marker -ing (e.g., “running”), • Tense is associated with verbs and refers
and the Genitive or Possessive ‘s (e.g., “the boy’s to elements that inflect verbs for tense and
ball”). There is evidence that by this time a num- agreement. Tense includes, for example,
ber of crucial parameters have already been set. the regular past tense -ed, infinitival to,
Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, and colleagues showed auxiliary be, and third person singular -s. A
that when children as young as sixteen months (still Tense Phrase (TP) includes a verb and its
in the one word stage) were presented with televi- inflectional elements.
sions showing Big Bird tickling Cookie Monster • Complementizers include words such as
and vice versa, and then were told, “Oh look! Big that, if, and whether which serve to intro-
Bird is tickling Cookie Monster!” or vice versa, duce and characterize complement clauses
they preferentially attended to the appropriate in several ways. Also included are vari-
visual stimulus (Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkoff, Fletcher, ous operations involved in the formation
DeGaspe-Beaubien, & Cauley, 1985; Hirsh-Pasek of questions (e.g., Interrogative Reversals
& Golinkoff, 1996). This finding demonstrated and Wh-Questions).
that both word order parameters had already been
set. Further evidence that these parameters are Figure 1 lists Functional Category examples
fixed by the time typically developing children of determiners, tense, and complementizers.
enter the two-word stage is provided by the fact Even those not familiar with the current linguis-
that the word order of their utterances adheres tic distinction between Functional and Lexical
to the word order of their native language from Categories will immediately recognize that the
the outset, which in the case of English is SVO forms listed in Table 1 are especially problematic
(Fodor, 2009; Radford, 1990). for students with language impairments as well as
Within the Principles and Parameters Theory, English language learners. The list also provides
the lexicon is divided into Lexical Category words some explanation of grammatical errors. For
(e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives) and Functional
Category words and forms (e.g., determiners,
Table 1.
tense, complementizers) that serve essentially
grammatical functions. Adger (2003) says that N V DP TP
one way to think about Functional Categories Ball Roll comes to be replaced by The ball isrolling
“...is that they erect a syntactic skeleton above
lexical categories which serves to hold together
136
example, children with language impairments be room for coining at least a few new preposi-
sometimes persist in use of accusative case tions now and then; particularly since many of
pronouns in the subject position which requires them are currently used to indicate rather diverse
nominative case (“Her” vs. “She”). You’ll note relationships (e.g., on the floor/ceiling/spot; on
that tense is responsible for checking or valuing time; on topic; out of the house, out of time, out
nominative case. Children who are not correctly of kindness).
inflecting Verbs thus may use the default English Also unlike Lexical items, prepositions do
accusative case in the subject position saying, not accept derivational affixes. nouns, verbs and
“Him big.” Once they are tense marking (e.g., adjectives can move from one Lexical Category to
including copular “be” in this case), they will another by adding an appropriate derivational affix
begin to correctly use nominative case as in “He (e.g., -ize, -able, -ish, -ity...; pressure – pressurize;
is big.” This has clinical implications in that work book - bookish), but prepositions cannot; they are
on nominative case clearly should be preceded by always prepositions. The fact that prepositions do
work on one or more Tense elements. not conform to all of the typical features of items
If nouns, verbs, and adjectives belong to the in either the Lexical or Functional categories has
Lexical Category and determiners, tense, and led some researchers to suggest that the category
complementizers belong to the Functional Cat- of prepositions ought to be divided according to
egory, where do prepositions fit in? Prepositions the relative proportion of a preposition’s lexical
present a challenge to the simple notion of a and functional features (Corver & van Riems-
Lexical - Functional dichotomy. On the one hand, dijk, 2001; Littlefield, 2005). In this scheme one
prepositions are typically regarded as a fourth would classify semantically rich prepositions as
LexicalCategory. Consistent with this categoriza- being Lexical, and other prepositions that serve
tion is the observation that many prepositions, as primarily syntactic roles as being Functional.
with Lexical items in general but not Functional Supporting the validity of this division is evi-
items, have intrinsic semantic content that makes dence from studies of the language of individuals
an important contribution to sentence meaning. with aphasia (e.g., Froud, 2001), as well as from
In other ways, however, prepositions have more analyses of children’s first language acquisition
in common with the Functional Categories and (e.g., Littlefield, 2006).
there is a growing tendency to regard them as such Unlike in earlier versions of generative gram-
(e.g., Baker, 2003; Littlefield, 2005; Moro, 2008). mar, in current linguistic theory Functional Cat-
There are numerous arguments for this view, just egory words as well as Lexical Category words
a few of which are mentioned here. can serve as the head of a phrase. The concept of
For example, unlike the Lexical Categories, heads is very important in linguistic theory. The
which are always growing via the addition of new universal Headedness Principle states that every
Nouns (computer, cell phone), Verbs (snowboard- syntactic structure is a projection of a Head word.
ing, faxing) and Adjectives (groovy, spacey), Here again we see the importance of the lexicon
prepositions are more like Functional categories in current thinking. In forming sentences, the lexi-
in that they comprise a closed class; there are con is key. Those of us who serve children with
relatively few of them (roughly 50 in English, and language disorders should be greatly encouraged
far fewer in most other languages) and there is with this emphasis on the lexicon. The lexicon,
little or no tendency to coin new ones. Some have after all, is learned. The learning of Functional
argued that this could to some extent be attribut- Category lexical forms is a component of syntax
able to the limited set of relationships available mastery. Therefore, by emphasizing receptive
to be encoded, but there certainly would seem to
137
Figure 1. Functional categories with examples
mastery of Functional Category lexical forms we children in the early word combination stage may
can facilitate syntax acquisition. produce bare noun and verb phrases, these do not
While many of a child’s earliest multi-mor- exist in adult English. In sentences generated by
pheme utterances may consist of bare noun and competent language users, nouns combine or
verb phrases, Functional Categories are apparent merge with determiners and become Determiner
from the time typically developing children enter Phrases. This is true even if there is no overt
the two-word stage (Bohnacker, 1997; Brown, determiner in a phrase. Similarly, verbs combine
1973; Engle, 1978; Spaulding, 1980). Indeed, or merge with tense elements and become Tense
one clinical marker for children with language Phrases. Hence, the example in Table 1 (functional
impairments is the absence or relative infrequency elements in bold).
of Functional Category elements in their speech This developmental step generally does not
(Leonard, 1998; Trantham & Pedersen, 1976). proceed smoothly for children with language
As the Functional Categories are acquired, the disorders. In fact, one certain conclusion that can
hierarchical nature of sentences emerges. Although be drawn from the research is that Functional
138
Categories are especially problematic for children say that we first make a copy of each lexical item
with language disorders (Bedore & Leonard, 1998; that will be used in the sentence from the lexicon
Leonard 1995, 1998; Leonard, Camarata, Paw- and indicate how many times each will be used.
towska, Brown, & Camarata, 2006; Rice, 1998; In the sentence “He is hitting the ball” the lexical
Rice, Wexler, & Cleave, 1995; Rice, Wexler, & array or numeration would be:
Hershberger, 1998; Roeper & Seymour, 1994;
Seymour, Roeper, & deVilliers, 2003; Wilson, the1 he1 is1 hitting1 ball1
2000; Wilson & Pascoe, 1999).
Once a lexical numeration has been copied from
generating sentences the lexicon, the syntactic computational system
combines words using two operations:
Linguists working in the Minimalist Program have
made tremendous progress in advancing our un- Merge combines elements in a binary fash-
derstanding of language and its acquisition. In this ion. Move copies and then repositions words
section we will discuss how linguists describe the and/or phrases.
generation of sentences. This linguistic view may
seem far removed from our subjective experience More recently linguists have begun referring to
of producing language, but in fact it provides new these two operations as External Merge (Merge)
insights into the production and comprehension of and Internal Merge (Move) because in the case of
sentences in all languages. The model also provides Merge new material is brought into the structure
direction to scientists working on the biology of while in the case of Move material is repositioned
language. For example, neuropsychologists have (Chomsky, 2002; 2009; Radford, 2009).
shown that the distinctions between the neural Using these operations, the computational
circuitry used to produce nouns and verbs demon- system builds sentence structures that can be in-
strates that lexical entries code not only semantic terpreted for sound and meaning. Unlike in earlier
information but grammatical properties as well versions of generative grammar where sentences
(Caramazza & Shapiro, 2004). Additionally, stud- were built from the top down, within the Minimalist
ies of adults with Broca’s aphasia have revealed model sentences are built from the bottom up. To
very specific syntactic deficits as a result of brain generate the sentence “He is hitting the ball”1 the
lesions. These deficits are adequately described computational system would first Merge “ball”
in terms of aspects of syntactic formulation and with “the.” When two elements are combined, one
comprehension of sentences within the Minimalist becomes the head that dominates the structure. For
Program (Grodzinsky, 2004; 2006). example, when “ball” combines or Merges with
In earlier generative grammar theory, Phrase “the” to form the phrase “the ball,” the head is
Structure and Transformational Rules, were the the determiner “the.” When a noun Merges with
mechanisms proposed for sentence generation. In a determiner the Functional Category determiner
the Minimalist Program the Computational system becomes the head. The phrase has the following
of human language (CHL) generates sentences from structure (Figure 2).
a lexical array in a principled economical fashion. This is commonly diagramed with abbrevia-
Two necessary components in sentence genera- tions for determiner, noun, and phrase (Figure
tion and comprehension are the lexicon and the 3).
syntactic computational system. The first step in With the Merge of “the” with “ball,” we now
generating a sentence is to get the words from the have a Determiner Phrase (DP) whose head is
lexicon that will make up the sentence. Linguists “the.” The next step would be to Merge the DP
139
Figure 2. Figure 3.
“the ball” which is the complement with the verb

“hitting” to form (Figure 4). A simplified diagram of the sentence “He is
Then the subject or specifier “he” would be hitting the ball” follows (Figure 7).
Merged with “hitting the ball” to form the verb In current linguistic theory, even though there is
phrase (Figure 5). no complementizer in the sentence He is hitting the
“He” starts out in the specifier position of the ball, it has the following structure (Figure 8).
verb phrase (VP) where the verb assigns it the The syntactic structures generated by Merge
Thematic Role of Agent. Although “he” starts in and Move must be interpreted into sound and
the specifier of the verb phrase, it will later be meaning. The syntactic component interfaces
copied and moved into the specifier position of with the external sound or Articulatory-Perceptual
the tense phrase. The next step would be to Merge system via Phonetic Form (PF). It interfaces with
the VP with auxiliary “is,” the tense element in the external meaning or Conceptual-Intentional
the sentence (Figure 6). system via Logical Form (LF). An important
Now we will need to Move “he” into the tense characteristic of these syntactic structures then is
specifier position. We have to do this in order to that the Phonetic Form structure can contain only
have the Nominative Case feature valued by the the sound information necessary to decode/encode
tense element. You recall it is the tense element a sentence and the Logical Form representation
that checks for Nominative Case. Unlike many can contain only semantic information. This is
other languages, case in English is only overtly because our cognitive system can only interpret
marked on pronouns. Nouns are also marked, but meaningful information in a Logical Form. You’ll
the marking is covert in English. recall that in the Minimalist model lexical items
Figure 4. Figure 5.
140
Figure 6. Figure 7.
Figure 8.
enter the syntactic computational system with all enters the derivation carrying the valued feature
their grammatical features. Some of these features present tense and unvalued person and number
are interpretable at the Conceptual-Intentional features. Grammatical features that come into the
system interface and some are not. To provide derivation valued are viewed as interpretable to the
an example, consider the sentence…“He is big.” Conceptual-Intentional system. They have mean-
The pronoun “he” has the following features: 3rd ing. Unvalued features cannot be interpreted and
person, masculine, singular, nominative case. play no role in semantic interpretation. Agreement
The first three features are valued but the case involves having the tense element (“is”) value the
feature is unvalued. The copula “is” in contrast unvalued case on the subject so it can be spelled
141
out at the PF interface as the nominative case less of etiology. While the ultimate goal may
pronoun “he.” Similarly, the unvalued person and be to develop communicative competence, that
number features on the verb “be” will be valued goal cannot be reached without first establishing
to reflect agreement with the 3rd person singular language competence. Studies have validated
subject, “he,” which means it will be spoken as the receptive approach to developing language
“is.” The case feature on the pronoun and the competence. Research has shown that receptive
person and number features on the verb will be procedures are in fact more effective than expres-
immediately deleted after these operations mak- sive imitation procedures in language intervention
ing them “invisible” to the syntactic and semantic and can produce gains in production as well as
components (Radford, 2009). comprehension (Courtright & Courtright, 1976;
The Minimalist Program is still in its infancy 1979; Zimmerman & Pike, 1972; Zimmerman &
but the insights into language and language acqui- Rosenthal, 1974).
sition it has provided have inspired the develop- The well-established learning principles of
ment of promising new approaches to language behavioral analysis (Holland & Skinner, 1961)
intervention. In the next section we will discuss provide a foundation for instructional design in
the instructional research bases for LanguageLinks all of Laureate’s language assessment and inter-
and Prepositions! vention programs including LanguageLinks and
Prepositions!. The programs also use principles
Instructional research of explicit or discrete trial instruction which uses
carefully controlled instruction and stimulus
Linguistic theory should guide the choice of con- presentation. Over the past thirty years, research
tent in any language intervention plan, but how to has demonstrated that explicit instruction is ef-
deliver that content should be driven by what we fective in teaching a variety of language skills
have learned from research into the effectiveness (Justice, Chow, Capellini, Flanigan, & Colton,
of various instructional methods. While pragmatic 2003; Maurice, Green, & Luce, 1996; Wilson,
competence in social situations revolves around 1977). The language intervention programs also
expressive use of language, research has shown include several kinds of instructional support in
that language (vocabulary and syntax) is acquired training. When pretrial instruction is included,
through listening, not speaking. Language input the target stimulus is presented and the target
provides the data necessary for lexical learning language is spoken before the student is asked to
and to trigger parameter setting. Pinker (1994) respond. Cueing to the Correct Response (CCR)
stated this succinctly when he wrote, is also provided on lower training levels. This
consists of a variety of visual and auditory at-
“It is not surprising that grammar development tention focusing techniques such as an animated
does not depend on overt practice, because actu- character or an arrow appearing above the correct
ally saying something aloud, as opposed to listen- response target.
ing to what other people say, does not provide the In addition, two kinds of instructional feed-
child with information about the language he or back are used in the programs. Even after CCR
she is trying to learn.” (Pinker 1994, p. 280). has been faded, it is still provided following an
incorrect response or if no response is made. This
Critically then, receptive language training, always occurs in the earliest vocabulary training
whether it is in the realm of vocabulary or syntax, programs and is gradually faded as the student
should play a central role in any intervention plan advances in syntax. The student is then given a
for children with language impairments regard- second chance to respond. The second kind of
142
feedback is Knowledge of the Correct Response been documented when regular use of language
(KCR). In KCR, the learner is always told the intervention software was added to the ongoing
correct answer, either as part of the reinforce- special education curriculum in a typical classroom
ment sequence following a correct response, or setting. Moreover, using language intervention
as informational feedback following an incorrect software with non-professional adult assistance,
response. In all cases, at the end of each trial the children with special needs can make language
learner receives informational feedback indicating gains comparable to those seen during individual
the correct response. language therapy with a speech-language patholo-
In our own research, we have found that train- gist (Gale, Crofford, & Gillam, 1999; Gillam &
ing just using feedback alone for instruction was Loeb, 2005; Gillam, Loeb, Hoffman et al., 2008;
effective (Wilson & Fox, 1983). There have been Howard, 1986; Schery & O’Connor, 1995; Steiner
other demonstrations of the effectiveness of these & Larson, 1991; Wilson & Fox, 1983; 1986).
procedures as well, across a range of computer
administered instructional programs (Gilman, Applying theory and research
1969; Tait, Hartley, & Anderson, 1973; Wilson
& Fox, 1981), including Laureate’s language To acquire a language, children must be exposed
development software (e.g., Finn, Futernick, & to primary linguistic data (i.e., language input).
MacEachern, 2005; Gale, Crofford, & Gillam, Based on this input, they must learn the lexicon,
1999; Gillam, Crofford, Gale, & Hoffman, 2001; set parameters, and become competent users of
Gillam & Loeb, 2005; Gillam, Loeb, Hoffman, the computational system to generate sentences.
Bohman, Champlin, Thibodeau, Widen, Brandl, Children with language disorders can experience
& Friel-Patti, 2008; Miller, 1993). difficulties with any or all of these linguistic pro-
The use of computer-based language interven- cesses. As discussed earlier, receptive language
tion software offers many advantages to clinicians, training is best suited to developing a lexicon,
educators, parents, and administrators. Software setting parameters, and establishing syntactic com-
programs can provide the highly structured in- petence. As such, receptive language intervention
teractions needed to illustrate the formal aspects should be an essential component in all programs
of language. Additionally, computers provide a for children with language disorders until they
cost-efficient delivery system for individualized have mastered grammar. For busy clinicians and
language intervention. Children can use language educators, finding time to provide evidence-based
intervention software in classrooms and homes and receptive language intervention is difficult. That’s
thereby receive individualized services beyond where software can really help.
those delivered by a speech-language patholo- In typically developing children, determiners,
gist. Children also enjoy working with properly tense, and prepositions begin appearing in the early
designed educational software. One investigation two-word stage. Once a child with a language dis-
found that three to six year old children with Au- order has entered into the two-word stage, targeted
tism Spectrum Disorder were more attentive and training on Functional Category forms and Prepo-
motivated when using a computer, and actually sitions should be provided. Learning determiner,
learned and retained more vocabulary than they tense, and preposition forms is a critical step in
did during one-on-one instruction with a teacher the mastery of syntax. To facilitate the acquisition
(Moore & Calvert, 2000). Most importantly, of these forms, children with language disorders
research has shown that language intervention must systematically be exposed to sentences that
software works. Significantly improved language feature them in highly salient contexts. The Lan-
development and communication skills have guageLinks: Syntax Assessment & Intervention
143
and Prepositions! programs are designed to help prepositions plays an important role in ostensive
children with syntactic deficits achieve language word learning, and is critical to commenting
competence using this approach. These are the first on the position of objects in the environment.
comprehensive syntax intervention programs to Prepositions enter the lexicon early in the word
be based on current linguistic theory, instructional combination stage. The prepositions “in” and “on”
research, and have field test data to support their are typically cited as the two earliest develop-
use. Figure 9 lists the grammatical forms trained ing spatial prepositions. These were among the
in Levels 1-6 of LanguageLinks, presented as they 14 grammatical morphemes studied in Brown’s
are trained, in developmental order. Each of the classic 1973 book A First Language: The Early
Levels in LanguageLinks contains six Modules, Stages (1973).
each of which trains either two or three grammati- Many spatial prepositions consist of a single
cally contrasting determiner or tense forms. The word (in, on) and are classified as simple, while
LanguageLinks system will take children with others consist of a two- or three-word sequence
language impairments from the early two-word (next to, in front of) and are classified as complex.
development stage through the mastery of a broad The earliest prepositions to be acquired are simple
range of syntactic forms in the determiner and ones, although other simple prepositions develop
tense categories. after children have learned some complex forms.
In addition to determiners and tense forms, For example “behind” develops later than “in back
prepositions play an important role in early of” (Stemach & Williams, 1988). The six Modules
syntax development. Learning prepositions is an in Prepositions! train 10 essential prepositions in
essential step in language mastery since prepo- a variety of contexts. Like all the other Sterling
sitions often make an essential contribution to Edition language intervention programs, Lan-
sentence meaning by signifying relative temporal guageLinks and Prepositions! both use an expert
and spatial relationships of many kinds, as well Optimized Intervention® system to automatically
as relations involving cause, purpose, manner, deliver both assessment and intervention-based
means, viewpoints, and much more. Fundamen- on student responses.
tally, prepositions serve to indicate a relationship
between elements in a sentence, with one of these Optimized Intervention®
elements being the prepositional complement or
object (Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, & Svartvik, Optimized Intervention efficiently assesses stu-
1985). This being the case, it is necessary that dents then enters them into training at an appro-
prepositions have a complement. Thus, an impor- priate level. This system was originally inspired
tant step in syntax acquisition involves learning by methodology developed by the Software
prepositions and their use with complements Technology Branch of the National Aeronautics
in prepositional phrases. Prepositions! Sterling and Space Administration (NASA) at the Johnson
Edition was designed to teach ten spatial prepo- Space Center (Way, 1993). This group had devel-
sitions (in, on, under, in front of, in back of, next oped software to train space shuttle astronauts that
to, above, below, behind, and between) and their incorporated many useful features. In particular,
use in sentences, a necessary step in the mastery the software was able to codify the knowledge
of syntax and toward school success. and skills of professionals to be used to present
Spatial or locative prepositions are especially customized lesson content, evaluate progress dur-
important in early language development. Se- ing a lesson, and revise the curriculum-based on
mantically, these are used to express concepts of individual patterns of strengths and weaknesses.
location or position. As such, knowledge of spatial In the 1990’s, representatives from NASA and
144
Figure 9. LanguageLinks: syntax assessment & intervention levels and modules
a panel of special educators from the Center for The Optimized Intervention systems in Laure-
Special Education Technology and the Council ate’s Sterling Edition software are the culmination
for Exceptional Children identified the emerging of these research and development efforts. The
language problems of children with disabilities as systems use artificial intelligence methodology
a critical problem in special education that might to select appropriate training material and to
productively be addressed using NASA’s method- adjust instructional support in relation to emerg-
ology. Subsequently, Laureate Learning Systems ing skills and competencies, resulting in highly
was invited to enter into a Technology Transfer individualized and efficient language instruction.
Agreement with NASA. Since that time, Laure- The systems also feature extensive data collection
ate has developed and field-tested a long series and reporting capabilities, thereby greatly sim-
of Optimized Intervention systems for language plifying the process of tracking student progress
intervention. Critical to this extended endeavor and generating reports detailing areas of strength
was the support of the National Institutes of Health, and weakness. Each Sterling Edition language
including Small Business Innovation Research intervention program has an Optimized Interven-
(SBIR) awards from the National Institute on tion system uniquely designed to test and train
Deafness and Other Communication Disorders its curricular targets in developmental order. All
(NIDCD) and the National Institute on Child programs begin by probe testing the target words,
Health and Human Development (NICHD).2 concepts, or syntactic forms in developmental
145
order to ascertain the appropriate place to begin sionals can confidently recommend the use of
training. Once training begins, Optimized Inter- Sterling Edition programs in classrooms, thereby
vention determines what material a student needs increasing the amount of individualized language
to work on and how much instructional support intervention services provided in inclusionary
the student may require to make progress. settings. Optimized Intervention assures that the
When using the Optimized Intervention activ- program content is being delivered in a sound
ity in LanguageLinks and Prepositions!, Probe progression and manner. The extensive data col-
testing to determine where to begin training on a lection and reporting capabilities of the programs
form ends after the third error. Testing continues ensure that the recommending professional can
for all 10 stimuli for a form if the student makes review in detail a student’s performance within
two or fewer errors. Even if a student achieves a and across sessions. Increasing the amount of
score of 80% or higher on one form, it still goes individualized language services provided means
into training if the student fails to demonstrate that students will meet their goals more quickly.
knowledge of the other form(s) in the Module. While increasing services by providing one on
Since the forms in a Module present a grammatical one professional treatment on a daily basis is often
contrast, we believe it is important for students prohibitively expensive, that is not the case with
to be exposed to all the contrasting forms. Stu- computer delivered services. With LanguageLinks
dents must be able to discriminate the contrasts and Prepositions!, services can be delivered on a
in any form family. This also serves to rule out daily basis to all students who could benefit from
the possibility that a response bias, e.g., always the training the system provides. It can provide
choosing just one of the forms in a family, could the intensive receptive language intervention
be misconstrued as knowledge of the form. For needed to establish language competence while
example, in the Module which tests and trains the freeing the professional to work on additional
Me/You contrast, most children who do not know important goals.
the forms will make errors on both, but there are
some children who always choose the item in the Field testing research on
foreground (Find the hot chocolate for you) while LanguageLinks and Prepositions!
others always choose the object that the speaker
on the screen holding (Find the hot chocolate for In 2005, a field study was conducted in the Medford
me). These latter two groups of children will have Massachusetts Public Schools Early Education
a score of 100% on one of the forms, yet clearly Program using prototype Modules from what
do not understand the contrast. would later become LanguageLinks and Prepo-
Optimized Intervention training continues sitions! (Finn, Futernick, & MacEachern, 2005).
until a student has demonstrated mastery over all Current linguistic theory and research highlights
forms in a Module. If the student continues to fail the importance of syntactic competence, but mas-
to reach Criterion for a given form or forms in tery of syntax is especially problematic for children
a Module, training on that Module is postponed. with language impairments. Given the syntax
Training is resumed after the student has gone deficits students with language impairments
through the other Modules on the Level in the case have, it was hypothesized that the use of syntax
of LanguageLinks, or the remaining Modules in intervention software designed to train Functional
the program for Prepositions! Category determiner and tense forms as well as
The power of the Optimized Intervention prepositions would result in greater increases in
system combined with its ease of use means that language scores than use of software designed for
speech-language pathologists and other profes- vocabulary and concept building.
146
In the Medford study, subjects were 22 pre- gains in scores averaged 7.045 ± 1.58 points (mean
school children (5 females, 17 males) with initial ± SEM). This increase was significant (Trials,
ages of 3;0 to 4;10 (Mean=4;0). They had been F(1,20)=22.6, p<0.001). The interaction between
classified as having language impairments prior treatment group (syntax vs. control) and trials
to enrollment. Subjects were from five classes (pre- and post-testing) was not significant, but was
led by three different teachers. All classrooms in the predicted direction and closely approached
included typically developing peers in addition to conventional levels of significance (group x trials,
the children on IEPs. In one classroom, the only F(1,20)=3.73, p=0.067). The CC standard scores
special education students were those with an of children in the experimental group increased by
Autism Spectrum Disorder diagnosis. The other an average of 9.91 ± 2.2 over the 12 weeks. The
classrooms had a mixture of children with Specific scores of children in the control group increased
Language Impairments, Pervasive Developmental by an average of 4.18 ± 2.0.
Disorders, and Developmental Disorders. All were Contributing to the overall improvement in
receiving speech-language pathology services as CC standard scores were increases in standard
part of their program. scores on each of the lexical/semantic (Basic),
The language status of each subject was evalu- Syntactic, and Pragmatic core subtests. In post
ated using the Comprehensive Assessment of Spo- hoc analyses, overall increases in Syntactic and
ken Language (CASL) (Carrow-Woolfolk, 1999). Pragmatic but not Basic standard scores were
Standard scores on the core tests (Basic Concepts, found to be significant (p<.01). On each subtest,
Syntax Construction, Pragmatic Judgment) for score increases were larger among children using
subjects’ age levels were determined and Core the syntax software (Figure 10).
Composite (CC) standard scores were calculated. Considered in terms of Test-Age Equivalents,
Subjects were matched based on age, CC score, advances in the functional language of children
and classroom, and then randomly assigned to the using the control software averaged 5.3 months
experimental or control group. Classroom comput- across the three core subtests, while advances
ers were set up to run the software. Subjects in of those using the syntax software averaged 8.7
the experimental group used prototype Modules months (Figure 11).
from the LanguageLinks and Prepositions! syntax While the effectiveness of using language
intervention system. Those in the control group intervention software has been demonstrated
used other Laureate programs designed to train previously, those experiments have often involved
vocabulary and categorization. Teachers were impracticably intensive intervention schedules or
asked to use the appropriate software with each other artificial circumstances. The outcome of the
subject for approximately 15 minutes per day, Medford study using the prototype LanguageLinks
several times per week if possible. Children’s and Prepositions! software is noteworthy because
interest level and attention span were to be taken the intervention was conducted under entirely
into account, however, and no child was to be
compelled to participate. Software use continued
for 12 weeks. After this, subjects were once again Figure 10. Increases in CASL subtest standard
evaluated using the CASL. scores and CC standard scores of children in each
Children’s CC standard scores before and af- treatment group (mean ± SEM)
ter software use were analyzed using a two-way
(group x trials) mixed design analysis of variance.
All but two children had improved CC standard
scores at the end of the 12-week study. Overall
147
Figure 11. Change in test-age equivalents of subtest raw scores pre- versus post-intervention (Adapted
from Finn, Futernick, & MacEachern, 2005)
naturalistic conditions with the aim of maximiz- all of the children received training with both
ing validity. The results demonstrate that syntax the syntax and the vocabulary programs, but in
assessment and intervention software can provide a different order.
effective intensified language intervention ser- The children’s scores on the expressive
vices in the classroom. morphosyntax test (DELV) were significantly
In 2008 an additional study using Lan- improved at the completion of the study. A paired t-
guageLinks and Prepositions! was conducted test on scores at time 3 versus time 1 was significant
at Clarke School for the Deaf in Northampton (t(9)=2.61, p<.03). The more important question,
Massachusetts (Merchant, de Villiers, & Smith, however, was whether differences in children’s
2008). Ten oral deaf kindergarten and first grade pre- and post-test scores on the DELV were simply
students served as subjects (ages 5;0-7;0). The due to the passage of time, or differed depend-
children were pre-tested on vocabulary using the ing on whether they had been in LanguageLinks
Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test syntax training or vocabulary training for that
(EOWPVT(Gardner, 1990) and on expressive period. Comparisons of pre- and post-training
morphosyntax using a portion of the Diagnos- scores on the DELV revealed that improvements
tic Evaluation of Language Variation (DELV) in expressive morphosyntax were significant
(Seymour, Roeper, & de Villiers, 2003). Pre-test when children had been in LanguageLinks syntax
scores (time 1) were used to divide the students training (t(9)=2.53, p<.032) but not when they
into two groups with an attempt to balance the had been in vocabulary training (t(9)=.68, n.s.).
two groups by language ability. One group then Clearly, LanguageLinks syntax training per se
used the LanguageLinks syntax training software was associated with significant improvements in
and the second group worked with software that expressive morphosyntax.
trained vocabulary. After 10 weeks (time 2) all What about expressive vocabulary growth?
subjects were re-tested with the EOWPVT and the Since all children used both the syntax and vo-
DELV. The groups then traded software programs cabulary programs, a growth in vocabulary from
and received training for another 10 weeks, after time 1 to time 3 was predicted and this was found
which they were again tested (time 3). As such, (t(9)=6.19, p<.001). Additional comparisons to
148
Figure 12. Pre- and post-test scores on the DELV morphosyntax production task (Adapted from Mer-
chant, de Villiers, & Smith, 2008)
determine whether the two training programs had the expressive syntax abilities of pre-school and
a differential effect on post-training EOWPVT school age children.
scores revealed that improvements in expressive
vocabulary were significant when children had use in Instructional Programs
been in vocabulary training (t(9)=3.5, p< .001) and
when they had been in syntax training (t(9)=2.44, LanguageLinks and Prepositions! were designed
p<.04). Thus while differential improvements in so that they can be used by children independently
expressive morphosyntax could clearly be attrib- in their classrooms. Most professionals will use
uted to LanguageLinks training, the analogous Optimized Intervention to provide intensive
pattern was not seen with vocabulary training; individualized intervention with appropriate
vocabulary growth during the study was not lesson content and instructional support. Speech-
dependent upon which program was being used. language pathologists can also recommend class-
(see Figures 12 and 13) room use of the programs knowing it will be easy
To summarize, this study found that the expres- to show teachers and teaching assistants how to
sive morphosyntax scores of oral deaf children use the software. Once the identifying information
increased significantly after using LanguageLinks on a student has been entered and the appropri-
for 10 weeks, but not after using vocabulary soft- ate settings chosen (e.g., response time, standard
ware for a similar period of time. It is also notable session length, interface), anyone can start the
and encouraging that, while the LanguageLinks student on the program. No training is needed, as
software provides receptive syntax training, the the person only has to choose the student’s name
measured gains were in expressive syntax. and program then click “GO.”
These two well-controlled field studies dem- A wide range of children can benefit from us-
onstrate the effectiveness of classroom use of ing these new syntax assessment and intervention
LanguageLinks and Prepositions! in improving programs designed to improve communication
abilities. LanguageLinks and Prepositions! train
149
Figure 13. Pre- and post-test scores on the EOWPVT vocabulary test (Adapted from Merchant, de Vil-
liers, & Smith, 2008)
determiner, tense, and preposition forms that start syntax mastery provides a foundation for improved
to emerge when typically developing children communication as well as reading.
enter the two-word stage. Thus the programs are
appropriate for use with children as soon as they
begin combining words. Children can use the AcknoWLedgment
programs until they have mastered all the forms
covered. In typically developing children this Throughout the development of LanguageLinks
would be around four years of age. In the case and Prepositions! we worked closely with our
of children with language impairments, mastery consultants Jill de Villiers, Ph.D. of Smith College
might not emerge until well into the elementary and Tom Roeper, Ph.D. of The University of Mas-
school years. Regardless of etiology, children with sachusetts. The research, development and field
language impairments have problems mastering testing of the LanguageLinks and Prepositions!
grammatical forms. Therefore, LanguageLinks curriculum, Optimized Intervention, and the Ster-
and Prepositions! are appropriate for children ling Administration System was supported in part
with Autism Spectrum disorders, developmental by Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR)
awards 1R43 DC02601-01A1, 2R44 DC02601-02,
disabilities, specific language impairment, and
1 R43 DC04487-01, and 2 R44 DC04487-02 from
hearing impairments among others. They are also
the National Institutes of Health.
appropriate for use with pre-school and elemen-
tary age English language learners. Additionally,
syntax intervention is a missing component in
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155
Lexical Categories: This part of the lexicon the forms of that human language, and a set of
includes words that serve as Nouns, Verbs, and parameters that vary across languages in binary
Adjectives. fashion. All human languages have these principles
Optimized Intervention: This is a methodol- and parameters in common.
ogy developed to present language intervention
curricula in a highly individualized and optimally
efficient manner by automatically selecting ap- endnotes
propriate training material and adjusting instruc-
tional support in relation to emerging skills and
1
The diagram of this sentence has been simpli-
competencies. fied through the omission of the vP shell.
Tense: This syntactic category is associated
2
Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR)
with Verbs and refers to elements that inflect grants 2R43 DC2709-01, 1R43 DC02601-
Verbs for tense and agreement. Tense includes, 01A1, 2R44 DC02601-02, 1R43 DC04487-
for example, the regular past tense -ed, auxiliary 01, 2R44 DC04487-02 from NIDCD, and
be, and third person singular -s. 2R44 HD35255-02 and1R43 HD33333-
Universal Grammar: Contemporary lin- 01A1 from NICHD.
guistic theory describes Universal Grammar as
consisting of a series of principles that govern
156
157
Chapter 10
Switch Technologies
Cindy Nankee
UTLL (Universal Technology for Learning & Living), USA
AbstrAct
The purpose of this chapter is to provide information about the use of switches in the field of assistive
technology. Information included in this chapter will benefit assistive technology professionals, case
managers, educators, physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech and language pathologists,
rehabilitation counselors as well as students of these professions and consumers. The information will
apply to all age groups including birth to six, all levels of primary and secondary education, adulthood
and senior services. This chapter will go from assessment to implementation. First this chapter will look
at the background information including the what, why, when, and where of switches. Next, this chapter
will provide instruction on a variety of assessments available to aid in matching an appropriate switch to
a client’s skill set and task requirement. The chapter also discusses types of switches that can access toys,
computers, communication devices, environmental controls, recreation, and mobility options. Finally,
the chapter presents strategies for successful implementation including the prompt hierarchy, an action
plan, data collection, and writing assistive technology into the Individualized Education Program.
IntroductIon not the light fixture; the switch simply turns it on

and off. A switch used as an assistive technology
A switch is a device or piece of equipment com- (AT) device turns things on and off as does a light
monly used to turn things on and off as in a light switch. It is important to point this out when talking
switch. The light itself is a separate fixture with about switches and AT because using a switch with
light bulbs and wiring and a plate for securing it to a student or client is not an activity, it is simply the
the ceiling with nuts and bolts. The light switch is access to the activity, turning it on and off, making the
connection. A switch provides access to an activity
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch010 for the physically and cognitively challenged.
Switch Technologies
A switch may be a simple on and off connec- AT for access to communication, education, em-
tion or a complex electronic switch programmed ployment, and independent living for individuals
to perform a multitude of functions. A switch is the focus of this chapter. The many applications
is used in conjunction with other technologies, of IT and ET available once access is achieved
allowing access to a communication device or through switch technologies are extensive and
computer, making it possible for someone who will not be covered in this chapter.
is physically or cognitively challenged to interact The objectives of this chapter are to:
with the same instructional technology the rest of
their classmates have access to. • Provide information of best practices in the
Technology is so vast with definitions for an area of switch technologies.
expansive list of technologies. The differentiat- • Provide information of various switch
ing phrase for AT is in the IDEA (Individual with technologies in order to assess clients and
Disabilities Education Act) definition describ- make appropriate recommendations.
ing the user as “a person with a disability.” The • Provide information of appropriate assess-
identification of “a person with a disability” may ments to be used in selecting and locat-
range from mild to severe and may involve cogni- ing switches for maximum benefit to the
tive impairment or physical impairment or both. client.
Individuals with disabilities have the potential to • Provide information in teaching strategies
benefit from technology in many areas including for successful switch use.
communication, education, employment, and
independent living.
The intent of this chapter is not to delve into the sWItcH bAsIcs
definitions and historical background of AT, but to
focus on the specifics of switch technologies. For What
an in-depth study of the historical background of
AT and the historical legal mandates, Blackhurst A switch is a device used to connect and disconnect
(2004) writes a chapter on Historical Perspectives an electrical circuit, for example a light switch.
in the Handbook of Special Education Technology To further explain a switch as it is used as an AT
Research and Practice. device, the Merium-Webster dictionary defines
The implementation path for information/ assistive as designed or intended to assist disabled
educational technology (IT/ET) may require persons and defines technology as a manner of
acquisition of the technology, it may require accomplishing a task especially using technical
instruction, a trial period with follow-up support processes, methods, or knowledge.
and this is enough for the individual to benefit Havng said this, a switch used as an AT device
from the technologies available to help them be- would be a device used to connect and disconnect an
come more informed, efficient and independent electrical circuit, intended to assist disabled persons
at school and in the work place. Individual’s with to accomplish a task especially using technical pro-
significant physical impairment may also benefit cesses, methods, and knowledge. The key word and
from the same technologies and implementation important point to understand in defining a switch
path including acquisition, instruction, trial and as an AT device is that a switch is a “device”, not an
follow-up support, though may have the inability to activity. The device assists a person to accomplish
access the technology due to physical or cognitive something; it is the access to an activity. Access is
limitations. This is when switch technologies or the means by which a person controls an AT device.
access must be considered. The implementation of Computers, toys, EADL’s may all be accessed by
158
Switch Technologies
a switch. A power wheelchair may be accessed Assessment

by a joystick, proximity or electronic switches. A
communication device may be accessed by switch An assessment is necessary in order to select an
scanning with one or more switches. appropriate switch and match it to the task and
the person’s skill level. Assessment may be per-
Why formed using a specifically designed assessment or
through trial and observation. Through assessment
The easiest and most efficient method to access we want to find the most efficient and fastest ac-
a device or activity would be direct selection, or cessibility that requires the least amount of effort.
reaching out and directly touching the device. As- We need to determine the task requirement of the
sisted direct selection would be reaching out and switch; what the switch will be activating—a
touching the device with using a head pointer or communication device, a computer, a toy, or a
other adapted pointing tool. A switch may be used wheelchair, to name only a few activities. We
because direct selection or assisted direct selection need to assess the person’s skill level for activat-
of a device or activity is not possible or not the ing the switch. Will the person be able to locate
best or most efficient access to a device. the switch; are they capable of a momentary hit, a
sustained hold as needed to drive a wheelchair or
When a quick release as in stopping a wheelchair? Are
they able to visually, cognitively and motorically
A switch may be used for play to activate toys, time a switch hit as needed for a scanning computer
computer games or communication devices for program or communication device?
social interaction. A switch may be used in educa- Occupational Therapists, Physical Therapists,
tion to access a computer to complete assignments Speech and Language Pathologist, and Assistive
in reading, writing, math, social studies, history, Technology Professionals of various backgrounds
and to research the World Wide Web. A switch are all skilled in making objective observations
may be used to access a communication device in order to determine the most appropriate tool to
for school, work, and home communications. A complete the task. In order to perform an obser-
switch may be used to access recreation and the vation one must have access to various switches,
arts including musical devices and instruments. A equipment, devices, and software that will be
switch may be used with environmental controls activated by a switch. Professionals working in
to access door openers, lights, safety devices, and this field often collect various switches and items
home electronics. A switch is used to activate creating their own “assessment toolkit.” Another
powered wheelchairs. source to be explored is an equipment lending
library developed in some states under grant
Where to start funding. Also some vendors offer a trial period
with their products. With appropriate switches
• Obtain knowledge: attend a training, read, and equipment on hand, the key to a productive
check out switches from a Loan Library. observation is documentation. A one time obser-
• Consult with the team: OT, PT, SLP, vation may obtain important information but an
Teachers, AT. extended trial period with documentation will
• Rule out direct accessibility. more accurately determine the tools success in
• Assessments various environments and situations. An obser-
• Trial Use vation should be conducted in the environment
• Access and mounting that the equipment will be used in when possible.
159
Switch Technologies
An example of a trial use guide is available as a matching interests and abilities to AT from begin-
free download through the Wisconsin Assistive ning switch use to augmentative and alternative
Technology Initiative. communication. The manual includes assessment
There are assessments available on the market strategies that are directly tied to intervention
that are specifically designed to help determine ap- strategies, goals and corresponding implementa-
propriate equipment selection, gather data, create tion guidelines, data collection formats, sensory
a report, and many also provide implementation information, and a resource list. The strategies
strategies. The following assessments discussed in this manual are appropriate for assessment,
here are just a few which may be beneficial in implementation and evaluation of effectiveness
determining appropriate switch selection. in the areas of low-tech/no-tech communication
Assessing Students’ Needs for Assistive Tech- systems, environmental control via switch use,
nology (ASNAT) 5th Edition (Reed; Wisconsin and voice output communication systems.
Assistive Technology Initiative, 2009). The AS- Stages (Pugliese, 2008). Stages is a computer-
NAT is a resource guide developed by Wisconsin based alternate assessment framework to help
Assistive Technology Initiative (WATI) to guide identify learning needs, assess skills, report prog-
school district Assistive Technology Teams in ress over time, and select appropriate curriculum
assessing students’ needs for AT. The process activities for learners with special needs. There are
focuses on team decision-making and follows 7 stages that are developmental in nature includ-
the SETT (Student, Environment, Task, Tool) ing: cause/effect, language readiness, emerging
framework (Zabala, 1995). The SETT framework language, early concepts, advanced concepts and
looks at the student, the environment, the task and communication, functional learning, and written
tools. The manual includes chapters specific to expression. This assessment software generates
the assessment process, background on the laws a printable report including information on type
related to AT, overviews of AT for computer ac- of prompt, number of trials, correct responses,
cess, communication, reading, studying, math, time on activity, and task completion. Stages is
recreation, leisure, ADL’s, positioning, seating and a beneficial alternate assessment which may be
mobility, vision and hearing, documenting AT into used to assess progress over time. Each Stage kit
the IEP (the Individualized Education Program) includes a CD and manual with directions, a script
and funding. The appendix includes AT forms for that guides implementation, and recommendations
gathering information, a decision-making guide, including a list of appropriate education software
a trial use guide and an AT continuum. This as- for each particular Stage. A current online list
sessment manual is available as a free download of accessible third-party educational software
and also for purchase through the product sales recommendations for each Stage is maintained
link at www.wati.org. online. A link to the software recommendations
Every Move Counts, Clicks and Chats (EMC3) search tool may be found on the Stages website.
(Korsten, Foss, & Berry, 2008). EMC3 is an The site contains other helpful resources such as
update and expansion of Every Move Counts, a a Stages skills checklist, an overview video and a
non-traditional, sensory-based communication handout that aligns Stages with curriculum activity
assessment and evidence-based intervention templates found in Classroom Suite 4.
strategies for individuals with severe and profound Compass Access Assessment Software (Koester
sensory motor differences. The new manual has Performance Research, 2007). Compass Assess-
expanded beyond the communication assessment ment Software provides a computerized assess-
and strategies with Clicks addressing integration ment intended to evaluate a clients’ ability to use a
of purposeful switch use strategies and Chats computer. There are 8 skill sets in the categories of:
160
Switch Technologies
pointing, text entry, and switch use. Each set may • Fiber Optic switch is a light beam and
be individually configured for font size, number of requires very minimal, but specific
trials and type of feedback. Various input devices movement.
may be used including alternate keyboards, touch • Infra-red beam switch is a light beam.
windows, trackballs, and switches. Compass re- • Sound activated switch such as the
cords and creates a report on speed and accuracy clapper.
performance and configuration specifics. Tests • Wireless switches require as transmitter
may be repeated over time to compare and track and receiver eliminating the cables.
changes. Compass is a beneficial assessment tool
in determining computer access, planning treat-
ment strategies, and tracking effectiveness of an ImPLementAtIon strAtegIes
intervention strategy. For success
SENSwitcher (Northern Grid for Learning,
2001). SENSwitcher is a suite of programs Implementation is an often overlooked detail, a
designed as a teaching and assessment tool for detail that often is not appropriated time. All the
people with profound and multiple learning dif- right steps have been taken to assess a client, the
ficulties and those who need to develop skills correct tools have been purchased and delivered
with assistive input devices (switches) and very but without an implementation plan the rate of
young children new to computers. SENSwitcher success is minimal and the rate of abandonment
may be operated by a wide range of input devices for AT is extremely high. The acquired tools need
and targets skills including purely experiential to be set up and staff, family, and the consumer
through cause-and-effect, switch building, timed need training. The IDEA definition of AT defines
activation, targeting, and row scanning. This pro- AT as a device and a service. The definition of
gram may be used directly online or downloaded AT service is far more lengthy and detailed than
to either a PC or Mac operating systems. This the definition of an AT device. The service of AT
assessment tool is accompanied by an 18-page includes implementation, training and ongoing
set of teacher’s notes together with assessment support. The first two categories of this section
records, developmental skills progression models, include basic set up information for mounting
and small step checklists. and connecting switches. The remainder of this
section covers strategies for successful training
types of switches and support.
• Mechanical switches have movable parts mounting switches

requiring pressure to connect the circuit.
• Mercury or tilt switch is activated by the A switch may be mounted to a wheelchair, head-
movement of mercury within a switch. rest, armrest, footrest, or on a lap tray. Switches
• Pneumatic switch is a sip and puff often may be mounted or positioned using dycem or
used for W/C mobility. shelf liner, velcro, and mounting brackets. There
• Electronic switches require power and are are various brackets on the market for mounting
“capacitive” or activated by skin touch. switches. One example is the Slim Armstrong; it
• Proximity switches have an adjustable range is beneficial to be prepared with a small toolbox
that may activated by a body part near, but including allen wrenches, screw drivers, velcro,
not necessarily touching the switch. dycem, a few nuts, bolts, screws, and batteries.
161
Switch Technologies
The ideal location for mounting or position- team Approach/communication

ing a switch for physical access would require a
small, voluntary, controlled movement that does Meet frequently with team members, share the
not illicit reflexes. In order to assess for the opti- knowledge, use the same language, keep a journal,
mum location for a switch, the client positioning and involve the family.
must first be considered. Be sure to consult with
Occupational Therapy and Physical Therapy for engaging Activity
positioning considerations. According to Kangas
(2008), the hierarchy of switch location would start Remember the switch is not the activity, make it
with the head, including jaw, cheek, eyebrow, eye interesting, know your students interests. There are
blink, and mouth, then the hand, then feet, and various methods of switch use including: cause-
other upper or lower extremity locations such as and-effect, choice making with a single switch, two
the knee. Kangas’ rational for head before hand switch or multiple switch use, and scanning with
is that a switch access site at the head allow the one or two switches. There are several variations
hands freedom to perform other activity. Refer to to scanning including: automatic, step, inverse,
additional readings for the article on Seating for linear, row-column, block, and frequency.
Task Performance (see Kangas, 2002).
environment
connecting switches
The AT tool being implemented is best done in
Switches and devices are manufactured with a 1/8 the environment it will most frequently be used.
or 1/4 inch jack or port. Adapters are available If the computer is going to be used in a classroom,
to go from 1/8” to 1/4” or the other way around. make the arrangements necessary for success.
Mechanical switches will connect directly to a Instruct staff or peers in the tools your client is
switch ready device. Battery operated devices may using. Make sure the physical layout is accessible
be adapted with a battery interrupter, a cable with for any equipment or wheelchair. Will the person
a jack on one end and a small copper plate on the be able to see and hear required instruction?
other end, which may be inserted at the site of the
battery connection. In order to use a switch with trial and error
the computer, a switch interface box is required.
Most switch interface boxes use a USB connection Try various switches from a loan library before
and have several programmable ports for keyboard purchasing. Try positioning the student/client
and mouse functions such as single-click, double- in various ways for optimum motor control and
click, etc. Communication devices will accept a try various positioning of the switches. Use the
direct switch except in cases of the programmable WATI Trial Use Guide (Reed; Wisconsin As-
electronic switches may need to go through a sistive Technology Initiative, ASNAT, 2009) to
switch interface box. A switch may be connected gather data.
to the wheelchair and programmed for multiple
uses including driving the chair, controlling the Practice and repetition
computer, and communication devices, again in
this case of multiple programming you may need Learning to use a switch may take time or it could
a switch interface or a mouse emulator. have immediate success. The saying “If at first
you don’t succeed, try, try again” applies to this
implementation strategy. We must consider our
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Switch Technologies
clients have good days and bad, and within that go forward.” “You hit that switch which made
they have good times of the day and bad times. the music play.” For training purposes the use
Trying an AT tool once is not a good indicator of of descriptive feedback rather than praise helps
its success. Select activities that provide ample clarify their actions when learning to activate a
opportunities to use throughout the day. switch.
resources • Step one: Environmental Cue. Arrange or

create opportunities in the environment to
Use the people around you, your team, seek out encourage and motivate switch use. Our
loan libraries, company trainings/representatives, environment drives our activity. We come
and webinars. to a door and we open it, a child sees an
interesting toy and they pick it up, our job
Prompt Hierarchy requires us to answer the phone, type on
the computer, etc., we meet people and
The Prompt Hierarchy is a strategy taught in the converse with them. The first step in the
WATI CCE Creating Communication Environ- prompt hierarchy is setting up the environ-
ments course. The prompt hierarchy is a strategy ment to encourage, motivate and provide a
that has been used to teach communication tech- purposeful reason for a person to activate
niques and it works equally well for teaching the switch. Always pause after present-
switch use. The prompt hierarchy for switch use ing the environmental cue to allow for re-
teaches the educator how to appropriately train sponse time and follow a response with de-
switch use and how to respond to the switch scriptive feedback. If the person does not
user, increasing the success and sustained use respond to the pause by making a response,
of a switch over time. There are four steps to move onto the next step.
the prompt hierarchy starting with encouraging • Step two: Open Question. If the person
switch use with an environmental cue, then an does not respond to the environmental
open question, a direct prompt and a full model cue, ask a what, why, who, when, where,
prompt. Following is a more in-depth description or how question to prompt an interaction
of each of the four steps. to the environmental cue using the switch.
Each level of the prompt hierarchy requires a Always pause after presenting the open
pause following the prompt to allow for reaction question to allow for response time and
time. The importance of pausing and remaining follow a response with descriptive feed-
quiet, allowing the person to respond in the amount back. If the person does not respond to the
of time it takes them is a key factor to success. pause by making a response, move onto
Each individual’s response time varies depending the next step.
on physical abilities and cognitive processing. An • Step three: Request Prompt. Provide choic-
assessment tool like Compass that gathers data on es, a carrier phrase, initial sound, or visual
response time will be beneficial in determining an cue. Always pause after presenting the re-
individual’s time requirements to respond. quest to allow for response time and fol-
Another key to success in using the prompt low a response with descriptive feedback.
hierarchy is the incorporation of descriptive feed- If the person does not respond to the pause
back at each step. Descriptive feedback is a factual by making a response, move onto the next
observation, clarifying the person’s actions. “You step.
pressed that switch and it made the wheelchair
163
Switch Technologies
Figure 1.
• Step four: Full Model. This full model is beneficial for purposes of programming, but
would be a demonstration of the desired more importantly, required for funding of some AT
activity using descriptive feedback as you devices and services. Following is a more detailed
demonstrate. The full model is also hand description of written documentation including an
over hand assisting them in activating the informal action plan, writing AT into the IEP and
switch while providing descriptive feed- the WATI Trial Use Guide.
back. Always pause after presenting the
full model to allow for response time and Action Plan
follow a response with descriptive feed-
back. If the person does not respond to the An action plan is an informal planning guide
pause by making a response, repeat sev- used to generate ideas and help focus and specify
eral times, relocate the positioning of the a task, the outcome, the tool, who will carry it
switch, select a different switch, and or try through, and where and when the activity will
the training at another time and day. be implemented.
documentation AT in the IEP
An important part of implementation includes The fact that AT under state and federal law, can
documenting the planned activity. Success in be special education, a related service, a supple-
carry through is greatly increased when the best mental aid, or a supplemental service, has led to
discussed plans are put in writing. Documentation many questions as to how and where to include AT
may range from an informal work plan to a legal in the IEP. Please remember that there are many
document required to meet federally mandated ways to correctly address AT in the IEP. The goal
requirements. should be to make it as clear and understandable
The Individual with Disabilities Education as possible for the parents and for future readers
Act requires educational institutions to write of the document. Sample forms of IEP in the
an IEP, and for birth to three programs an IFSP state of Wisconsin may be located at Wisconsin
(Individualized Family Service Plan), the depart- Department of Instruction website http://dpi.
ment of Vocational Rehabilitation requires a IPE wi.gov/index.html.
(Individual Plan for Employment). Data collection
164
Switch Technologies
One of the places AT needs to be addressed is It makes most sense to list it here when the
on the Special Factors worksheet. Although this AT tools and services enhance the placement of
comes before other IEP pages in the packet, many a student in the LRE (Least Restrictive Environ-
IEP teams find it more logical to complete it after ment). It helps to remember that it should be
the goals and objectives are established. It is fine listed here when it requires little instruction for
to set it aside and complete it at that time. This the child to use and/or allows the student to be
is a place where any AT (that the IEP team has more independent, such as talking spell checker,
decided is needed) should be listed. However, it portable word processor for a student who already
is not necessary to repeat what is listed elsewhere, knows how to use it.
rather you could simply note: “See I-4” or “Refer
to I-9”, wherever AT is already described. If AT is Data Collection
described only on I-4 and not on I-9, make sure
that frequency, location, duration, and beginning A step-by-step resource manual on effective data
date of services is included there. collection for AT is How Do You Know It? How Do
Assistive technology may be mentioned in You Show It? (see Reed, Bowser, & Korsten, 2002).
the Present Level of Educational Performance if This manual includes information on gathering
the student is currently utilizing it as a significant data using interview, product review, and video.
aspect of his or her performance. It includes identification of variables, what data
Assistive technology may appear as part of an is needed, reviewing of data, and using graphs.
Annual Goal or in one or more short-term objec- The manual also includes case studies and sample
tives. This is appropriate when AT is an integral forms to illustrate data collection concepts.
part of the child’s special education and related The WATI Trial Use Guide (Reed; Wisconsin
services, necessary to achieve one or more goals Assistive Technology Initiative, ASNAT, 2009) is
or objectives, and/or there are specific goals and one format that may be used as a data collection
objectives related to functional use of the AT. tool. This form is found in the ASNAT manual
If AT is part of the transition planning, it from WATI and is also available as a free down-
may appear on the Transition Worksheet. Or load at www.wati.org under supports, Assessing
be reflected under special education or related Students Needs for Assistive Technology. The trial
services. However, if it is already included else- Use Guide is a two part form, one that guides the
where, in the student’s IEP, you may provide a team through a sequence of important questions
cross reference. that must be addressed prior to implementing trial
If the IEP team feels that AT is best included use and the second part of the form is to summarize
for this child under Related Services, it will be after the trial and formulate a recommendation to
written here. Assistive technology is best listed the IEP team. Much like an action plan, the ques-
here when it is not a primary part of the student’s tions that the Trial Use Guide poses include how
educational program, but is necessary in order to the item will be acquired, will training be required,
access or benefit from the educational program, what support or management will be required for
such as a walker or wheelchair. Frequency and the item, who will be responsible, and start and
amount of AT services must be identified when ending dates. Data collected on the student use
listed as a related service. of the AT includes date and time used, location,
If the AT is more appropriately viewed as tasks, and outcomes.
a Supplementary Aid or Service, it will appear
here.
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Switch Technologies
Future reseArcH dIrectIons sustained use of switches. As in all areas of tech-

nology the information on switch technologies is
The historical progression of switch technologies constantly progressing and changing with many
in approximately a thirty-year period is significant; sources for information. The goal of this chapter
going from a simple mechanical switch to the elec- was to compile information in a concise step-by-
tronic programmable switches running everything step fashion with additional resources, readings,
from communication devices to computers, to and references for further study.
musical instruments and more. The sophistication The background information in this chapter
of smart technologies will continue to advance has provided the reader the information necessary
switches and benefit the population of the physi- in understanding what a switch is as applicable
cally and cognitively involved persons who could to AT, who it would benefit, and where to start
benefit from switch access to an insurmountable in the process of applying this knowledge to the
number of applications. field of AT.
The future trends for AT will be focused on The section on assessment has provided
data collection and research. The field of AT is information on a variety of very different as-
young and in the early years placed minimal sessments to help match a consumer to the most
importance on research and data collection. The appropriate device. A trained professional may
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 has assess a consumer through observation or using
placed an emphasis on educational research and a marketed assessment tool. The correct matching
in some cases requires instruction be based on of consumers skills to the required task and then to
scientific research. The article Assistive Technol- an appropriate tool begins with the assessment or
ogy and Evidenced-based Practice, (see Edyburn, evaluation and determines the successful sustained
2003) states that while group design studies are use of that tool.
common in general education, in special educa- The information on types of switches in this
tion, differences in disabilities have made this chapter appears minimal in comparison to the
measurement technique of limited use. As a result, number of switches available on the market. The
few group studies have been conducted in AT due information is focused on type with the understand-
to fundamental challenges involved in identifying that within each type of switch there are many
ing appropriate samples. Many companies of AT sizes, shapes, colors, and brand names.
products do product specific research which is This chapter has given a great deal of attention
frequently posted on their websites or available to implementation strategies. Without successful
upon request. I believe the importance of research implementation strategies, the success of the AT
and evidence-based strategies will be a driving tool is minimal and the rate of abandonment is
factor in the future developments of AT. high. Staff, family, and consumers need training
and continued follow-up support. When appropri-
ating funds to purchase AT tools it is important
concLusIon to request the time and funds to fulfill the imple-
mentation phase. Assessment, acquisition, and
This chapter has provided information on best implementation must all be given equal attention
practices in the area of switch technologies includ- when striving for successful AT use.
ing a background of the what, why, when, and The developmental years of AT have focused
where of switch accessibility, a summary of five on the tools, getting people trained on the tools,
popular assessment tools, an overview of types of and passing legislation to further the acceptance
switches, and training strategies for the successful for the need of AT. The development of technol-
166
Switch Technologies
ogy continues to become more sophisticated, Northern Grid for Learning. (2001). SENSwitcher.
and in many cases, easier to use. It is difficult to Gateshead, UK: Northern Grid for Learning.
speculate how advanced these technologies will Retrieved January 21, 2009, from http://www.
become and how far they will go in improving northerngrid.org/ngflwebsite/sen/intro.htm
the quality of life for people with physical and
Pugliese, M. (2000). Stages. Bedford, MA: Cam-
cognitive disabilities. What is going to be vital
bium Learning Technologies.
in the future is that we justify these tools with
research in order for their acceptance and sustained Reed, P. (2009). Wisconsin Assistive Technology.
use in the world of education, employment, and Initiative Created through WI DPI IDEA. Grant
independent living. number 9906-23, Assessing Students’ Needs for
The use of switches in the field of AT provides Assistive Technology (ASNAT) (5th ed.). Milton,
access to activity, information, education, envi- WI: WATI.
ronmental controls, communication, mobility,
Reed, P., Bowser, G., & Korsten, J. (2002). How
recreation, play and enjoyment. A child’s response
do you know it? How do you show it? Wisconsin
to finally obtaining access to an activity like music,
Assistive Technology Initiative. Created through
a story, a video game, educational opportunities on
WI DPI IDEA. Grant number 9906-23. Milton,
the computer, or mobility is to smile, laugh, even
WI: WATI.
squeal, to learn and to become independent.
Zabala, J. S. (1995). The SETT framework: Critical
areas to consider when making informed assistive
reFerences technology decisions. Houston, TX: Region IV
Education Service Center. ERIC Document Repro-
Blackhurst, A. (2004). Handbook of special educa- duction Service No. ED381962. Retrieved January
tion technology research and practice. Whitefish 15, 2009, from http://www.joyzabala.com
Bay, WI: Knowledge by Design, Inc.
Edyburn, D. (2003). Assistive technology and
evidenced-based practice. ConnSENCE Bulletin. AddItIonAL reAdIng
Retrieved January 20, 2009, from http://www.
connsensebulletin.com/edyatevidence.html Burkhart, L. (2006). Two switches to success!
Increasing participation and cognitive engage-
Kangas, K. (2002). Seating for task performance.
ment with two switch activities and two switch
Rehab Management Journal. Retrieved January
step scanning. Eldersburg, MD: Author.
14, 2009, from http://www.rehabpub.com/fea-
tures/672002/8.asp Canfield, H., & Locke, P. (1998). Book of pos-
sibilities. Minneapolis, MN: Ablenet, Inc.
Koester Performance Research. (2007). Compass
assessment software: Spectronics. Ventura, CA: Edyburn, D., Higgins, K., & Boone, R. (2005).
Inclusive Learning Technologies. Handbook of special education technology
research and practice. Whitefish Bay, WI: A
Korsten, J., Foss, T., & Berry, T. L. (1993). Every
Knowledge by Design, Inc. Publication.
move counts, clicks & chat. Overland Park, KS:
CDS Printing. George, C., & Lacefield, W. (2001). Handbook
of adaptive switches and augmentative com-
munication Device. Lexington, KY: Academic
Software, Inc.
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Herlihy, D. (2003). IntelliTools extreme! For Assessment: A method of acquiring informa-

classroom suite 3. Hoosick, NY: Connective tion about the consumer, the environment and the
Technology Solutions, Inc. required task in order to recommend an appropri-
ate AT tool. Assessment differs from evaluation
Lange, M. (n.d.). Access to independence. Ad-
in that it is not standardized and it is ongoing
vance for Occupational therapy Practitioners.
over time.
Retrieved January 14, 2009, from http://www.
Assistive Technology (AT): Any item, piece
atilange.com
of equipment, or product system whether acquired
Levin, J., & Enselein, K. (1990). Fun for every- commercially off the shelf, modified, or custom-
one – A guide to adapted leisure activities for ized that is used to increase or improve functional
children with disabilities. Minneapolis, MN: capabilities of individuals with disabilities.
Ablenet, Inc. Disability: The inability to perform a physical
or mental activity in what is considered a normal
Purcel, S., & Grant, D. (2007). Using assistive
level of performance.
technology to meet literacy standards (Grades
Environmental Controls: This may be a re-
K-3, 4-6, 7-12). Verona, WI: Attainment Com-
mote control system or computerized software that
pany, Inc.
controls electronically operated devices including
Reed, P. (2007). A resource guide for teachers but not limited to: lights, doors, television, radio,
and administrators about assistive technology. and answering the phone.
Wisconsin Assistive Technology Initiative. Created Implementation: Refers to putting into prac-
through WI DPI IDEA. Grant number 9906-23. tice or carrying out a plan to effectively use, in
Milton, WI: WATI. this case, a switch as an AT device.
Switch: In relation to AT, a switch is a device
that provides access to an activity by connecting
and disconnecting an electrical circuit.
Access: The method a person uses to control

an activity.
168
169
Chapter 11
Point-and-Chat®:
Instant Messaging for AAC Users
Benjamin Slotznick
Point-and-Read, Inc., USA
AbstrAct
Point-and-Chat®, most simply, is the first software for Instant Messaging with a built-in screen reader,
designed to be used in conjunction with Augmentative/Alternative Communication (AAC) devices. For
many AAC users, especially those who have difficulty reading and writing, an AAC device is the primary
or only way they can communicate with other people. This communication is primarily one-on-one and
face-to-face. The goal of Point-and-Chat® is to take the skills that an AAC user has in producing the
spoken word and provide scaffolding that will enable the AAC user to use those skills to communicate
with the written word. The primary impediment to effective use of Point-and-Chat® by AAC users appears
to be a lack of appropriate text-chat vocabularies for poor readers, including vocabulary strategies to
re-establish conversations when the conversational thread has been lost.
IntroductIon synthesized computer voice. The built-in screen

reader includes patented Point-and-Chat® features
Point-and-Chat®, most broadly, is software for and other design choices that support people with
communicating via electronic text (e.g., IM, Short cognitive limitations and multiple disabilities. For
Message Service (SMS) text messaging, and e-mail). non-writers, Point-and-Chat® uses text messages
It is specifically designed for people who can see created from already-familiar picture-based AAC
and hear, but cannot read or who are having dif- software such as DesktopChat® from Saltillo Cor-
ficulty reading. For non-readers and poor readers, poration (2008-2009).
Point-and-Chat® includes a built-in screen reader This chapter details the design choices and
so that received messages can be read aloud by a user interfaces used to reduce cognitive load and
addresses the growing importance of instant mes-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch011 saging (IM)—including both the challenges and
Point-and-Chat®
opportunities that IM presents to AAC users, and 88% of Americans aged 12-29 use it. Most
especially those with multiple disabilities, reading Americans use e-mail (90% of all Internet users).
difficulties, or cognitive limitations. It will become Most young adults use IM (62% of online young
evident why it is important for AAC users (and adults, aged 18-27). Half of online young adults use
even non-readers) to learn how to use IM and IM as much as or more than e-mail (Pew Internet
other electronic messaging, and how the interface & American Life project, 2009). For a student or
design choices make Point-and-Chat® IM easy to young person who wants to communicate with
learn. This chapter presents the results of a pilot peers, it is becoming increasingly important to
study with Point-and-Chat®—funded in part by be able to communicate via electronic text—and
the National Center for Technology Innovation IM is just as important, or even more important,
(NCTI)—and describes the avenue for further than e-mail.
research that the study suggests. The explosion in communication technologies
has certainly helped AAC users conduct face-to-
face communications, but otherwise they have
tHe ImPortAnce oF remained at a communications disadvantage.
communIcAtIng vIA Certainly, the development of electronic AAC
InstAnt messAgIng And devices has provided a voice for many individuals
eLectronIc text who had none. The introduction and improvement
of their control interface using dynamic displays
The use of electronic text is increasingly and of their vocalization via computer synthesized
ubiquitous—and not just among contemporary text-to-speech have exponentially increased the
high-school students. It is becoming essential for things they can say (manufacturers include but
many people across all walks of life, even if these are not limited to Saltillo Corporation, Prentke-
people don’t write for a living. People who cannot Romich, and Dynavox). Improved and more
use e-mail (and increasingly texting and IM) are natural sounding voices have made participation
becoming progressively more isolated. E-mail, in face-to-face conversations more natural as well.
IM, and texting are even replacing telephone and However, the synthesized voices, especially when
face-to-face communications for many, even to played through the small speakers usually found
the point of texting each other when in the same on these devices, do not always transmit clearly
room, such as during committee meetings. over a telephone. Although some of the devices
It is not just that electronic text communication can be used to create text input for a computer,
is replacing verbal and written communication in the user must be literate and tech savvy. In addi-
familiar settings. In addition, e-mail, IM, and text tion, though a few of the devices have specialized
messaging form the backbone of new opportuni- built-in SMS messaging or e-mail capabilities,
ties for socialization, such as social networks and none of them have built-in IM software.
other online communities. Perhaps surprisingly, Point-and-Chat® is the first IM software de-
even though computers are frequently not so ac- signed specifically for AAC users, and designed
cessible to people with disabilities, communication to take input from their software and devices.
using electronic text offers special advantages for Point-and-Chat® can also send and receive SMS
AAC users. messages and has a companion e-mail program
A brief exposition of the omnipresence of with a similar interface.
electronic communications will provide additional Electronic text communication may help AAC
perspective. Most Americans use the Internet, in users by creating a more level playing field for
fact, 73% of all American adults use the Internet people with disabilities in general and AAC us-
170
Point-and-Chat®
ers in particular. There are a number of ways in time putting the same words on paper or entering
which e-mail and IM help AAC users converse them in a computer. In contrast, once an AAC
as equals. E-mail and IM look the same from all user has learned to tell you a story with his or her
senders. Not only does all text look the same, but all AAC device, the machine has already created the
electronic conversations with peers—especially words as text objects. The words just have to be
IM conversations—tend to display a grammati- displayed or deployed in a useful manner. That is
cal informality and sentence fragmentation that an important part of the Point-and-Chat® interface,
may accompany beginner AAC use. Texting en- grabbing and using the text words an AAC user
courages time-saving grammatical and spelling already knows how to produce—even if the user
shortcuts for all users. The rhythm of e-mail and does not know he or she is producing text.
IM conversation encourages non-instantaneous
response and asynchronous conversation. The
time it takes an AAC user to construct a verbal tHe PoInt-And-cHAt®InterFAce
response to a question or statement may seem
like a conversation-destroying lag in face-to-face The Point-and-Chat® interface consists of three
(or phone-to-phone) communication, but these parts: text input software-based on an AAC product
types of lags are typical in e-mail and IM, where such as Saltillo’s DesktopChat®, Point-and-Read®
everyone must push buttons on a computer device screen reader technology, and a new IM interface
in order to converse. These lags are also typical, that requires that the user learn only a few more
because most users are multi-tasking on their keystrokes. Saltillo’s DesktopChat® is used to
computers—watching a YouTube video, reading a create text messages in ways familiar to AAC
celebrity website, watching TV all while engaging users (see Figure 1).
in several simultaneous IM conversations. Even
lengthy lags are not unexpected. Additionally,
e-mail and IM “conversations” can happen over Figure 1. Screenshot of DesktopChat® (©2009
distance and time—supporting mobility-impaired Saltillo Corporation. Used with permission.)
and stay-at-home users.
Instant messaging, even more than e-mail or
SMS messaging, offers further subtle, but impor-
tant advantages for AAC users. The content of an
IM conversation is very much like a one-on-one,
face-to-face personal chat—proceeding in not just
sentences, but exclamations, phrases and frag-
ments of sentences. An AAC user already “knows”
how to produce the text for the words he or she
“speaks” in these sorts of conversations.
Most children learn to speak easily, but ex-
pend years learning to read and write—and even
then have difficulty putting words on paper. The
difficulty is not just stringing the words together
grammatically and in ways so very different from
their conversations with friends. There is also the
issue of “writer’s block.” Many kids (and adults)
can tell you an engaging story, but have a hard
171
Point-and-Chat®
Figure 2. Screenshot of Point-and-Chat® (on the left) with DesktopChat® (on the right) (©2009 Point-
and-Read, Inc. and Saltillo Corporation. Used with permission.)
Clicking on or activating picture buttons cre- message is copied by Point-and-Chat® in the text
ates text messages that the computer will read out editing box in the lower left. If the user is happy
loud. The buttons can be configured to individual with the message, he or she just clicks or activates
needs with words, images, or both. the SEND button (with the smiley face talking).
Point-and-Chat® has two different methods by If the user is not happy with the message, he or
which text messages can be read out loud by the she can erase it, using the ERASE button (with
computer. With Point-and-Read® screen reader the image of a pencil eraser). When the message
technology, the user can place the cursor over any is sent, it will disappear from the text editing box,
part of a sentence. The computer will highlight and appear in the message box above.
that entire sentence. If the user keeps the cursor When Point-and-Chat® receives an incoming
stationary for a moment (hovering over a part of instant message, the message will automatically
the sentence), then the computer will read the appear in the top message box (on the left) and
sentence out loud. Alternatively, several button right after the previous message. The user can
controls allow the user to read the next sentence choose to have the incoming message automati-
(or the previous one) by clicking on or activating cally read aloud. (Additionally, the user can listen
the control. In addition, incoming messages can be to messages by mousing over them or clicking the
automatically read when they appear. The Point- NEXT, PREVIOUS, and REPEAT buttons.) For
and-Chat® IM interface is shown in Figure 2 on the most part, carrying on an IM conversation
the left, with DesktopChat® on the right. only requires the use of the AAC interface and
To send an instant message, a text message is one more button—the SEND button.
created with DesktopChat® using the skills the The tabs on the left of the Point-and-Chat®
AAC user already has. The text message appears interface indicate different active conversations.
at the top of the DesktopChat® display. The text Clicking on or activating a tab will bring that
172
Point-and-Chat®
conversation to the top. If a message arrives for resuLts oF crItIcAL reseArcH

a conversation that is not on the top, its tab will
be highlighted in green. A 2008 Technology in the Works grant from the
To start an instant message conversation using NCTI was used to fund collaborative research
Point-and-Chat®, the user opens the address book among Point-and-Read, Inc., Saltillo Corpora-
of contacts (sometimes called a “buddy list”) by tion, and Jeff Higginbotham of East, Inc. The
clicking on or activating the CONTACTS button research included: (a) adding capabilities to
in the upper left corner of the Point-and-Chat® Point-and-Chat® so that when it was running on
interface. This will show a picture-based table a desktop computer, it could be controlled by a
of contacts as shown in Figure 3. Click on or nearby stand-alone AAC device; and (b) develop-
activate the picture of one of the contacts. This ing page sets for a stand-alone DynaVox DV4 (an
will open a new conversation with its own con- AAC device) so that the DV4 could send proper
versation tab. control code sequences to the desktop computer.
A red circle with a slash through a picture on Just as importantly, a pilot usability study was
the contacts table indicates that the contact is not conducted.
currently online. A blank gray rectangle indicates In the pilot usability study, two AAC users were
that an active conversation with that contact has taught how to use Point-and-Chat®, how to trans-
already been started (and the picture will appear mit text messages from their DynaVox devices
on one of the tabs to the left). to Point-and-Chat® running on a nearby desktop
Throughout, large buttons with simple hard- computer and how to send control commands
edge icons reduce visual clutter and ease cognitive from their DynaVox devices to Point-and-Chat®.
strain. They also provide large targets for those Researchers held online instant message chats with
with poor vision or poor hand-motor-control-and- the participant-users. While the participants were
coordination skills. able to use Point-and-Chat® they encountered some
Figure 3. Screen shot of Point-and-Chat® (on the left) with DesktopChat® (on the right) (©2009 Point-
and-Read, Inc. and Saltillo Corporation. Used with permission.)
173
Point-and-Chat®
problems. Many problems were fixed by creating to identify the need for such a text-conversation-
simpler ways to accomplish tasks, correcting out- specific vocabulary for AAC users.
of-sequence actions automatically and creating
more help materials. However, the biggest issue
was with the vocabulary page sets that participants concLusIon
had been using with their DynaVox devices. To
quote the final report: Point-and-Chat® is the first IM software designed
for users of AAC devices. It has been specifically
Participants were frustrated that the personal designed to provide a simple graphical user inter-
vocabulary pages on their AAC devices were not face with low cognitive load so that it can be used
always useful for instant messaging conversa- by people unfamiliar with computers, poor readers,
tions. These pages had been tailored to face-to- non-readers, people with multiple disabilities,
face communication and for particular subject and people with cognitive disabilities. To be truly
matter. However, they proved less useful for useful, however, simple adjunct vocabularies need
instant messaging conversations. Participants to be developed to help users guide and navigate
also experienced difficulty choosing and switch- text-centric conversations.
ing between subjects and topics, and recovering
conversation threads. Consequently a robust
“chat” vocabulary needs to be devised for users. reFerences
This vocabulary should not be subject specific,
but rather provide short answers typical of IM Pew Internet & American Life project. (2009).
conversation and also provide bridges to subject Retrieved September 30, 2009, from http://www.
specific vocabulary (Slotznick, Hershberger, & pewinternet.org
Higginbotham, 2009). Saltillo. (2008-2009). Point-and-Chat. Re-
trieved September 30, 2009, from http://
In retrospect this is not surprising. Participant- www.saltillo.com/shop/catalog/product_info.
users had been accustomed to face-to-face con- php?cPath=24&products_id=137
versations— not the disembodied conversations
of IM or electronic text. Their conversations Slotznick, B., Hershberger, D., & Higginbotham,
were ordinarily continued and advanced not only J. (2009). Point-and-Chat: Instant messaging
through their AAC devices but also through other software for augmentative/alternative commu-
verbal and gestural cues. These cues could be used nications users. National Center for Technology
to complete thoughts as well as recover lost trains Innovation, AIR SubGrant No. 00378-02411.002,
of thought. However, when conversation threads AIR prime grant No. H327Z060003. Retrieved
were dropped in an online IM conversation, the February 6, 2009, from http://www.nationaltech-
participants did not have the verbal and gestural center.org/documents/point_and_chat_final_re-
“tools” to fall back on or textual substitutes to port.pdf
re-direct the conversation. With IM and other text
messaging, those cues will have to be developed
and built into the vocabulary pages.
Devising a cognitively simple vocabulary to
accomplish these tasks was outside the scope of the Augmentative/Alternative Communication
NCTI research. However, this research is the first (AAC): Methods of replacing speech and writing
174
Point-and-Chat®
for people who cannot speak or write; but more Instant Messaging (IM): A method of ex-
particularly for this chapter, high-tech electronic changing electronic text in real time over the
devices, often with touch screens and dynamic Internet between two or more people, much like
displays, that use computer-synthesized speech a text-based conversation.
as a communication aid. Screen Reader: A software application that
Cognitive Load: The relative mental effort a uses computer synthesized speech to read aloud
user must expend in a specific situation or with a text that is received by a computer and displayed
particular user interface to accomplish a task. on the computer screen.
Electronic Text: Text that has been encoded for SMS (as in SMS Text Messaging, SMS
digital electronic creation and transmission, often Messaging, or “Short Message Service”): Short
for display on cell phones or personal computers electronic text messages (up to 160 characters)
and their word processing software and often in sent over a cell phone network usually between
the ASCII encoding format. cell phones.
E-Mail: A method of exchanging electronic
text over the Internet, asynchronously like postal
mail rather than in real time.
175
176
Chapter 12
Assistive Technology for Deaf
and Hard of Hearing Students
Michael Fitzpatrick
New Mexico State University, USA
Raschelle Theoharis
Gallaudet University, USA
AbstrAct
Although the majority of deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) students are educated in the public school system
(Turnball, Turnball, & Wehmeyer, 2010) there is limited research and literature regarding how educa-
tors can effectively meet their educational needs by implementing assistive and instructional technolo-
gies into their curriculum. This chapter provides an overview of the various assistive and instructional
technologies available to d/hh students and outlines how these students access and use technology. This
chapter contributes to the fundamental ideal that integrating assistive and instructional technologies
can greatly enhance the academic and social outcomes for d/hh students. It should be noted, that the
Deaf community does not adhere to person first language because they do not view deafness as a dis-
ability but as a culture.
IntroductIon increasingly difficult and complex process because

it is intertwined with theories, knowledge, and skills
There is a new emphasis, based on federal mandates related to deaf education, academic content, and
(discussed next), concerning and redefining “highly other pedagogical areas (Paul & Quigley, 1990).
qualified teachers.” Educators of deaf and hard of Nevertheless upon graduation preservice educators
hearing (d/hh) students have historically been clas- were deemed “highly qualified.”
sified as “highly qualified” upon earning a state Unlike the 1997 amendments to the Individuals
license from an approved deaf education program with Disability Education Act, the reauthorization
(Luft, 2008). Within the last 20 years the prepara- Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act
tion of educators for d/hh students has become an (IDEIA, 2004) required special educators to earn a
disability-specific degree. Similarly, the No Child
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch012 Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002) has redefined the
Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students
criteria for “highly qualified” (Smith, Desmone, Deaf, 2008). For example, less than two decades
& Ueno, 2005). Although NCLB has six key ago d/hh Americans had to rely on neighbors or
principles (Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, & Soodak, relatives to make a simple phone call (National
2006), the focus of highly qualified teachers and Association of the Deaf, 2008). However, the rapid
accountability have specific and new implications advancements in technology have been vital for
for d/hh educators. increasing the life outcomes of individuals with
In order to achieve the mandates of NCLB a hearing loss.
(2002) and IDEIA (2004), d/hh educators must In a society oriented to speech and hearing
have an in-depth understanding of both assistive communication, technology has aided and allowed
technology (AT) and instructional technology (IT). d/hh individuals to become more independent and
When implemented with fidelity, AT and IT have active participants. Moreover, advancements in
the potential to increase the academic and social technology have been made specifically to meet
outcomes of d/hh students. Moreover, in align- the unique needs of d/hh individuals. Similar to
ment with IDEIA (2004), upon transiting from Universal Design for Learning, many technologi-
K-12 educational setting to either postsecondary cal advances that were specifically designed for d/
institutions or cooperate America, d/hh individu- hh individuals provide benefits and convenience
als are ensured reasonable accommodations and for everyone. For example, closed captioning was
modifications according to the American’s with one dimension of technology specifically designed
Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990), which would for d/hh individuals. However, the benefits of
include appropriate AT and IT (Rosen, 2007). closed captioning are virtually limitless for the
Unfortunately a significant gap exists between “hearing world.”
empirical research and descriptive studies that This accommodation/modification and newer
report the efficacy of AT or IT use for d/hh students innovations such as the teletype (TTY), various
in the K-12 setting. alerting devices, improved hearing aids, assistive
The limited numbers of studies that have been listening devices (ALD), and fax machines have
conducted on AT and IT were completed at the positivity impacted the d/hh and “hearing world”
K-12 level during the 1990s and mainly focused simultaneously (Stewart & Kluwin, 2001). Addi-
on cochlear implants. More recently Power, Power, tionally, Stewart and Kluwin (2001) reported that
and Horstmanshof (2007) reported that there is e-mail and on-line chats, videophones, videocon-
a dearth of research, studies, and published lit- ferencing, speech-to-text software, text-to-signs
erature related to the ways d/hh community use software, and palm-size pagers with key boards
technology. The lack of research, access, and un- were created to meet the communication needs
derstanding poses clear challenges for educators, of d/hh people, yet these developments benefit
d/hh students, and their families. Therefore, the everyone.
purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview
of various educational technologies for this student effects of technology
population. on d/hh students
To increase the academic achievement and social-

bAckground ization, for a subgroup that is typically known for
their low reading levels and underachievement,
In our society, technology rapidly changes our current and future educators need to have in-
lives; this is particularly true within the deaf and depth knowledge about (a) communication, (b)
hearing community (National Association of the language, (c) social emotional, (d) educational,
177
and (e) vocational development of d/hh students. it is important for deaf educators to implement AT
In addition, similar to students with other disabili- and IT devices and services effectively.
ties, it is important for educators to be aware of The following sections provide an overview
how to identify, implement, and sustain AT and of how AT and IT have been used to increase the
IT into the classroom and school setting for d/ academic and social outcomes of d/hh students
hh students. within the classroom and school setting. Each sub-
Although the majority of research has been section provides an analysis of: (a) amplification
conducted with students with severe to profound (e.g., hearing aids, cochlear implants, and ALD);
hearing loss (Marschark, Lang, & Albertini, (b) environment (e.g., alerting devices and closed
2002), Eleweke and Rodda (2000) reported that captioning); (c) communication (e.g., TTYs,
approximately 94% of children have a hearing loss e-mails, and text-messaging); and (d) Internet,
are diagnosed prior to their third birthday which programs, and software (e.g., captioned software,
results in delays in fluent language acquisition and speech-to-text software, sign language software,
hinders the development of communication skills and simulation software).
(Figueras, Edwards, & Langdon, 2008; Rodda &
Eleweke, 2000). In addition, regardless of when Amplification
children acquired their hearing impairment (e.g.,
prelingual or postlingual) d/hh students typically There are two primary objectives for providing
encounter difficulties learning to read (Mus- amplification to d/hh individuals: (a) to make
selman, 2000) and write (Singleton, Morgan, speech audible, without introducing distortion or
DiGello, Wiles, & Rivers, 2004). discomfort; and (b) to restore a range of loudness
With a median fourth grade reading level experience (Tye-Murray, 2009). To accomplish
among deaf high school graduates (Marschark, these two key objectives, there are many dif-
Lang, & Albertini, 2002; Traxler, 2000), it is ferent types of amplification systems (Klein &
not surprising that d/hh adults are persistently Parker, 2002). Cochlear implants, hearing aids,
underemployed and substantially receive lower and frequency modulation systems (FM systems)
incomes than individuals with “normal hearing.” are the most frequently used within the K-12
Introducing assistive and instructional technology educational setting.
to d/hh students has greatly enhanced their aca-
demic outcomes, assisted with transitioning from Cochlear Implants
school to work or college, and increased social
awareness and skills of d/hh students (Akamatsu, “Cochlear implants are biomedical electronic
Mayer, & Farrelly, 2006). devices that convert sound into electrical current
As noted in previous chapters, AT has the to stimulate remaining auditory nerve elements
potential for increasing access to the general directly, thereby producing hearing sensations”
education curriculum (Smith & Jones, 1999) and (Beiter & Brimacombe, 2000, p. 473). Cochlear
supports students with a variety of disabilities implants are comprised of five parts: a micro-
across all grade levels (Blackhurst & MacArthur, phone, speech processor, transmitter, receiver/
1986; Michaels & Mcdermott, 2003; Smith, 2000). stimulator, and electrodes (Klein & Parker, 2002).
Specifically in the area of deaf education, AT has The receiver/simulator (this includes an antenna
enabled d/hh students to visually access auditory and miniaturized electronics) is surgically placed
forms of information (Roberson, 2001). However, into the mastoid bones which are located slightly
in order to see effective outcomes of d/hh students, above the ear (Klein & Parker, 2002). A series of
178
tiny electrodes (the electrode array) on an inch cochlear implant process, beginning with surgery
long wire is inserted into the cochlea. and following through the habilitation services
The external parts of the implant are the micro- (Klein & Parker, 2002; Tye-Murray, 2009). It has
phone (which is similar to a behind the ear hearing been recommended that families seek counseling
aid), the speech processor, and the transmitter because it provides information about receiving,
(Klein & Parker, 2002). The transmitter is a small maintaining, and using a cochlear implant so
plastic ring that is placed on the scalp and is held that the user is able to receive maximum benefits
to the receiver that is embedded under the skin (Tye-Murray, 2009).
(Klein & Parker, 2002). The microphone picks up
the sound from the environment, changes it to an Hearing Aids
electronic signal, and then carries it through the
connecting cables to the speech processor (Tye- The intent of a hearing aid is to make sound louder
Murray, 2009). and if possible clearer to the listener (Dillon,
The processed signal goes from the speech 2001). The history of the hearing aid began in the
processor to the electrode array, via a transmitter 1600s. The trumpet, horn, funnel, and speaking
and an internal receiver. The signal typically is tube were all means in which sounds could be
transmitted across the skin by an electromagnetic amplified. However, the first wearable hearing
induction or radio frequency transmission. The aid that contained a microphone, battery, ampli-
signal then goes from the internal receiver to the fier, and receiver (the components of “modern”
electrode array. Then, the electrode array carries hearing aids) were made in 1902 (Dillon, 2001).
electrode pairs, tiny exposed balls or rings on the There are many different types of hearing aids:
wire--which are comprised of positive and nega- body aids, ear-level aids, in-the-ear aids, analog
tive polarized contacts, which passes current. This and digital hearing aids, and the most commonly
current stimulates fibers on the auditory nerve used aid for children is the behind-the-ear (BTE)
(Tye-Murray, 2009). hearing aid (Klein & Parker, 2002). However,
Thirty-years ago, cochlear implants were vir- the type of hearing aid is typically based on the
tually unheard of, but today are common place audiogram.
(Tye-Murray, 2009). Moreover, this new procedure
has already had a significant impact on the lives of FM Systems
profoundly deaf children and adults, by providing
useful hearing to individuals whom hearing aids Typical classrooms are filled with many distract-
provide no benefit (Wheeler, Archbold, Gregory, ing environmental and background noises (e.g.,
& Skip, 2007). However, it is important to real- talking, paper rustling, shuffling feet, audio-visual
ize that cochlear implants are not appropriate for equipment, doors opening and closing, and HVAC
every individual with a hearing loss (Klein & systems). Some of these noises and distractions
Parker, 2002). Cochlear implants were created for can be as loud as the educator’s voice. In addition,
individuals who are profoundly deaf, who do not educators who “roam” around the classroom, turn
have residual hearing, who do not benefit from their backs to the students, or multitask while
hearing aids, and who make limited progress in the providing instruction can cause the loudness of
development of auditory skills (Klein & Parker, their voice to vary and may detract from the ef-
2002; Tye-Murray, 2009). fectiveness of hearing aids.
It is critical that family and professionals un- For students with “normal hearing,” these
derstand the commitment (e.g., time, effort, and noises for the most part are not distracting and do
money) and responsibilities that go along with the not cause problems (Boys Town National Research
179
Hospital, 2009). However, for d/hh students these less of setting (e.g., school or home) it is important
compounding factors can interfere with their abil- for educators to be knowledgeable about AT, IT,
ity to hear and understand the dissemination of and environmental adaptations many d/hh students
information. As noted above, hearing aids amplify often require to function in a “hearing world.” This
all sounds. Intuitively when hearing aids amplify section provides a summary of various assistive
the educator’s voice, they also make all of the and instructional technologies available to d/hh
background noises louder (Boys Town National students to use at school and home.
Research Hospital, 2009). Fortunately FM systems Similar to other disabilities, integrating tech-
can assist with these challenges. nology in the classroom can aid d/hh students
FM systems are commonly used in classroom access to the general education curriculum (Stover
settings and can be classified as either a personal & Pendegraft, 2005). Although many factors influ-
FM trainer. This is a portable system that allows ence accessing and using AT effectively, Elliot,
d/hh students the freedom to move to several Foster, and Stinson (2003) reported that educators’
different environments (e.g., a fieldtrip, play, or acceptance of technology has been attributed to
recess), while maintaining an excellent signal- the success of d/hh student’s working with AT.
to-noise ratio (Klein & Parker, 2002). When us- Ultimately, it is the educator’s responsibility to
ing a personal FM system, the educator wears a keep up with the changes in technological trends
microphone (transmitter) and the student wears a for d/hh students (Harrington & Powers, 2004).
receiver, which is attached to the hearing aid (Tye- The following five AT devices and IT interventions
Murray, 2009). The educator’s voice is modulated are provided so educators become aware of what
via a radio frequency that carriers and transmits can be implemented into their classroom.
the waves through the classroom to the child’s
receiver. The receiver is set to match the FM fre- Note-Takers
quency of the transmitter, which allows multiple
FM units to be used at the same time within the Despite having knowledge of new instructional
same environment (Klein & Parker, 2002). methods, high school educators typically rely on
lectures as the primary means to disseminate in-
devices for the environment formation (Elliot, Foster, & Stinson, 2002). Thus,
note-taking remains a valued way for students to
Although there are different levels of hearing access the necessary information (Dunkel & Davy,
loss among d/hh students (Wheeler-Scruggs, 1989). Evidence suggests that students who take
2002), they typically encounter more difficulties notes have the ability to recall and perform better
within the classroom and school setting than their on assessments (Kiewra, 1985). Unfortunately d/
“normal hearing” peers (Liu, Chou, & Liu, 2006). hh students often have difficulties taking notes,
Though early intervention programs (Hintermair, even when using a hearing aid, FM system, in-
2006; Zaidman-Zait & Dromi, 2007), technologi- terpreter, or other AT or IT devices.
cal advances (Ertmer, 2002), and support from Although not as necessary or readily available
their family (Ertmer & Mellon, 2001; Storbeck throughout the elementary grades, note-takers may
& Calvert-Evers, 2008) and community services become extremely important for d/hh students
(Munro-Ludders, Simpatico, & Zvetina, 2004; upon entering middle and high school where note-
Rogers, Muir, & Evenson, 2003) exists for the taking is more prevalent. Although note-takers
home environment and provide d/hh children with are unable to provide immediate information, d/
opportunities for success, the children continue to hh students can pick up a copy of the notes at the
face a multitude of challenges. However, regard- end of each class session and fill in the informa-
180
tion they missed during the lecture (Stover & Closed Captioning
Pendegraft, 2005).
Since the early 1970s technology for captioning
Computer-Aided Notetaking television has benefited d/hh individuals. In 1993,
closed captioned television decoders have been
Computer-Aided Notetaking (CAN) has been built into every television larger than 13 inches
available since the 1990s (Cuddihy, Fisher, Gor- (Jensema, Sharkawy, Danturthi, Burch, & Hsu,
don, & Schumaker, 1994; James & Hammersley, 2000). Captioning is similar to subtitling. It is
1993; Preminger & Leavit, 1997). However, many a process of converting audio to text and then
educators may not be aware of CAN. According displaying the text on the screen (Jensema et al.,
to Stover and Pendegraft (2005), CAN is inex- 2000). The text provides d/hh individuals with a
pensive, easy to implement, beneficial to d/hh visual display of dialogue, narration, and sound
students, and has evolved since its inception. effects (Lewis & Jackson, 2001).
Computer-Aided Notetaking requires two
desktop or laptop computers, local area network, Alarm Systems
typist (similar to a scribe or stenographer), and it
is suggested to purchase a computerized abbrevia- Within the home, school, and work settings many
tion software program (such as Typewell). The d/hh individuals use alarm alerting devices in
typist takes notes and d/hh students can either: order to have access to auditory information (Tye-
(a) read the notes directly during class on his or Murray, 2009; Wheeler-Scruggs, 2002). Examples
her computer or (b) receive a printout of the notes include: vibrating or flashing alarm clocks, where a
after the class session. vibration might occur under an individual’s pillow
or a flashing light would signal when it is time to
Real-Time Captioning wake-up; a doorbell or telephone signaling device
attached to a lamp, which signals when someone
Captioning is similar to subtitling (Jensema, is at the door or calling; a smoke detector, that
Danturthi, & Burch, 2000), but speech recognition flashes to indicate the presence of smoke; and a
technology is typically not used for real time cap- baby monitor alerting system, where a parent is
tioning (RTC) (Bain, Basson, & Faisman, 2005). made aware of an infant crying in another room
However, Stover, and Pendegraft (2005) suggested (Tye-Murray, 2009).
that many school districts that can afford the cost
for captioning services are integrating RTC for communication
their d/hh students.
Professional captioners “capture” spoken lan- It is known that technological advancements can
guage and instantaneously transcribe and transmit be both a means of inclusion and exclusion for
the information to d/hh students by using a spe- individuals with a disability (Pilling & Barrett,
cialized stenotype machine (Stover & Pendegraft, 2008). A primary example is d/hh people. With
2005). The stenotype machine is connected to a the invention of the telephone, d/hh individuals
computer with translating software that translates were excluded from an activity that has become
shorthand into words. Unlike typing, Stover and everyday and critical for most people (Pilling &
Pendegraft, (2005) reported that captioners can Barrett, 2008). This is ironic, since Alexander
create captions at speeds of more than 225 words Graham Bell, was so involved and concerned with
per minute. improving the communication abilities among the
Deaf community (Pilling & Barrett, 2008).
181
In recent years, technological developments Emails

have addressed this situation (Pilling & Barrett,
2008). Despite the ways the Deaf community Traditionally, d/hh Americans relied on TTYs
uses communication technologies, little research and relay systems to communicate with others.
has been conducted on how they use electronic However, these devices have their limitations—
communication in their daily lives (Power et al., either both individuals have to have the device or
2006). Currently, d/hh individuals have a variety have to go through a third party, communication
of ways in which they communicate with others can only flow one direction at the time and no
(Power et al., 2006). The Deaf community relies one can interrupt (which makes communication
on TTYs, e-mails, and text-messaging to commu- very slow), and these technologies rely heavily
nicate with others. These communication devices on written text (which puts high demands on the
are described next. user’s receptive abilities) (Bowe, 2002).
E-mail offers three advantages for d/hh indi-
TTYs and Relay Services viduals over traditional means. Unlike TTYs which
require immediate responses, d/hh individuals
In the 1960s, a deaf man, Robert Weitbrecht, have the opportunity to read the messages at their
modified teletypewriters (TTYs) for use by deaf leisure and seek further understanding if neces-
individuals to be used over standard telephone sary (Bowe, 2002). An individual can compose a
lines. TTYs, also known as Telecomunications message using spell check and editing functions.
device for the Deaf (TDD), is a telephone terminal Finally, archiving or printing sent and received
comprised of a telephone, a keyboard, and a mes- messages is easy (Bowe, 2002).
sage display screen. The telephone handset fits More recently, instant messaging has been
into the cradle on the terminal. Both the person developed and allows a full-duplex service. An
calling and the person receiving the call, must individual may compose and send an answer at
have the device, or a relay service must be used. the same time, even when reading an incom-
The two individuals communicate by typing their ing message (Bowe, 2002). People are alerted
message to each other. The messages appear on to incoming messages throughout the day both
the message display screen (Tye-Murray, 2006). ways of communicating are instantly available
In the beginning, only those who had a TTY could (Bowe, 2002).
communicate, so mostly the TTYs allowed d/hh
individuals to communicate with one another. Text-Messaging
With the establishment of relay services, d/hh
individuals can now communicate via a relay with Deaf and hard of hearing students are often
hearing people who do not own a TTY (Power delayed in developing their independent living
et al., 2006). skills compared to their hearing peers (Calderon
In order for d/hh people to call hearing people & Greenberg, 2003; Greenburg & Kusche, 1993).
using a TTY, relay services have been set-up in Parents of d/hh teens typically place more restric-
many parts of the world (Power et al., 2006). The tions on activities outside the home (Akamatsu et
relay operator, who has been trained in issues of al., 2006). These restrictions stem from parents
confidentiality, takes either a voice or TTY call and who worry about their child’s inability to com-
connects it to the dialed number, using a computer municate and their general safety (Akamatsu et
for TTY and a microphone for voice the operator al., 2005). In a recent study, researchers found that
is able to transmit the call between the caller and parents were uniformly satisfied with the two-way
the recipient (Power et al., 2006). text messaging system one school implemented. In
182
addition, the system was also used by the school & Glaser, 2000), individuals with disabilities are
faculty and they found it extremely beneficial. less than half as likely as their non-disabled peers
Both reported they were able to have direct to own computers and are one-quarter as likely to
communication with the students; this communi- use the Internet (Burgstahler, 2003).
cation eliminated safety concerns regarding fire Another significant barrier is the extensive
alarms, emergency procedures, personal safety number of AT devices that are now available.
issues, and contributed to ease of coordination Since the passage of The Technology Related
of everyone’s activities (Akamatsu et al., 2005). Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act
One student said, “The pagers helped me to send (P. L. 100-407, 1988), there has been a sizeable
my dad and my dad is less worry. After school increase in the number of assistive devices created
I allowed to play basketball, ball hockey with for persons with disabilities including those with
friends” (Akamatsu, et al., 2005, 125). d/hh (Bausch & Hasselbring, 2004). ABLEDATA
(2009), an on-line database for ATs, provides a
Internet, Programs, and Software list of over 25,000 devices. With the enormous
number of options, AT decisions are not easy for
Internet, programs, and software have been devel- educators to make (Bausch & Hasselbring, 2004),
oped to meet the educational and learning needs of especially when considering not every d/hh student
d/hh students. These programs include captioned benefits from the same types of technology.
software, speech-to-text software, sign language For d/hh students to be successful users of AT,
software, and simulation software. Although the educators must think beyond the identification and
authors could provide specific examples of various the selection of the equipment. A third barrier to
software and innovative ways to use the Internet effectiveness of AT is the need to provide train-
in the classroom to meet the learning styles of d/ ing in the use and practical ways to integrate the
hh students, the purpose of this section was not to technology into daily life (Bausch & Hasselbring,
endorse or advocate one computerized software 2004). Not only does appropriate training need to
program or website over another. be provided to the students, it is imperative that
those working with the student (general education
teachers, special education teachers, d/hh teachers,
Issues, controversIes, paraprofessionals, speech language pathologist,
And ProbLems audiologist, and family members) should also
be trained in the operation, implementation, and
For society, technology has become an essential problem-solving across environments and settings
component of almost every educational, employ- (McGregor & Pachuski, 1996).
ment, community, recreational, and home environ-
ment (Burgstahler, 2003). Access to technology solutions and Future research
has proven to be beneficial for students with a range
of abilities and disabilities. This access has the The following section outlines three potential
potential to increase independence; engagement; solutions and areas future researchers should
and participation in school, work, and the commu- consider when working with d/hh students. These
nity for d/hh individuals. Although the benefits of areas were developed after a review of relevant
technology may be greater for those with a hearing literature and focus on early identification, teacher
loss than for people without (Anderson-Inman, preparation, and increasing the reading abilities
Knox-Quinn, & Szymnski, 1999; Blackhurst, of d/hh students.
Lahm, Harrison, & Changler, 1999; Hasselbring
183
It is well documented that early identification summAry And concLusIon

and interventions are important when working with
d/hh children (Meinke & Dice, 2007; Moeller, As discussed in previous chapters, AT devices and
2000; Storbeck et al., 2008; Yoshinaga-Itano, services (range from inexpensive, low technology
2003; Yoshinaga-Itano, Coulter, & Thomson, devices to expensive, high-tech devices) have been
2000; Yoshinaga-Itano, Sedey, Coulter, & Mehl, mandated for several years. Currently, the law
1998). Sadly, as noted throughout this chapter requires that every student with an Individualized
there is limited research and literature which Education Program (IEP) must be considered for
supports the integration of AT and IT to stimulate AT devices and services (Bausch & Hasselbring,
academic, language, and social development of 2004). The consideration process of appropriate
d/hh children from the onset of concern. Future AT devices during the IEP meeting is vital to a
solutions and research emphasis should be placed student’s success, however implementing the AT
on developing intervention strategies focused on properly and systematically is critical to increasing
implementing and sustaining various technologies their academic and social outcomes (Bausch &
to increase capacity of d/hh students. Jones-Ault, 2008; Luft, 2008). The actual imple-
According to Humphries and Allen (2008) mentation is often difficult for deaf educators, due
the majority of teacher preparation programs to the fact technology rapidly changes for d/hh
fail to address innovative teaching practices for students because they lack a strong foundation
d/hh students. In addition, Easterbrooks (2001) and understanding needed for implementation
reported that there are more controversies in deaf (Stewart & Kluwin, 2001).
education than successes. From these perspectives It is important that d/hh educators to be knowl-
it is necessary for teacher preparation programs edgeable of the various amplification devises
and researchers to provide innovative teaching available in the K-12 educational setting. Further
practices for their preservice educators. Programs they should understand the purpose, types, compo-
should consider delving into the literature and nents, and most importantly how they work. This
determine how to employ AT and IT to maximize chapter specifically looked at cochlear implants,
their preservice candidates to be visionaries in the hearing aids, and FM systems which are the most
field of deaf education. frequently used by d/hh students.
Similar to early interventions and teacher In addition, it is important for educators and
preparation (discussed earlier) teaching d/hh stu- family members to remember amplification nor-
dents to read at an early age is essential (Donne & mally enables a person to hear most sounds, but
Zigmond, 2008). Not only is reading an important if an individual is not wearing his or her hearing
life skill it improves language abilities among d/hh aid, does not have enough residual hearing, or if
students (Hermans, Knoors, Ormel, & Verhoeven, they are in another room some sounds may go
2008; Kirk, Gallagher, Anastasiow, & Coleman, unnoticed. To help with these situations, signaling
2006). Preservice and inservice educators should devices can be set up to alert the d/hh individual
be vigilant when working with d/hh students to to a telephone, alarm clock, door bell, or smoke
ensure they are learning to read despite not having alarm. These devices not only make them aware
the ability to hear. It is important to remember that of what is happening in their environment, but
the Deaf community has embraced various forms also helps to keep d/hh individuals safe (Schow
of text-based communication (discussed earlier) & Nerbonne, 1996; Tye-Murray, 2009).
and being able to read, comprehend, and respond Finally, little research has been conducted on
appropriately is essential to be successful in a how d/hh students use electronic communication
society driven largely by text and symbols. in their daily lives. However, these technologies
184
have a huge impact on the lives of the Deaf com- Bausch, M. E., & Jones-Ault, M. (2008). As-
munity (Power et al., 2006). In addition to teach- sistive Technology Implementation Plan: A tool
ing academics and content knowledge, educators for improving outcomes. Teaching Exceptional
should focus on how to empower d/hh student’s Children, 41(1), 6–14.
socialization skills. Educators who are aware of
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for persons who are deaf or have a significant
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Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 was en- keyboard, transmitted, and displayed on a small
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with disabilities (P.L. 101-336).
191
192
Chapter 13
A Longitudinal Case Study on
the Use of Assistive Technology
to Support Cognitive Processes
across Formal and Informal
Educational Settings
Vivian Johnson
Hamline University, USA
Carol Price
Hamline University, USA
AbstrAct
This chapter describes a chronology of increasingly sophisticated technological supports and interven-
tions used across complex formal and informal educational settings with a 10th grade female student who
has documented learning challenges. A progression from low technology devices to computerized, high
technology assistive devices are employed to provide access to materials and to academic information
over a period of 10 years. Understanding both the inner and outer context of this learner’s environment
provides the reader with a background to process the progression of the use, improvement, and avail-
ability of assistive technology in the life of this user.
PurPose tional plan (IEP), parents and adult caregivers can

also re-purpose common technology applications
The National Center for Education Statistics (2008a; to support the learner. The purpose of this discourse
2008b) cites that of the 49.8 children and youth is to present a chronology of one parent’s efforts to
enrolled in public schools, some 6.7 million receive utilize both low and high technology across formal
special education services for classroom instruction and informal educational settings over a ten-year
and during assessments. While assistive technology period. Impact of legislative actions on the educa-
(AT) can be included in an individualized education of the student serves as the backdrop through
which the affects of AT on the student’s cognitive
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch013 process is viewed.
A Longitudinal Case Study on the Use of Assistive Technology to Support Cognitive Processes
tHeoretIcAL FrAmeWork ing from individual student gains to looking at all

students against state standards, and requires that
The female learner in this case study was born in valid and reliable tests be provided in reading/
1992 and major pieces of legislation that define language arts and mathematics at least once in
the context of her learning environment started in each of three grade spans from grades 3-12. In
1965 when the Elementary and Secondary Educa- 1995, IDEA reinforced the requirement for states
tion Act (ESEA) was initiated. This legislation did to provide FAPE to children with disabilities in the
little in terms of addressing accommodations to least restrictive environment (LRE). In addition,
assist learners with special needs. It did, however, it empowers parents and the local educational
mandate the annual assessment in reading and agency to make appropriate decisions about what
mathematics of students who received services constitutes Legislation of 1997 through 2001 ap-
under Title I. Following ESEA for 10 years, chil- plied only to students enrolled in public schools.
dren enrolled in special education classes were Children in parochial or private institutions did
segregated from general education classes, save not receive benefit from these laws. Emma is one
for classes in art, music, and physical education such child.
(ESEA, n.d.). During this time, students with The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 ensures
significant cognitive disabilities were segregated that individuals with disabilities have access to
from general education classes. The first legislative the technologies they need to help them in school,
move toward equity for students with disabilities at home, at work, and in the community. The
occurred in 1975 with the passage of Public Law Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act
94-142 (Education of All Handicapped Children of 2004, passed by Congress, was designed to
Act), codified as IDEA (Individuals with Disabili- improve learning outcomes for infants, toddlers,
ties Education Act) in 1997. Congress mandated children, and youth with disabilities; made the
that for states to receive federal funds, they must language and intent of IDEA 2004 consistent
develop and implement policies that assure a free with NCLB; and ensured access to technology
appropriate public education (FAPE) to all children for individuals with disabilities.
with disabilities. The state plans must be consistent Federal legislation ensures access for public
with the federal statute, Title 20 United States school students and for students with disabilities
Code Section 1400 et.seq. (20 USC 1400). in private schools, however, these protections
Assistive technology appears in the law in and services are not mandated. Part E of Title
1992 with the passage of the Technology Related XIV—Uniform Provisions for the Participation of
Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act. Private School Students requires Local Education
This act provides financial support and assistance Agencies (LEA) to “service eligible private school
to states to support system change and advocacy children who reside in the LEA” (USDE, n.d., p.
for AT, which “it further defines any item, piece 1 ¶ 3). Although this section of the law requires
of equipment or product system, whether ac- “timely and meaningful consultation” between
quired commercially off the shelf, modified, or the LEA and the private school, Part B of IDEA
customized, that is used to increase, maintain, does not require “parentally placed students with
or improve functional capabilities of individuals disabilities to receive services provided to students
with disabilities [20 U.S. C. Chapter 33, Section enrolled in public schools” (USDE, nd, p. 3 ¶ 2).
1401 (250)].” Further complicating the situation is that each
In 1994, accountability for student progress state sets eligibility requirements for services to
appears as the Improving America’s Schools Act children and youth with disabilities. Emma did
of 1994 (IASA). This law shifts the focus of test- not receive the maximum benefit from federal
193
legislation provisions for students with disabilities in art activities when combined with scientific
because she was enrolled in a private school and aspect. Both Emma’s pre-school teachers and
her parents were unwilling to have Emma miss parents concern is focused on—“Could it be a
significant parts of her school day in travel to a hearing problem?” In December 1997, an audiol-
public school to obtain services. Nevertheless, ogy report reveals that Emma’s hearing is within
legislation governing the provisions of services normal limits.
for students with disabilities does provide the By March 1998, the narrative reports describe
context for increased emphases in AT. Emma as seeming to have a good year. She usually
Students with disabilities typically have arrives at school quietly, but once here is ready to
multiple service providers (e.g., occupational play and seems to enjoy school. She is very bright
therapists, physical therapists, speech therapists, and perceptive—always ready to try an activity and
adaptive physical education teachers, etc.) in ad- to learn something new. Emma is very self-directed
dition to general and special education teachers, and competent. By May, she is very independent
but not all service providers are aware of how to and capable; she uses a large vocabulary and has
implement AT appropriately into the student’s IEP. a natural desire to learn. Emma seems to crave
In a survey of the status of AT delivery in various knowledge and can remember more details about
school systems across the nation, Bausch, Ault, animals than her mother can.
Evmenova, and Behrmann (2008) found that a The next road in this journey was the IEP.
large percent (19.6%) of services reported as AT Emma underwent a separate battery of tests and
services were not AT services; there is little inte- by end of first grade, Emma had been diagnosed
gration and coordination among service providers; with dyslexia, central auditory processing deficits,
and almost half of respondents (40.2%) included mild ADHD, large and small motor weakness
services that were not ATs, that “may indicate a (crossing the mid-line).
lack of awareness” (p.12). Various interventions were employed to sup-
port Emma’s learning throughout elementary
school such as books on tapes, vision therapy, the
emmA’s story: A cAse Wilson Reading Program (http://www.wilsonlan-
study oF one gIrL’s guage.com), summer enrichment programs at a
trIumPH over scHooL residential language immersion camp, attendance
at a summer camp for children with learning dis-
From the moment she was born, Emma was a abilities, and a one-on-one interactive metronome
ray of sunshine in the lives of her parents and of program. Sixth and seventh grades proved suc-
everyone with whom she came in contact. Enter- cessful because Emma maintained an average of
ing preschool in December 1995, Emma’s future As and Bs, and in Grade 8 Emma took Algebra,
looks bright; she is a joyful, independent 3 year with no special services.
old who appears to be happy at pre-school. Ac- A series of interventions ranging from low
cording to semester narrative reports by Emma’s technology to high technology supported Emma
teachers, she paces herself well, is easygoing and throughout her journey through academia. Low
very expressive. Emma’s second year in preschool technology is defined as non-electronic educa-
began in December 1996. Again narrative reports tional supports that help the learning process (e.g.,
by her teacher report that she is a competent, a highlighter, a pencil grip, a slotted window page
ingenuous, self-assured child who is confident cover, a paper dictionary, etc.); whereas, high tech-
and outgoing with adults. Emma handles social nology is defined as electronic and computerized
frustration competently and shows most interest equipment or software that provides access to print
194
Table 1. Emma’s Technology Use
Progression of Technology Use from Pre-K to Grade 8

Time Period Low Technology High Technology
Pre-K to Grade 2 Practical, hands-on activities, use of art materials, use of Intense auditory intervention, Emma improved 2
creative play, and reading stories nightly. standard deviations on auditory assessment compared to
Emma and her father begin to create their own oral auditory assessment that occurred in the spring.
stories. Little high-tech technology is available during this stage
Vision Therapy (spring of Grade 1). of Emma’s development.
Books on Tape (Library for the Blind) Emma continues
to use this technology until Grade 6.
Grades 3–5 Auditory instruction to increase fluency. Reading Pen Two—used only at home.
Groves Academy Wilson Reading Program is used in school. Alpha Smart computer—Emma’s parents insist be
Books on tapes. included in her IEP and is provided by the public school
system.
Interactive Metronome—assists with pacing.
Inspiration is introduced to Emma at this time.
Grades 6–8 Project-based instruction. Alpha Smart —Emma uses it mostly for word process-
ing.
Dragon Naturally Speaking—Parents attempt to intro-
duce this technology to Emma completely fails.
Grades 9–11 Laptop computer (required by the high school), online
dictionaries, Quizlet, Write-A Novel-A-Month, dictionary
pen, books on tape, tape recorders, pen readers, digital
cameras/cell phone cameras, and electronic portable dic-
tionaries, are introduced and utilized by Emma’s parents
to maximize accessibility to print media.
or virtual material (e.g., text reader, electronic cited earlier in this chapter); however, we contend
dictionary, computer, etc). that any device used to support a learner in ac-
Table 1 presents a progression from low-to- complishing a goal is considered AT. For example,
high technology interventions aligned with the a rubber, plastic, or foam pencil grip is an AT if
time periods of Emma’s life. its use enables the individual to write.
Table 1 presents a snapshot of the technology
used by Emma during her formative years at technology tools
school. What the table does not include are the
endless hours of one-to-one instruction, assistance, We provide a sampling of some of the software
and support provided to Emma by her parents, available on the market that provides access to
despite teachers’ reluctance to allow the use of educational content.
certain AT devices in their classrooms. CAST UDL Book Builder™ (available at http://
bookbuilder.cast.org). Free online tool enables
educators to develop their own digital books to
dAtA sources support reading instruction for children aged 3
& up.
Assistive technology defined CAST Strategy Tutor™ (available at http://
cst.cast.org/cst/guest/SPAGE,about). A free on-
Legislation as early as 1992 provides an official line tool to support students and teachers doing
definition for AT (see the Technology Related reading and research on the Internet, for children
Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act, ages 10 and up.
195
Texthelp’s Read&Write GOLD (available at reFerences

http://www.readwritegold.com), and Kurzweil
Educational Systems’ Kurzweil 3000 (available Bausch, M. E., Ault, M. J., Evmenova, A. S., &
at http://www.kurzweiledu.com) are text reading, Behrmann, M. M. (2008). Going beyond AT de-
writing, and study skills software programs. vices: Are AT services being considered? Journal
ABLEDATA (available at http://www.abledata. of Special Education Technology, 23, 1–16.
com), provides objective information regarding
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, 1965.
AT devices, software, products, and rehabilitation
(n.d.). Retrieved on January 2, 2009, from http://
equipment to consumers.
nces.ed.gov
Parents, Let’s Unite for Kids (PLUNK, avail-
able at http://www.plunk.org), is an organization Michigan Department of Education. (2008). Pub-
that provides training, activities, information, and lic agency placement of students with disabilities
support to anyone with interest regarding children in private schools. Retrieved on March 1, 2009,
with disabilities or catastrophic illnesses. from http://www.michigan.gov
National Center for Education Statistics. (2008a).
next stePs Participation in education: Indicator 3, past and
projected public school enrollments. Retrieved
We have presented a case study of one child—one on January 2, 2009, from http://nces.ed.gov/pro-
family struggling for solutions that will unlock grams/coe/2008/section1/indicator 03.asp
the learning potential for their intelligent, curious,
National Center for Education Statistics. (2008b).
remarkably talented, yet print-challenged daughter.
Participation in education: Indicator 8, children
To this end, we recommend the following:
and youth with disabilities in public schools.
Retrieved on January 2, 2009, from http://nces.
• Teacher preparation institutions need to of-
ed.gov/programs/coe/2008/section1/indicator
fer courses that provide prospective teach-
08.asp
ers with the knowledge and experience of
AT devices and how to integrate them into United States Department of Education. (n.d.).
daily instructions. Part E of Title XIV—Uniform provisions for the
• Parents need to play an active role in the participation of private school students. Retrieved
quest for AT for their child. on March 1, 2009, from http://www.ed.gov/pubs/
• Policy makers at the state level need to ex- ServPrivate/paret4.html
amine the purpose of policy that prohibits
students with disabilities from using certain
ATs on statewide assessments.
• District and school administrators need to key terms And deFInItIons
ensure that schools have the infrastructure
necessary to support various ATs. Accommodations: Changes in instructional
media or processes to provide all learners, espe-
cially those with disabilities, full access to the
information.
Assistive Technology (AT): “[A]ny item,
piece of equipment or product system, whether
acquired commercially off the shelf, modified,
or customized, that is used to increase, maintain,
196
or improve functional capabilities of individuals Language Immersion Camp: All-inclusive

with disabilities” [20 U.S. C. Chapter 33, Section language, culture, and learning programs that fos-
1401 (250)]. ter literacy understanding through communication
Case Study: A flexible qualitative research and cultural activities.
approach that uses multiple data sources in in- Low Technology Device: Non-electronic
vestigating a question. educational supports that help the learning process
Cognitive Process: Concepts of knowledge (e.g. a highlighter, a pencil grip, a slotted window
and the way individuals use that knowledge. page cover, a paper dictionary, etc.).
Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): A
The right of all children with disabilities to be provision of the law that allows students with
educated along with their non-disabled peers. disabilities to be educated with their non-disabled
High Technology Device: Electronic and peers.
computerized equipment or software that provides Narrative: Report that uses direct observa-
access to print or virtual material (e.g., text reader, tional data to provide rich and detailed descrip-
electronic dictionary, computer, etc). tions of learner progress to inform instructions
Individual Education Plan (IEP): A pre- and programming.
scribed program of instruction for students with Service Providers: Individuals who provide
disabilities who meet the requirements for services services to students with disabilities who have been
under IDEA. identified as meeting requirements for services
Interactive Metronome: A timing instru- under IDEA 2007 (e.g., occupational therapists,
ment used in therapy to improve planning and physical therapists, speech therapists, adaptive
sequencing by using neuro-sensory and neuro- physical education teachers, etc.).
motor exercises.
197
Section 4
As is true with any innovation or intervention, evaluation is central to quality control. In the case of assistive technology, it
is not as easily carried out during development as in some areas where there already exists a number of products that meet
the same need. There are several reasons for this. First, the circumstance surrounding the need for assistive technologies
can contribute to the challenges of evaluation. If there is a clear need for a particular device or technical process, and the
technology already exists, the need may be so great that there is a rush to make it available for use. Or during the process of
development, new technologies may emerge that result in either an assistive technology being moved to implementation too
quickly or slowing the development process by switching to the new technology. In assessing the effectiveness of the assistive
technology with the targeted user, there are additional factors that can complicate the evaluation process. Depending on the
device or the intervention, it may be critical to evaluate its use under precise conditions and in use as intended. Testing can
be complicated if the tool is to be tailored to personalized use versus one that can be used in some generic form where the
individual intuitively makes decisions on its use. When evaluating tools and/or processes for individuals with special needs,
it is often difficult to predict the authentic conditions under which the evaluation will be carried out. Additionally, ensuring
use as intended becomes a concern. The latter is of particular concern if use is dependent on another person to train the
ultimate user. Systemic to the development of assistive technologies is the focus on scalability and affordability which are
interrelated. If the assistive technology can ultimately be developed to scale, the production costs are diminished. However,
if each device or process must be produced individually, costs can easily inhibit implementation. Scalability and affordability
should always be goals of inventors and developers in this area. That is not to say that in the development of prototypes that
the first goal should not be to develop an effective solution using the best technology available. However, once in prototype
form, the concern needs to address how best to make it available to those in need. The latter can be as challenging as the
initial design and costs are always a factor. External funding is often the source of support, but that should not deter efforts
to reduce the ultimate costs. In the context of assistive technologies that impact learning in an academic environment, many
needs may be hidden due to a tendency to view low achievement from a global perspective. This may create a vulnerability
in which the true needs of students become over-looked. At the postsecondary level, where students with high incidence
disabilities tend not to disclose their disabilities, their needs often go unidentified, at least those needs that are in the form
of assistive technologies. As sensitivity to universal design increases, awareness of opportunities to push the edge in the
utilization of technology, combined with instructional design, will enhance learning. Closely related to evaluation and as-
sessment is implementation and dissemination. While implementation is not a focus of this section, readers are encouraged
to think about how evaluation and assessment can facilitate the technology benefits for the intended user. The nature of
assistive technology influences how dissemination occurs. Some developers are more inclined than others to consider the
commercial sector. For assistive technologies that are clearly scalable, and where the shelf life is somewhat questionable,
it is essential for dissemination to be effective. Commercial vendors are in the business of dissemination, and depending on
the arrangements, commercialization can result in a revenue stream to support subsequent research and development. The
full range of distribution opportunities needs to be explored. There is merit is pursuing these partnerships and we now see
more partnership types of relationships involving the commercial sector.
199
Chapter 14
Impact of Text-to-Speech
Software on Access to Print:
A Longitudinal Study
Joan B. Hodapp
Area Education Agency 267, USA
Cinda Rachow
AbstrAct
This chapter discusses the outcomes of Iowa Text Reader Project’s 2006-2007 study that evaluated the
impact of Kurzweil 3000 during the second year of implementation. This study evaluates the effectiveness
of the text-to-speech (TTS) software as an accommodation to improve student access to core content with
fluency and comprehension. Using the Time Series Concurrent and Differential Approach (Smith, 2000),
this study examines students’ performance on comprehension passages read with and without the TTS
software. A balance of perceptual and objective data measures provides data on other student outcomes.
Twenty middle school special education students and nine teachers participated in the 27-week study.
IntroductIon Education Plan. The inclusion of special education

student achievement within the accountability of the
In recent years there had been increased interest in No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 raised
the evaluation of the implementation and effective- the level of concern. Now educators are required
ness of assistive technology (AT). Particularly, in to use evidence-based interventions with proven
these times of fiscal restraint educators are becoming effectiveness. Despite these mandates, only limited
acutely aware of the need to substantiate effective research has been conducted on the effectiveness
outcomes and wise allocation of resources. The of AT to improve student achievement outcomes
1997 and 2004 reauthorizations of Individuals with (Edyburn, 2003, 2007a) with contradictory results
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandated that AT (Sorrell, Bell, & McCallum, 2007; Strangman &
devices and services be considered for each student Dalton, 2005).
with a disability when developing an Individualized In a meta-analysis of 68 studies Alper and Ra-
harinirina (2006) identified only 20 that evaluated
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch014 the effectiveness of AT on the basic academic skills
Impact of Text-to-Speech Software on Access to Print
of reading, math, spelling, and writing. Twelve more engagement with the instructional material,
of those studies addressed the content areas of and improved independent work completion. The
math, spelling, or writing. Eight of the studies study results relate to Parette, Peterson-Karlan,
investigated reading skills. The results supported Wojcik, and Bardi’s (2007) discussion of the
improvement in skills such as comprehension, compensatory versus remedial function AT.
decoding, and fluency. Balajthy (2005) reviewed Lance, McPhillips, Mulhern, and Wylie (2006)
the impact of text-to-speech (TTS) software with compared the performance of three groups (Read
struggling readers reporting mixed results across and Write Gold, Microsoft Word, and control
various populations from improvements in com- groups) on literacy tests. After six training ses-
prehension depending on student ability level to sions of 45 minutes each, the AT group (Read
poorer results for better readers. Strangman and and Write Gold) showed improvement on read-
Hall (2003) identified 13 studies related to the ef- ing comprehension, homophone error detection,
fectiveness of TTS software. However, across all spelling error detection, and word meanings.
these studies it was difficult to draw firm conclu- The Microsoft group showed improvement on
sions due to the diversity of disabilities, age span, spelling error detection and word meanings with
technology devices, and lack of replication. Also a poorer performance on homophone error detec-
lacking were data on the effects of attitudes and tion. Meanwhile, the control group showed no
preferences on the integrity of implementation of improvement on any of these measures.
AT (Alper & Raharinirina, 2006; Smith, 2000). One variable that was identified as linked to
In response to the need for more research-based positive outcomes was the length of training and
interventions, there are an increasing number of intervention (Strangman & Dalton, 2005). To make
studies of AT outcome measures being generated. lasting gains in phonemic awareness, Olson, Wise,
In an action-based study, Dimmitt, Hodapp, Judas, Ring, and Johnson (1997) reported that more than
Munn, and Rachow (2006) assessed the impact 25 hours of student training was required. Both
of the use of a TTS software program (Kurzweil Olson and Wise (1992) and Elbro, Rasmussen,
3000) on the reading skills of 73 middle school and Spelling (1996) demonstrated results linking
students on outcome measures of reading fluency long intervention periods and extended training
and passage comprehension. The average read- with the positive student gains when using TTS
ing rates improved by 16 words per minute in 23 software. Gersten and Edyburn (2007) recommend
weeks, which was 2.3 times faster than would be a treatment interval of nine weeks at a minimum,
predicted by research on students with special but valued long-term interventions.
needs (Fuchs, Fuchs, Walz, & Germann, 1993). Unlike most studies that focused on students
The data also indicated a positive trend in the com- with disabilities, Sorrell, Bell, and McCallum
prehension scores. The average comprehension (2007) worked with 12 below average readers,
score improved by 13 percent per student from 59 grades 2 to 5 who were nominated as below average
to 72 percent. Data showed it took 13 weeks for readers by their teachers. Two of the students were
students’ comprehension scores on passages ac- receiving special education services. Employing
cessed by TTS software to exceed comprehension a counterbalanced randomized treatment design;
on print materials. The results demonstrate that they studied the impact of TTS software on read-
the accommodation helps compensate for student ing rate and comprehension by randomly assign-
reading deficits. Responses to online surveys ing participants to either a four-week 40-minute
demonstrated that students and teachers associ- waiting period or treatment group. In this way all
ated the use of the TTS software with improved students eventually received access to Kurzweil
academic performance, better on-task behavior, 3000 (version 5) and avoided the problem of
200
denying students access to the software. During learning acquisition of the TTS software to truly
the independent waiting period students engaged measure impact on skill development.
in independent silent reading activities using Ac- The purpose of the 2005-2006 Iowa Text
celerated Reader (AR) (2006) books. During the Reader Study, a longitudinal study, is to evalu-
treatment period students used the TTS software ate the effectiveness of a TTS software program
to access accelerated reader books. No significant (Kurzweil 3000) during the second year of imple-
results were found. Results indicated differential mentation as an intervention to provide student
effects on students depending on their reading access to the general education curriculum and
rate. While slower readers increased reading close the achievement gap between students
rate as a function of the TTS, students reading at with disabilities and their age mates. Targeted
instructional level did not improve comprehen- outcome measures included fluency, passage
sion. Considering concerns about sample size, comprehension, and student engagement such as
short intervention time, use of older software, task completion and on-task behavior. This study
concerns about the accuracy of the AR quizzes, sought to examine the following questions: (a)
and use of the technology with students for whom Does the use of TTS software with study skills
it was not designed, it is difficult to generalize improved passage comprehension? (b) Does the
the results to the populations for whom TTS is use of TTS software with targeted study skills
typically recommended. improved passage fluency? (c) Is there a selective
In light of the new body of literature address- impact on comprehension of recall versus inferen-
ing the measurement of implementation of AT tial questions? (d) Are there stages of technology
and measurement of outcomes, new concerns acquisition with TTS software?
arise (Edyburn, 2008). Specifically, the lack of
validated measures (Gersten & Edyburn, 2007),
failure to measure level of implementation prior bAckground
to evaluating outcomes (Silverman, Stratman, &
Smith, 2002), inadequate intervention duration A multidisciplinary study committee, under the
(Gersten & Edyburn, 2007), and insufficient length auspices of the Iowa Department of Education,
of intervention to understand stages of technology designed and managed the implementation of the
acquisition (Edyburn, Fennema-Jansen, Harihan, Iowa Assistive Technology Text Reader Project.
& Smith, 2005) all raise concerns about the ad- Assistive technology liaisons from across the state
equacy of existing results. were trained, collected data, and supported the
Consistent across all these studies has been implementation with students and teachers. Class-
the call for more research into the impact of as- room teachers then implemented the design in the
sistive AT on student academic outcomes (Edy- classroom setting. Assistive technology liaisons
burn, 2007b; Hammill, 2004). Not only is this a with high levels of integrity of implementation of
relatively new field, it has been challenged by a study procedures from the 2005-2006 Iowa Text
lack of appropriate research designs that could Reader Study (Dimmitt, Hodapp, Judas, Munn,
be used (Edyburn, 2007b). The ethics of denying & Rachow, 2006) were recruited for the current
or delaying AT devices or services to students study. When the AT liaisons were selected, their
participating as control subjects are considered affiliated teachers and students were automati-
to be questionable. Review of the literature raises cally included. These twenty students were from
concerns about the insufficient length of the inter- the original 61 students randomly selected for the
ventions in previous research to ensure sufficient 2005-2006 Iowa Text Reader Study.
201
Data on 21 students, from the 2005-2006 study reviewed the content of the three-day training
who did not participate in the current study, were from fall, 2005. This included curriculum-based
monitored in a separate outcome study comparing measurement strategies, implementation surveys,
performance of students who continued to have three target study skills, and student and teacher
access to Kurzweil 3000 with those who did not impact surveys. Navigating Kurzweil 3000 was
(Hodapp, Judas, Rachow, Munn, & Dimmitt, reviewed. Implementers’ inter-rater reliability
2007). The remaining 20 students from the origi- exceeded 0.8 on curriculum-based measurement
nal study were lost when AT liaisons or districts practice probes. Standardization of administra-
declined to participate for the second year. Rea- tion was practiced. Mock interviews using the
sons for declining participation included student descriptive data collection tools were conducted
improvement, student no longer needed software, to reach consistency. Procedures to access the
change of staff, and lack of administrative support, online surveys were also practiced.
hardware issues, or staff workload. The AT contacts then provided local training
for the teachers and students who participated in
the study. The required training guide binder with
metHodoLogy the content and format of the training was provided
to each contact to be used with local teachers.
The 2006-2007 Iowa Text Reader Study engaged It focused on navigation of Kurzweil 3000, the
twenty special education middle school students three required study skills (i.e., highlighting,
and nine special education teachers from eight identifying pre-reading questions, and identifying
Iowa school districts in this 27-week study. The main ideas), and integration of the study skills
participating teachers were the students’ current into curriculum and instruction. The AT contacts
instructors. Written parental consent and district provided biweekly consultation and coaching to
commitment were obtained prior to participa- the teachers. They also collected outcome data
tion. Permission was sought from the parents of twice a month directly from the students. Teach-
21 eligible students. Ninety-five percent of the ers then provided 27 weeks of instruction in at
parents signed the consent to participate. Twelve least one the core content subjects of science or
boys (60%) and eight girls (40%) ages 12-14 social studies.
participated. Ten (50%) were seventh graders. The 2006-2007 Text Reader Study employed
Ten (50%) were eighth graders. Eligibility criteria the TSCD Approach (Smith, 2000) (see Figure
included participation in the previous 2005-2006 1.) to study the performance of students using
Iowa Text Reader Study, an Individual Education TTS software by comparing student fluency and
Program (IEP) with reading goals in the area comprehension on passages accessed with or
of passage comprehension, reading fluency, or without TTS software. The students serve as their
vocabulary, a mild disability (learning disability, own control subjects in this design. The differ-
behavioral disorder, or cognitive disability), and ence in performance levels with and without the
scores in the non-proficient range (below the 40th technology measures the impact of the AT. The
percentile) on the reading subtests of the Iowa order of presentation of print versus TTS accessed
Test of Basic Skills (ITBS). passages was randomly varied. These repeated
The 2006-2007 Text Reader Project included measures over time with and without AT provide
two levels of training. A six-hour refresher train- evidence of the impact and outcome of AT use
ing session was provided to the AT contacts (Edyburn, 2005). The expectation would be that
focusing on the use of Kurzweil 3000 and the enhanced performance would be evident and the
implementation and outcome measures. This achievement gap would narrow.
202
Figure 1.
For 27 weeks students used Kurzweil 3000 of implementation. The Non-use level implies
TTS software using the targeted study skills, to little knowledge with no intention to implement.
access readings in content curriculum such as so- Orientation requires teachers to begin seeking
cial studies, science, language arts or other related information and making the decision whether
material. Every other week, students read two to implement. Preparation implies the teacher is
different controlled vocabulary passages, one with planning to use the intervention. The Mechanical
and one without the use of TTS software. Then, level indicates the teacher is using the interven-
the students’ reading performance (fluency and tion, but is struggling with logistics. Routine Use
comprehension) on those passages was measured reflects frequent, fluid use. At the Refinement level
by the local AT contacts. teachers are making changes to the intervention
Multiple measures of implementation and skill based on student performance. The Integration
development were collected. Six times during the level indicates the teacher collaboration with
study the teachers completed a measure of imple- other instructors to expand the implementation.
mentation. The Level of Use Interview, a Concerns At the Renewal level, teachers desire to make
Based Adoption Model tool (Hord, Rutherford, major implementation changes or select alterna-
Austin, & Hall, 1987), was used to monitor the tives. Teachers need to achieve the Routine level
implementation of the study components (see Fig- to have reached adequate competence to support
ure 1). Hall and Hord (1987) recommended inves- the student use. Dimmitt, Hodapp, Judas, Munn,
tigating the relationship between teacher progress and Rachow (2006) found there was a highly
in implementing change and student outcomes. significant correlation between level of use and
The Level of Use Interview generated data on student reading fluency outcomes (r (760 df) =
positive information and barriers for implementing 0.295535787, p < .0001). The analysis of this
the TTS software. The level of implementation of data was useful when coaching the implementer
the teacher described in the interview identifies a to problem-solve issues of concern for using the
specific level being used at that time (Anderson, TTS software.
1997). The results are classified using six stages
203
As another measure of implementation, teach- At the conclusion of the study both students
ers submitted four portfolio artifacts demonstrat- and teachers responded to perceptual data instru-
ing use of the required study skills. Six times during ments (Student and Teacher Impact Surveys, see
the study, students and teachers rated themselves Figures 4 and 5). For further information on the
on measures of student/teacher implementation implementation tools discussed see “Measure It,
(Digital Text Matrices, see Figures 2 and 3). Monitor It: Tools for Monitoring Implementation
The Student and Teacher Digital Text Matrices of Text-to-Speech Software” (Rachow & Hodapp,
measured knowledge and implementation of the in press). All measures were double checked by
software, access to the software, and technology the authors for accuracy and timeliness of imple-
issues. Students worked with an AT contact to mentation.
complete a Student Digital Matrix. The authors To study the routine use of TTS over an ex-
scored the completed matrices. tended time, outcome measures were collected.
Figure 2.
204
Data were collected on student fluency and pas- the seventh grade reading passages varied. The
sage comprehension on carefully matched seventh probes were sequenced by increasing difficulty
grade Jamestown Reading Fluency (1996). The from the 6.9 grade level to the 8.9 grade level on
paper and scanned probes were matched for read- both the print and scanned passages. The order
ing difficulty as measured by the Flesch-Kincaid of mode of presentation (print versus computer)
Readability Measures. The reading difficulty of was randomized. The print and scanned probes
Figure 3.
205
Figure 4.
were provided to the implementers in individual study. It was completed with three teachers (33%).
student packets and on compact discs. The data Figure 6 displays the teacher progression imple-
were collected every other week by the AT con- menting the TTS software. In their second year of
tacts. The accuracy of scoring was double checked use, teachers started in week 1 at the preparation
by the authors. level in contrast to beginning at the non-use level
in their first year (Dimmitt et al., 2006). In week
5, 100% of the responding teachers were using
resuLts the TTS software with routine use in their work
with students and Kurzweil 3000. By week 11,
In order to evaluate the academic outcomes of 66% of the responding teachers were using the
TTS, the 2006-2007 Text Reader Study simul- TTS software with routine use. At week 17, as
taneously measured levels of implementation additional core content or study skills features
using the Level of Use Interview as well as the were implemented, the level of use was evenly
Student and Teacher Matrices. This tool reflects divided between mechanical use and refinement.
the natural progression for individuals to mas- The rating during week 23 cycled to routine use,
ter one level and then move to another level of as teachers became more proficient with the
implementation of the AT. According to Bausch new refinements. The data indicates that at week
and Ault (2008), proper implementation is critical 27, 66% of the responding teachers again were
for achieving effective outcomes. Using the Level implementing new ways to incorporate features
of Use Interview the study monitored the levels of Kurzweil 3000 into their work.
of implementation six times during the 27-week
206
Figure 5.
The Teacher Digital Text Matrix measures both Implementer level. No one scored himself or her-
implementation and proficiency of use of the TTS self at the Beginning Facilitated Implementer level
software. Teacher scores reflect individual use including teachers new to the study. By the end of
and can be rated on a continuum from Beginning the 27th-week, the average score ranked teachers
Facilitated Implementer (1-9), Emerging Facili- in the Proficient Independent Implementer range.
tated Implementer (10-15), Proficient Facilitated No one ranked himself or herself in the Skilled
Implementer (16-21), Proficient Independent Independent Implementer range.
Implementer (22- 27), to Skilled Independent The Student Digital Text Matrix measures
Implementer (28-36). See Figure 7 for the teacher both implementation and proficiency of use of the
scores. TTS software. Student scores reflect individual
Over the course of the study, the progression of use and are rated on a continuum from Beginning
individual implementer scores was varied. On av- Facilitated User (1 to 3), Emerging Facilitated
erage, teachers began at the Emerging Facilitated User (4 to 6), Proficient Facilitated User (7 to
207
Figure 6. Student digital text matrix scoring guide
Figure 7. Teacher digital text matrix scores
12), Proficient Independent User (13 to 18), to User level. Two students scored in the Proficient
Skilled Independent User (19 to 24). See Figure Independent user range. Participating students
8 for student scores. typically scored no higher than the Proficient
Over the course of the second year of use, Facilitated User level range due to limited op-
the average scores moved from the Beginning portunities to access technology, teacher changes,
Facilitated User level to the Proficient Facilitated
208
Figure 8. Student digital text matrix
teacher proficiency with the technology, and other Using the Time Series Concurrent Differential
systemic barriers. Model (Smith, 2000), the 2006-2007 Iowa Text
As the final measure of implementation, Reader Project measured the impact of the use of
the four digital artifacts were submitted. Six Kurzweil 3000 TTS software on students’ ability
teachers (67%) submitted digital text portfolio to access content with fluency and passage com-
artifacts. The artifacts were evaluated using the prehension. Gersten, Baker, and Lloyd (2000)
Digital Text Artifact Rubric (see Figure 9). User suggested collecting numerical data supplemented
proficiency ratings ranged from non-existent to with rich descriptions of the learning experiences
skilled independent user. Artifacts from the first to uncover important relationships between out-
reporting period demonstrated limited use of come data and intervention procedures. Smith
highlighting. Artifacts from the second reporting (2000) emphasized the increased importance of
period contained examples of bubble notes with subjective data as part of student-focused services.
text directions and study guides. These artifacts Student or teacher perceptions of the technology
showed evidence of an organized system of high- may be strong indicators of continued implemen-
lighting. Artifacts from the final reporting period tation and success.
demonstrated examples of web-based documents When students were presented two passages
that were student generated. The artifacts submit- of comparable difficulty, presented in print or
ted at each reporting period paralleled the teach- computer format every other week, access fluency
ers’ self-assessment ratings of their level of use. was measured by words read per minute and reader
The artifacts were useful in validating the levels rate. The mode of presentation was randomized.
of implementation reported by the teachers and On average, students accessed the computer pas-
AT contacts. sages at the rate of 160 words per minute while
they read paper probes at an average rate of 79
209
Figure 9.
words correct per minute (see Figure 10). The students have reading the volume of assigned text
students maintained their reading fluency on paper in the typical core curriculum. This accommoda-
passages even as passage difficulty increased. tion helps students compete with their peers who
With scanned text, the students accessed twice routinely read 150-160 words per minute.
the amount of material in the same amount of Performance of students on the passage com-
time. This accommodation addresses the difficulty prehension probes, for both paper and scanned
210
Figure 10.
computer formats, can be seen in Figure 11. The compensatory rather than a remedial function in
readability of the reading passages, both print and supporting student access to content.
scanned, was matched and sequenced in order of The significance of these diverging trend-
increasing difficulty, from the 6.9 grade level to lines was evaluated. For each student, for each
the 8.9 grade level. As can be seen in Figure 11, week, the difference between his or her score
comprehension scores when students read print on computer and paper probes was calculated.
text declined as the reading difficulty increased. An analysis of variance revealed that these dif-
When accommodated with the Kurzweil 3000 ference scores changed over time, and the result
software, the trendline of passage comprehension was highly significant, F score (4.712, p < .001),
scores improved, even as the reading difficulty showing that the differences between paper and
continued to increase. The slopes indicate a di- computer comprehension scores over time were
verging pattern of the trendlines. Performance significant.
was better initially for print text as compared Figure 11 displays evidence of a pattern of
to scanned text. However, by week seven, as regression over the summer from the previous
the students began to master the use of the TTS school year. Possible factors could include regres-
software, their comprehension trendline began to sion and recoupment, new instructional staff, and
outpace the paper performance. The comprehen- increasingly demanding curriculum. However,
sion scores for the print probes dropped 11 points the second year data shows a pattern of earlier
from the 58% to 47%. The comprehension scores crossover of trendlines. During their second year
for the scanned probes, however, improved 4 of use, crossover occurred at week seven where
points from 54% to 58% as passage difficulty comprehension on computer assisted reading
increased. This data suggests the TTS serves a exceeded comprehension on paper probes. This
211
Figure 11.
is contrast with the results of 2005-2006 Iowa steady at 62%. These results contrast with results of
Text Reader Study (Dimmitt et al., 2006), when the 2005-2006 Iowa Text Reader Study (Dimmitt
students did not reach the tipping point (point at et al., 2006), where accuracy with fact questions on
which student performance trendlines crossed and computer probes dropped 4 points. On computer
continued to diverge) until the thirteenth-week of and paper inferential questions, the trendlines di-
intervention. verged as passage difficulty increased. The initial
To examine the difference in performance on scores on the inferential comprehension questions
fact recall versus inference comprehension ques- were the same for paper and computer probes.
tions, the data was further analyzed as displayed As passage difficulty increased the inferential
on Figure 12. trendlines diverged with performance on computer
In looking at the interaction of question type probes improving while paper probes decreased.
with presentation format, several interesting find- Comprehension scores for inferential questions
ings were apparent. Performance on fact compre- on the paper probes dropped 6 points (from 47%
hension questions was consistently stronger than to 41%). Comprehension scores for inferential
inferential comprehension on both paper and questions on computer probes increased 6 points
computer probes. As the passages increased in (from 47% to 53%). This contrasts with the results
difficulty, accuracy on paper probe fact questions of 2005-2006 Iowa Text Reader Study (Dimmitt
dropped while accuracy on computer probe fact et al., 2006), where accuracy with inferential
questions remained stable. Comprehension scores questions on computer probes dropped one point.
for fact questions on the paper probes dropped 17 That indicates a change of trendline direction and
points from 70% to 53%. Comprehension scores a 7-point improvement in comprehension scores
for fact questions on the computer probes remained when comparing the two years. This reflects that
212
Figure 12. Interaction of question type with presentation format
student performance on inferential questions consisted of some first and second year implement-
(higher level thinking) improved. ers. Teachers continued to attribute strong positive
The statistical significance of these diverging impact on student reading, comprehension, and
trendlines for the interaction of question type and students’ ability to work independently. Decreases
mode of presentation was evaluated. For each were observed in schools teachers had previously
student, for each week, the difference between his felt were impacted by the use of TTS, such as at-
or her score on computer versus paper probes and tendance and student self-confidence.
fact versus inference questions was calculated. An To measure student attitudes toward Kurzweil
analysis of variance revealed that these difference 3000 during their second year of use, the Student
scores changed over time, and the result was highly Impact Survey was conducted. At the end of week
significant, F score (7.215, p < .0001), showing 27, 20 students (100%) completed an online survey
that the differences between paper and computer assessing their impressions of the project and the
comprehension scores over time were significant. impact of the TTS software on their access to the
This is evidence of the empirical significance, general education curriculum. See Figure 14 for
as well as the educational significance of the ef- the results of the Student Impact Survey. During
fectiveness of this accommodation. the second year of use, students continued to
To measure teacher opinions toward Kurzweil respond very positively to essential impact ele-
3000 during their second year of use, the Teacher ments like understanding what was written in the
Impact Survey was conducted. Eight teachers text, helping with their reading, doing their work
(89%) completed the online survey—Teacher independently, and learning to use the software.
Impact Survey (see Figure 13). The teacher group The four highest scores, the Essential Impact Ele-
213
Figure 13. Teacher impact survey
ments, are consistent with the factors shown to about the effect of routine use of TTS and whether
increase acceptability of interventions and integ- students will need different reading and literacy
rity of implementation (Gresham, 1989). Students skills. Given this line of thinking, do teachers need
maintained consistently high levels of positive new instructional and technology skills? This lon-
attitudes toward using TTS and perceptions of its gitudinal study of the second year of use of TTS
impact. They did not appear to experience user in core content subjects demonstrated significant
fatigue, boredom, or satiation with the software. results impacting students’ ability to access read-
This suggests the positive impact of the TTS AT ing passage, improve overall comprehension as
software reinforces the students’ continued use. well as higher level thinking and improve student
attitudes and engagement. Students accessed twice
the amount of scanned text as print text in the
dIscussIon same amount of time when using TTS software
consistent with the findings of 2005-2006 Iowa
Very limited research has been conducted on the Text Reader Study (Dimmitt et al., 2006). This
impact of AT on student reading content outcomes. accommodation supports students’ need to access
Since traditional instructional strategies have had core general education curriculum as well as the
limited success for individuals with reading defi- need to manage the pace and volume of content.
cits, it is vital to find other strategies which provide This implies students will have more fluent ac-
cognitive access (Abell, Bauder, & Simmons, cess to the text, thereby freeing up cognitive re-
2005). As Edyburn (2007) stated, little is known sources that can be applied to comprehension. In
Figure 14. Teacher impact survey results: Essential impact elements
214
a review of the literature, Strangman and Dalton can access the core materials at twice the rate, with
(2005) found evidence that digital technologies understanding, at levels of higher thinking—thus
have the potential to support struggling readers allowing them to work more competitively in a
in both compensatory and remedial ways by not general education setting.
only providing access to text but helping students This study replicated findings that positive
learn how to read with understanding. outcomes with TTS software are associated with
The study results found that even as students extended training and use (Elbro, Rasmussen, &
successfully accessed twice as much content in the Spelling, 1996; Olson, Wise, & Ring, 1997; Ol-
same time period, their comprehension improved son & Wise, 1992; Strangman & Dalton, 2005).
when supported with TTS software. For the first While, in the first year of use, students needed
time, this study demonstrated the statistically 11 weeks to show positive impact on passage
significant impact of use of the text–to-speech comprehension (Dimmitt et al., 2006), the cur-
software on student passage comprehension. This rent study demonstrated that these same students
finding showed that the differences between paper in their second year of use of TTS experienced
and computer comprehension scores over time a seven-week regression over the summer. Ad-
were significant when the Kurzweil 3000 sup- ditional research is needed to further examine the
ported access to the content. In other words, even patterns of regression over school breaks. Also,
as the students used the TTS software to access future research into the effectiveness of TTS
the curriculum materials at twice the rate, they should provide sufficient length of intervention
were able to maintain or improve their compre- before evaluating impact (Olson, Wise, Ring, &
hension levels on increasingly difficult material. Johnson, 1997).
This supports the supposition that TTS software Edyburn (2007b) found little research has
may bypass or remediate decoding problems been done on the effects of routine use of reading
enabling students to focus cognitive resources on technologies on student interest, motivation, and
constructing meaning from the text (Strangman engagement. The current study demonstrates that
& Dalton, 2005). over the two-year period participants maintained
Another significant new finding was the impact generally positive perceptions and attributed
of the TTS software on student comprehension many positive outcomes to the use of the TTS
scores for both factual and inferential questions. software. Teacher reports mirrored the highly
With the TTS software, factual comprehension positive support on the three critical elements of
scores were maintained while scores on the whether it helped students read, increased student
inferential comprehension tests improved even independence, and helped students understand
as the level of instruction increased. Without the their textbooks. The survey results replicated other
accommodation, both comprehension scores on positive outcomes teachers associated with the
print text decreased. Here is dramatic evidence use of the TTS software including improved aca-
of an effective strategy to improve higher level demic performance, better on-task behavior and
thinking. The use of the TTS software with targeted more engagement in the instructional materials.
study skills significantly improved comprehension These improvements suggest improved student
on factual and inferential questions. engagement and increased access to core instruc-
These results are also educationally significant. tion and curriculum (Elkind, Cohen, & Murray,
From a teacher perspective, the students would be 1993). Strangman and Dalton (2005) suggest that
more likely to be able to access and understand the improved engagement should be an important
same material as their peers while working inde- criterion used to evaluate the effectiveness of
pendently. The results demonstrate that students literacy instruction. In light of student-centered
215
interventions, Smith (2000) posited that subjec- summAry

tive outcome measures most accurately predict
how successful learners will be with AT since Students with special needs in this study clearly
their perceptions predict continued usage. These benefited from the routine use of TTS software to
improvements suggest improved student engage- accommodate access to reading passages. Positive
ment and increased access to core instruction and outcomes included improved fluency of access to
curriculum (Elkind, Cohen, & Murray, 1993). content and improved passage comprehension.
As individuals implement new innovations A surprising finding was the positive impact on
and as self and task concerns are largely resolved, comprehension of both factual and inferential
individuals can then focus on the impact of the questions. Evidence was provided that students
intervention (Hord, Rutherford, Austin, & Hall, require extended interaction with the software
1987). This study demonstrated that as teachers before there is evidence of an impact. Students
move into more sophisticated use of the TTS soft- need instructional supports to insure they will
ware, new skills are assimilated into the teaching use all the features of the TTS software. Teacher
repertoire. However, there was evidence that lack proficiency levels create artificial ceilings when
of teacher proficiency created artificial ceilings for teachers fail to provide access or training oppor-
student progress. Strangman and Dalton (2005) tunities for their students. In the second year of
reported that students with special needs did not use, the students moved to more fluid use sooner
use all resource features of the software without than they did in the first year. In the second year
instructor support. When teachers lack the profi- of use, the teachers engaged more quickly and at
ciency or fail to provide access, students will be higher levels of proficiency.
unable to move to total independence. It appears
further research is needed to determine the extent
to which teachers need support and coaching as AcknoWLedgment
much as the students do to insure mastery and
high levels of implementation. This project was funded by the Iowa Department
Even with a smaller research group, the experi- of Education under the leadership of Steve Maurer.
ence of the Iowa Text Reader Study highlighted the The authors wish to recognize the expertise and
successes and difficulties of conducting statewide work of Clair Judas, Sandy Dimmitt, and Cindy
action-based research. The training demands, the Munn, the other members of the project steering
technological difficulties, and level of coaching committee as well as the students, teachers, admin-
needed to maintain the study’s integrity proved istrators, and AEA AT contacts who participated
challenging. There were still difficulties with in this project.
scheduling and managing the work in addition
to teacher workload. Frustrations still remained
over the difficulty in conducting research with reFerences
human subjects and the inability to identify a
control group, however, denial of an appropriate Abell, M. M., Bauder, D. K., & Simmons, T. J.
instructional accommodation to eligible students (2005). Access to the general curriculum: A cur-
was not an option. While the use of the TSCD riculum and instruction perspective for educators.
model allowed the students to serve as their own Intervention in School and Clinic, 41, 82–86. doi
controls, future research is needed comparing :10.1177/10534512050410020801
subjects with and without the intervention of TTS
software.
216
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218
Implementation: Application of the innova- improves significantly when used with graphing
tion with strict compliance to the intervention and decision rules.
schedule (i.e., fidelity (quality of application) and Text-to-Speech Software: A category of
integrity (completely and as scheduled)). software using scanned digitized text that can
Outcome Measures: Technically adequate and convert any written text into spoken word. It
sensitive measures of the effects of the technol- allows access to software and digital documents
ogy on the targeted skill area. For example, if the such as MS Word, web page, PDF files, and the
target is improved reading skills, an appropriate Internet. Leading examples include Kurzweil
outcome measure would include curriculum-based 3000, Read and Write Gold, and Wynn Scan and
measurement data which has been proven to be Read Software.
reliable and valid. Time Sequence Differential Concurrent
Progress Monitoring: Routine monitoring (TSCD) Model: A research design that compares
of assessment data used as formative data to student performance of the same task with and
make instructional decisions. It is most com- without technology to measure the impact of as-
monly associated with the use of curriculum- sistive technology.
based measurement data with decision rules
for instructional changes. Student performance
219
220
Chapter 15
Measure It, Monitor It:
Tools for Monitoring Implementation
of Text-to-Speech Software
Joan B. Hodapp
Cinda Rachow
AbstrAct
This chapter addresses the importance of systematic assessment using a variety of tools to evaluate
implementation and monitor the outcomes of assistive technology innovations. A variety of the tools
and strategies—developed to monitor implementation and change, gather perceptual data, and collect
academic outcome data—are discussed. These tools and strategies were developed and tested in the
2005-2006 and 2006-2007 Iowa Text Reader Studies. Applications of the tools are featured for various
stakeholders, such as teachers, administrators, and researchers. Multiple research designs to determine
the impact of assistive technology, including the Time Sequence Concurrent Differential Model, are
contrasted.
IntroductIon from multiple sources and multiple stakeholders

by triangulating the data. Instruments addressed
The intent of this chapter is to share a variety of the include: implementation tools for text-to-speech
tools and strategies developed to monitor implemen- software, both specific and universal; data analysis
tation, gather perceptual data, and collect outcome tools for individuals and groups; research models;
data. These tools were tested in the 2005-2006 and innovative survey strategies; and rubrics for text-
2006-2007 Iowa Text Reader Studies (Dimmitt, to-speech teacher portfolio artifacts.
Hodapp, Judas, Munn, & Rachow, 2006; Hodapp,
Rachow, Judas, Munn, & Dimmitt, 2007; Rachow
& Hodapp, 2008). These tools focused on providing bAckground
a convergence of data that are sensitive to change
With the passage of the Education of All Handi-
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch015 capped Children Act (P.L.94-142) in 1975, the focus
Measure It, Monitor It
and mandate for improving academic achievement Ault, 2008; Edyburn, Fennema-Jansen, Harihan,
for students with special needs have increasingly & Smith, 2005; Malouf & Hauser, 2005).
narrowed and become high stakes concerns for
school districts. Initially, concerns were focused Innovative tools to monitor
on providing student access to the general educa- Implementation of text-
tion curriculum. Now, the emphasis has moved to-speech software
to student outcomes documenting closure of the
achievement gap between students with special DeRuyter (1997) called for more accountability as
needs and their typical peers by providing this cog- well as development of performance and quality
nitive access to the general education curriculum monitoring tools to prove the value and impact
(Abell, Bauder, & Simmons, 2005; Hitchcock, of AT. Edyburn (2008) delineated six variables
Meyer, Rose, & Jackson, 2007). The inclusion, that should be measured as part of an AT outcome
for the first time ever, of special education student measurement system. The variables included stu-
achievement within the accountability of the No dent performance, consumer satisfaction, quality
Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 raised the of life, cost, goal achievement, and change in par-
level of concern for student proficiency from the ticipation. Without an understanding of the level
individual to the systems level. of implementation of an intervention, Silverman,
Since the mandate of Individuals with Disabili- Stratman, and Smith (2000) feel it is impossible to
ties Education Act (IDEA) of 1994, and despite accurately measure the impact of an innovation. To
the requirement of NCLB to utilize research-based measure implementation, including affective and
strategies, only limited research has been con- behavioral dimensions of change in response to
ducted in the fourteen years on the effectiveness text-to-speech intervention, the Iowa Text Reader
of assistive technology (AT) to improve student Studies designed several instruments based on the
achievement regardless of instructional area Concerns Based Adoption Model (CBAM) (Hord,
(Edyburn, 2003, 2007). DeRuyter (1994, 1997) Rutherford, Austin, & Hall, 1987). The Concerns
attributed the paucity of research to lack of both Based Adoption Model was selected based on its
subjective and objective measurement tools to reputation as a widely recognized and validated
support or deny the effectiveness of AT. Gersten model for monitoring teachers’ responses to
and Edyburn (2007) attributed the overdepen- changes in curriculum and instruction. Anderson
dence of consumer satisfaction surveys to the (1997) conducted a literature review on CBAM,
lack of validated outcome measures. Numerous which documented the robust and empirical
researchers have commented that more attention foundations of this theoretical model. Anderson
was paid to the device selection than implementa- summarized CBAM’s five assumptions basic to
tion and outcome measurement (Bausch & Ault, educational change: (a) change is a process not an
2008; Edyburn, 2008; Parette, Peterson-Karlan, event, (b) change is accomplished by individuals,
Wojcik, & Bardi, 2007). Edyburn (2003) defined (c) change is a highly personal experience, (d)
ten variables, such as change in function, change change involves developmental growth, and (e)
in participation, goal achievement and usage as- change can be facilitate by interventions towards
sociated with AT use that could be indicators to the individuals, innovations, and the context
help understand the outcomes. Indeed, it is only (p.333). The Iowa Text Reader Projects adapted
recently that the concept of an implementation the three primary tools CBAM developed to moni-
plan including tools for measuring outcomes has tor change: Innovation Configuration, Stages of
been introduced into the literature (Bausch & Concern Survey, and Level of Use Interview. The
first tools to be discussed here are the Student
221
Digital Text Matrix, Teacher Digital Text Matrix, Student Digital Text Matrix
Digital Text Artifact Matrix, and the Level of Use
Survey. The matrices are modeled after the CBAM The Student Digital Text Matrix records student
Innovation Configuration. progress in mastering the Kurzweil 3000 software
across six domains. The Student Digital Text
Matrix (see Figure 1) measures knowledge and
implementation of the software, access to the
Figure 1.
222
software, and technology issues. The matrix was software. This information informs the individual
designed to be able to monitor individual change and systems level decision-making.
as well as system change. The matrix also provides Fuchs and Fuchs (1986) reported that when
data vital to setting outcome goals for terminal data were graphed as part of formative evaluation,
skill on software and application skills. Students average achievement outcomes improved almost
completed the matrices six times during the school .8 standard deviations than when not graphed.
year. The self-assessment format of the Student Figure 3 demonstrates use of graphing student
Digital Text Matrix allows for reflection and goal proficiency on the Kurzweil 3000 software us-
setting. The resulting conversations provide im- ing the Student Digital Text Matrix to monitor
mediate feedback and re-teaching opportunities. progress and make implementation decisions.
This provides an opportunity for consultation and Using this monitoring strategy, Hodapp, Rachow,
intervention between student and teacher as part Judas, Munn, and Dimmitt (2007) determined that
of the interactive change process. The data used restrictions limiting student access to technology
could lead to direct instruction, accommodations created artificial barriers to full implementation of
or increased access to the hardware and software advanced software features and skill development.
technology to encourage continued student skill As part of the implementation plan, follow-up
development. focused on identifying causes and solutions for
Using the Student Digital Text Matrix Scoring these barriers. In some cases the teachers needed
Guide (see Figure 2), the matrix was scored and additional training on the advanced features. In
the Total Matrix Score was recorded. The student’s other cases, the barriers were due to lack of access
total score was then interpreted and assigned a rat- to the technology that was remedied by granting
ing from Non-User to Skilled Independent User. student permission to use the scanners.
Student progress was analyzed on each matrix
and longitudinally by charting scores over time. Teacher Digital Text Matrix
Student scores were grouped providing systems
level analysis. This matrix provides formative The Teacher Digital Text Matrix (see Figure 4) pro-
student data on access and proficiency using the vides a systematic way to monitor teacher mastery
Kurzweil 3000 or other text-to-speech reader and implementation of text-to-speech software
Figure 2. Student digital text matrix scoring guide
223
Figure 3.
across nine components to include knowledge to the effective use of technology. As Love (2002)
of the software components, availability, access, states, data can convince people of the need for
scanning and editing, and awareness of embedded change by identifying causes, pinpointing priori-
study skills. This tool also helps teachers organize, ties, and guiding resource allocation.
manage, and integrate their instructional plan Each domain is scored and the Total Matrix
for hardware and software mastery and instruc- Score calculated. Then, the teacher’s total score
tion. Self-assessment using the Teacher Digital can be interpreted and assigned a rating ranking
Text Matrix allows teachers to identify short and from Non-User to Skilled Independent User (see
long-term goals, seek appropriate consultation, the Teacher Digital Text Matrix Scoring Guide,
improve access to technology, or target specific Figure 5). Possible teacher uses of the Matrix
student skill instruction. For example, Hoffman, include self-assessment and progress monitoring.
Hartley, and Boone (2005) reported barriers Formative data can be collected longitudinally by
to implementation still exist as late as 2002 in charting scores over time. The matrix provides
8% of instructional classrooms where they lack formative data on access, management, and pro-
Internet access. Another important factor is the ficiency using the Kurzweil 3000 or other text-to-
ratio of students to instructional computers with speech reader software. As part of a systems level
Internet access. The ratio improved from 12.1 to implementation scores for staff could be grouped
1 in 1998, to 4.4 in 2003, and to 3.8 to 1 in 2005 and graphed to provide systems level analysis. This
(U.S. Department of Education, 2006). Depend- information informs the individual and systems
ing on local ratios, this would create barriers for level decision-making. Data is provided on specific
successful implementation. This would be valu- teacher’s skill development, and implementation,
able data when consulting with administrators. as well as system level information useful for
Silverman, Stratman, and Smith (2000) reported resource allocations.
these complex issues where the greatest barriers
224
Figure 4.
Digital Text Artifact Rubric mapping. The Digital Text Artifact Rubric (see
Figure 6) measures skills and knowledge at two
Stiggins (1987) calls for authentic assessments that levels, one at the individual and other at the systems
require students to apply the skills and knowledge level. On the individual teacher level, the rubric
they have mastered. Stoof, Martens, and Mer- provides a self-assessment tool for teacher use.
rienboer (2007) used web-based technology to The rubric defines and measures the application
monitor authentic assessment using competence of skill features of the text-to-speech software.
225
Figure 5. Teacher digital text matrix scoring guide
Using this data, teachers are able to monitor the a format for feedback and goal setting as part of
quality of their artifacts and identify personal the study.
targets for ongoing successful implementation. The Digital Text Artifact Rubric evaluates
By attaching the rubric as a reflection to their teacher artifacts across 7 domains aligned with
artifacts as part of their professional development the Kurzweil 3000 features. The domains rate
portfolio, teachers help inform their administrators teacher proficiency on the featured accommoda-
who might be less technologically proficient of tions of the Kurzweil 3000. The Total Rubric
the software features. It has the added benefit of Score is rated on a User Proficiency Scale from
positively structuring their evaluative feedback. Non-existent to Skilled Independent User (see the
This becomes increasingly important as more Digital Text Artifact Matrix Scoring Guide, Figure
and more professionals use electronic portfolios 7). A more generic version entitled the Digital
documented with electronic artifacts. It also pro- Text Artifact Rubric—Universal (see Figure 8)
vides a sophisticated format beyond the traditional provides a similar format for progress monitoring
teacher logs administrators can use to view ap- with other text-to-speech software programs such
plication of acquired skills as part of instruction as Read and Write Gold and Wynn Scan and Read
and implementation. Administrators are more Software (see Figure 9).
likely to support continued funding for software
they see implemented. Finally, administrators can Level of use Interview
use the rubric to monitor the implementation by
evaluating teacher group data to validate capital Hord, Rutherford, Austin, and Hall (1987) devel-
outlay to their board. In addition, researchers use oped the Level of Use (LOU) Interview to map
the rubric to monitor the integrity and fidelity of the developmental pattern of teacher behaviors as
implementation of their research design. Using the part of the CBAM. While the Digital Text Matrix
Digital Text Artifact Rubric, Rachow and Hodapp measures the implementation and mastery of the
(2008) were able to monitor their research design text-to-speech software, the Level of Use inter-
integrity by assessing teacher instructional arti- view provides measurement of teacher behavior
facts as evidence of mastery and use of required directly related to implementation of the software.
software features. The artifact could also provide Anderson (1997) described CBAM’s six stages of
226
Figure 6.
use from Level 0, Non-use to Level 6, Renewal that knowing the LOU score of implementers
as a progression marking key decision points and allows researchers or administrators to avoid
resulting behaviors necessary to implement and negative assumptions or incorrect interpretations
sustain change. Hall and Louks (1977) report regarding users/nonusers performance. The pe-
227
Figure 7. Digital text artifact rubric scoring guide
riodic interview tool also stimulates participant question. At the conclusion, the online Level of
compliance as part of the implementation plan. Use Interview calculates the level of use from
Experience teaches that what gets monitored non-use to renewal.
gets done. The interviewers use the interview to Administrators and researchers can also use
identify barriers to full implementation that can the online Level of Use Interview data to track
then be addressed. group data. This provides a visual representation
The Iowa Text Reader Studies (Dimmitt, of the movement of the level of sophistication
Hodapp, Judas, Munn, & Rachow, 2006; Hodapp, of implementation. Figure 11 uses Level of Use
Rachow, Judas, Munn, & Dimmitt, 2007; Rachow Interview data to map the progress of implementa-
& Hodapp, 2008) adapted the CBAM Level of tion of the text-to-speech software over the eleven
Use Interview format specific to the text-to-speech weeks. Analyzing the data in week one, we can
software. Early experience demonstrated that clearly see the pattern of implementation. One
novice interviewers had trouble following the half of the teachers were non-users. Three teach-
required branching question format. To reduce ers needed more information to implement the
errors, the Iowa Text Reader Studies designed an program. Two teachers were using the software
online automatically branching question format. to support instruction in a step-by-step mechani-
Also, use of an online format increases survey cal manner. One teacher had reached fluent and
completion rates. In a comparison of paper, fax, or routine use of the software while one teacher
web-based surveys, Cobanoglu, Warde, and Moreo was collaborating with others. By examining the
(2001) observed response rates of 26%, 17%, and transition of user level across the eleven weeks,
44% respectively. Also, the online Level of Use the researcher/administrator recognizes that there
Interview automatically scored the interview thus are still two non-users due to hardware problems
reducing another source of variance in the data. but the majority had moved to higher levels of
The online Level of Use Interview (see Figure implementation. Rather relying on opinion, this
10) provides the interviewer with the questions provides actual data to inform professional devel-
and responses. Then, based the teacher response opment and resource allocation decisions.
automatically branches to the next appropriate
228
Figure 8.
Innovative tools to gather objective measures, DeRuyter (1997) reminds

Perceptual data on text- researchers “subjective measures, or how the
to-speech software consumer perceives the quality of the service of
the product, are a reality and are inherent within
Participant satisfaction surveys provide another outcome management research” (p.103). Marzano
data source on the impact of AT. Balanced with (2000) found collecting data from multiple sources
229
Figure 9. Digital text artifact rubric scoring guide: Universal
Figure 10. Level of use survey demo
like direct data and perceptual data allows more Student Impact Survey
comprehensive understanding of the outcomes and
needs of an initiative. Iowa Text Reader Studies The Student Impact Survey (see Figure 12) polled
(Dimmitt, Hodapp, Judas, Munn, & Rachow, participant opinions on the following domains:
2006; Hodapp, Rachow, Judas, Munn, & Dim- enjoyment of use, ease of learning the program,
mitt, 2007; Rachow & Hodapp, 2008) developed ease of use with school work, impact on reading as
impact surveys to seek feedback data from both well as a range of school behaviors like working
the students and teachers implementing the text- independently, staying on task, and improving in-
to-speech software using an online format. terest in their learning. The survey was completed
online. The online survey automatically tabulated
the results and summarized them graphically.
Similar to the results of Cobanoglu, Warde, and
Moreo (2001), response rates increased when the
230
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
231
Figure 13. Student impact survey
survey was provided online. Comparing student removing opportunities for technology. Teachers
survey responses across two years of implementa- and students object. How can you deny access to
tion provided longitudinal data on the attitude and an accommodation to which the child is entitled?
behaviors after extended use (see Figure 13). Also, neither design addresses the impact of long-
Teacher Impact Survey. The Teacher Impact term use of the technology. Sorrell, Bell, and
Survey also polled participant opinions. Teachers McCallum (2007) employed a counterbalanced
were asked for input on similar domains using an randomized treatment design to study the impact
online survey. Again, the survey automatically of TTS software on reading rate and comprehen-
scored, charted, and graphed results (see Figures sion by randomly assigning students to either a
14 and 15). four-week waiting period or treatment group. In
this way all students eventually received access
Innovative tools to monitor to Kurzweil 3000 and avoided the problem of
Academic outcomes Impacted denying students access to the software. However,
by text-to-speech software with longer treatment periods that model would
not be palatable in an authentic or action-based
Educators and researchers have struggled to find research setting.
outcome measures sensitive to change and to Smith (2000) advocates for the use the Time
find research designs that allow for authentic as- Series Concurrent Differential (TSCD) model. In
sessment without denying students access to the this design the subjects provide their own controls
AT that they require. The limited research on the by having students perform the targeted skill
effectiveness of AT is dominated by single subject with and without the use of AT. The difference
design studies. Parette, Peterson-Karlan, Wojcik, in performance levels under the two conditions
and Bardi (2007) summarized substantive criti- would represent the impact of the AT. The Iowa
cism of the use the ABAB multiple baseline or the Text Reader Studies demonstrated use of the
ABA basic withdrawal research designs on basis TSCD model (Rachow & Hodapp, 2008) (see
of ethical and practical problems associated with Figure 16).
232
Figure 14.
The TSCD model holds real promise for re- standardized achievement tests. However, these
searchers examining the impact of AT on student are expensive, time consuming to administer,
performance. In addition, the model can be used require trained administrators, and do not nec-
to measure the effectiveness of a specific accom- essarily have adequate reliability and validity.
modation or device for individual students. Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) strate-
gies provide reasonable assessment alternatives.
Curriculum-Based With more than three decades of research showing
Measurement Probes strong validity and reliability, CBM offers quick,
inexpensive, and sensitive measures of academics
To measure the outcome or impact of AT on performance in the areas of reading, mathematics,
academic skills, some researchers have relied on and written language (Safer & Fleischman, 2005).
233
Figure 15. Teacher impact survey results
Figure 16. Time series concurrent differential model
CBM is a form of authentic assessment that mea- Staff can be easily trained to administer and score
sures competence in reading, math, and written CBM with strong inter-rater reliability making it
language (Deno, 2003). Parette, Peterson-Karlan, easy to use in the classroom. Tools also exist for
Wojcik, and Bardi (2007) cited the increasingly other academic areas such as math, spelling, and
important role of CBM in the AT consideration written language.
process since NCLB requires accountability and
the use of research-based strategies. In a meta-
analysis study, Fuchs and Fuchs (1986) examined concLusIon
the effects of formative evaluation and reported
that the use systematic formative evaluation and In the fourteen years since AT and services
progress monitoring with CBM data raised student have been mandated for eligible students, lim-
outcome measures by .7 standard deviations. In ited research into their effectiveness have been
the area of reading, CBM offers outcome mea- conducted. The field lacks research designs or
sures for reading fluency and comprehension. The measurement tools suited for the task. Without
reading fluency probe consists of timed reading adequate tools to document implementation, any
passages at grade level (see Figure 17). The unit assumptions about outcomes are questionable.
of measure is the number of words read aloud This chapter provides insights and explanations
correctly during a one minute timed reading. about field-tested tools coordinated to provide
234
Figure 17.
comprehensive data on levels of implementation reFerences

and targeted outcomes. Innovative strategies
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237
monly associated with the use of curriculum- Internet. Leading examples include Kurzweil
based measurement data with decision rules 3000, Read and Write Gold, and Wynn Scan and
for instructional changes. Student performance Read Software.
improves significantly when used with graphing Time Sequence Differential Concurrent
and decision rules. Model (TSCD): A research design that compares
Text-to-Speech Software: A category of student performance of the same task with and
software using scanned digitized text that can without technology to measure the impact of as-
convert any written text into spoken word. It sistive technology.
allows access to software and digital documents
such as MS Word, web page, PDF files, and the
238
239
Chapter 16
Evaluating Systemic Assistive
Technology Needs
Noel Estrada-Hernández
University of Iowa, USA
James R. Stachowiak
AbstrAct
This chapter will focus on the impact that teacher knowledge of and comfort with assistive technology
has on the use of this technology by students with disabilities and how these factors are identified through
conducting needs assessment-based research. This chapter begins with a discussion of what is assistive
technology and the role it plays in the life of a person with a disability. This will include a discussion
of the idea that the earlier AT is introduced to the individual, the more likely it will continue to be used
and the larger effect it will have on the individual’s future education, employment, and independent
living needs. Also, this chapter will introduce the concept and application of needs assessment, as well
as the benefits of conducting this type of research to improve the quality of AT services. This discussion
will be supported by an initial discussion of results and experiences in conducting the Iowa Assistive
Technology Needs Assessment focusing on the methods used and limitations encountered while conduct-
ing this project. Finally, recommendations for future AT-based research will be provided. By the end of
this chapter, readers will understand the pressing issues in AT training for teachers, how to determine
what is needed, and what is being done to improve overall AT knowledge and comfort.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch016
Evaluating Systemic Assistive Technology Needs
IntroductIon wheelchairs; and high-tech devices such as power

wheelchairs and computer applications such as
Assistive technology and scan and read, screen reader, or speech recogni-
Persons with disabilities tion programs.
Traditionally related to the professions of
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act rehabilitation counseling and special education,
(IDEA) of 1990 and its amended version in 2004 AT is often associated with the provision of and
represent a step forward in eliminating some of access to computer and related technologies for
the learning barriers experienced by students with individuals with disabilities. Literature suggests
disabilities in the United States. This legislation, that the earlier AT is introduced, the more likely
Public Law 94-142, mandates that eligible students the individual will acquire skills needed to succeed
with disabilities have access to the same public in different environments (Judge, Floyd, & Jeffs,
school education as students without disabilities. 2008). Also, AT has the potential to increase devel-
In order to facilitate this access, schools/school opmental skills and provide solutions to behavior,
districts are required to provide reasonable accom- attention, and communication challenges faced by
modations designed to address the student’s unique students with disabilities or considered at-risk in
educational needs. One such accommodation is early childhood settings (Parette & Stoner, 2008).
the use of assistive technology (AT). Although The role of AT in school as well as other settings
there is research that documents the role of AT in (e.g., home, work, community, etc.) is to include
facilitating education, employment, and indepen- and integrate persons with disabilities by facili-
dent living outcomes of adults with disabilities, tating the completion of required environmental
little attention has been paid to the identification tasks. Research suggests that AT is a valuable
of AT needs in the school system. asset in promoting the employability of persons
According to the Technology-Related As- with disabilities (Gamble & Satcher, 2002). AT
sistance for Individuals With Disabilities Act has been regarded as a factor that would facilitate
of 1988, an AT device is defined as any item, employment placement and improve job tenure
piece of equipment, or product system, whether (Langton & Ramseur, 2001). Other researchers
acquired commercially or off the shelf, modified such as Mull and Sitlington (2003) discussed
or customized, that increases, maintains, or im- the ways in which AT can be used to address the
proves functional capabilities of individuals with needs of students with disabilities during their
disabilities (ATA, 2000; Bryant & Bryant, 2003; elementary and high school years and in transition
Tech Act; Public Law 100-407). This definition to postsecondary education. The rational being that
emphasizes what it is, how it is made, and the if students with disabilities enter postsecondary
intended use of the technology. Legal mandates education and obtain a degree, they may avoid
such as the Rehabilitation Act Amendments, the entering into low pay entry jobs typically asso-
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, and ciated with this population (Estrada-Hernández,
the Americans with Disabilities Act support the Wadsworth, Nietupski, Warth, & Winsdow, 2008;
provision of AT services to individuals with dis- Frank & Sitlington, 2000; Siegel & Gaylord-Ross,
abilities to address educational, employment, and 2001). Yet, research that documents the needs
independent living needs. Examples of AT devices and potential effects of AT on the wages earned
vary widely and include but are not limited to by students with disabilities after high school
low-tech items such as pencil grips, crutches, completion are limited.
large print, and Braille; mid-tech devices such Often people with disabilities are limited in
as tape recorders, talking calculators, and manual their abilities to exercise personal choice over
240
how many of their daily-life activities are car- without disabilities within the general population
ried out. This creates a problem in relation to the (Wagner, Newman, Cameto, Garza, & Levine,
quality of life of these individuals. Fortunately, 2005). In essence, 30.6% of youth with disabilities
with the advances of technology, especially in the have taken classes since high school and 19.4%
field of AT, many of these individuals are able are currently attending postsecondary institutions
to exercise more control and choice over vari- as compared to the 40.5% of youth currently at-
ous aspects of their daily environments (Bryant tending postsecondary institutions in the general
& Bryant, 2003). Activities of daily living may population (Wagner et al., 2005). In addition to
include tasks required for completing tasks such this disparity, the role of AT in meeting the needs
as eating, grooming, dressing, maintenance of of students with disabilities is still a topic in need
one’s environment, and recreation activities. All of much attention.
these tasks are essential for all people and their In an attempt to document the AT needs of the
proper execution provides an important sense of school system, the Iowa Department of Education
empowerment and self-care. AT devices such as conducted the Iowa Assistive Technology Needs
adapted sports equipment, environmental con- Assessment (Iowa Department of Education,
trol units, modified kitchen utensils or talking 1997; 2001). Different personnel at the Area
calculators are all examples of daily living tools Education Agencies (AEAs), special education
that can facilitate a person with a disability liv- team members, school district administrators,
ing independently. This chapter has provided a teachers, parents, and other key personnel across
brief introduction to AT and its use by persons the state involved with AT were surveyed on what
with disabilities to address various essential hu- they perceived were the AT needs of children and
man needs. The following sections will focus on young adults with disabilities in Iowa. In summary,
the aspects of measuring AT needs and its many results of this assessment (N=733) suggested
potential outcomes. that: (a) there is a need for the provision of AT
training not only at the preservice level, but at the
systematically measuring At needs professional level for teachers and other personnel
involved in the evaluation, selection, and imple-
Despite federal legislation that protects the mentation of AT strategies; (b) there is a need for
educational rights of students with disabilities, the identification of clear AT service provision
the uneven and uninformed implementation of patterns and identification of information related
the laws means that school districts are still fall- to AT within the school system, and (c) funding
ing short of meeting students’ needs leading to is still a barrier for the provision of effective AT
academic failure and higher dropout rates. For services for Iowans with disabilities. Although this
example, in the state of Iowa during the 2002- study solicited a variety of information, such as
03 school year 30% of students with disabilities awareness and implementation of federal policies,
dropped out of high school while the national current procedures used in AT assessments, coor-
median indicated the dropout rate was 35% (U.S. dination of services, parent involvement, training
Department of Education, 2007). According to the needed, and satisfaction with services; the instru-
National Longitudinal Transition Study 2, three ment used and data collected, allowed for limited
out of ten students with disabilities have taken interpretations. Developing an understanding of
some post-secondary courses and one out of five the AT needs of students with disabilities and the
was currently (at the time of the study) enrolled school system will have important systemic effects
and receiving postsecondary education. These with the ability to facilitate greater education and
students represented less than half of their peers employment outcomes with this population. For
241
that reason the rest of this section will address key analysis in order to identify a sample num-
elements of the contents of and methods used to ber representative of the population of
conduct an AT need assessments. interest).
What is a needs assessment? The concept of • Identify adequate channels and require-
needs assessment has recently become popular ments to access potential participants
in social sciences and education research. Other from the organization being assessed (e.g.,
disciplines such as marketing, communications, school district or area education agency).
and public health have employed this process to • Develop the survey instrument and iden-
determine gaps or needs for programs, services, tify the different levels of measurement
or products. A needs assessment is defined as the (e.g., quantitative and/or qualitative data,
utilization of social research methods to system- or both).
atically investigate the effectiveness of social • Define data collection and analysis proce-
intervention programs designed to inform social dures, considering both the potential use of
actions in ways that improve social conditions technology and human resources for distri-
(Rossi, Freeman, & Lipsey, 1997). According bution and collection of surveys.
to Denard-Goldman and Jahn-Scmalz (2007) • Define a time-table on which all activities
conducting effective needs assessments is an should take place.
important activity that: identifies program plan- • Identify any potential limitations of meth-
ning needs, provides direction, focuses program odology selected.
design, defines goals, objectives, activities, • Prepare and submit all required Institutional
program structures, and resource requirements, Review Board materials.
justifies continuation of existing programs, and
determines a program’s value, significance, and Many researchers have advocated for the
worth [evaluation of program’s theory] (p. 225). development of gap-based needs assessments. A
Conducting needs assessment will provide in- gap-based needs assessment (Denard-Goldman
formation that indicates the current status of an & Jahn-Scmalz, 2007) requires the development
existing condition. The evaluator is then able to of a survey that measures the response items on
compare this data to the status of the situation two different columns. One column will measure
based on previously set goals. the current state of affairs, while the other will
Planning a needs assessment should be a team measure the ideal state of affairs (p. 226). The
effort considering the level of detail and resources statistical difference between the two columns will
that need to be put in place for the project to be be identified as the gap [need] and thus will lead
successful. The first stage of conducting a needs to outcomes such as the creation or termination
assessment is the planning stage. It is in this stage of a program, exploration of different techniques/
that the researchers formulate the research con- intervention methods, or the acquisition of new
cept, methods, and develop the survey that will technologies or other materials. Developing
best allow for the identification of the need(s) gap-based needs assessments differs from the
(Denard & Jahn, 2007). During this stage the traditional unidimensional survey designed to
researchers: measure levels of agreement or satisfaction in
only one Likert scale.
• Identify the population or sample to be
surveyed (consider conducting a power
242
tHe IoWA AssIstIve tecHnoLogy survey instrument include: (a) The ability to eas-
needs Assessment ily reach various geographical areas; (b) Security
applications that allow only one answer from one
The study conducted by the authors in the State of computer ISP address, creating an ability to control
Iowa included representation from schools in all for number of survey entrants by one individual;
10 Area Educational Agencies as well as the Des (c) Convenience for the participant since it can
Moines Public School District (Des Moines is not be accessed at any time from any location with
part of an AEA). This study, which intended to web access; (d) A reduction of costs associated
explore the status of AT utilization in K-12 schools, with the reproduction and/or mailing of printed
surveyed students with disabilities, their parents materials; and (e) The ability to easily send mul-
or legal guardians, special and general education tiple reminders to fill out the survey along with a
teachers, school administrative personnel, and AT link to the survey via email, resulting in a higher
service providers in each AEA. The instruments response rate.
used to collect the desired data were surveys con- During stage two, the researchers collect and
sisting of 25-40 statements (numbers differed for analyze the survey data (Denard-Goldman & &
each stakeholder group) to which the respondent Jahn-Scmalz, 2007). Researchers should make
indicated his/her level of agreement using a Likert reference to their time-table to keep track of
scale. The statements were aimed at determining their survey-related activities. Depending on the
the stakeholders’ thoughts on the provision of AT level of measurement selected (e.g., quantitative
in their school/school district. Each survey also and/or qualitative data, or both), the researchers
contained three open-ended questions that allowed will use different data analysis procedures and or
respondents to elaborate further on their thoughts computer software applications such as SPSS for
and feelings on their school/schools district’s AT all numeric data or Atlas TI for qualitative data
provision. The instruments for this project were (i.e., open-ended questions). During this stage the
developed via consensus with a panel of experts researchers should:
in the areas of education and AT. This panel was
composed of individuals from across the State of • Calculate the response rate for their
Iowa and organized in collaboration with the Iowa survey.
Center for Assistive Technology Education and • Decide whether or not the response rate
Research (ICATER) at the University of Iowa. obtained is enough or if a second round
Working with this panel of experts allowed the of the survey should be collected. In some
researchers to establish face and content validity cases, this would be recommended in order
for the needs assessment instruments (Heppner, to collect sufficient data to allow for inter-
Kivlighan, & Wampold, 1999). pretations or descriptions that will repre-
Surveys, which collected both quantitative and sent the population of interest accurately.
qualitative data, were distributed and collected • Define and implement procedures to deal
via a web-based program or via a paper survey with missing data or incomplete surveys.
mailed to the participant when requested. Future
researchers conducting data collection via sur-
veys should explore the versatility of web-based dAtA coLLectIon
survey programs. Using these survey programs
simply requires a basic knowledge of descriptive The Iowa Assistive Technology Needs Assess-
statistics and basic computer and web application ment was still in process during the writing of this
skills. Some advantages of using a web-based chapter. At this point, data has been completely
243
collected from some of the groups of interest, within each AEA. The Iowa Center for Assistive
including the AT professionals and the school Technology Education and Research provides
administrators. Data collection has begun from the PEC groups with the surveys, which they
the parents of students with disabilities and both distribute to the targeted parents. The PECs often
general and special education teachers. When request paper copies of the survey citing parents’
collecting data, typically, an initial email is sent limited comfort with computers in general, limited
to everyone in the targeted stakeholder (adminis- access to a reliable Internet connection, and lack
trators, teachers, parents, AT professionals, etc.) of trust for unfamiliar websites as reasons why
group describing the needs assessment process and parents are more likely to complete paper copies
the importance of their cooperation. This email of the survey. Providing paper copies to parents
also contains a link directing the stakeholder to via the PEC has removed ICATER’s ability to
their specified survey. Stakeholders are given the send reminder emails and thus slightly reduced
option of requesting a paper copy if they would the expected response rate.
rather fill out a paper version than an electronic At this point in the data collection, quantita-
one. Following the initial email, reminder emails tive data has been preliminarily analyzed using
containing the link are sent out both one and two the statistics application of our web-based survey
weeks following the initial email. To this point program. Descriptive statistics such as frequency
in the data collection process, all of the school counts, means, and standard deviations have been
administrators, teachers, and AT professionals that calculated in various variables. Qualitative data,
have responded have done so via the electronic obtained in various open-ended questions, have
copy of the survey. Most of the data collected been analyzed using a Constant Comparative
from each group was collected within the first Method to identify the different themes. This
two days following the initial email. Response qualitative data has the potential to confirm and
rate tapered off during the rest of the week. An expand the data collected on the survey. Initial
upsurge (although not as large as the initial surge) in results will be briefly discussed in the following
survey returns was seen in the two days following section.
the first reminder email and a smaller surge was
seen again in the two days following the second
reminder email. As with the first week of data PreLImInAry resuLts
collection, responses tended to taper off to zero
over the rest of each other week. Preliminary results of the Iowa Assistive Technol-
Parents have tended to be more likely to fill ogy Needs Assessment tend to agree with previ-
out the paper copy of the surveys. At this point in ous research that has concluded that insufficient
the data collection, roughly 95% of parent surveys training has limited the number of teachers and
that have been collected have been submitted via therapists who are using AT in classroom settings
paper copies. The primary reason for this is the (Judge, 2001). Further, teachers who are insecure
means by which the parents are accessed. To avoid about using technology are not likely to provide it
breaching confidentiality in survey responses to students who could benefit resulting in amend-
and violating the Family Educational Rights and ments to IDEA not being met (Abner & Lahm,
Privacy Act, ICATER cannot obtain access to the 2002). The AT needs of students with disabilities
direct contact information of parents with students are not going away. With more and more students
on Individualized Education Plan (IEPs). To obtain with special needs entering mainstream classes, not
data from these parents, ICATER works with the only do special education teachers and therapists
Parent Educator Connection (PEC) Group located need to be aware of and comfortable with AT, but
244
general education teachers must be as well. Al- of AT, but also comfortable enough to properly
though proficiency in AT for preservice teachers incorporate them in the classroom environment.
is emphasized in the 2001 Council for Exceptional To do this, it is imperative to incorporate AT
Children (CEC) technology standards, only a few education and training into preservice teacher
articles exist describing instructional methods for education programs.
integrating AT into teacher education programs When completing the Iowa Assistive Tech-
(Van Laarhoven, Munk, Zurita, Lynch, Zurita, nology Needs Assessment, many teachers and
& Smith, 2009). To properly prepare teachers to administrators in Iowa indicated that they received
work with this critical technology, there needs little or no AT training at a preservice level. Re-
to be an increased focus on teacher training in search suggests that not many teacher preparation
AT both at a professional development and a programs are currently addressing AT in their
preservice level. curriculums, so similar issues with AT knowledge
The need for improved teacher training and comfort can most likely be extrapolated to a
throughout Iowa is also evidenced in survey national level. Those who did receive AT training at
responses that indicated that many schools have the preservice level tended to be special education
AT devices and software in place, however they majors and indicated that their AT training was
are not being used to their full potential, if at all, minimal. To have an AT program in a K-12 school
because AT professionals cannot be in the class- that meets the students’ needs, it is not sufficient for
room on a daily basis. Iowa is divided into ten Area only special education teachers to understand and
Education Agencies (AEAs) each covering large implement AT use. Many students who participate
areas of the state and containing numerous school in general classes can benefit from AT and often
districts. These AEAs house the AT professionals have it written into their IEP or 504 plan. If AT is
who work with the schools. The AEA AT teams written into either plan, each teacher that works
are small; especially when the physical size and with that student should be implementing use of
number of districts served within each AEA are the specified device or software in the class. Some
considered. Some AEA’s have over 3,000 students of the most commonly used AT software in schools
with AT written into their IEPs, yet have fewer are reading and writing tools that can be used to
than ten AT professionals to work with these stu- access general classes. As more and more students
dents. These constraints make it impossible for the are becoming eligible to use AT in schools, it is
AEA AT professionals to work with every student imperative that all teachers learn what devices
with AT needs on a regular basis. Many teachers are available, for whom such devices would be
in these schools either do not have the required beneficial, and how to integrate the technology
knowledge to effectively use the technology with effectively within educational programs (Wojcik,
the students as needed, or are not comfortable Peterson-Karlan, Watts, & Parette, 2004).
incorporating and using AT in class. Without the
support and willingness to follow through of the
classroom teachers, the work done by the AT LImItAtIons And cHALLenges
professionals often leads to improper use, lim-
ited use, or AT abandonment. Thus, not only is it The discussion of conducting an effective AT needs
important to provide professional development assessment is not complete without identifying the
training opportunities to teachers in the field, but challenges encountered during the research pro-
it is critical to create a new generation of teachers, cess. Denard-Goldman and Jahn-Scmalz (2007)
both general and special education, that are not stated that some of the limitations of traditional
only knowledgeable in the use of various types needs assessments, in contrast to gap-based needs
245
assessments, are related to: (a) the fact that not of “needs” identified by previously conducted
enough attention has been paid by researchers to AT needs assessments and how this will inform
this modality; (b) surveys are designed to measure the instruments; (c) lack of clear research meth-
more “wants” than “needs”; (c) more resources or odology (e.g., sampling including confidentiality
tools to develop and conduct needs assessments are considerations for students and parents, clear and
needed that move the researchers from administer- simple instruments to assess AT needs or usage,
ing a survey and conducting focus groups into a and lack of statistical structure to make meaning
variety of data collection methodologies. of collected data); (d) limited research results from
The Iowa Assistive Technology Needs As- which to draw upon for this new study; and (e)
sessment was still in process as this chapter was identifying only the necessary groups of people
written. Following are some of the challenges to participate in this study.
specifically encountered with this project. When In order to address these issues the researchers
collaborating with larger systems, such as a school consulted with a group of experts in both education
district, timing for data collections is crucial. For and AT in the State of Iowa. Through this process
example, if the researcher sends his or her survey the researchers were able to provide a focus to
too early or toward the end of the semester, likely the survey methodology, instruments, and the
participation rate will be low considering the other overall theme of the project. Specific strategies
obligations teachers and administrators have dur- included: First, developing a main project plan that
ing those parts of the semester. Also, researchers indicated each task with an anticipated comple-
should become familiar with teacher and parent tion date, person in charge, resources needed,
groups that could assist in collecting data or and contact information for various groups at the
facilitating navigation of the system through the larger participating organization. Second, creat-
correct channels. For example, when surveying ing a subcommittee of representatives of identi-
teachers or parents, local conferences specific to fied stakeholder groups (e.g., parents, teachers,
the targeted population provide access to a cap- administrators, and AT professionals) to provide
tive audience likely to participate in the study. In feedback on their respective surveys. Along with
addition, it is important that the researcher has feedback from the main consulting team, this
a follow-up mechanism and that at least three allowed the researchers to establish face and con-
research invitation reminders are sent to potential tent validity for the instruments, while providing
participants. This will allow the researcher to each stakeholder group a voice in this research
increase their participation rate. process. Third, identifying different school groups
In developing the Iowa Assistive Technol- (e.g., AT professionals group, parents’ group)
ogy Needs Assessment, another challenge for that were able to assist in the dissemination of
the researchers was the fact that, as pointed by surveys. Considering their proximity to schools,
Denard-Goldman and Jahn-Scmalz (2007), there is administrative personnel (e.g., principals or vice
only a handful of previously conducted AT needs principals) were able to assist in the dissemination
assessments and only one known AT needs assess- of surveys to the teachers in their schools. Having
ment that was conducted in the state of Iowa. This the collaboration of these groups was an important
created several issues that the researchers needed asset for this study. It allowed the study to be
to consider in the development and implementation conducted while adhering to the school/school’s
of the study. Some of these include: (a) lack of a district’s and families’ confidentiality standards.
prior scheme to aid the navigation of the larger The researchers were also able to participate in
organization (in this case the Iowa Department of various Parent-Teacher Conferences that allowed
Education); (b) the lack of focus or wide range them to disseminate instruments while having
246
the opportunity to verbally present the study to media), or by facilitating communication, employ-
interested individuals. ment, independent living, and recreation activities.
With this potential impact, it is important to begin
the proper use of AT as early as possible, which
Future reseArcH dIrectIons is often in a school setting. In order to facilitate
proper use the proper needs have to be identified.
Assistive Technology is regarded as a tool for pro- Initial results of the Iowa Assistive Technology
viding equal access for individuals with disabilities Needs Assessment suggest that AT usage is and
in various life activities. Attending to AT needs will continue to be an important variable in the
in K-12 educational settings has many important academic success of many students with disabili-
ramifications for future research. For instance ties in K-12 settings. Literature reviewed supports
results of the present study will serve to explore the fact that AT has the potential to allow these
training needs at both preservice and professional students to explore their skills as they contemplate
levels. By identifying current AT training needs of future goals such as entering the job market or
education students or established professionals, continuing post-secondary education.
training can be developed that matches the continu-
ing developments in AT. Teachers should be able
to incorporate these various technology applica- reFerences
tions to fully integrate students with disabilities
in their classrooms. Concepts such as Universal Abner, G. H., & Lahm, E. A. (2002). Implementa-
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Wojcik, B. W., Peterson-Karlan, G., Watts, E. H., products and environments to be usable by all
& Parette, H. P. (2004). Assistive technology in a people.
teacher education curriculum. Assistive Technol- Universal Design for Learning: A process
ogy Outcomes and Benefits, 1, 21–32. that creates flexible goals, teaching methods,
and assessments that accommodate learner dif-
ferences.
Assistive Technology (AT): As any item,

piece of equipment, or product system, whether
250
251
Chapter 17
Developing Electronic Portfolios
Mary Ann Lowe
Nova Southeastern University, USA
AbstrAct
Portfolios are widely used in many professional and academic areas; however there is minimal docu-
mentation for the use of portfolios by Assistive Technology / Augmentative Alternative Communication
(AT/AAC) specialists. Assessment of AT/AAC progress is often difficult to document due to the limited
capabilities of the written output. Specific AT/AAC systems are tailored to individual clients and may
range from a low-tech communication book to a sophisticated hi-tech device/computer with specialized
access techniques. As individuals transition to new opportunities, it is difficult to show documentation
of progress or visually capture specific device/computer set-ups for replication. This chapter encourages
service providers to develop electronic portfolios to assist families, future educators, and therapists to
become familiar with the best practice AT techniques and strategies used for individuals with complex
physical and communication needs.
IntroductIon AT/AAC with students who have complex physical

needs and communication impairments. There are
Documentation of clinical and educational issues for three main issues relating to difficulties in adequately
individuals with Assistive Technology / Augmen- describing: (a) important student characteristics,
tative and Alternative Communication (AT/AAC) (b) AT/AAC tools and strategies, and (c) skill level
needs is problematic both for the professionals writ- and progress. Furthermore, documents intended to
ing those reports, and the families trying to make convey this information are generally lengthy and
sense of the reports they receive. First, it is difficult complex, making it likely that the intended audience
to describe and document different aspects of using (e.g., parents and teachers) fail to read or understand
parts of the document.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch017
For individuals with complex physical and needs. Angling a device or mounting the device
communication challenges, the documentation on a table or wheelchair may be a requirement for
of clinical and educational issues serves many success. It is difficult to accurately describe what
critical functions. Such documentation is used to: specific tools are needed, what each tool looks
(a) inform families of relevant issues, (b) obtain like, how materials are constructed, why they are
funding for services, and (c) convey important organized in a specific way, and how the individual
programmatic information to a wide variety of implements them within their environment. De-
professionals serving these individuals. Current vice mounting onto a wheelchair is specific for
methods of clinical/educational documentation, each individual who uses AAC and difficult to
such as progress charts and reports, are inadequate describe in a report. Wheelchair mounts can be
for individuals with complex needs. This is due placed on either side of the frame (e.g., right or
to several factors. One problem is that the infor- left of the chair) or angled in numerous directions
mation is not easily conveyed in written form. to provide ease of access for the individuals who
Some information is better presented visually as use AAC. Accessing a VOCA or other forms of
opposed to linguistically—visual illustration of the manual communication are often major obstacles
no-tech communication that is used (e.g., manual that need to be described. Explanation of the exact
signs, gestures, and signals), representational and method of using a direct access, such as using a
organizational system used for the presentation of mouthstick, a headpointer, a laser beam, or point-
vocabulary on a low- or high-tech communica- ing with a finger or thumb, can be challenging.
tion system, the form of accessing (e.g., direct or Placement (e.g., which side of the head or the
indirect access), the switch or device mounting, or exact angle) of each of the accessing devices is
other required AT. Secondly, written reports, which critical. An unconventional method of pointing
do provide adequate detail on the individual’s AT for direct access (e.g., using a finger other than
system, are generally lengthy and complex, mak- index or thumb) must be addressed. Other alternate
ing them difficult and time-consuming to digest. access methods, such as eye gaze or scanning,
These reports are often not meaningful to the target offer other dilemmas for presenting an accurate
audience (e.g., families and other professionals) description in a written format.
and they tend to not read the report or read only Written expression is limited when technical
parts of the report. They are often difficult to issues—such as specific seating and positioning
read, especially when medical and educational problems, individualized accessing dilemmas, the
terminology is used. use of idiosyncratic gestures and manual signs,
Because AT/AAC strategies and tools are often and the specific placement and usage of AT—are
visually complex and quite dynamic, it is difficult involved. This is especially true when using edu-
to accurately describe them. Individuals who use cational documents to explain technical directions,
AT or AAC have difficulty communicating their which are best accompanied by diagrams and/
own device set-up or mounting system. AT/AAC or pictures to explain each step. When writing
strategies and materials may be described; how- diagnostic and progress reports for individuals
ever, it is difficult to visualize the exact set-up of who use AT, pictures and diagrams are not the
materials or the individual who uses AAC applica- standard procedure. This problem may exist due
tion of them. Often, there are a numerous other to a variety of reasons. One reason is the lack of
strategies that are implemented without written availability of equipment for producing diagrams
documentation. If the individuals utilize a voice or pictures. Another reason is the accessibility
output communication aid (VOCA), the devices of equipment for developing and editing video
must be customized to the individuals’ specific clips that would provide a visual documentation
252
of setup or for teaching AT strategies. Computer titudes, and potential in a specific subject or skill
software and knowledge is necessary to compile area (Paulson, Paulson, & Meyer, 1990). Arter
the necessary information onto a medium that is and Spandel (1992) suggested that portfolios,
usable for a viewing audience. “should be continuous, capture a rich array of
Progress is difficult to measure and document what students know and can do, involve realistic
for some individuals who use AT. Medical condi- contexts, communicate to students and others
tions may contribute to fluctuations in performance what is valued, portray the process by which work
and often impede changes in progress over time. is accomplished, and be integrated with instruc-
Often physical limitations may also require use of tion” (p.36). Portfolios can also be utilized as a
different accessing techniques. Cognitive limita- functional assessment during speech-language
tions may result in slow progress that is difficult evaluations and assessments, transition of stu-
to document. Progress for long-range goals and dents as they matriculate through the educational
short-term objectives is usually captured through system, and the inclusion of students’ in regular
written reports. Baseline levels of performance are education classes. In some situations, portfolios
measured and progress is followed by repeated are considered to have assets, such as depth and
data collection over a specified period of time. quality of information, not present in other forms
Improvement may be slow and often so subtle or measurement of documentation. These arti-
that it is complex to measure. Clinicians generally facts, where the individuals who use AT/AAC is
write daily log notes followed by periodic progress the focal point of the collection of information,
reports. As individuals who use AT transition to may contain documents that can be described
new educational situations or therapy settings, and examined through numerous mediums (e.g.,
these progress reports generally accompany them drawings, pictures, written expression).
to the new environment. Portfolios are used in a variety of fields related
This process of documenting information for to education and individuals with disabilities. In
an individual who uses AT must be completed the field of education, for example, portfolios
by a competent AT specialist who understands have been used at all age levels and for a variety
all aspects of diagnostics, equipment program- of reasons. Less is known about the use of port-
ming and setup, the necessary tools for assisting folios in the area of AT and speech and language.
with access, and the teaching of AT strategies for In the section that follows, portfolio applications
mastery of goals. Few individuals are equipped are considered in special education, general edu-
for this challenge. The process of documenting cation, and SLP.
information for a visual representation, beyond the
written report phase, is very time consuming. education
Assessment of Student
HIstorIcAL PersPectIves Learning and Development
The need for more adequate means of document- Gelfer and Perkins (1998) share that young and old
ing clinically and educationally relevant issues for artists have long relied on portfolios to demonstrate
individuals who use AT/AAC is clear. Portfolios their skills and achievements and to showcase their
are used for many purposes including collect- work. Portfolios can help provide artists with new
ing information and artifacts in a systematic insights, greater precision and technique, new
and organized way to evidence and monitor the organizational skills, new interests, and valuable
growth of an individual’s knowledge, skills, at- analysis of their growth and development. In the
253
same way, a student portfolio can be a meaning- and input the selection of student work, and the
ful collection of student work that exemplifies culture of the school with discussing student work
the student’s interests, attitudes, ranges of skills (e.g., relationships among students and teachers
and development over a period of time. It will with respect to discussing student work). Stu-
also record and reflect the growth of the student’s dents from 6 schools, ranging from elementary
cognitive, social, emotional, physical, motor and through high school, participated in the project
creative development. by building their own digital portfolios. Using the
Traditional educational assessment is based on specifically developed software for this tool, each
collected assessment data, using norm-referenced, student collected a set of “entries”, or pieces of
criterion-referenced, and academic testing of sub- work they completed during the school year. This
ject matter (McLoughlin & Lewis, 1994; Salend, work demonstrated a variety of mediums including
1998). Some regular education classrooms began text, graphics, audio, and/or video. Each school
a self-assessment process in the early 1990’s. The described the purpose for creating a portfolio in a
portfolio was touted as the “new wave” of assess- different way and, thus, produced different types
ment that included authentic and performance- of portfolios. These included the collection of
based measures (Lankes, 1995). Not only is the student work to celebrate accomplishments, an
portfolio an accumulation of group projects and evaluation tool to demonstrate student achieve-
student papers, it also features teachers’ evalua- ments against some standards, and as a means of
tions and student self-reflections that exhibit the demonstrating that a student had accomplished the
student’s efforts, progress, and achievements. skills and acquired the knowledge expected of a
Moving beyond the student portfolio, other benefi- graduate. Computer stations were developed for
cial implications for use of the portfolio are those students to enter their own artifacts. The students
of helping teachers plan for incoming students, were responsible for selecting the information that
portfolios as criteria for graduation eligibility, a was required to fulfill their schools vision of the
showcase for an educational career, employment digital portfolio. Some entries contained the final
skills portfolios, and college admission portfolios. product of a project as well as the student’s process
Lankes (1995) suggested that portfolios be saved in developing that product. Other entries were a
in an electronic format. work in progress that required continual entries
Niguidula (1997) studied the use of digital to fulfill the requirement. In traditional schools,
portfolios designed to provide a richer picture students find the school’s vision a mystery. In
of the student’s work than traditional transcripts this project the digital portfolio was organized
allow. The primary focus of the project was to around the school’s vision with students clearly
examine the process of creating and utilizing understanding the vision. Teacher surveys revealed
digital portfolios. A digital portfolio is created and that the digital portfolios brought a school’s vision
stored electronically on a computer as opposed and standards to life. Students took ownership of
to an electronic portfolio that is stored on a CD. the development and maintenance of their digi-
Special software allows students to use the me- tal portfolio and reported that development of a
diums of text, graphics, audio or video to collect digital portfolio was easier than using paper. The
and produce a final product for accountability. author suggested that digital portfolios will make
The positive aspects of using a digital portfolio it easier to transmit information from the school
were, the vision that a school must develop to use to other audiences.
digital portfolios, the collection of student work, One five-year study, completed in an elemen-
the technology required for the development of tary school, implemented an electronic portfolio
digital portfolios, the logistics of who will gather system for kindergarten through the third grade.
254
The authors described this electronic portfolio strate competence. Students take responsibility
system as a way to store both two-dimensional for collecting materials that will provide a clear
information, such as writing and drawing, and purpose of the story to be told through the portfolio.
full-motion video sequences for each student Three major types of portfolios are: celebration
(Campbell, 1996). Children were videotaped (e.g., “What do I think is really special about my
performing particular developmental skills. Draw- work, and why?”), time sequenced (e.g., reflects
ings or writings were scanned and the originals changes in academic performance over time) and
were returned to the student. These artifacts were the status report portfolio (e.g., documentation of
saved on an optical disk. Teachers from all grade achievement of specific curricular objectives). The
levels worked to determine what information time sequenced portfolio is one that can reflect a
would most effectively tell the story of a child’s growth portfolio or a project portfolio. An analytic
growth at each grade level (e.g., kindergartners rubric for assessing items to be included in this
should be able to catch a ball, first graders should portfolio was presented. The levels of achievement
attempt to write and talk with an adult, second were presented as exemplary (e.g., “coherent”,
graders should be skipping, writing, and doing “complete”, “clear”, “unambiguous”), competent
math). Some positive outcomes for the use of (e.g., “fairly complete response to objective”),
portfolios that were gleaned from the project were satisfactory (e.g., “minor flaws”, “few important
the use of the system to help make instructional areas missing”, and “needs improvement”), and
decisions, and record keeping for language arts, unacceptable (e.g., “no important areas are identi-
writing, and spelling. Other noted features were fied”). The evaluative judgments for the project
the documentation of improvement of fine motor were based on two sets of performance criteria:
skills over time, and the ability to show, instead steps completed within a specified time, and qual-
of only write about, interpersonal skills and chil- ity of work done at each step. It was reported that
dren’s performances. the student in this case study evidenced artistic
The area of assessment of student learning and talents to illustrate scenes that accompanied an
development portfolios provide a powerful tool oral report. The child also learned that working
for students. It allows them to view where they with a group gave him experience in planning a
have been and ultimately make decisions about task and adhering to a timeline. Wesson and King
where they need to strive for improvement. The (1996) suggest that portfolios reduce barriers to
inclusion of the different media, scanned materi- communication between exceptional and general
als, and video clips to portray skills and progress educators by eliminating assessment jargon. The
is a focus that students can learn to self-analyze assessment focus is on the process of instruction
their skills in many life situations. and learning rather than on test results. Portfolios
developed by and/or for students with special
special education needs who are enrolled in inclusive classrooms, are
adaptable, flexible, ongoing and cumulative. They
Inclusion provide a way for students to have the opportunity
to participate and make choices through develop-
Rogers-Dulan (1998) shared that using portfolios ment of their own portfolio. Student participation
can be particularly helpful for students with special requires manipulation of writing and art tools as
needs who are enrolled in inclusive classrooms. well as the physical ability to collect artifacts and
Portfolios allow for more equitable methods of organize them into a portfolio.
assessment for different learning styles, recognize
multiple intelligences, and offer ways to demon-
255
Transition user-friendly document for a student’s new teacher,

paraprofessional, and other service providers.
In the field of special education, several creative
ideas have been shared in the recent literature for speech and Language
developing portfolios for both the transition of a
child as he matriculates through the educational Kratcoski (1998) discussed guidelines for the
system and for the integration of a child with dis- use of portfolios for conducting various types of
abilities into a preschool setting. Demchak and speech-language evaluations and assessments in
Greenfield (2000) described the concept of transi- school settings. The focus for an evaluation was
tion portfolios and the procedures for developing to determine the presence of a disorder and to
them. This article followed the suggestions of a determine the services that were needed. The focus
teacher who developed a transition portfolio for a of the functional assessment was to determine
14 year old student with severe multiple disabilities intervention goals and to develop a reflection
that include cognitive and motor impairments, profile of the strengths and needs of the learner.
limited verbal communication, a mild hearing loss, A case example was presented to demonstrate
and a visual impairment. The authors described a the specific guidelines for initiating the use
transition portfolio as a strategy that documents of portfolios in case management procedures.
critical information about a student. This type of Quantitative standardized testing did not qualify
portfolio differs from a student’s cumulative folder this child for speech-language intervention. The
in that it does not contain test scores, however, it portfolio assessment emphasized data collection
focuses on details that are critical to a student’s for the purpose of forming a hypothesis. It was
everyday functioning (e.g., the type of medica- proposed that the team then develop assessment
tions and the effect of these medications on the questions directly related to the hypothesis. To
student’s behavior, positioning strategies) and answer the assessment questions, pertinent in-
learning (e.g., the student’s likes and dislikes, formation was gathered (e.g., language samples,
the student’s talents, educational programming story retell samples, and observation notes) and
suggestions, expressive and receptive commu- placed in the portfolio. Interpreting the portfolio
nication methods, and reinforcement strategies). information confirmed or rejected the hypotheses.
They suggested that an involved team of current A problem-solving team then summarized and
teachers, paraprofessionals, support personnel, interpreted portfolio data to develop goals and
administrators, family members and peers as objectives and ways to evaluate progress. This
well as the student must drive the information- article, the only one relating specifically to speech
gathering process. The transition portfolio is and language, provided a way to develop a holistic
developed to assist a teacher to see a student first view of a child and provide an authentic picture of
as someone with personal characteristics, rather the child’s true abilities and needs. Portfolios used
than just a student with a disability. Suggestions for documentation to qualify a child for specific
to be included in the portfolios were personal speech-language intervention can be very time
information, medical information, positioning consuming. Collection of pertinent information,
strategies, educational programming suggestions, analyzing the information and organizing it into a
expressive and receptive communication methods, portfolio must be completed on an ongoing basis. A
reinforcement strategies and positive behavioral written report of summary must be submitted to a
support plans, and problem-solving techniques. As criteria committee to qualify the child for interven-
a summarization thought, the authors suggested tion. In conclusion, SLP’s have the responsibility
that videos might be supplemented to provide a to implement practices that authentically reflect
256
the learning process and best address the needs types of Portfolios
of the child. Incorporating portfolios into service
delivery with children who have communication Portfolios can serve a variety of purposes for
disorders provides the vehicle for both assessment individuals using AT/AAC. They can serve as a
and evaluation. collection of outstanding work, as an assessment
Portfolios are an asset to documenting numer- tool (e.g., alternate assessment), to measure levels
ous areas of education through the collection of of competency, and to document educational and
information and artifacts. Students with special therapy techniques and equipment used for a stu-
needs and educators/therapists can systematically dent with complex needs (e.g., AT and AAC).
document growth in knowledge, skills, attitudes,
and potential in specific areas. The portfolio could key Factors to consider When
be integrated into the evaluation and report writing creating an electronic Portfolio
process for individuals who use AT/AAC. Spe-
cific benefits may include changes in academic There are critical issues that need to be addressed
performance over time, documentation of achieve- prior to beginning to create an electronic port-
ment of specific curricular objectives, details of folio:
everyday functioning, the student’s behavior,
particular things regarding a VOCA, and the • What is the purpose of the electronic
student’s likes and dislikes. This would provide portfolio?
an excellent opportunity for families, educators, • Alternate Assessment Portfolio (Kentucky
and therapists to share information and artifacts, Department of Education, 2006-2007) is
which would enhance a portfolio for individuals a valid and reliable means of assessment
who use AT/AAC. A picture portfolio (e.g., using through the collection of assessment and
photos and video) would provide a way to monitor instructional samples of a student through-
progress as well as a realistic view of device and out an academic year.
access set-up. Families, educators, and therapists • Levels of competency as compared to goals
who are involved with specific individuals who use and standards for the purpose of making
AT/AAC would evaluate this portfolio process. educational decisions.
• Document educational and therapy tech-
niques and equipment.
creAtIng eLectronIc • What program should be used to develop
PortFoLIos the electronic portfolio?
• Select a software program that is readily
What is a Portfolio? available (e.g., Microsoft PowerPoint).
• Select a software program that is easy to
Like a scrapbook, a portfolio is a compilation of use.
work and artifacts collected over a period of time. • Select a software program that has a “play-
This concrete evidence involves inquiry which er” feature. This will allow individuals to
is the “collecting, sorting, selecting, describing, view the electronic portfolio without hav-
analyzing, and evaluating evidence to answer ques- ing the specific software.
tions” of the student’s accomplishments (Johnson, • Who is the audience that will be viewing
Mims-Cox, & Doyle-Nichols, p. 4). The key point the electronic portfolio?
in developing a portfolio is that these artifacts are • Parents and caregivers
organized to serve a purpose. • Education and therapy teams
257
• Transition teams of the communication used by people with AAC

• Administration for assessment purposes needs. An electronic portfolio, used as an alter-
• What should be included in the electronic native method of documentation, was developed
portfolio? to provide an authentic and effective written and
• Educational relevant material visual representation for an individual who uses
• Artifacts that demonstrate best work. AAC. Manuals were provided with suggestions
• Photos/videos that “show and tell” AT/AAC for the development of an electronic portfolio
set-ups of equipment and devices. and specific instructions for using the prepared
• Organization of the electronic portfolio: electronic portfolio. The project was implemented
• Table of contents to organize the electronic in two phases. Creation of the manual was the
portfolio and to orient the viewer to the first phase and the development of the electronic
contents. portfolio was the second phase. The electronic
• Length of portfolio should be manageable. portfolio was then evaluated for accuracy, clarity,
• Comprehensive artifacts which will al- comprehensiveness, the educational relevance and
low the viewer to retrieve valuable for usefulness, by numerous raters (e.g., families,
information. caregivers, therapists, educators, and graduate
• Criteria of what to include: students in the field of speech and language) who
◦ Reports must be relevant were familiar and unfamiliar with the child.
◦ Reports, pictures, videos must pro-
vide clear information to afford fur- Manual
ther understanding of the individual
• Confidentiality for educational and medical Guidelines for selecting artifacts were established
reports, photos, and videos of the specific in the Manual for Developing an Electronic
student as well as classmates/friends that Portfolio. Criteria for inclusion of artifacts used
may be viewed in the electronic portfolio. in the portfolio were adhered to for each of the
• Age of the individual that is the main focus twelve areas. The twelve areas were: pertinent
of the electronic portfolio. history, formal and informal testing, current
• Younger individual will include: birth his- communication status (i.e., receptive language
tory, medical history, developmental mile- and expressive language), AT (i.e. augmentative
stones, and early interventions. communication, AT aids, and computer), academic
• Older individual will include: birth history, accomplishments, classroom behaviors, self-care
medical history, AAC interventions, edu- skills, transition skills, motor skills (i.e., gross
cational background, and possibly voca- motor, fine motor, and oral motor), social skills,
tional training. vocational skills, and recreational/leisure skills.
The documentation was gathered from past reports
(e.g., medical and school documents), written
PortFoLIos tHAt Work reports that documented AAC strategies, and
photos and videos from past and present sources
electronic Portfolios for to document AAC strategies).
Interdisciplinary teams as
children transition Preparation of Electronic Portfolio CD
One study has been completed (Lowe, 2005) to de- The Microsoft software program PowerPoint
velop and document a way that would allow service was chosen to prepare the electronic portfolios. A
providers to gain a comprehensive understanding PowerPoint presentation shell of twenty-one slides
258
Figure 1. Portfolio artifacts gathered for each child’s electronic portfolio
was prepared as the basic format for each of the effectiveness along various dimensions. Spe-
portfolios. Each child’s portfolio was customized cific directions were provided on each of the
to represent their level of skills. Figure 1 provides rating scales for the familiar and the unfamiliar
a summation of the artifacts that were gathered for participant who viewed the electronic portfolio.
each of the six children. Samples of the children’s Group 1, familiar raters, determined if the infor-
artwork were scanned for a visual representation mation presented was accurate, clear, complete,
of their work. Photographs and video clips of educationally relevant, and useful for the specific
each child were taken and organized into specific child featured in the electronic portfolio. Group
areas of the portfolio. The photographs and video 2, unfamiliar raters, determined if the informa-
clips were chosen to best represent a skill (e.g., tion was clear, complete, educationally relevant,
manual signing, communicating using a device, and useful to people unfamiliar with the specific
coloring, and using a utensil to eat), an interfer- child for whom the portfolio was developed. The
ing behavior (biting hand and not attending), unfamiliar raters did not rate accuracy. In this way,
or an activity (e.g., following a story, using an information was gathered from individuals who
adapted software program on the computer, and were familiar and unfamiliar with the specific
using manipulative during singing) of the given needs of the target child. Figure 2 provides a
child. Scripts were prepared to insert voice-over summary of Group 1 and Group 2 as it relates to
narration for each of the twelve areas. The script overall satisfaction of completeness and useful-
contained information about the individual child ness of the CD.
to further the understanding of the child during Figure 3 demonstrates that both the Group
the academic classroom setting. Information and 1 and the Group 2 raters valued the photos and
photos were also gathered from the children’s video clips to be higher than the written reports.
parents, regarding home and community activi- The mean score for the photos and video clips
ties, to be included in the script. was greater for both rating groups.
Research Findings
Upon completion of the electronic portfolio,

Groups 1 and 2 viewed the CD and rated their
259
Figure 2. Percentage of overall satisfaction for completeness and usefulness of the electronic portfolio
from total rating scores of group 1 and group 2 raters
Figure 3. Inter rater reliability between mean rating scores for group 1 and group 2 raters for reports
vs. photos
summAry oF tHe study summer Program: Interdisciplinary

team Approach for a camp for
The results of the study of the development of children with special needs
an electronic portfolio were quite positive in
demonstrating that this is an effective tool for Camp Integrations is a one-week intensive, in-
service providers to accurately document AAC terdisciplinary treatment program for children
systems used by particular individuals who use diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD),
AAC. Ratings of accuracy, clarity, completeness, developmental delays (DD), or learning disabili-
educational relevancy and usefulness were high. ties (LD). It is staffed by licensed physical and
The dynamic features (e.g., combining artifacts occupational therapists, speech-language patholo-
of reports, photos, videos, child’s best work and gists and psychologists. Its purpose is to provide
narration) of these electronic portfolios captured intensive, interdisciplinary therapy to children in
and preserved the individuals’ performance in an a typical social atmosphere of a summer camp to
educational setting. Service providers concluded facilitate social interaction, improve self-esteem,
that this tool provided information for the devel- promote communication, and advance motor
opment of an electronic portfolio in a succinct skills. All activities are carried out in a group
manner. environment. The ratio of staff to child is one-
to-one. Children participate in camp for 5 days,
7 hours per day.
260
These children are often present with a wide on viewing the CD every day since it arrived.”,
range of impairments that interfere with indepen- and “Our son shares more about camp each time
dence in daily activities. Aggressive interventions he sees his pictures.” One comment relayed that
such as physical, occupational, speech and lan- “I would like to have seen before and after photos
guage, and behavior therapy can greatly improve to show improvement with activities.” Unfortu-
a child’s functioning. The daily activities included nately, this was not possible since the camp was
hipotherapy, aquatherapy, neuronet, yoga/pilates, only one-week long.
and music therapy. This study represents con-
tinuation and improvement of a collaborative and
interdisciplinary effort among university faculty, concLusIon
academic units, community partners, and students,
to provide and evaluate a creative alternative to The road to AT/AAC documentation for individu-
traditional therapy for an underserved population als with complex physical and communication
of children. needs using electronic portfolios has been demon-
At the end of the camp program, staff therapists strated to be effective. Using photos, videos, and
collaborate to develop an individualized home written reports, AT/AAC systems can be captured
program for each child based on his performance to document the use and progress and to show set-
and progress during the program. The purpose of ups for replication. Service providers will have
the home program was to promote continuation the opportunity to visually see and understand
of interventions deemed beneficial for the child the use of AT/AAC as children transition to new
by staff, and to maintain and foster improvements opportunities. This chapter outlined ways that
from the camp program. Approximately one month portfolios have been used in education to demon-
following the camp, the children and parents strate accuracy, clarity, completeness, educational
received an individualized electronic portfolio relevance, and usefulness. Service providers can
with a photo journal of their child performing make a difference in the development of electronic
the skills and participating in each of the activi- portfolios to assist families, future educators, and
ties. The home program that was developed by therapists in the understanding of AT/AAC.
the therapists is also part of the CD. As part of Future research is required to determine if elec-
the photo journal, 25-30 individual pictures and tronic portfolios would benefit individuals who
camp group photos are included. The electronic use AT/AAC as they transition from class to class,
portfolios were created using PowerPoint. The school to school, school to work, or within work
presentation was organized, according to specific settings. The dynamic features and the plethora
activities, the same for each camper. The CDs of information captured in an electronic portfolio
were individualized with personal photos, camp would provide the service provider a complete
group photos, and background music using the picture for the individual who use AT/AAC.
camp song.
Along with the mailing of the CD, surveys
are sent to the camper’s families for feedback on reFerences
the electronic portfolio and the home program.
Twenty-four of the thirty surveys were returned. Arter, A. J., & Spandel, V. (1992). Using portfolios
Satisfaction for the electronic portfolios was posi- of student work in instruction and assessment.
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Campbell, J. (1996). Electronic portfolios: A five- Morrison, R. (1999). Picture this! Using portfolios
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Kratcoski, A. (1998, January). Guidelines for
using portfolios in assessment and evaluation.
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Schools, 29, 3–10. Artifacts: Something that was created by an
Lankes, A. (1995September). Electronic port- individual. This artifact that was created by an
folios: A new idea in assessment. ERIC Digest, individual who uses AT will be captured using
3-4. photography or video to be included in an elec-
tronic portfolio.
Lowe, M. A. (2005). The Development of electron- Electronic Portfolio: A collection of a stu-
ic portfolios for individuals who use augmentative dent’s work, which may include text, graphics,
and alternative communication. Unpublished doc- sound, and video, captured electronically using
toral dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, computer technology (Milone, 1995). This collec-
Fort Lauderdale, Florida. tion of work, which was created by an individual
McLoughlin, J., & Lewis, R. (1994). Assessing who uses AT, and other pertinent information can
special students (4th ed.). Columbus, OH: Mer- be gathered and compiled into a CD or DVD
rill. format.
Portfolio: A collection of information and
Milone, M. N. Jr. (1995). Electronic portfolios: artifacts gathered in a systematic and organized
Who’s doing them and how? Technology & Learn- way to demonstrate and monitor the growth of
ing, 16(2), 28–36. an individual’s knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
potential in a specific subject or skill area (Paul-
262
son, Paulson, & Meyer, 1990). This definition the inability of a developer to capture (e.g., photos
of a portfolio refers to a collection of reports for and video clips) all the AT strategies and equip-
an individual and presented as a compilation for ment management that would be provided in an
reading. This format is often inadequate due to electronic portfolio.
263
264
Chapter 18
Solutions for Individuals
with Learning Problems:
Conducting Assessments Using
the Functional Evaluation for
Assistive Technology (FEAT)
Brian Bryant
University of Texas, USA
Soonhwa Seok
eLearning Design Lab, University of Kansas, USA
Diane Bryant
AbstrAct
Assistive technology (AT) assessments involve a dynamic process among the evaluator, the AT user, and
the AT device. When accomplished correctly, these assessments are person-centered and ecological,
that is, they actively involve the individual being evaluated and incorporate the collection of data from
numerous environments in which the person works, learns, and plays. This chapter provides informa-
tion about how such an AT assessment can be conducted using the Functional Evaluation for Assistive
Technology (FEAT; Raskind & Bryant, 2002). Readers are provided with an overview of the importance
of person-centered assessments, and then are given a description of each of the FEAT components. A case
study is also provided, wherein the process of an effective and efficient AT assessment is described.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch018
Assistive Technology Solutions for Individuals with Learning Problems
IntroductIon & Carta, 1987; Desouza & Sivewright, 1993) that

affect students’ interactions as they complete the
Assistive Technology (AT) evaluation is a dynamic tasks or learn new behaviors. Ecological assess-
process involving AT devices that are continuously ments allow the special education service team
being modified and improved and individuals who to match a child’s performance level and his or
are in ever-changing environments and contexts. her needs with learning tasks, routines, and devel-
These dynamic influences affect those who are opmental needs in situated contexts. Thus, eco-
designing educational programs and those who logical assessment provides an all encompassing
are using the AT devices; and thereby also affect evaluation that considers all aspects of a student’s
everyone involved with conducting AT evalua- academic life that affect learning.
tions. Specifically, ecological assessment techniques:
The Functional Evaluation for Assistive Tech- (a) allow data-based decision-making on students’
nology (FEAT; Raskind & Bryant, 2002) addresses progress, product, and process, leading to modifi-
the dynamics of AT evaluations by providing an cation of instruction and home/classroom settings;
ecological assessment of the student’s multiple (b) enhance students’ self-determination skills as
needs. Ecological assessments are considered a students develop their own learning preferences
“method of assessing a student’s total environ- (Agran, Blanchard, & Wehmeyer, 2000; Palmer,
ment to determine what factors are contributing Wehmeyer, Gibson, & Agran, 2004; Wehmeyer,
to learning or behavioral problems” (Overton, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000); and
2009, p. 22). An ecological AT evaluation is one (c) enhance students’ problem solving skills in
designed to comprehensively assess the efficacy of various contexts by raising questions, problem,
students’ interactions and the relationship among problem solving, and consequence of the solution
the person, technology, and the multiple environ- (Turnbull, Turnbull, & Wehmeyer, 2007).
ments in which the individual lives and works.
This chapter will: (a) introduce the concept Proactive Person-
of an ecological AT assessment and the need for centered Approach
input from multiple individuals across multiple
settings; (b) discuss the importance of a person- Effective ecological assessment models create a
centered approach to assessment; (c) describe proactive person-centered (student-centered and
the framework whereby the FEAT helps identify team-based) approach that allows for continu-
a person-technology match; and (d) identify the ous adaptability and fine-tuning of all elements
FEAT components while providing a case study involved in the specific learning environment.
that demonstrates how the FEAT helps provide In this section, we describe a proactive person-
for a person-technology match that is appropriate centered approach to AT evaluations by presenting
across multiple contents. two key features of a person-centered approach:
(a) student participation and (b) team-based
problem-solving.
bAckground
Student Participation
the concept of ecological
At Assessments The first element of the proactive person-centered
approach is student participation (American
Ecological assessments provide information about Educational Research Association, American
the multiple environmental factors (Greenwood Psychological Association, National Council
265
on Measurement in Education, 1999). Research tools for a student with special needs. Specifi-
indicates that the best practice of and the most cally, FEAT mainly emphasizes the best match
successful outcome from the assessment pro- between technology, context, function, and student
cess are students’ involvement in planning and (Bryant & Bryant, 2003). The FEAT framework
implementation (Brotherson & Berdine, 1993; incorporates four key elements (Individual, Task,
Overton, 2009; Thoma, Rogan, & Baker, 2001). Context, Device), all of which are represented by
In the ecological models or frameworks, students various FEAT components.
are involved in identifying their needs, technol- Individual refers to the “Individual’s specific
ogy skill level, and degree of technology literacy strengths, limitations, special abilities, prior ex-
based on their functional capabilities. Participa- periences/ knowledge, and interests” (Raskind
tion allows students to develop “goal directed, & Bryant, 2002, p. 5). Tasks are “functions to
self-regulated, autonomous behavior” (Field, be performed (e.g., compensating for a reading,
Martin, Miller, Ward, & Wehmeyer, 1998, p.2; writing, or memory problem) and the requisite
Overton, 2009, p. 442) in the technology-person skills associated with the tasks/functions” (p. 5).
interaction. Context refers to the “specific contexts of interac-
tion (across settings – e.g., school, home, work;
Team-Based Problem-Solving and over time – e.g., over a semester or a lifetime)”
(p. 5). Finally, device relates to factors “(e.g., reli-
The second element of the proactive person- ability, operational ease, technical support, cost)”
centered approach is team-based problem-solving (p. 5) associated with the AT device itself. An
(Watts, O’Brian, & Wojcik, 2004). Team-based ecological AT evaluation not only has to examine
problem-solving is based on the multiple per- each of these four elements, but also determine
spectives from the collaboration between the the interplay which exists among them.
individualized education program (IEP) team and
family collaboration (Bronfenbrenner, 1979; Edy-
burn, 2000; McLouglin & Lewis, 2005; Overton, A cAse study IntroducIng And
2009). The team and family make decisions on utILIzIng tHe FeAt comPonents
AT implementation based on their interactions
with the student with special needs in home or The FEAT is a comprehensive assessment in-
classroom settings. They identify problems; assess strument that can be used to help determine the
the student, the technology and the environment; appropriate AT devices for individuals with learn-
determine the characteristics of the student’s need; ing problems. The FEAT can help maximize the
and match the student and technology (Bryant benefits of utilizing AT device by examining the
& Bryant, 2003; Calabrese, & Baldwin, 1993; specific demands of tasks within the contexts,
Forbes & Forbes, 1994; Osenberg & Schmitt, strengths and special needs of individuals with
1996). The team designs student – technology learning problems, and characteristics of tech-
functional units where the student and technol- nology devices. Through carefully matching, the
ogy interact effectively (applied from Trepanier, setting-specific demands, person-specific charac-
2005, p. 2). teristics, and AT-specific features, the effective
and appropriate AT device(s) can be identified to
the FeAt Framework compensate for the difficulties of individuals with
learning problems and meet the specific tasks and
The FEAT addresses the considerations involved contexts. In this section we briefly describe the
in assessing the most appropriate technology FEAT components.
266
The purpose of this section is to introduce the typically engaged across settings and to identify
FEAT components while providing a case study whether the technology will be successful across
using the FEAT. To do so, we borrow from Ras- these settings. The Contextual Matching Inventory
kind and Bryant (2002) and their FEAT manual. consists of two parts: Part A is titled “Identification
The authors provide several figures describing of Specific Settings and Demands” and includes
a particular student, Ryan Reider. Ryan is a 12 44 specific tasks (demands) that are rated across
year-old 7th grader attending school in Saugus, up to six settings; Part B is titled “Additional Is-
Massachusetts. Additional information about Ryan sues Relating to Contextual Matching,” and the
can be found on Appendix A, which is a completed items in this section of the scale examine issues of
Summary and Recommendations Booklet. importance in generalization discussions. While
Following the evaluation, the AT evaluator Part A of the inventory can be rated by profession-
completed the Summary and Recommendations als or by interviewing up to six professionals who
Booklet. Here, comments pertaining to each of the interact with the individual being evaluated, Part
FEAT forms are summarized and recorded. We B of the inventory is completed by the examiner
call your attention to Sections IX, X and XI, which who is most familiar with AT adaptations and
are particularly pertinent. In Section IX, Ryan’s barriers to their successful implementation.
performance with the technology was compared As can be seen in Appendix B, three teachers
to his performance without the technology on the were interviewed, and it obvious by the infor-
Grays Silent Reading Test (Wiederholt & Blalock, mation they provided that Ryan is expected to
2000). His gain in comprehension (in this case, do typical tasks of middle schoolers, including
listening comprehension – but comprehension of listening to lectures, read and gain information
text material nonetheless) provides evidence for form textbooks, and write to convey what he has
using the technology. In Section X, information learned to his teachers. Because of Ryan’s read-
is provided about expectations that accompany ing disability, it is clear that he would struggle
technology use and how support can be provided because of the heavy emphasis on access to text
if the technology fails or training is needed (which material.
is almost always the case – teachers need to
know how the technology benefits Ryan and also checklist of strengths
how they can integrate the technology into their and Limitations
teaching. Finally, Section XI involves follow-up
evaluations. Simply providing the technology The Checklist of Strengths and Limitations (see
and assuming it will be beneficial is insufficient. Appendix C) is used to provide information about
Follow-ups are critical to determining the extent the strengths and limitations of the person being
to which the technology is helpful, and if not, evaluated. Specific abilities and skills concerning
what can be done to make it so. academic behaviors associated with listening,
speaking, reading, writing, mathematics, memory,
contextual matching Inventory organization, physical/motor, and behavior are
listed and the raters are to place a check mark in
Upon referral for an AT evaluation, Ryan’s teachers the column to designate whether the academic
were interviewed to complete a Contextual Match- behavior is weak, average, or strong with regard
ing Inventory to identify the setting demands that to the individual’s ability level in each area when
Ryan is faced with on a daily basis in the classroom compared to his or her peers.
(see Appendix B). Any AT evaluation should Ryan’s teachers were asked to complete the
consider the tasks in which the potential user is checklist for two reasons. First, the AT evalu-
267
ation team made a conscious decision to seek important characteristics. A review of Appendix
input from Ryan’s teachers so that they could D demonstrates that the device received high rat-
feel as though they occupied an important role ings in the areas examined.
in the evaluation. Second, it is important to gain
as much information about Ryan as the team can checklist of technology experiences
get, and Ryan’s teachers are a valuable source of
information. Research has indicated that teachers The Checklist of Technology Experiences (see
provide valid observations about student strengths Appendix E) is rated based on a conversation
and limitations (Hammill & Bryant, 1998). In between the examiner and the individual being
examining the completed checklist the team was evaluated or the examiner’s knowledge of the
able to determine that Ryan has strengths in all person being evaluated. Even though it is possible
areas except reading and writing, which is where that the examiner can fill out the scale based on
his primary functional limitations exist. This the evaluator’s knowledge of the individual be-
information is helpful, because the team thinks ing evaluated, the inputs from the person being
that screen reading technology can benefit Ryan, evaluated can be crucial, since the purpose of the
but only if his listening and thinking skills are scale is to identify the individual’s familiarity with
intact. Based on the information provided by the devices and no one should know the information
teachers, this is the case. Had Ryan demonstrated better than the consumer.
listening difficulties, having what is in print read So far we have information from Ryan’s
aloud to him would serve little purpose—one teachers and the AT expert who evaluated the
limitation would be overcome, but Ryan’s listen- technology. But we have not heard from Ryan
ing problems would have made comprehending himself, an important contribution to an ecological
the spoken text difficult. assessment. An interview with Ryan concerning
his experiences with technology is the focus of
technology characteristics the Checklist of Technology Experiences. As we
Inventory discussed earlier, this checklist is used to identify
whether the student has used technology in the
This scale is used to evaluate device-specific past and, if so, gauge whether he viewed these
characteristics such as its reliability, dependability, experiences positively or negatively. If Ryan’s
operational ease, and so forth. Preferably, this previous experiences with technology have been
evaluation occurs before the device is used as negative, these may affect deliriously any future
part of an evaluation to exclude any inappropri- technology interventions. Conversely, positive
ate devices. past experiences would likely mean that Ryan
Having determined that speech synthesis soft- will look forward to working with technology,
ware and optical character recognition technology especially if he feels that the technology will be
might benefit Ryan, the team looked at several helpful in overcoming his limitations (in this case,
different technology options in order to find a access to print). A review of Appendix E shows
good Ryan-technology match. In Appendix D we that Ryan has had little experience using technol-
see one such device, marketed by the fictitious ogy, other than ordinary word processing. Perhaps
XL Technologies; which was evaluated using the because of his discomfort using a keyboard, and
Technology Characteristics Inventory. As already probably because of his difficulties putting his
discussed, this inventory is designed to assess the thoughts into print, Ryan’s experiences with the
functionality of the technology across several word processor has been less than pleasant.
268
Individual-technology evaluation one. For this evaluation, we will use two forms:
scale and Individual-technology the Individual-Technology Evaluation Scale
evaluation Worksheets and the Optical Character Recognition/Speech
Synthesis worksheet. The worksheet provides
The Individual-Technology Evaluation Scale (see a step-by-step opportunity for the evaluator to
Appendix F) provides information about the per- examine key features of a Ryan-technology
son’s interaction with the AT device that is being match (see Appendix G). As can be seen, observa-
evaluated. To simplify the assessment process, tions cluster within three key areas: Technology
even though more than one device is needed for Features/Options (e.g., speech rate, font style
a given task, this scale was designed to examine preferences, background and text color), User’s
only one device at a time relative to one area Reactions (e.g., how Ryan responds to the scan-
of difficulty. The first part of the scale, Part A. ning speed and speech quality of the synthesis),
Individual-Technology Match, asks a series of and the User’s Ability (i.e., whether Ryan can
questions relating to compensatory effectiveness, recognize scanning areas and follow the cursor).
interest, ease of use, comfort, operational ease/ Space is available at the end of the worksheet
proficiency, and behavioral responses. Part B of should the evaluator wish to record and examine
the scale, titled General Technological Literacy, other Ryan-technology match features. As Ryan
is used to examine the student’s overall computer/ interacts and uses the technology, the evaluator
technological knowledge/literacy, overall ability observes Ryan’s and records the observations on
to use computers/technology, and keyboarding the Individual-Technology Evaluation Scale, as
proficiency if applicable. Finally, Part C of the shown in Appendix F. Clearly, these two forms
scale, labeled Other Considerations, is to ex- are the “nuts and bolts” of the evaluation, because
amine a number of positioning issues and other they help the evaluator determine if the technology
characteristics that are important to note as part “works” for Ryan. One other comment deserves
of the evaluation. note. To the extent possible, AT evaluations should
The Individual-Technology Evaluation occur in as natural a context as possible. Thus,
Worksheets were developed for use in conjunc- the evaluator chose to conduct the evaluation in
tion with the Individual-Technology Evaluation Ryan’s science classroom, during a period in which
Scale. Separate worksheets are used for optical the classroom was unoccupied. The optical char-
character recognition/speech synthesis, speech acter recognition (OCR) device was situated in a
synthesis/screen reading systems, speech recogni- convenient location at the back of the classroom,
tion systems, word prediction software, and spell and the evaluation took place there.
checkers. Each worksheet is designed as a guide In this section, we have presented a case study
to assist the evaluator in considering the effect of of one student’s AT needs. Using the FEAT com-
various characteristics, operations, functions, and ponents, the AT evaluation team can conduct an
options that are unique to specific technologies ecological evaluation that involves significant
and are critical in determining the individual- personnel (e.g., the teachers and Ryan) and de-
technology match. termines (a) if technology is needed, and (b) what
Having gathered information from a variety specific technology can be beneficial to Ryan’s
of sources, the AT evaluation team is now ready academic success.
to match Ryan to an AT device and evaluate
whether the Ryan-technology match is a good
269
reFerences Field, S., Martin, J., Miller, R., Ward, M., &
Wehmeyer, M. (1998). A practical guide to teach-
Agran, M., Blanchard, C., & Wehmeyer, M. ing self-determination. Reston, VA: Council for
L. (2000). Promoting transition goals and self- Exceptional Children.
determination through student-directed learning:
The self-determined learning model of instruction. Forbes, T. L., & Forbes, T. L. (1994). Ecotoxicol-
Education and Training in Mental Retardation and ogy in theory and practice. London: Chapman
Developmental Disabilities, 35, 351–364. & Hall.
American Educational Research Association, Greenwood, C. R., & Carta, J. J. (1987). An

American Psychological Association, National ecobehavioral analysis of instruction within spe-
Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). cial education. Focus on Exceptional Children,
Standards for educational and psychological 19, 1–12.
testing. Washington, DC: American educational Hammill, D. D., & Bryant, B. R. (1998). Learn-
Research Association. ing disabilities diagnostic inventory. Austin, TX:
(2004). Assistive Technology Act. Washington, Pro-ed.
DC: U.S. Congress. McLoughlin, J. A., & Lewis, R. B. (2005). Assess-
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human ing students with special needs (6th ed.). Upper
development: Experiments by nature and design. Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Osenberg, C. W., & Schmitt, R. J. (1996). Detecting
Brotherson, M. J., & Berdine, W. H. (1993). Transi- ecological impacts caused by human activities. In
tion to adult services: Support for ongoing parent par- Osenberg, C. W., & Schmitt, R. J. (Eds.), Concepts
ticipation. Remedial and Special Education, 14(4), and applications in coastal habitats (pp. 3–16).
44–52. doi:10.1177/074193259301400409 San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Bryant, D. P., & Bryant, B. R. (2003). Assistive Overton, T. (2009). Assessing learners with special
technology for people with disabilities. New York: needs. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Allyn and Bacon. Palmer, S. B., & Wehmeyer, M., L., Gibson, K., &
Calabrese, E. J., & Baldwin, L. A. (1993). Per- Agran, M. (2004). Promoting access to the general
forming ecological risk assessments. Chelsea, MI: curriculum by teaching self-determination skills.
Lewis Publishers. Exceptional Children, 70, 427–439.
Desouza, E. R., & Sivewright, D. (1993). An eco- Raskind, M., & Bryant, B. R. (2002). Functional
logical approach to evaluating a special education evaluation of assistive technology (FEAT). Austin,
program. Adolescence, 28, 517–525. TX: Psycho-Educational Services.
Edyburn, D. L. (2000). 1999 in review: A synthe- Thoma, C. A., Rogan, P., & Baker, S. R. (2001).
sis of the special education technology literature. Student involvement in transition planning: Un-
Journal of Special Education Technology, 15(1), heard voices. Education and Training in Mental
7–18. Retardation and Developmental Disabilities,
36(1), 16–29.
270
Trepanier, N. S. (2005). Toward an ecological risk product system, whether acquired commercially
assessment framework for special education. Inter- off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used
national Journal of Special Education, 20(1). to increase, maintain or improve the functional
capabilities of a child with a disability” (Assistive
Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., & Wehmeyer, M.
Technology Act, 2004).
(2007). Exceptional lives (5th ed.). Upper Saddle
Data-based Decision-making: Involves mak-
River, NJ: Merrill.
ing determinations that are based on hard evidence
Watts, E. H., O’Brian, M., & Wojcik, B. W. (2004). and facts rather than opinion or conjecture.
Four models of assistive technology consideration: Ecological Assessments: An assessment
How do they compare to recommended educa- method that evaluates a student’s total environ-
tional assessment practices? Journal of Special ment to idenitfy what factors that contribute to
Education Technology, 19(1). learning or behavioral problems.
Font: Typeface.
Wehmeyer, M. L., Palmer, S., Agran, M., Mithaug,
IEP: Acronym for the Individualized Educa-
D., & Martin, J. (2000). Promoting causal agency:
tion Program, which identifies educational and
The self-determined learning model of instruction.
related referrals for students and preschoolers
Exceptional Children, 66, 439–453.
with disabilities.
Wiederholt, J. L., & Blalock, V. (2000). Grays OCR: Acronym for Optical Character Recog-
silent reading test. Austin, TX: Pro-ed. nition, a system, that may be a piece of hardware
plugged into a PC or software, which translates
print into a format that can be “read and spoken”
by the computer or translated into Braille.
Person-technology Match: In assistive tech-
nology, this refers to the pairing of AT devices and
Adaptations: Specific accommodations,
services to a particular individual’s needs rather
modifications, and supports to help individuals
than to a “one size fits all” perspective.
compensate for functional limitations and chal-
Scanning: An indirect method of computer
lenges.
access using software that automatically moves
Assistive Technology (AT) Devices: Feder-
along available responses that the operator selects
ally defined as “any item, piece of equipment, or
by activating a switch.
271
APPendIx A. sAmPLe summAry And recommendAtIons

bookLet InPut For ryAn’s At evALuAtIon
Figure 1. (reprinted with permission from Raskind & Bryant, 2002)
continued on following page
272
Figure 1. continued
273
Figure 1. continued
274
Figure 1. continued
275
APPendIx b. ryAn’s comPLeted contextuAL mAtcHIng Inventory
276
Figure 2. continued
277
APPendIx c. ryAn’s comPLeted cHeckLIst oF

strengtHs And LImItAtIons
278
Figure 3. continued
279
APPendIx d. ryAn’s comPLeted tecHnoLogy cHArActerIstIcs

Inventory For ocr/sPeecH recognItIon
280
APPendIx e. ryAn’s comPLeted cHeckLIst

oF tecHnoLogy exPerIences
281
Figure 5. continued
282
APPendIx F. ryAn’s comPLeted ocr/sPeecH syntHesIs WorksHeet
283
APPendIx g. ryAn’s comPLeted IndIvIduAL-

tecHnoLogy evALuAtIon scALe
284
Section 5
Teacher Education
With the focus on inclusion of students with disabilities in general education classrooms, all teachers need to be more sensitive
to the needs of students who require access to assistive technology resources. The challenge becomes how best to integrate
the essential skills and knowledge on the many dimensions of assistive technology into the teacher education curriculum.
The structure of teacher education varies across many cultures. Within the United States models of teacher education vary
greatly. Some programs require five years of study integrated with extensive practicum experiences. Whereas, there are
large numbers of alternative programs where students are able to obtain full licensure on a part-time basis while still be-
ing employed. Under the latter circumstance, and even in some four and five-year programs, it is difficult to create within
the curriculum, sufficient opportunities to prepare teachers with the necessary background in assistive technologies due
to time and/or course constraints in the program. There are also competing demands on program requirements for content
knowledge across subject matter fields and special areas such as multicultural standards-based instruction. To be success-
ful in integrating the necessary instruction on assistive technology, there must be advocates and models to examine. While
these tend to come from special education, the power base often lies in the general education teacher education program.
This is not unreasonable given the demand for teachers and the understaffing that tends to prevail in teacher education. It
is not a case of undervaluing instruction on assistive technology. It is related to the need to know and understand how as-
sistive technologies impact the lives of learners with disabilities. Students with more severe disabilities are often identified
prior to school as having needs for assistive technologies and schools are required to be responsive. That does not mean
that teachers are prepared to ensure the accommodations. However, because the need is established and more technological
in nature, the school takes a more proactive approach. A better outcome would likely occur, especially for those students
whose needs for assistive technology do not emerge until academic expectations increase, if teacher education was more
effective in preparing all teachers for leadership roles in this area. The focus on cognition relative to assistive technology
adds a dimension that broadens the benefit to all learners. Increased attention is given to cognitive science in the teaching
of mathematics and science to all learners. Much of the work being done in the area of online instruction takes the form
of cognitive tutorials including an emphasis on reducing the cognitive load. These approaches benefit most learners. This
should enhance generalization to giving more attention to cognition and the development of assistive technologies. At the
same time the probabilities should increase the reception of assistive technology as an integral part of the teacher education
programs by all faculties. The chapters in this section provide specific examples of teacher education in assistive technology.
Readers will find they build on the prior foci of the previous sections of the handbook. To a large extent, how they translate
into ideas on teacher education will depend on the perspectives and experiences the reader brings to teacher education in
assistive technology. This is also true in many areas of teacher education that are outside the subject matter content. To some
extent, it is the lack of vesting responsibility for these areas of teacher education that are too often slighted in the preparation
process. One can argue that the focus should be on helping all teachers to share in the responsibility.
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Chapter 19
Improving Assistive
Technology Training in
Teacher Education Programs:
The Iowa Model
James R. Stachowiak
Noel Estrada-Hernández
AbstrAct
Teacher knowledge of and comfort with assistive technology (AT) has a profound effect on the use of this
technology by students with disabilities. Currently, very few teacher preparation programs effectively
address AT with their students. This chapter will discuss how to improve AT training at both a preservice
and continuing education level for teachers by focusing on the innovative initiatives being undertaken by
the Iowa Center for Assistive Technology Education and Research in the preservice teacher education
program at the University of Iowa. By the end of this chapter, readers will understand the pressing issues
in AT training for teachers and what is being done to create a new generation of AT savvy teachers by
improving overall AT knowledge and comfort levels.
IntroductIon nology services in Iowa are provided by an Area

Education Agency. The state is divided into ten
The University of Iowa’s College of Education Area Education Agencies (AEAs) each covering
created the Iowa Center for Assistive Technology large areas and containing numerous school districts
Education and Research (ICATER) in 2006 to (Iowa Department of Education, 2009). Each AEA
respond to the stated need of increased preservice has an AT team, however, these teams are small;
AT teacher training by those across the state who especially when the physical size and number of
worked with AT on a regular basis. Assistive tech- districts served within each AEA are considered.
Some AEA’s have over 3,000 students with AT
written into their Individualized Education Plan, yet
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch019
Improving Assistive Technology Training in Teacher Education Programs
have fewer than ten AT professionals to work with IcAter’s APProAcH to

these students. These constraints make it impos- PreservIce At educAtIon
sible for the AEA AT professionals to work with
every student with AT needs on a regular basis. Upon its creation, ICATER’s preeminent goal was
Many teachers in these schools either do not to incorporate AT training and education into the
have the required knowledge to effectively use curriculum of each of the college’s four depart-
the technology with the students as needed, or ments; Teaching and Learning, Educational Policy
are not comfortable incorporating and using AT and Leadership Studies, Counseling, Rehabilita-
in class. Without the support and willingness to tion and Student Development, and Psychological
follow through of the classroom teachers, the and Quantitative Foundations with a focus on the
work done by the AT professionals often leads Teaching and Learning program. The one con-
to improper use, limited use, or AT abandonment straint given was that due to an already crowded
(Cook & Hussey, 1995; Phillips, B., & Zhao, curriculum of required classes, a mandatory AT
1993). Thus, it was identified that not only is it class could not be created. To meet the AT educa-
important to provide professional development tion need, ICATER has worked with faculty in
training opportunities to teachers in the field, but each of the departments to create an AT lecture
it is critical to create a new generation of teachers, series addressing various AT topics in classes that
both general and special education, that are not College of Education students are required to take.
only knowledgeable in the use of various types The lecture series’ level of specificity is tailored
of AT, but also comfortable enough to properly to the needs of each individual group of students.
incorporate them in the classroom environment. The goal for each group is the same—to become
To do this, it is imperative to incorporate AT aware of AT’s existence, its benefits, the barriers
education and training into preservice teacher preventing successful use in K-12 schools, how the
education programs. most commonly used devices and software pack-
Although proficiency in AT for preservice ages in K-12 schools work, and who might benefit
teachers is emphasized in the 2001 Council for Ex- from the different types of AT. Even though the
ceptional Children (CEC) technology standards, goals are the same, they are arrived at differently.
only a few articles exist describing instructional For example, those majoring in special education
methods for integrating AT into teacher education will receive more AT training than those in gen-
programs (Van Laarhoven, Munk, Zurita, Lynch, eral education. The training received by special
Zurita, & Smith, 2009). The Iowa Center for As- education majors is also more specific than just an
sistive Technology Education and Research took overview and introduction of the field. Those in
this relative vacuum of information on providing general education receive training that is framed
preservice teacher AT training as an opportunity to differently than those in administration programs.
create a new model program involving a combina- Those in the administration programs are given
tion of both obtaining information through lectures an overview of AT followed by a discussion of
and meaningful hands-on experiences with AT the administrator’s role in the AT process. Each
commonly found in school settings. This chapter group will receive training in the areas of AT most
will focus on these innovative initiatives being important to their future careers.
undertaken at the University of Iowa to improve To increase AT usage in schools, not only must
teacher’s knowledge of and comfort with AT. general and special education teachers understand
how to use various AT solutions, they also must
be comfortable using such devices with students.
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Research is constantly reporting the need and im- technology for the rest of the class, videotaping
portance of instructing teachers about the benefits and editing that demonstration, and posting it on
of AT in schools (e.g., Smith & Kelley, 2007). the user’s ePortfolio site.
ICATER has determined that supplementing in- To maximize the exposure to AT, when design-
formation provided in lectures with meaningful ing the project, it was decided that this project
hands-on experiences accomplishes this goal. would be most effective if done in groups. Making
Giving students the opportunity to experience AT the hands-on learning experience a group project
in an exploratory lab setting provides meaning- provides students with a chance to bring their dif-
ful insight into how AT works. These hands-on ferent strengths and insights to a group setting to
experiences also foster a level of confidence and work together to learn an unfamiliar technology.
comfort necessary to successfully implement AT Each semester in the course, Technology in the
in a classroom setting. Because of the benefits Classroom, there are typically ten sections each
of hands-on experiences with AT tools, ICATER with fifteen students for a total of 150 students.
has created a required model hands-on project For the group project, each section is broken up
for both special and general education majors. into five groups of three. Each of these groups
Initial results of student evaluation surveys of the explore one of five themes of AT identified as
hands-on project validate the idea that hands-on commonly used in school settings. These AT
experiences provide a more meaningful AT edu- themes include the following: physical access
cation while promoting a level of comfort with tools, speech recognition technology, reading
using AT. This model is briefly introduced in the and writing aids, visual access aids, and symbol-
following section. based learning/universal design for learning aids.
To create a meaningful experience that would
resonate with the students and to allow students
creAtIng A modeL HAnds- to experience more than one type of AT, the AT
on At Project project was designed so that the students would
explore one type of AT and teach it to the rest of
The Iowa Center for Assistive Technology the class through a demonstration at the end of
Education and Research has developed a model the project. Making students responsible for their
hands-on AT project in conjunction with the Col- peers’ learning through a demonstration has en-
lege of Education course, 07E:102 Technology in sured the overall quality of both the preparation
the Classroom, a required class for all students and the demonstration, benefiting all students in
in the teacher preparation program. In this class, the class. In the end, each group will have an in
students learn about conventional technologies depth understanding and comfort using at least
and how to effectively implement their use in one type of AT and they will have observed four
the classroom. Technologies taught include other presentations, thus being exposed to demon-
PowerPoint, web page design, and digital video strations of five important types of AT commonly
editing among others. Being a technology-based found in a school setting.
class, this was a natural fit for the inclusion of an
AT project. The key components of this project
include an introductory lecture, which is followed mAt LAb
by the assignment of the technology, a required
consultation with ICATER to learn the technol- For the students to have a positive and meaningful
ogy, checking out a computer with the technology, hands-on experience with AT, all constraints on
preparing and providing a demonstration of the learning, in this case primarily time and space,
288
Figure 1. MATLab contents
need to be removed. The ICATER lab is unable working in the school system in Iowa as well as
to accommodate more than four students at a representatives familiar with statewide AT usage
time. Also, it is only open from 8:00am to 5:00pm from the Department of Education. The MAT Lab
Monday through Friday, which are typically not is versatile in that it contains a diversified selec-
conducive times to do group work in a college tion of AT that teachers are most likely to use in
setting. Thus, the ICATER lab is both a time and a classroom setting.
space constraint. To ensure a positive experience,
ICATER created the Mobile Assistive Technology
(MAT) Lab for use by students participating in this IcAter’s modeL HAnds-
project. The MAT Lab is composed of twenty PC on At Project
laptop computers loaded with various types of AT.
Because it removes time and space constraints by The AT project in Technology in the Classroom
allowing each group to take home their assigned starts with a 50 minute lecture titled, An Introduc-
AT to work at times conducive to their schedules, tion to the Assistive Technology Project, given by
the MAT Lab has become the most critical element a representative from ICATER. In this lecture,
for the success of the hands-on AT project. The ICATER introduces the concept of AT, discusses
MAT Lab computers are designed around the AT the AT continuum, discusses the importance
themes identified in the AT projects: physical ac- of all teachers understanding AT, and provides
cess, speech recognition, reading and writing aids, introductory descriptions of the types of AT that
vision aids, and symbol-based learning/universal the class will be exploring. No demonstrations
design for learning tools. See Figure 1 for a list of are provided at this time because the students are
the AT included in the MAT Lab for each theme. charged with providing these for the rest of the
These themes as well as the AT selected were class. The importance of understanding the AT
chosen based on discussions with AT professionals continuum is discussed because the tools used in
289
this project are all considered high-tech and it is WordQ) and develop what they consider to be the
important to understand that low-tech solutions most effective and educational demonstration for
are often the most effective solutions for many the rest of the class. To ensure that students attend
students. The idea that students should be provided a consultation, they are not allowed access to the
with the lowest tech AT necessary (whether that’s MAT Lab until they have completed a consultation
low- or high-tech AT) to meet their documented session, and without accessing the MAT Lab, they
need is also discussed during this lecture. To end will be unable to complete the project.
the lecture, the ICATER representative discusses Following the consultation session, students
the expectations of the project and explains the are eligible to check out a laptop from the MAT
steps that each student will need to go through to Lab that contains the AT they are assigned to
successfully complete the project. At this point, investigate. They typically sign these computers
students are put into groups and assigned their out for two weeks. During that two-week period,
AT theme. they are encouraged to do whatever they need to
Once the AT has been assigned to each group, fully explore different options in the program.
the next step is a required consultation in the ICA- They are encouraged to change settings, try using
TER lab. For a beneficial hands-on experience and it coinciding with different standard programs such
quality in class demonstrations, it is imperative as Internet Explorer or Microsoft Word, and if
that students understand their assigned technol- possible, simulate how someone with a disability
ogy. The required consultation lasts roughly one would use that AT. For example, students explor-
hour and serves as both a robust tutorial of some ing the visual access tools are encouraged to use
of software and hardware titles in their assigned the screen magnifiers without their glasses or to
AT theme and some suggestions as to what should use the screen readers to complete a task with the
be explored and explained during their demonstra- monitor turned off. Students using the physical
tions. Since this consultation is the first interaction access tools such as the head-controlled mouse
students will have with the technology, they are and onscreen keyboard or the speech recognition
expected to take notes on how the products work. tools are encouraged to attempt writing a paper
The Iowa Center for Assistive Technology Edu- using these tools. By participating in these types
cation and Research also provides a tip sheet for of activities, students gain an appreciation for
reference after the consultation on how some of the difficulties encountered by those who use AT.
the more common features of each product work. Allowing the students to check out a computer
Students are also asked to think about how that for use outside of the ICATER lab, is critical to
particular type of AT may be used in a classroom being able to provide this experience. Giving the
and incorporate that into their demonstration. students direct access to the AT via a laptop, they
This consultation session is the students’ best are more likely to spend time working with the
opportunity to ask questions about the tools that program, gaining better insight and comfort with
they will be working with; however, they are en- it and thus being better able to present the topic
couraged to return to ICATER with questions as to the rest of the class.
they arise. Because in-class demonstration time At the end of the two-week exploration period,
is limited (no more than ten minutes), during the two class periods are set aside for demonstra-
consultation, students are encouraged to explore in tions. Each group presents to the rest of the class
depth at least one of the AT software programs or directly off of the computer they have been using.
devices they are shown (for example, students in This ensures that they have access to any profile,
the Reading and Writing Aids group are typically modifications, or examples they have worked
shown Kurzweil 3000, Read and Write Gold, and with, making the presentation run smoothly. The
290
laptops are connected to a projector and projected HAnds-on At Project

onto a screen at the front of the class. Because LImItAtIons
it is important for the rest of the class to see the
programs they did not work with in action, when Two primary questions arise about potential limi-
giving the demonstration, the students must focus tations surrounding the AT project:
on demonstrating how the products work and are
not allowed to use PowerPoint slides for explana- 1. Using all Windows-based computers,
tion. During the demonstration, the students are how does this project benefit teachers that
required to answer some questions on important will have Macintosh computers in their
aspects of each AT device or software program classrooms?
they discuss, including: 2. With AT constantly changing, will the ex-
periences of these students be obsolete by
• Who could benefit from this type of AT? the time they are teachers?
• How does this AT work?
• Is this particular AT easy to use from a stu- The first question arises because the MAT Lab
dent perspective and why? is composed entirely of Microsoft Windows-based
• Is this particular AT easy to use from a computers and 40% of Iowa schools use Macintosh
teacher’s perspective and why? computers. Although students are not experiencing
• What difficulties arise when using this type AT directly on Macintosh computers, many of their
of AT? experiences can easily translate. Many Mac users
have a Windows platform that can be used on their
While the students are presenting their dem- Mac. This platform will run Windows-based AT.
onstration, they are also being videotaped. The Teachers that are not comfortable working with
videotaping portion of the project is used both to AT on the Mac platform can simply switch to the
help teach the students how to edit video, seeing as Windows platform. Also, AT programs that have
that is a potentially powerful tool in the classroom, both Windows and Mac versions often operate
and as a tool to self-evaluate their presentation similarly. Students that have experienced AT
and teaching styles. Once the students have ed- on a Windows platform should be able to easily
ited their video, they upload it to their ePortfolio translate those experiences to a Mac.
site as an artifact demonstrating what they have To address the concern of students working
learned about AT. Once on their ePortfolio, the with AT that will become obsolete by the time
video can be viewed by potential employers. they begin teaching, ICATER does update the
This aspect of the project has helped lead to high MAT Lab AT software as often as possible. This
quality demonstrations, not only due to a fear of guarantees that students have the opportunity to
portraying themselves in a negative light with a explore the most recent version of each software
poor demonstration, but also to use their acquired package. However, it is inevitable that this AT
knowledge as a potential tool to help standout in will change at some point following the students’
the ever expanding pool of candidates when ap- participation in the hands-on project. The goal of
plying for future teaching jobs. The students are the hands-on project is not just to make students
also asked to write a short reflective essay on their aware of how one type of AT works. It is to make
experience using AT and how they feel it will help students comfortable enough with AT in general
in their teaching careers. This is uploaded to the to be able to explore, figure out, and use AT that
ePortfolio as an AT artifact as well. is not necessarily familiar to them. The principles
291
taught in this project should expand to any type average, zero students rated their knowledge as
or any version of AT. excellent, and 81.2% rated their knowledge of AT
to be either below average or poor (See Figure 2).
When asked to rank their general knowledge of
evALuAtIng IcAter’s AT on the same scale following the project, only
HAnds-on At Project 4.3% ranked their overall knowledge either poor
or below average, 31.9% ranked their knowledge
Following the video editing portion of the AT as average, and 63.7% ranked their knowledge to
project, students are asked to complete a survey to be either above average or excellent. Regardless of
help evaluate the project. They are asked to answer whether or not their overall AT knowledge actually
questions about their AT knowledge and comfort improved (and one can assume that it has), the shift
level both prior to and following their participa- in perception at least indicates that students are
tion in the project. They are also asked to indicate more confident in their AT knowledge following
how comfortable they would be incorporating the the project, which should translate into being more
AT they worked with in a future class as well as likely to use these tools as future teachers.
whether or not they learned something from the Because the teacher’s comfort with AT plays a
presentations by other groups in the class. Finally, large role in whether or not it will be used in class,
they are asked to comment on their overall thoughts the evaluation also asked the teacher preparation
on the project, what they learned, and what can students to rank their general comfort with AT both
be done to improve and enhance the project in before and after the project on the poor, below aver-
the future. These questions are asked directly age, average, above average, excellent scale. Prior
after finishing the project, so they are expected to the project, only 4.3% of the students ranked
to be somewhat influenced in that respect. Also, their comfort level as above average or excellent,
although they are not truly a measure of whether while 17.4% said their comfort level was average,
or not a teacher will actually incorporate AT into and 78.3% said their comfort level was either poor
a future classroom, they are a good indicator of an or below average (see Figure 2). Although this is
improved knowledge and comfort which would only one teacher prep program, we can expect that
likely lead to improved usage statistics. these sentiments would be fairly similar at most
In the three semesters this project has been other institutions prior to the students receiving
conducted, 390 students have participated with any formal or informal AT training. Also, if they
376 filling out evaluation surveys. Prior to seeing do not receive AT training at a preservice level,
results from these evaluations, it was expected these thoughts are unlikely to change much in a
that most students would not feel very knowl- positive direction. These answers are coming from
edgeable about or comfortable with AT prior to students typically between the ages of 19 and 23,
participating in the project. It was also expected a generation widely considered to be “tech savvy.”
that following the project, their thoughts would If similar studies were done on teachers already in
change and they would consider themselves more the field that have not had AT training or experi-
knowledgeable and comfortable with AT. The ence, one could most likely expect even more to
results seen have generally coincided with what feel that their comfort level was poor or below
was expected. When asked to rank their general average. When asked to rank their comfort level
AT knowledge prior to participating in the project following the project, there was a fairly dramatic
on a scale of “poor”, “below average”, “average”, shift in the other direction. At this point, only 2.9%
“above average”, and “excellent only”, 18.8% of indicated that their comfort level was poor or below
students rated themselves as average or above average while 35.3% claimed their comfort level
292
Figure 2. Students’ perceived AT knowledge & comfort level pre and post project
was average, and 61.8% claimed their comfort project actually become teachers and have the
level was either above average or excellent. This opportunity to incorporate AT into a classroom.
shows how meaningful many students find this It was also critical to determine how the struc-
hands-on project. ture of the project was perceived. Although each
To further determine the students’ feelings of group only gets to experience using one type of
comfort with AT, they are also asked to indicate AT, they get to observe demonstrations of four
their level of agreement on a scale ranging from other types. To help validate that this is an effec-
strongly disagree to strongly agree with the follow- tive way of providing AT education, the students
ing statement: “I would be comfortable integrat- were asked if they had learned something from
ing the AT my group demonstrated into a future the other groups’ presentations. Based on their
classroom.” The results have been promising; responses, the demonstrations seem to be an ef-
85.4% of the respondents either agreed or strongly fective. Only 1.4% either disagreed or strongly
agreed with that statement while only 4.3% either disagreed with the statement that they had learned
disagreed or strongly disagreed. Similar results something from the other group presentations,
have been obtained when asking students if they while 94.2% either agreed or strongly agreed
would feel comfortable incorporating AT in gen- with the statement (see Figure 3). To validate
eral in a future classroom. When asked this ques- that the students are actually learning from the
tion, 79.7% either agreed or strongly agreed with demonstrations in class, a short, multiple choice
the statement while only 2.9% either disagreed assessment to be carried out following the project
or strongly disagreed (see Figure 3). At the very is being developed.
least, this indicates that the students confidence During the evaluation of the hands-on AT
and comfort level with AT is increasing following project, students are also asked to provide com-
this project. Having a higher level of awareness, ments on what aspects of the project were useful,
confidence, and comfort with AT makes these what could be done to improve the project, and
students more likely to incorporate AT as teach- what they would take away from the project for
ers when it would benefit a student in a future use in a future classroom. Their comments helped
classroom. Again, to fully understand the effect to better explain their overall thoughts on the ef-
that this project is having on K-12 students with fectiveness of the project. The first question asked
disabilities, follow-up studies need to be conducted was, “What did you find most useful about the
once the students currently participating in this project?” Some of the most common responses
are as follows:
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Figure 3. Hands-on project student evaluation results
• “Being able to work directly with an AT The second question asked of the students was,
program.” “What is something that you learned about AT that
• “Learning about technology that is avail- you will be able to apply in a future classroom?”
able to the teacher.” This question was asked to gauge how well each
• “Getting a chance to actually experience student had thought about classroom application
using the AT kept me more interested than while during the project. The following are some
simply a lecture.” of their most common responses:
• “Getting an idea of resources available to
help students with disabilities.” • “I learned that not all AT is expensive
• “Learning about technology that I previ- and that some computers have built in AT
ously had no knowledge of.” options.”
• “Presenting on something that I can actu- • “I knew very little….now I feel that I have
ally use in a future classroom.” a good knowledge base to build on.”
• “How comfortable I now feel using AT.” • “The main thing I got out of the AT project
• “Learning how AT can help different learn- was gaining confidence to use some of the
ers in different situations.” devices in a classroom setting. I was under
• “Being able to take the AT home to prac- the impression that some of the technolo-
tice with it.” gies would be impossible to learn, but that
is not at all the case.”
As these comments show, the students valued • “Everything, I knew nothing about AT pri-
the project for making them aware of and com- or to this semester.”
fortable with using AT, which was the main goal. • “I have a new outlook on AT and how easy
Many of the comments also addressed the structure it can be to use.”
of the project. Students generally liked that they • “I learned that universally designed pro-
got an opportunity to experience the AT and felt grams are great for students with and with-
that using the AT held their interest and was more out disabilities. I also learned that it is not
valuable than listening to a lecture. Also, many hard to learn about different types of assis-
students valued the opportunity to take the AT tive technology.”
home to practice. This validates both the thought • “I learned to be open minded about how
that hands-on experiences are valuable learning technology can assist students in all
opportunities and that the creation of the MAT Lab areas.”
was a critical component of the AT project.
294
Although many of the comments are more anyone commented negatively. The most common
general than specific, they still indicate students comment was that the students wanted an oppor-
are learning something about AT usage in the tunity to explore more than just one type of AT.
classroom during this project. Many students in- Although at this time, this is not possible in the
dicated that they learned how easy AT was to use, context of the project, ICATER has experienced
or how AT does not always need to be high-tech an increase in the number of students visiting the
to be effective. Many also discussed ways that AT lab on their own time to learn and discuss different
could be used to benefit all students in the class. types of AT. The hands-on project has succeed in
The comments indicate a changing attitude toward raising the knowledge, confidence, and comfort
AT. Although this does not guarantee future class- level with AT for many of the students who have
room use, the positive reflections may indicate participated.
that these students are more open to using AT in This project evaluation shows that students feel
a classroom than those that have not participated that their AT knowledge and comfort is improved
in such a project. following the project and that they feel that the
Finally, the students were asked to answer the method of providing hands-on experiences is
question, “Do you have any suggestions of ways effective. However, more evaluation in the form
to improve this project for future sections?” Some of assessment needs to be done to determine if
students stated that the workload was too much their AT knowledge is actually improving. Also,
and that they did not get many opportunities to it would seem likely that as students’ comfort
work on the project in class. However, most of the with AT increased, the likelihood that they would
students either commented that there was nothing implement AT in future classrooms would as well.
that needed to be changed while others commented To determine if this project is actually having an
on the desire both to further learn about the AT effect on the usage of AT in Iowa’s K-12 schools,
they had not directly worked with and the desire more research needs to be conducted.
to have more time to adequately present what they
learned. The following are variations of some of
the most common comments to this question in IcAter’s At Project:
the evaluation: mAry’s exPerIence
• “Give the students a chance to try using The need to improve teacher knowledge and com-
other AT beside what they presented in fort with using AT that is already in the schools
class. This would give an opportunity for as well as the positive implications of providing
hand-on experience with more than one preservice AT education through a combination of
type of AT.” lectures and hands-on experiences can be summed
• “Provide the students with longer presenta- up in a University of Iowa College of Education
tion time, ten minutes is not enough to ac- student’s (Mary) practicum experience follow-
curately display all that we have learned.” ing the completion of the hands-on AT project
• “Let us all play around with them a little in Technology in the Classroom. For her project,
following the presentations so that we all Mary’s group explored and presented on reading
have a better feel for all of the AT.” and writing aids, primarily focusing on the scan
and read program, Kurzweil 3000. This program
These comments show that students see value allows the user to scan printed material into the
in this project. In fact, when given the opportunity computer transferring it into a digital format that
to provide an improvement suggestion, hardly can be read aloud and easily manipulated on a
295
computer for studying purposes. In this format, ence opened Mary’s eyes to both the benefits of
students with disabilities limiting their access to AT and the need for teachers to understand and be
printed text can customize the program’s reading comfortable with its usage. About her experience,
speed, reading unit, voice, and text highlighting Mary commented that “while it was frustrating to
color to meet their specific needs. At the same time, think that this technology could have been used
as she was working on this project, Mary was also successfully much earlier in Dylan’s academic
taking her practicum class where she was required career, I am thankful that I was able to introduce
work alongside the classroom teacher at a local it to him. Showing other teachers how Kurzweil
school. Although she didn’t specify the class she is used means that it will continue to be used and
was working in, many of the assignments involved prove beneficial to Dylan’s learning. In a school
reading articles and either discussing or writing environment where Dylan felt dejected by the
reflections on them. There was one student in the accomplishments of others and unmotivated due
class, Dylan, who had autism as well as behavior to fear of failure, he is finally able to accomplish
issues and thus had difficulty participating in these tasks independently thanks to AT” (Personal com-
types of classroom activities. munication, May 2007).
One of Mary’s tasks was to work with Dylan Dylan’s story is one that is too common among
to find a way to help him access the same work schools across the United States. The problem with
that the rest of the class had been doing. She tried AT is not always that the school does not have ac-
reading the articles to him, but he did not respond cess to it. Much like Dylan’s school, many schools
well to that intervention. She eventually took have AT available that would benefit students with
him into the computer lab to attempt to provide disabilities. The problem is that outside of some
a quieter environment for reading and saw a sign special education teachers and district or area AT
on a computer that read “Kurzweil 3000. Do not professionals, who cannot be with every student
turn off.” Having just worked with the program in with a disability on a daily basis, most teachers
Technology in the Classroom, she sat Dylan down, do not know what AT is, how to use it, or are
showed him how the program worked and taught not comfortable enough with it to incorporate it
him to control and use it on his own. Within two into a classroom environment. A solution to this
class periods, he had used the program to read a problem is increasing AT training at a preservice
five page article, which Mary claimed was much level. Often, training via lectures on AT is not
more than she had seen him do all semester. When enough. For teachers to be comfortable enough to
she explained to the other teachers what she had use AT with students with disabilities, they need
him doing, they were amazed that she knew how some hands-on experience. The model hands-on
Kurzweil worked. One even claimed that they AT project that ICATER has incorporated into
had had the program for years but that no one the teacher preparation program in the College
knew how to use it properly. Also, the sign had of Education at the University of Iowa is one
been placed on the computer because someone way, although more research on its effectiveness
had been afraid that if the computer had been is needed, to prepare teachers to effectively use
turned off with Kurzweil on it, it would break. AT in a K-12 classroom setting.
This indicated that not only did the teachers not
understand how the program worked, but they were
not comfortable using it. Mary showed the other concLusIon
teachers how Kurzweil worked and, with Mary’s
help, they proceeded to use it successfully with For AT to have a positive impact, teachers, both
Dylan for the rest of the semester. This experi- special and general education, must be willing to
296
incorporate the necessary AT into the classroom Smith, D. W., & Kelley, P. (2007). A survey of
environment. For many reasons, as determined in assistive technology and teacher preparation pro-
the Iowa Assistive Technology Needs Assessment, grams for individuals with visual impairments.
including the lack of preservice AT preparation, Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 101(7),
many teachers do not have the required knowl- 429–433.
edge or comfort level to effectively implement
AT usage in their classrooms. Some colleges and
Lynch, K., Zurita, B., & Smith, T. (2009). The
universities have begun to recognize the need for
effectiveness of video tutorials for teaching pre-
AT training in their teacher preparation programs.
service educators to use assistive technologies.
In the College of Education at the University of
Journal of Special Education Technology, 23(4),
Iowa, the ICATER has developed a model hands-
31–45.
on AT project that is required of every teacher
preparation student. This project facilitates learn-
ing AT at a hands-on level and fosters a feeling
of comfort with commonly used AT software and key terms And deFInItIons
devices. The Iowa Center for Assistive Technol-
ogy Education and Research’s project is just one Assistive Technology (AT) Continuum: A
example of how colleges and universities are means of categorizing assistive technology devices
addressing the need to prepare teachers to utilize based on their level of sophistication, amount of
AT in a classroom environment. Early evaluations training needed to use and relative cost. On the
of the project suggest that it is having a positive continuum, a device could be considered no-tech,
impact on the AT knowledge and comfort level of low-tech, mid-tech, or high-tech.
students graduating from the University of Iowa’s ePortfolio: An electronic collection of tradi-
College of Education, but further research must tional (essays, lesson plans, etc.) and multimedia
be done on this and other methods used in teacher (PowerPoint presentation, videos, etc.) examples
training programs to determine its ultimate impact of a teacher’s work.
on students with disabilities. Mobile Assistive Technology Lab: A collec-
tion of laptop computers with different types of
assistive technology that can be taken to and used
reFerences in various settings for training.
Screen Magnifying Software: Software that
Cook, A. M., & Hussey, S. M. (1995). Assistive increases the size of images on a computer screen
Technologies: Principles and practice. Saint to a size that individuals with visual impairments
Louis, MO: Mosby. can see.
Screen Reading Software: Software that reads
Iowa Department of Education. (2009). Iowa
the content of a computer screen out loud, this can
area education agencies. Retrieved on February
be used by individuals with difficulty reading and
9, 2009, FROM http://www.iowaaea.org/vnews/
understanding text or by individuals with visual
display.v/ART/49525a79b9752
impairments for navigation purposes.
Phillips, B., & Zhao, H. (1993). Predictors of
Speech Recognition Software: Software that
assistive technology abandonment. Assistive
uses the user’s voice to input text into the com-
puter or voice commands to control applications
of the computer.
297
Universal Design for Learning: A framework

for applying universal design principles to curri-
cula, instructional materials, educational activities,
and assessments to make them accessible to all
students regardless of ability or learning style.
298
299
Chapter 20
Effects of Assistive
Technologies Combined with
Desktop Virtual Reality in
Instructional Procedures (1)
Gary Dotterer
Oklahoma State University, USA
AbstrAct
Based on research, desktop virtual reality (DVR) has been shown to have learning benefits over tradi-
tional methods of instruction. However, implementing assistive technology (ATs) in DVR would seem
to enhance the learning process. This study aimed to examine effects of web-based DVR on learning
performances. The literature reviewed for this particular study ultimately shows DVR to be beneficial
in training in many fields found in the workforce. The overall advantages utilizing advanced technology
in the form of DVR and ATs allow safe and controlled training environments, realistic simulations, and
the ability to reconstruct learner processes and interactions.
IntroductIon for those individuals to perform in the workforce.

The contribution to new knowledge in training that
Desktop virtual reality has been proven as a viable utilizes DVR combined with AT (DVR/ATs) is the
means of training in many industries, businesses, ability to immerse individuals in a safe environment
and professional environments. Because DVR is while training for more dangerous or hazardous
new in training and teaching, the addition of ATs work areas. Individuals can take virtual tours, visit
further introduce more possibilities for those train- far away countries, and even explore new frontiers
ing individuals for the workforce. Because many from the safety of their own desktop. These new
individuals employed in business, industry, and advanced and innovative technologies combined
specialized fields have some type of impairment, together are so new that the potential for this type
whether it is considered a minor impairment or of training tool has yet to be determined.
severe, technology has provided the necessary tools Providing learning opportunities for employees
with disabilities have been limited in regards to
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch020 technology and the type of procedures that could be
Effects of Assistive Technologies Combined with Desktop Virtual Reality in Instructional Procedures (1)
constructed. Advancements and new technology Braille board, and voice-recognition software as
can create environments conducive to assisting an alternative method to access online content.
the disabled with training and developments of This non-compliance opens the door for litigation
skill knowledge. It is important that employers and learners who rely on AT devices are faced yet
consider this technology due to the lack of con- with another road block, although DVR/ATs may
straints in space and through properly constructed show to have advantages in training.
and developed instructional procedures desktop
computers can affordably provide many training
options for these individuals. Those who are not reseArcH PurPose
whole should be given every opportunity that
others have to become fully humanized by the Learners with impairment use ATs to access
liberation of DVR through AT devices. Section online learning content through input devices
508 requires that governmental offices provide and software. According to Netherton and Deal
all employees equal access to electronic docu- (2006) ATs can be defined as, “…any piece of
mentation. Desktop virtual reality/ATs provide equipment or device that may be used by a person
alternative solutions that can be more beneficial with a disability to perform specific tasks, improve
if properly initiated. The strong learning potential functional capabilities, and become more inde-
of DVR has been shown through many training pendent. It can help…people with a wide range
procedures and many people assume this tech- of cognitive, physical, or sensory disabilities”
nology cannot work for people with disabilities. (p.11). Although these devices are used primarily
However, this is not true, given new ATs that can for accessing electronic documents, bridging con-
make DVR possible for everyone. nectivity with desktop publishing software, and
browsing Internet content, the literature shows
that ATs are compatible with most digital online
reseArcH ProbLem content, however, what has not been researched
is the comparison of learning outcomes among
In 1998, Congress passed an amendment to the instructional procedures: text-only, image-only,
Rehabilitation Act known as Section 508 requiring DVR/ATs, and hands-on instructional treatments.
federal and state agencies, including educational The purpose of this study was to determine,
institutions and specialized fields, to make their through dependent evidence or consequences that
electronic and information technology accessible are observable, using a mixed method research
to people with disabilities. “Inaccessible technol- design, the effects of four treatments on learner
ogy interferes with an individual’s ability to obtain performance outcomes.
and use information quickly and easily” (IT Ac-
cessibility & Workforce Division, 2006, p.1). Hypothesis and conceptual
These federal, state, educational agencies are research Framework
required to offer individuals with impairments
hardware and software technologies that give The hypothesis and conceptual framework pro-
equal access to Internet and Intranet websites, posed in this study were formulated based on
interactive forms, videos, audio files, digital the previous research conducted by Ausburn and
documents, and other web-based tools. Much of Ausburn (2004). The following hypothesis was
this content depends on the user and their abil- derived:
ity to see, hear, or navigate using AT input and
output devices such as a screen reader, trackball,
300
Figure 1. Conceptual framework

contributing to obtained learner performance.
Cognitive Load Theory, as defined by Sweller
(1988), proposes that optimum learning occurs
in humans when the load on working memory is
kept to a minimum to best facilitate the changes in
long-term memory. Sweller contends that learning
can take place if individuals are not exposed to
too much input from different media sources si-
multaneously. The basic premise of cognitive load
theory can be summarized as: “Working memory,
in which all conscious cognitive processing occurs,
can handle only a very limited number—possibly
no more than two or three—of novel interacting
elements” (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003, p. 2).
By combining ATs and DVR in the same envi-
ronment, the possibility of cognitive load may be
exerted due to exposing simultaneously a visual,
auditory, kinesthetic, and an unfamiliar setting.
In this study, it was hypothesized that the large
visual cognitive load of DVR might disadvantage
the medium.
H1: Learner outcomes from DVR/ATs instruc- A second theoretical thread came from Hunt
tional procedure design will show no sig- and Waller’s (1999) work on orientation and way-
nificant difference to traditional hands-on finding in visual environments. According to Hunt
instructional design learner outcomes. and Waller (1999), orientation is our awareness
H2: Learner outcomes from DVR/ATs instruc- of the space around us, including the location of
tional procedure design will show no sig- important objects in the environment. Orientation
nificant difference to text only instructional in space is crucial for finding one’s way (or way-
design learner outcomes. finding) from one location to another. As individu-
H3: Learner outcomes from DVR/ATs instruc- als enter unfamiliar environments disorientation
tional procedure design will show no sig- can occur, thus causing frustration and a sense of
nificant difference to image only instruc- helplessness. Geocentric and egocentric mapping
tional design learner outcomes. are types of tools to overcome any wayfinding
or orientation difficulties. Geocentric mapping
The conceptual framework for this study origi- orients the user in an up direction as a navigator
nated from three primary areas: (a) John Sweller’s relies on the top side of a map always pointing
(1988) Cognitive Load Theory, (b) Waller, Hunt, north. Egocentric mapping orients the user by
and Knapp (1967) Orientation and Wayfinding placing a historical landsite or marking to denote
Theory, and (c) John Anderson’s (1996) Adap- the navigator’s position in relation to the rest of
tive Character of Thought (ACT-R). Shown in the map. In this study it was hypothesized that
Figure 1 are the theories that support outcomes to be effective, VR must assist learners to orient
found in the study. and wayfind in the visual environment. If it fails
Input overload, lack of preparation, and to accomplish this, VR could have diminished
insufficient training are possible causal effects effectiveness.
301
The Adaptive Character of Thought (ACT-R) LIterAture revIeW

by John Anderson (1996) states, “…complex
cognition arises from an interaction of procedural Desktop virtual reality has evolved since its early
and declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge days in the entertainment industry making its first
is represented by units called production rules, appearance in video arcade games. Due to the
and declarative knowledge is represented in units development of sophisticated computer graphics
called chunks” (p.355). Anderson (1996) goes on and animation technology, PC-based environ-
to say, “The individual units are created by simple ments that are realistic, flexible, interactive, and
encodings of objects in the environment (chunks) easily controlled by users have recently opened
or simple encodings of transformations in the major new possibilities for what has been termed
environment (production rules). A great many unwired, unencumbered, or DVR (Ausburn &
such knowledge units underlie human cognition” Ausburn, 2004; Shneiderman, 1993).
(p.335). ACT-R is a cognitive architecture—a Desktop virtual reality requires mouse, joy-
theory about how human cognition works. On the stick, or space/sensorball-controlled input to
exterior, ACT-R looks like a programming lan- navigate through a 3D environment and a graph-
guage; however, its constructs reflect assumptions ics monitor for display under computer control
about human cognition. These assumptions are (Ausburn & Auburn, 2004). In DVR, the user
based on numerous facts derived from psychol- employs a mouse or other navigation device to
ogy experiments. Like a programming language, “...move and explore within a virtual environ-
ACT-R is a framework: for different tasks (e.g., ment on his/her computer screen as if actually
Tower of Hanoi, memory for text or for list of moving within a place in the real world” (Aus-
words, language comprehension, communication, burn, Ausburn, Cooper, Kroutter, & Sammons,
aircraft controlling), researchers create models 2007a, p. 9). QuickTime software installed on a
(aka programs) that are written in ACT-R and regular PC controls a special video file known
that, beside incorporating the ACT-R’s view of as a QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR) which
cognition, add their own assumptions about the gives individuals control through an input device
particular task. Considering Sweller’s cognitive to click and drag left to right or up and down in
load theory and Anderson’s ACT-R theory, if the a virtual scene. In DVR, movement can include
instructional procedure design is properly con- “rotating the panoramic image to simulate physical
structed, ATs combined with virtual environments movements of the body and head, and zooming in
can harmoniously work together and provide and out to simulate movements toward and away
enhanced training, instruction, and skill develop- from objects or parts of the scene” (Ausburn &
ment in many areas within a variety of businesses, Ausburn, 2008, p.57). Desktop virtual reality that
industries, and corporate environments. uses a mouse for navigation simulates the action
The conceptual framework for this study pro- of walking or riding. An important question is
posed that DVR/ATs might pose learning difficul- whether this desktop simulation sufficiently rep-
ties unless carefully designed and implemented. resents interaction with the real world (Waller,
Careful instructional design and presentation Hunt, & Knapp, 1998). Bliss, Tidwell, and Guest
might help overcome potential cognitive over- (1997) addressed this issue and showed that for
load, facilitate orientation and wayfinding, and acquiring certain kinds of spatial knowledge,
help learners proceduralize manipulation of this minimal navigational control with a mouse can
complex medium. be sufficient.
302
Twenty-first century instructional procedures combined in a web-based setting, the possibili-

should adopt new immerging technologies as a ties are promising. Upon successful design and
means to engage students in interactive virtual implementation of instructional procedures that
environments. With DVR/ATs, the learning op- utilize DVR/ATs, the possibility of enhanced
portunities for individuals in workforce and career learning is increased.
and technical education and at post-secondary As a learning tool, DVR has demonstrated
institutions should be enhanced. These technolo- distinct opportunities across the educational
gies are currently being utilized in education as spectrum (Dickey, 2005; Neel, 2006; Revenaugh,
separate methods of instruction, but combined 2006; Shim, Kim, Kim, Park, Park, & Ryu, 2003;
they provide an interactive and safe way for Smedley & Higgins, 2005; Vogel, Bowers, Mee-
students to learn. han, Hoeft, & Bradley, 2004). Desktop virtual
Recent research has demonstrated that under reality has also proved beneficial in professional
some conditions and for some learners, presenting occupational training in the medical field and
complex technical environments via DVR has ad- engineering. In general, recent research supports
vantages over using traditional still imagery. This the assertion that an abundance of possibilities
research has also shown that DVR has advantages exist for virtual reality as a training tool within the
during recall for object placement but introduces vocational and technical education field (Ausburn
noise in the form of visual channel overload that & Ausburn, 2006; Park, Jang, & Young, 2006;
can interfere with learning (Ausburn, Ausburn, Seth & Smith, 2004; Tiala, 2007).
Cooper, Kroutter, & Sammons, 2007b). The continuation of the study is contained in
Because many individuals employed in busi- Chapter 21 of this handbook. Chapter 21 begins
ness, industry, and specialized fields have some with the methodology, results and findings, discus-
type of impairment, whether it is considered a sion, future research directions, and conclusion
minor impairment or severe, technology has pro- sections.
vided the necessary tools for those individuals to
perform in the workforce. The contribution to new
knowledge in technology center and in workforce reFerences
training utilizing DVR/ATs is the ability to im-
merse individuals in a safe environment while Anderson, J. R. (1996). ACT: A simple theory of
training for more dangerous or hazardous work complex cognition. The American Psychologist,
areas. Individuals can take virtual tours, visit far 51, 355–365. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.4.355
away countries, and even explore new frontiers Ausburn, F. B., Ausburn, L. J., Cooper, J., Kroutter,
from the safety of their own desktop. P., & Sammons, G. (2007a). Virtual reality technol-
This study provides essential statistical analysis ogy: Current status, applications, and directions
and recommendations that will allow for further for education research. OATE Journal: Oklahoma
studies in this complex, but user-friendly envi- Association of Teacher Educators, 11, 7–14.
ronment. This research was designed to launch
in depth study in the future to assist those indi- Ausburn, F. B., Ausburn, L. J., Cooper, J., Kroutter,
viduals with disabilities in education. Immersing P., & Sammons, G. (2007b). Virtual reality in surgi-
individuals who may not be able to fully interact cal technology education: A study in instructional
with their environment or surroundings may one theory and design. In Proceedings of the 2007
day benefit from this study. Through the use of CTE Research and Professional Development
audio interaction, closed captioning, and DVR Conference, Las Vegas, NV (pp. 218-233).
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Park, C., Jang, G., & Young, C. (2006). De-
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Education Research, Atlanta, Georgia.
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Vogel, J., Bowers, C., Meehan, C., Hoeft, R., & Closed Caption Video: Text that scrolls
Bradley, K. (2004). Virtual reality for life skills through a digital video file that gives auditory
education: Program evaluation. Deafness & Edu- impaired individuals the opportunity to read dia-
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dei.162 Cognitive Load Theory: Derived by John
Sweller in 1988 that proposed optimum learning
Waller, D., Hunt, El, & Knapp, D. (1998). The
occurs in humans when the working load is kept to
transfer of spatial knowledge in virtual environ-
a minimum to best facilitate long-term memory.
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Desktop Virtual Reality (DVR): Refers to a
129–143. doi:10.1162/105474698565631
computer program that creates a real or simulated
imagery-based environment that is displayed
through a desktop computer screen.
key terms And deFInItIons Orientation and Wayfinding Theory: De-
rived by David Waller, Earl Hunt, and David
ACT-R Theory: Derived by John Anderson Knapp in 1998 that proposed orientation in space
in 1996 who proposed complex cognition arises is crucial for finding one’s way from one location
from an interaction of procedural and declarative to another.
knowledge. Procedural knowledge is represented QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR): A spe-
by units called production rules, and declara- cial video file created by virtual reality software
tive knowledge is represented in units called that gives users the ability to click and drag right
chunks. or left, up and down by control movement through
Assistive Technology (AT): Provides indian input device.
viduals with learning, communication, and physi- Virtual Reality (VR): A multi-imagery com-
cal access difficulties the necessary hardware and puter generated environment.
software solutions to lead more productive and Web-Based Treatments: Research instru-
independent lives. ments that are administered via the World Wide
Web.
305
306
Chapter 21
Effects of Assistive
Technologies Combined with
Desktop Virtual Reality in
Instructional Procedures (2)
Gary Dotterer
Oklahoma State University, USA
AbstrAct
Twenty-four practical nursing and health careers students were introduced by random assignment to
the four treatments. Specifically, the study compared the learning effects on an instrument connection
procedure used in a medical setting of four different learning treatments: text-only instruction, image-
only instruction, desktop virtual reality (DVR) with assistive technologies (ATs) (i.e., audio combined
with closed caption) instruction, and hands-on demonstration instruction. This study used descriptive
statistics, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and qualitative comments and observation to discover impor-
tant design and implementation challenges for DVR.
IntroductIon metHodoLogy
In this chapter the methodology, results and findings, sample

discussion, future research directions, and conclu-
sion are presented as a follow-up to Chapter 20. Twenty-four subjects from Northeast Technology
Center in Oklahoma (USA) participated in this
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch021 study. They were post-secondary Practical Nurs-
ing students and Health Careers Occupations to how to hook up an EKG. Upon completion of
students aged 18 years or older, and were selected their training treatment, students were individu-
to participate based on the criterion of having no ally shown the actual EKG, lead cables, sensors,
previous interaction with an electrocardiography and electrical power cord and ask to successfully
machine (ECG or EKG). hook up the machine to a mannequin according to
what they learned from their treatment. Subjects
testing Instruments and Procedures were given a maximum of ten minutes to complete
this task. This performance test was the source
Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four of the quantitative data for the study. Additional
web-based treatments: (a) text-only that included qualitative data were recording subjects’ verbal
only text with no visual aides; (b) image-only that comments and researcher observations.
included visual imagery with no supportive text;
(c) DVR/ATs that included a QuickTime Virtual
Reality (QTVR) Movie, audio with closed cap- resuLts And FIndIngs
tioning and text-based support for documentation;
(d) hands-on instructional training that included Analysis of the number of correct responses on the
instructor-presented instructional demonstration hands-on EKG exercise was done with descriptive
supported by text-based documentation. Figures 1, statistics and one-way ANOVA. Descriptive data
2, and 3 illustrate the three media-based treatments. are shown in Figure 4.
These treatments were presented via desktop ANOVA results are shown in Figure 5. There
computer. All four treatments were presented to was a significant difference among the four in-
subjects individually by the researcher. structional treatments (F = 31.43; df = 3; p = .000)
Students assigned to image-only and DVR/ with a very large effect size (η2 = .97) and a large
ATs treatment were given a video to train them corrected R2 (.80). These results allowed rejec-
on interaction and navigational tools used by tion of the null hypothesis that learners receiving
the QTVR Player. These subjects were allowed text-only, image-only, DVR/ATs, and traditional
to view the instructional training video as long hands-on instruction perform no differently.
as they wanted. All students were individually To locate the sources of significant differences
given their assigned instructional presentation on among the four instructional treatments, post-hoc
Figure 1. Screen shot of the text-only instrument
307
Figure 2. Screen shot of the image only instrument
Figure 3. Screen shot of the DVR/ATs combined on a web page
comparisons of the treatment groups were done and approached significance with the image-only
with Tukey HSD and homogeneous subsets; these treatment (p = .057).
results are shown in Figures 6 and 7. These post-
hoc tests indicated that text-only treatment clearly
stood alone as a significantly poorer treatment than dIscussIon
any of the other three. The image-only treatment
clustered with both the DVR with AT treatment Based on the findings from the study, the results
from which it was not significantly different and show that DVR/ATs performed poorly. The
the hands-on treatment from which it approached conceptual framework that guided the study lists
significance (p = .057). cognitive load, wayfinding and orientation, and
The hands-on treatment clearly was the best of a procedural type design would be factors in this
the four; it was significantly better than the text- study. The study also produced outcomes that
only (p = .000) and DVR (p = .004) treatments may need to be addressed in future research in
this area.
308
Figure 4. Descriptive data for EKG hands-on exercise
Figure 5. One-way ANOVA data for EKG hands-on exercise score (# of correct responses)
Figure 6. Post-hoc comparisons among treatment groups (Tukey HSD) Dependent Variable: Score (#
of correct responses) on Hands-on Exercise Tukey HSD
309
Figure 7. Post-hoc comparisons among treatment groups (homogeneous subsets) Score (# of correct
responses) on hands on exercise homogeneous subsets
H1: Learner outcomes from DVR/ATs instruc- H2: Learner outcomes from DVR/ATs instruc-
tional procedure design will show no sig- tional procedure design will show no sig-
nificant difference to traditional hands-on nificant difference to text-only instruction-
instructional design learner outcomes. al design learner outcomes.
As shown in Figure 5, individuals’ performance Figure 7 shows there was significance at the
scores for DVR/ATs were much less than those .05 level that the individuals using DVR/ATs
receiving hands-on instructional design thus, procedure out performed individual’s scores us-
a rejection of the null hypothesis that learners ing the text-only treatment thus, a rejection of the
receiving DVR/ATs perform no differently. Tak- alternate hypothesis that there was a difference
ing into consideration the standard deviation, the between the two treatments. Subjects given the
differences were still below that of the hands-on text-based treatment reported being frustrated
instruction. Through observation of the subjects during the procedure. They responded during the
possible reasons for poor performance could be interview similar to those that were administered
attributed to cognitive load and the lack of a pro- the DVR/ATs that they did not know what to
cedural design element. One subject noted during do. Although the text explained how to hook up
the interview process that they did not know what the EKG that actual placement of the leads was
to do. “It was frustrating, when I opened the web virtually impossible to duplicate. One participant
page there were no step-by-step instructions.” completely quit because they felt inadequate.
The practical nursing students are trained through
proceduralized hands-on instruction as opposed H3: Learner outcomes from DVR/ATs instruc-
to web-driven delivery methods. Other themes tional procedure design will show no sig-
worth noting from the interviews were: “It was nificant difference to image only instruc-
confusing”, “There was too much going on”, and tional design learner outcomes?
“I did not know how to operate the DVR/ATs.”
Although the DVR/ATs outperformed the
text-only treatment, results showed that the image
310
only treatment out-performed the DVR/ATs thus, instructional procedures for those with disabilities
a rejection of the null hypothesis that learners can use DVR/ATs devices to immerse individuals
receiving DVR/ATs perform no differently. This in safe realistic environments or working with
was result was surprising. Although the subjects devices that are not readily available.
were only subjected to an image only procedure,
they scored significantly better than those using
the DVR/ATs. The subjects reported difficulty concLusIon
maneuvering using the image only treatment.
They also felt lost and did not know what to do Desktop virtual reality has shown promise and
once they engaged in the procedure. instructional benefits in previous studies. Based
on these studies, DVR might have been expected
in this study to be a viable substitution for hands-
FurtHer reseArcH dIrectIons on training by showing no difference in learning
performance. However, in this study not only did
To improve learner engagement and performance the DVR show significantly poorer results than
with DVR, it is recommended to introduce a more hands-on training, but individuals with VR treat-
detailed and comprehensive training program for ment did not even out perform individuals receiv-
teaching navigation in a virtual environment and ing the image-only treatment. Using follow-up
to establish a clear set of learning objectives to qualitative interviews with subjects and researcher
ensure proceduralisation and increase confidence observations, it was seen that individuals assigned
level using the tools associated with DVR. It is also the DVR/ATs treatment ignored the VR and chose
recommended if DVR/ATs treatment is used as an to revert back to more familiar and comfortable
instructional procedure in virtual environments, learning strategies by engaging the audio and
the learners should be given a mapping system to closed caption areas of the treatment scenes. Stu-
overcome orientation and wayfinding obstacles. dents would not engage the VR area of the web
Desktop virtual reality has shown strong potential page, and it was conclusive by observation and
for instruction in technical environments, with its interview that despite receiving pre-task training
ability to help learners’ master complex and even in using VR, the students were confused and not
dangerous environments. However, this study indi- comfortable using the QTVR movie within the
cates that the virtual reality (VR) medium requires web page. This could be interpreted as a cognitive
careful instructional design and implementation overload problem for VR based on the cognitive
if its potential is to be realized. load theory of Sweller. Students may have been
Employers seeking to engage in development overloaded by the VR and unable to procedural-
or adoption of DVR/ATs learning environments ize. Thus they did not engage with the DVR but
should look for instructional development per- reverted to the accompanying ATs in the form of
sonnel who have current knowledge and skills audio and closed captioning which were more
in designing and evaluating such environments. familiar and comfortable for these particular
Considering the cognitive load, wayfinding, subjects. Another reason for the lack of success
and proceduralisation theory, if properly con- of the VR in this study could have been issues in
structed, the instructional procedures can assist orienting and wayfinding.
HR personnel with training, instruction, and skill Those who engaged in the QTVR found in the
development in many areas within a variety of image-only and DVR/ATs treatments appeared to
businesses, industries, and corporate environ- be lost, disoriented, and showed signs of apprehen-
ments. Employers that are required to develop sion due to unfamiliar setting and environment.
311
Waller, Hunt, and Knapp (1998) asserted that key terms And deFInItIons
orientation and wayfinding must be determined
either by egocentric or geocentric mapping before Assistive Technology (AT): Provides indi-
engagement with virtual environments becomes a viduals with learning, communication, and physi-
viable and familiar setting to engage. According cal access difficulties the necessary hardware and
to Artez and Wickens (1992), egocentric mapping software solutions to lead more productive and
orients an electronic map in the forward up view. independent lives.
Similar to a kiosk, a symbol such as an ‘X’ or Closed Captioning: Overlaying words or
‘+’ places a user in the map, the user can orient symbols on a screen based on the dialogue heard
themselves based on the symbol marking “You from a video or television to assist individuals
are here.” Geocentric mapping orients the map with auditory impairment.
“north-up” with no reference to the location of the Cognitive Load Theory: Derived by John
user. The treatments of this study did not appear to Sweller in 1988 that proposed optimum learning
achieve this function. The qualitative interviews occurs in humans when the working load is kept to
and observations also concluded that the poor a minimum to best facilitate long-term memory.
outcomes of the text-only and DVR ATs treatments Desktop Virtual Reality (DVR): Refers to a
could be directly related to lack of proceduarlisa- computer program that creates a real or simulated
tion knowledge. Subjects verbally stated their lack imagery-based environment that is displayed
of understanding of the procedure while engaged through a desktop computer screen.
with the instructional procedure, which validated Egocentric: The relationship of oneself to its
lack of understanding of the process. surroundings in a mapped environment.
Electrocardiography Machine (ECG or
EKG): A machine used to monitor and record the
reFerences electrical activity of the heart over time.
Geocentric: Relationship of ones orientation
Aretz, A. J., & Wickens, C. D. (1992). The mental based on a map pointing up in the North direc-
rotation of map displays. Human Performance, tion.
5(4), 303. Retrieved July 26, 2008, from http:// Orientation and Wayfinding Theory: De-
search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&d rived by David Waller, Earl Hunt, and David
b=afh&AN=7310604&site=ehost-live Knapp in 1998 that proposed orientation in space
is crucial for finding one’s way from one location
Waller, D., Hunt, E., & Knapp, D. (1998). The
to another.
transfer of spatial knowledge in virtual environ-
QuickTime Virtual Reality (QTVR): A spe-
ment training. Presence (Cambridge, Mass.), 7(2),
cial video file created by virtual reality software
129–143. doi:10.1162/105474698565631
that gives users the ability to click and drag right
or left, up and down by control movement through
an input device.
Virtual Reality (VR): A multi-imagery com-
puter generated environment.
312
313
Chapter 22
Response to Intervention:
Assistive Technologies which can
Help Teachers with Intervention
Programming and Assessment
Michael W. Dunn
Washington State University Vancouver, USA
AbstrAct
Response to intervention (RTI) is a method for classifying students with a learning disability. In collabo-
ration with pertinent school staff, the general education teacher designs interventions for students who
struggle with core academic skills such as reading, writing, and/or math; the teacher or other school
personnel (e.g., paraprofessionals) then implements the interventions. If students do not improve, this
data is used to substantiate the students’ classification with a learning disability. Providing individual
or small-group interventions can pose a real challenge for general education teachers given the typical
demands they face in managing a classroom. To help address this, assistive technology can provide a
means for students to practice and develop skills as well as have ongoing data about their progress—
without ongoing involvement by the teacher. Assistive technology can be an efficient component in the
RTI process.
IntroductIon the written page, and computer software to offer

children practice with academic skills, all represent
Assistive technologies potentially beneficial means to promote learning—
represent a means to Help especially those who struggle with reading, writing,
Promote students’ Learning and/or math (Polloway, Patton, & Serna, 2005).
The practice of providing students with assistive
Teachers and students can benefit from a variety technology (AT) tools is now specified in legislation
of tools to help promote learning. Pencil grips, (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004),
raised-line paper to help students produce text on which defines AT as “any item, piece of equipment
or product system, whether acquired commercially
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch022 off the shelf, modified or customized, that is used
Response to Intervention
to increase, maintain, or improve the functional can make understanding and applying informa-
capabilities of children with disabilities.” If the tion difficult.
school team states that a student with character- In certain cases, classifying a student with a
istics of having a disability would benefit from learning disability may not be appropriate. School
AT, the school is required by law to provide it at teams may not identify children with a learning
no charge to the family. disability if their difficulties with academics can
be attributed to another disability such as a hear-
ing impairment, visual impairment, or mental
bAckground retardation. It would be likely that these students
would have difficulties with reading, writing, or
What is a Learning disability? math and adding the title of “learning disability”
would not change this. To prevent reading, writ-
The concept of a student having a learning dis- ing, and math needs from being neglected for a
ability is based on the principle of a child demon- non-classified student with a learning disability,
strating unexpected under-achievement—when a goals and objectives for these academic areas
student demonstrates an ability to converse with may be addressed in the Individual Education
others and have appropriate social skills, but a Plan with another disability classification such
certain area of academics (i.e., reading, writ- as hearing impairment, visual impairment, or
ing, and/or math) provokes great difficulty for mental retardation.
the student (Pennington, Peterson, & McGrath, Having conceptually defined a learning dis-
2009). The underlying rationale stems from dif- ability as that of unexpected under-achievement,
ficulties with both cognition (i.e., a potential students with a learning disability need to dem-
for learning) and academics (i.e., demonstrating onstrate an ability-achievement discrepancy.
academic ability). Traditionally, schools have used the “wait to
A student with a learning disability can dem- fail” model of learning disabilities classifica-
onstrate a disorder of psychological processes. tion. Meaning, students typically are offered the
In other words, a student would not process or opportunity to learn to read, write, and do math
interact with learning as other normally-achieving and if they finish two grade levels behind by the
students would. For example, early-elementary end of third grade, special-education personnel
children may not experiment with language such would administer tests of academic ability and
as making up rhyming words to create comical intellectual potential (i.e., an IQ test). Students
phrases (e.g., “Jillian Billian went to the millian to who attain a discrepancy of 15 points or more
see her dillian”). Students with learning disabilities between the overall scores of both tests qualify for
may also experience difficulties with expressive identification with a learning disability. However,
(i.e., speaking and writing) as well as receptive the use of IQ tests as the prime determinant for
(i.e., listening and reading) language. Difficulties classifying students with a learning disability is a
with working memory and phonemic-awareness very controversial practice (Gresham, 2002).
skills could render retaining and understanding
language a challenge. They may have problems rationale for an Alternative model
decoding a word on a page, retaining the infor- for Learning disability classification
mation they just heard, or storing information in
the correct place within their long-term memory. As early as the 1920s, learning disability re-
Malfunctions of language and learning processes searchers (e.g., Orton, 1925) had theorized that
314
IQ was not consistently reflective of a student’s demonstrated by the middle-class, White major-
actual intellectual capacity. This view is shared by ity. Some parents or guardians may not have the
many modern-day reading researchers (Fletcher, money to offer their children the opportunity to
Francis, Rourke, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 1992; experience visits to the local museum, family va-
Jiménez-Glez & Rodrigo-Lopez, 1994; Stanovich cations, community sports and clubs, or may not
& Siegel, 1994; Tal & Siegel, 1996; Toth & Sie- even be able to read and model literate practices
gel, 1994). Although intelligence is considered to their children at home. These children become
to be a measure of a person’s learning potential viewed as not being in sync with the expectations
by asking questions relating to logical reasoning, of school classroom practices. The students are
problem-solving, and critical thinking, IQ tests ac- later referred for special education services for
tually measure factual knowledge, definitions, and which assessments (i.e., IQ tests) are administered.
fine-motor coordination (Siegel, 1999). Typical These tests are also based on the students having
questions on an IQ test include: word definitions, learned certain background knowledge deemed
geography, and history, doing puzzles to assess as “required” for an ability of learning to exist.
fine-motor coordination, memory tasks where a By not having the “acceptable” language skills,
student is to memorize a series of numbers for these students become viewed as being at risk.
later recall, and doing math calculations mentally Furthermore, IQ tests can be poor predictors of
(without the use of paper). Problem-solving tasks those students who would benefit from remedia-
such as strategizing through a math word problem tion (Van der Wissel, & Zegers, 1985).
or demonstrating an ability to complete a multi- With the many issues with using IQ tests as
step task are not included. In some subtests, extra the prime measure for classifying students with
points are awarded for speed. A student with a slow, a learning disability, an alternative means was
thorough style would not achieve as high a score needed. Educators (Gresham, 2002) have advo-
as someone who is more expeditious. Therefore, cated that a student’s assessments of progress with
intelligence tests are more a measure of what a an intensive intervention aimed to address the
student has already learned rather than what the area(s) of concern should replace the role of IQ in
student can learn in the future. It is a paradox that a learning disability assessment. This intervention
student with characteristics of a learning disability and assessment process is commonly referred to
who has struggled with literacy skills would be as response to intervention or RTI.
administered an intelligence test, given that the
test’s questions include tasks directly related to
learning to read such as memory and definitions mAIn Focus oF tHe cHAPter
of words (Siegel, 1999).
Use of IQ tests also provokes issues of response to Intervention as
systemic overrepresentation of students of low a means to define students
socioeconomic status (SES) (Blair & Scott, with a Learning disability
2002; Bradley, 1993; Bradley, Caldwell, Rock,
Barnard, Gray, Hammond, Mitchell, Gottfried, Response to intervention’s standard interven-
Siegel, & Johnson, 1989; Molfese, DiLalla, & tion and assessment process includes a three-tier
Lovelace, 1995; Schaimberg & Lee, 1991), Native progression of programming. As RTI is not a
Americans (Reschly, 2002), and Blacks (Lawson, copyrighted program, districts have the freedom to
Humphrey, Wood-Garnett, Fearn, Welch, Greene- design their own model. Some districts choose to
Bryant, & Avoké, 2002). IQ tests are premised on have more than three tiers, but this can complicate
students’ having foundational language skills as the model’s components and process; Fuchs and
315
Figure 1. Response to intervention logic model
Fuchs (2007) recommended having only three To provide school staff with data indicating
tiers to keep the model simple and clear for school how students are performing with classroom in-
staff (see Figure 1). struction, children complete short assessments in
In Tier 1, often labeled as RTI’s primary pre- reading, writing, and math (referred to as universal
vention level, students receive research/evidence- screenings) in September, January, and April. As
based instruction in the regular classroom. While RTI materials continue to develop, educators have
defining what instruction should be considered as suggested published and non-published materi-
research/evidence-based has been the subject of als for this purpose. In lieu of the format used in
long debate (Dewey, 1938; Goodman, 1967; Skin- standardized tests, RTI employs assessments that
ner, 1974; Vygotsky, 1987), researchers have sug- reflect typical classroom tasks in reading, writing,
gested various strategies and curricular programs and math; this assessment format is referred to as
to help address the needs of students who struggle curriculum-based measurement (Deno, 2003). The
with reading, writing, and/or math. Educators (e.g., University of Oregon has produced the Dynamic
Graham & Harris, 2005; Henry & Redding, 2002; Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS)
Wendling & Mather, 2009) have suggested many assessments for reading. A student would read
types of accommodation and modification strate- a short 100-word passage which poses a small
gies such as practicing the names and sounds of level of challenge. The assessment’s score would
letters, reviewing the spelling of words, and word consist of the number of words that the student
study so as to decipher the inferences of a math reads correctly in the first minute or the number
word problem. Peer-assisted learning strategies of words the student used in retelling the story.
(PALS; Sáenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005), where a Curriculum-based assessments for writing could
typically-achieving student is paired with a student have all students in a class write a short story
who needs extra help addresses the needs of the based on a simple cartoon picture; the students’
student struggling with academic skills. scores could be the number of words spelled
316
correctly or the quality of the students’ writing Students participate in the program over 12-20
based on a 1-6 scale of writing proficiency (e.g., weeks for 30 minutes per day with one certified
6+1 Traits of Writing; http://www.thetraits.org/ teacher trained in the Reading Recovery interven-
index.php). For math, the teacher could give all tion strategies. In lieu of doing worksheets, stu-
of the students in a classroom a one-page list of dents develop their decoding and comprehension
math facts to compute (e.g., 4+7=) within one skills by reading authentic children’s books. For
minute. For students who do not demonstrate words that pose a challenge, the Reading Recov-
good progress with general education classroom ery teacher develops mini lessons based on each
instruction, more intensive (i.e., smaller groups child’s needs. Students also practice writing skills
of children or more time for the student to work by composing phrases about the books that they
on improving a given skill area) programming in read. If a student does not make good progress
RTI’s second tier would be needed. during the first 12-20 weeks, additional interven-
In Tier 2, often labeled as RTI’s secondary tion sessions may be provided to help address the
prevention level, students receive intensive pro- area(s) of difficulty. Reading Recovery has been
gramming for their given areas of difficulty (e.g., the subject of extensive study; the U.S. Department
reading, writing, and/or math) in one of various of Education’s review of the program’s research
intervention models: standard-protocol approach, literature concluded with their listing Reading
problem-solving approach, or a combination of Recovery as a research/evidence-based program
the two. In a standard-protocol intervention ap- on their What Works Clearinghouse website
proach, student groups are based on the children’s (http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/). For students who
similar area(s) of need which substantiates their persist in demonstrating difficulties with reading,
doing the same activities (Vellutino, Scanlon, writing, and/or math after Tier 2, they may receive
Sipay, Small, Pratt, Chen, & Denckla, 1996). even more intensive programming in a third tier
In a problem-solving intervention model, each of intervention.
student receives programming that is pertinent Tier 3, often labeled as RTI’s tertiary preven-
to that specific child’s area(s) of difficulty. The tion level, represents the most intensive format
teacher, in collaboration with pertinent school of instruction, but what type of instruction this
staff, defines the issue(s) of difficulty for the tier should entail is the subject of debate (Haager,
student. An intervention plan is developed and Klingner, & Vaughn, 2007; Jimerson, Burns,
implemented. & VanDerHeyden, 2007). For example, Tier 3
After the end of the intervention timeline could offer children a relatively more intensive
(e.g., up to 25 sessions, 20-50 minutes each), academic-skills intervention than that offered
the student’s progress is reviewed. If the student in Tier 2, represent the assessment phase where
made sufficient progress (e.g., improved to at least school staff have the student complete diagnostic
the bottom of average range of students in the assessments so as to help clarify whether special
general education classroom), the student would education classification is warranted, or provide
return to Tier 1 (i.e., general education classroom an intervention phase where students work to
programming). If the student did not make prog- improve cognitive skills such as attentional and
ress, the intervention could be reconfigured and memory skills—often the underlying reasons for
offered as many times as deemed appropriate by children’s academic difficulties. For this reason,
school staff. Fuchs and Kearns (2008) contended that educators
Reading Recovery (Clay, 1993), a first-grade should not completely discard the use of IQ assess-
reading and writing intervention program, would ments. While using IQ scores as the prime means
be one problem-solving intervention example. to classify students with a learning disability is not
317
desirable, subtest measures such as rapid automatic tion; will it actually be done? When should parents
naming of letters and numbers offer educators and be consulted about their child’s participation in
parents insight into a student’s proficiency with an intervention? Should parents have the option
memory skills. Defining such an area of weakness of requesting that their child have intervention
could help focus school resources on what could programming? Once school staffs have completed
help the student improve and move back to Tier 1 intervention programming with a student, what
general education classroom programming. cut-off would define whether the student would
qualify for special education classification? Prob-
ably the most central question about intervention
Issues, controversIes, programming is who will provide it? How can
And ProbLems teachers manage to provide intervention program-
ming to students while all of the other routines
With the demands on teachers’ and curriculum content/practices are needed for
time, How can they manage students in general education classrooms?
Intervention Programming? When the Individuals with Disabilities Educa-
tion Improvement Act (2004) provided states and
While RTI aims to discontinue undesirable prac- districts with the option of using RTI, there was
tices, such as waiting until the end of third grade no provision of funding for teachers to learn about
to refer students for possible learning disabilities the model, attain curriculum resources to use in
classification (i.e., the wait-to-fail model) as well intervention programming, nor hire additional
as primarily using IQ tests given their systemic staff to manage the provision of interventions.
biases, RTI also poses challenges (Fuchs, Mock, These issues are compounded by the decision
Morgan, & Young, 2003). The decision to make of some U.S. states, such as Delaware, to make
the shift from the wait-to-fail model to RTI is RTI mandatory (Brownstein, 2007); teachers’
the first step for schools. Systemic institutional concern about how to manage the RTI model
change can be difficult, and this is true for schools has even prompted it to be an issue in the collec-
and teachers given the budgetary challenges that tive bargaining process with districts. Given the
governments face (Gerber, 2005). demands on the time of school staff, one means
Not only do educators need the opportunity to to help provide intervention programming to
learn about the conceptual reasons as to why RTI students could be with skills-building software
is beneficial, they need to have the opportunity on computers.
to receive professional development about how
the model can work in their school (Fuchs et al.,
2003). Teachers and administrators need to address soLutIons And
whether their Tier 1 general education classroom recommendAtIons
programming is adequate. Meaning, does it repre-
sent what other teachers have in terms of materials tiers 2 and 3 Intervention
as well as classroom practices and strategies to Programming with Assistive
address students’ needs? If not, then the school technology software
needs to attain the needed resources and provide
professional development so as to address this The development of computer software for edu-
gap(s). What timeline would be appropriate for cational purposes has provided teachers with an
students’ receiving intervention programming? efficient means to have students practice academic
Who will monitor the provision of the interven- skills with minimal need of the teacher’s direction.
318
For reading skills, Read Naturally (2009) and ten, characters, paragraphs, and length of editing
SuccessMaker Enterprise (2009) offer students a session.
means to develop their reading decoding, fluency, For cognitive-skills instruction as suggested
and comprehension skills. These programs have for Tier 3, Challenging our Minds (http://www.
the students take an initial pre-test to determine challenging-our-minds.com/) offers students a
their baseline level of performance, and then com- means to improve skills such as attention and
plete sequential exercises to help them improve. memory. Bracy, Oakes, Cooper, Watkins, Watkins,
For math, SuccessMaker Enterprise (2009) has Brown, and Jewell (1999) found in their study
activities that address computation and problem- of seventh- and eighth-grade students (N=80)
solving skills. that the experimental group using the software
Writing is conceivably the most challenging of program significantly increased their intellectual
the three core academic skills as students need to functioning.
have mastery in reading, idea generation, spelling, For the software just described, the computer
and an awareness of how texts are constructed records students’ scores as they do activities;
(e.g., story structure: that a narrative text has a this data can be used by the teacher and school
beginning [i.e., introduction], middle [i.e., main teams as curriculum-based measurement (CBM)
event], and an end [i.e., conclusion]) (Berninger data for defining students’ intervention progress.
& Winn, 2006), to name some examples, in order Assistive technology such as computer software
to be a proficient writer. While some computer could substantially help alleviate the demands on
programs can help address the mechanical aspects teachers to do all aspects of intervention program-
of writing (e.g., spelling), no known software exists ming. Depending on the academic areas of needs,
that can help a student simultaneously improve the teacher may need to provide direct instruction
in the various aspects of writing. Dialogue and such as in the area of writing in order for the
collaboration with a more proficient writer (e.g., integrity of the intervention to be maintained. A
a student or the teacher) is needed. student who does not know how to begin plan-
To help manage the more mechanical aspects ning a story would need modeling and multiple
of writing (e.g., spelling and editing of phrases), examples from the teacher so as to develop a
software such as CoWriter:SOLO (Don Johnson sense of self-proficiency with this skill (Graham
Developmental Equipment, Inc., 1992) or Neo2 & Harris, 2005).
mini-keyboards (Renaissance Learning, 2009),
which have CoWriter:SOLO pre-installed, can
provide students with a means to develop these Future reseArcH
skills. Neo2 offers teachers the option of creat- And dIrectIons
ing short quizzes which students can do on this
keyboard so as to have immediate feedback about the need to develop rtI’s research
students’ progress. Booker (1995) completed a base as well as What Interventions
six-week comparative study with 10 students represent evidence-based Practice
aged 7-10 years. Students’ use of CoWriter:SOLO
provided for improved spelling, mechanics, and What represents research/evidence-based practice
reading decoding as well as students having in education has been the subject of long debate
reduced apprehension about writing. Microsoft (Odom, Brantlinger, Gersten, Horner, Thompson,
Word (2007) does not offer a quiz feature similar & Harris, 2005). In 1977, the U.S. Department of
to the Neo2, but some data can be attained for Education made the decision to imply IQ as being
students’ writing such as: number of words writ- the determining factor for classifying students with
319
a learning disability (Fuchs et al., 2003). Federal proving academic skills without always requiring
policy did not require schools to use IQ/achieve- the teachers’ time and attention. If loaded on a
ment discrepancy; it was the suggested method laptop, the student could practice the skills both
to use based on research at that time (e.g., Rutter at home and at school in any convenient loca-
& Yule, 1975). Subsequent research (e.g., Blair & tion. The potential for students’ improved skills
Scott, 2002; Siegel, 1999) has made the opposite warrants that teachers seriously consider AT as a
conclusion. Educators have now embraced RTI as component for intervention programming.
the desired alternative without having a research
base to substantiate RTI’s implementation.
Given that the heart of RTI is the provision reFerences
of intervention programming and having ongo-
ing curriculum-based assessments of students’ Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. (2004).
progress, educators should implement research/ Pub. L. No. 101-336, 42 U.S.C. Sec. 12101 et
evidence-based programming, define interven- seq.
tions for students who need them, and then review Berninger, V., & Winn, W. (2006). Implications of
if their programming proves effective. Collabo- advancements in brain research and technology
rating with other schools/districts in this process for writing development, writing instruction, and
would help generate large-scale data sets for educational evolution. In MacArthur, C., Graham,
analysis as well as promote professional dialogue S., & Fitzgerald, J. (Eds.), The handbook of writing
about what format/components RTI should have. research (pp. 96–114). New York: Guilford.
Since RTI is not a published program requiring
Blair, C., & Scott, K. (2002). Proportion of LD
schools to implement the model in one specific
placements associated with low socioeconomic
way, educators have the freedom to define their
status: Evidence for a gradient. The Journal of
own model and components based on all available
Special Education, 36(1), 14–22. doi:10.1177/00
research and curriculum information. 224669020360010201
Booker, B. W. (1995). An evaluation of the
concLusIon [CoWriter:SOLO] Program & its implementa-
tion. The University of Western Ontario, London,
the challenge for teachers Ontario. A directed research project submitted in
as the Providers of tiered partial fulfillment of the requirements for the de-
Interventions for students Who gree of Master of Education, Faculty of Graduate
struggle with Academics Studies, University of Western Ontario, London,
Ontario, Canada. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from
http://www.donjohnston.com/pdf/cowriter/CoW-
Teaching can be a challenging profession. Having
riter_Research.pdf
twenty or more students in a class with various
levels of ability and needs requires teachers to Bracy, O. L., Oakes, A. L., Cooper, R. S., Watkins,
accommodate and modify so as to help each D., Watkins, M., Brown, D. E., & Jewell, C. (1999).
student improve. Given the stresses of managing The effects of cognitive rehabilitation therapy
curriculum content and behavior, RTI’s expecta- techniques for enhancing the cognitive/intellectual
tion of teachers providing intensive intervention functioning of seventh and eighth grade children.
programming makes the role of the teacher that Cognitive Technology, 4(1), 19-27. Retrieved
much more challenging. To help address this February 7, 2009, from http://www.challenging-
concern, AT can offer students a means with im- our-minds.com/tour/CognitiveTechnology.pdf
320
Bradley, R. (1993). Children’s home environ- Fuchs, D., Mock, D., Morgan, P., & Young, C.
ments, health, behavior, and intervention efforts: (2003). Responsiveness-to-instruction: Defini-
A review using the HOME inventory as a marker tions, evidence, and implications for learning dis-
measure. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology abilities construct. Learning Disabilities Research
Monographs, 119, 439–490. & Practice, 18(3), 157–171. doi:10.1111/1540-
5826.00072
Bradley, R., Caldwell, B., Rock, S., Barnard, K.,
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Cognitive profiles of difficult-to-remediate and materials to measure students progress over time
readily remediated poor readers: Early interven- (e.g., having a student read a slightly-challenging
tion as a vehicle for distinguishing between cog- text and noting the number of words read cor-
nitive and experiential deficits as basic causes of rectly on a graph; this data would illustrate how
specific reading disability. Journal of Educational the student has progressed over time).
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323
have verbal (e.g., reading) and performance (e.g., Standard-Protocol Approach: An RTI format
block assembly) components. The overall score which uses a defined set of activities and assess-
of these components represents the full-scale ments to help a group of children improve in a
IQ score which has traditionally been compared given area(s) of similar academic need. If the
with academic achievement to define a student’s student has not made sufficient progress by the
IQ/achievement discrepancy score and possible end of the intervention timeline (e.g., 30-minute
learning disability classification. Many jurisdic- sessions over 25 days), additional sessions can be
tions require 15 points or more as the required provided if the school team feels that doing this
discrepancy or cut-off; with only 14 points, a would be warranted.
student would often not qualify. Tier: One of the three phases of the RTI model:
Problem-Solving Approach: An RTI format Tier 1 (general education classroom instruction),
which has the school team create a unique set of Tier 2 (e.g., small-group intervention program-
activities and assessments to help a child improve ming), and Tier 3 (even smaller group intervention
in a given area(s) of academic need. programming).
Response to Intervention (RTI): An interven-
tion and assessment model which uses classroom
materials and activities to help children improve
in an area(s) of academic difficulty.
324
325
Chapter 23
Assistive Technology for
Teacher Education:
From Research to Curriculum
Marcie M. Belfi
Kristen E. Jones
AbstrAct
The purpose of this chapter is to provide teacher educators with current research related to assistive
technology (AT) in K-12 schools. The first two sections present findings from the literature, first related
to providing AT to culturally and linguistically diverse populations within a family context, and secondly
to helping students with learning disabilities use AT for writing. Implications for practice are discussed.
This chapter concludes with an overview of a curriculum model for training preservice teachers to
become familiar with AT across the lifespan, choose appropriate AT for their students, and be able to
practically use AT in the classroom.
IntroductIon Teacher educators are given insight on training

preservice teachers who work with CLD students
Teacher educators can instruct preservice teachers that use AT.
using hands-on methods and training to effectively The next section deals with a review of the lit-
integrate assistive technology (AT) products into the erature and focuses on AT for students with learning
classroom for their students that have disabilities. disabilities (LDs). Students with LDs often lack
This chapter discusses some of the methods used. psychological motivation to learn to write due to
The first part of this chapter is a review of litera- previous failures in school. AT is considered by
ture on AT for culturally and linguistically diverse some, one method to mitigate psychological barriers
(CLD) populations of students. Augmentative and for students to learn to write proficiently (Zhang,
alternative communication (AAC) for students from 2000). These benefits will be discussed.
CLD backgrounds and their families is discussed. The last section describes the curriculum of the
AT orientation program in the College of Education
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch023 at the University of Texas in Austin (UT). The pro-
Assistive Technology for Teacher Education
gram developed at UT introduces preservice teach- reseArcH I

ers to some of the AT they are likely to encounter
in schools. The AT orientation program utilizes Assistive technology for
hands-on activities to ensure active participation culturally and Linguistically
of preservice teachers. The effectiveness of the diverse Populations
program is determined from a survey students
complete at the end of the training. This section It is important to consider AT for teacher prepara-
provides an overview of how preservice teachers tion within CLD populations. The term CLD is
can be trained to use AT in the schools. used to refer to individuals or populations that are
To ensure that students with disabilities receive non-white, of ethnic origins outside of the United
the necessary services, current legislation requires States, or with limited English language. In Binger
that service providers have AT competencies and Light’s (2006) study of demographics, it was
(Tech Act, 2004; CEC, 2003). However, research found that 15% of preschoolers receiving AAC
suggests that many preservice teachers are not services were of non-white ethnicity. Because of
well trained to provide services on assessment, the increasing heterogeneity of the demograph-
selection, and application of AT (Bausch & Has- ics of students served in special education pro-
selbring, 2004). The need for an AT orientation grams in public schools in the United States, this
program as a prerequisite for preservice teachers section addresses some of the perceptions and
who work with students with disabilities is vital possible misconceptions of families from CLD
for the success of these students in the class- backgrounds who have children with a disability
room. The selection process for appropriate AT receiving AT support.
for students is made increasingly more difficult Because of the changing demographics of the
due to the rapid development of new technology population, today’s teacher will more likely teach
(Bausch & Hasselbring, 2004). When selecting in a class that is not homogeneously White. Ac-
appropriate AT for students with disabilities in cording to Utley, Delquadri, Obiakor, and Mims
the classroom, technology that teachers and ad- (2000), compounding this population statistic,
ministrators are already familiar with is usually only 14% of special education teachers are from
much more of a deciding factor in the selection CLD backgrounds, while over 32% of the students
process than newer AT that may be more suitable receiving special education services are from CLD
(Bausch & Hasselbring, 2004). However, even if backgrounds.
teachers have a full range of available technology, A large component of AT is AAC. Augmenta-
but do not have adequate training to know which tive and alternative communication assists people
device to select, there may be reduced benefit to with more severe communication disabilities,
the student. providing them the tools to participate more fully
This chapter also details ways that colleges or in such daily activities as interpersonal interaction,
universities can create a training center utilizing learning, education, and personal care manage-
appropriate curriculum and up-to-date technology. ment. According to Bryant and Bryant (2003), an
The idea of the training center is to better ensure AAC system refers to an individual’s complete
that preservice teachers enter schools with suf- functional communication system that includes a
ficient background and hands-on experience to communicative technique, a symbol set or system,
meet the AT challenges of diverse learners. and a communication/interaction behavior. When
AAC users are from CLD backgrounds, their com-
326
munication needs will also be diverse. Within the of transparency and detail in the methodology.
context of the entire family, and reaching beyond Across the four studies two participants were
individual student requirements for academic and identified with cerebral palsy, two with quadriple-
social success, the question that should also be gic cerebral palsy, and one with post-meningitis
addressed is: “What are the families’ perceptions quadriplegia. Family members of those receiving
regarding the use of AT in CLD populations?” AT were from the following ethnic backgrounds:
Mexican-American, Navajo/Native American,
method Hispanic, Asian, and African-American. The
ages of students were from seven to twenty years
Included in this synthesis are studies published old. All students in three of the studies used a
in peer-reviewed journals from 1996-2006 that communication board either at home, at school,
addressed families’ perceptions regarding the use or both (Huer, Parette, & Saenz, 2001; McCord,
of AT with school-age individuals within CLD & Soto, 2004; Stuart & Parette, 2002). Parette et
populations. Only studies that examined all dis- al. (2000) reported aggregated findings in which
ability types qualifying for AT were accepted and students were evaluated for use of AAC devices,
all research designs were accepted. but did not necessarily receive the devices.
The studies were located using the following Devices reported in the studies included—
search procedures. A computer search of ERIC AlphaTalker, DeltaTalker, Dynavox, Liberator
and InfoTrac was conducted to locate studies VOCA and other VOCA. Parette et al. (2000) also
using a list of descriptors (augment* and alt* indicated the use of generic communication boards
communication, AT, special education technology, along with AlphaTalker, DeltaTalker, Dynavox,
immigrant, migrant, minority, multicultural educa- Liberator and VOCA. Students’ experiences on
tion, special education or disab*, diversity, latin*, the use of the devices ranged from those receiving
Mexican, Mexican-American, Spanish-speak*, devices with no prior experience (Parette et al.,
Indian, American-Indian, Asian-American, Afri- 2000), to those with up to eight years of experi-
can-American, Black). Of the articles identified ence using the AAC technology (McCord & Soto,
through the search procedures, six abstracts were 2004). (see Figure 1)
located that seemed to meet the criteria. Two of Across the four studies, the needs of the families
the articles were position papers. A total of four were also considered. Parents from two studies
articles met the criteria of being actual studies, expressed the opinion that the AAC device was
and were included in the literature review. not appropriate for their child’s use at home (Huer
et al., 2001; McCord & Soto, 2004). Both of these
results studies focused exclusively on families represent-
ing Mexican-American populations.
Triangulation was used in all studies as a means Other needs besides technology were also
of producing validity; however, different studies expressed across all ethnic populations involved
had differing ways of triangulation. Two of the in the studies, and included learning and train-
studies described the method in detail and data ing obstacles (Huer et al., 2001; Parette et al.,
collection was more rigorous resulting in a higher 2000; Stuart & Parette, 2002). Training was an
degree of confidence in their findings. McCord issue across cultural groups. Parette et al. (2000)
and Soto (2004) had a five-step analytical process reported the need for AAC device training across
and Parette, Brotherson, and Huer (2000). used Native American, Hispanic, Asian, and African
five different levels of analysis. These two studies American populations. Specifically, help using
warranted the most confidence because of the level and maintaining the augmentation device was
327
Figure 1. Ethnicity, diagnosis, SES, and device type
a concern of most. Navajo family members ex- Two of the four studies reported the need for
pressed the desire to be trained not only in using communication with professionals (Huer et al.,
the AAC equipment, but also in maintenance, so 2001; Parette et al., 2000). In both of these stud-
they would be able to make repairs if the equip- ies, families described feelings of awkwardness in
ment broke down (Stuart & Parette, 2002). Huer asking questions to professionals. There was some
et al. (2001) reported a need for training in the confusion about the use of the device in the home.
Mexican-American population, and specifically Also, professionals had not explained issues such
noted that training was not available in the native as ownership of the device, liability for damage
language (Spanish). It was also noted that even or loss, as well as programming and repair. Mc-
after an initial introduction to the equipment, Cord and Soto (2004) and separately Huer et al.
family members needed ongoing training to be (2001) reported families not wanting to use the
able to add messages to communication devices. device in the home since it was not programmed
However, since the data was not disaggregated with messages in their native language.
across the groups, it is unclear whether some
groups struggled with learning and training issues
more than others.
328
discussion reseArcH II
This synthesis points out the need for future re- Assistive technology for students
search to address the needs of parents, including with Learning disabilities
exploration of strategies for making AAC more
culturally acceptable for use in the home. One A second area of research that is applicable to
of the questions to ask for future research is, teachers and service providers is the area of LDs.
“How could AAC be introduced to families and Students with LDs are not initially recognized as
modified to be applicable in the home?” “How candidates for AT (Hasselbring & Bausch, 2006).
would training parents in their native language These students are often overlooked in terms of
and programming AAC devices with language AT needs, apparently because of the distinction
spoken in the home increase parental acceptance drawn between special education and general edu-
and ease of use of AAC devices?” Finally, new cation, and the fact that students with LDs usually
investigations may need to be conducted to spend most of their time in the general education
determine how recent technology has changed classroom (Hasselbring & Bausch, 2006).
the outcomes of AAC devices when used by the According to Lerner (2003), nearly 80 percent
student in the home. of students with disabilities are unable to read
The concerns of family members revealed grade-level material. Students with LDs may
implications for current practice. Professionals benefit from technology such as word processors,
need to be trained to work with families from CLD word prediction, speech synthesizer, and speech
backgrounds. There are several communication is- recognition software. Word prediction software
sues that become more evident from the literature. may help students who have severe spelling dif-
First, service providers and facilitators of AT may ficulties (MacArthur, Ferretti, Okolo, & Cavalier,
need to foster an environment where questions are 2001).
encouraged. Professionals also need to explain Some of the barriers to the use of AT both in
in more detail such issues of responsibility for school and at home have to do with parental lack
the equipment, including ownership, insurance, of knowledge as well as school funding, available
financial issues, as well as maintenance and classroom time, and teacher training. Parents are
repair options. Finally, professionals should not often uninformed of the benefits of their child
just hand family members paperwork explaining using AT, and their rights to an AT evaluation
these issues—there should be a translator who is (Bryant & Bryant, 1998).
bicultural (one who not only knows the language, One of the most significant barriers to the
but also has knowledge of the culture) if the AAC successful integration of AT is knowledge and
service provider does not have the language and training. Lee and Vega (2005) reported that teacher
cultural skills. preparation programs do not adequately prepare
Professionals familiar with technology may special education teachers or general education
take for granted that everyone comes in with a teachers in the use of AT devices. Furthermore,
different knowledge base. However, professionals schools sometimes discourage special educators
should ask themselves questions such as: what from making suggestions that will incur a financial
would you need if you were this family? Would expense to the school (Bryant & Bryant, 1998).
you want to carry this equipment? Would it fit IDEA 2004 legislation supports personnel prepa-
in your car? If you were older and not familiar ration in the “innovative uses and application of
with technology, how would you understand this technology, including universally designed tech-
device?
329
nologies, AT devices, and AT services” (“Building more easily collaborate and assist each other in
a Legacy: IDEA 2004”, 2004). the composition process.
Students with LDs face other challenges when In order for students to truly benefit from AT,
it comes to writing proficiency. Important are is- the teacher must be able to select appropriate
sues such as motivation, lack of self-esteem, and technology for the students as well as be able to
writing difficulties. Handwriting, spelling, gram- integrate the technology into classroom instruc-
mar, editing and revising are additional areas of tion (Bryant & Bryant, 1998). General education
difficulty for students with LDs (Graham & Harris, teachers must learn to use AT, go to trainings, and
2003). Unlike those without LDs, students with stay up-to-date with new technology that can assist
LDs have a previous history of failure with the students with LDs (Hasselbring & Bausch, 2006;
writing process often resulting in greater anxiety. Lee & Vega, 2005).
This added anxiety could add to further avoidance
of nearly all types of written expression (Zhang, method
2000). These students may experience feelings of
low self-esteem and do not believe their writing Published peer-reviewed journal articles from
has value to be shared with others (Zhang, 2000). 1996-2006 that addressed AT and writing for stu-
Motivation is also an important factor that is well dents with LDs were considered for this review.
known to influence student performance, and Studies that did not directly deal with students
teachers can use computers to motivate students and their use of AT for writing, such as studies
and improve self-esteem (Woodward & Reith, dealing with teachers’ attitudes or school support
1997). Student motivation may also be enhanced were not included.
by a combination of graphics, sound and video. Data was collected using computerized search
However, graphics, sound and video use may be engines including ERIC database and Academic
a distraction to some students resulting in the OneFile. Search terms included: AT, assist*
student spending less time writing and revising technology, learning disability, learning disab*,
(MacArthur et al., 2001). augment* and alt* communication, special educa-
Because many students with LDs have poor tion, and technology. Ancestry searches were also
handwriting, technologies such as word processors performed to locate other articles.
are a good way to assist students in the writing Of the articles identified through the search
process (Woodward & Reith, 1997). Using a word procedures, seven abstracts were located that met
processor, some students may be better able to the inclusion criteria. Two articles were previous
read rough drafts of their work with the outcome syntheses. One was discarded because the subjects
a better final composition. MacArthur et al. (2001) were not persons, but dealt with misspellings made
described several benefits for students who use by students. A total of four articles were included
word processors. One benefit is students are bet- that met the criteria for the report. The four stud-
ter able to edit neatly without having to recopy ies chosen examined the use of AT in writing for
the entire document or erasing and rewriting students with LDs.
large portions of text. This encourages students
to put more effort into revisions. Another benefit results
is that the paper is attractive and has fewer spell-
ing errors. Because the computer screen is easy Across three of the studies, thirteen participants
to see for most students, and the keyboard does were identified with LDs as a primary diagnosis
not discriminate handwriting types, students can (MacArthur, 1998; MacArthur, 1999; Zhang,
2000). In one of the studies (Bahr, Nelson, &
330
Figure 2. LD and AT intervention and participant characteristics
van Meter, 1996), participants were described as 1999 study, MacArthur examined student journal
either having a diagnosis of LDs in writing, or writing across handwriting, word processor, and
having a diagnosis of a language impairment in word processor with speech synthesis and word
writing and receiving services from a speech and prediction.
language pathologist. However, the data from this Zhang (2000) examined free writing with
specific study was not disaggregated. the use of the ROBO-Writer, which is a writing
The demographics of participants were re- program that uses speech synthesis, onscreen
ported in three of the four studies (MacArthur, dictionary and writing lists. Bahr et al. (1996)
1998; MacArthur, 1999; Bahr et al., 1996). These compared graphics-based and text-based writing
studies included fourteen participants who were software.
White, two African Americans, and one Native The overall results indicated that legibility
American. All participants were between the ages and spelling were greatly improved by the use
of nine and thirteen. of word prediction and speech synthesis. Mac-
In all studies, students were free to write arthur’s (1999) follow-up study compared hand-
about whatever they wanted, and the studies used written journal entries, those used with a simple
seven different software programs (see Figure word processor, and those written using a word
2), including MacWrite II, My Words, CoWriter, processor with word prediction using CoWriter
WriteOutloud, ROBO-Writer, Once Upon a Time, and Write Outloud. In the first part of this study,
and FrEd Writer. no differences among conditions were found for
The two studies conducted by Charles MacAr- legibility. In the second part of the study, improve-
thur included in this synthesis evaluated student ments in both legibility and spelling were noted
journal writing. In 1998, MacArthur examined for two of the three students. Students wrote two
the use of My Words with Smoothtalker, which to three times slower with word prediction than
uses speech synthesis to pronounce each word with handwriting. Two of the students were twice
as it is typed, and focused on the use of journals as fast using handwriting than with the word
for dialogue between a student and a teacher. In a processor and word prediction.
331
Zhang (2000) used a researcher-designed writ- Time, which was a graphics-based writing soft-
ing curriculum based on the program Robo-Writer ware, and FrEdWriter, which was the text-based
specifically for use with the five students in the writing software. The students were allowed to use
study. Students either chose their own topic for the two programs to write about their own topics
writing or were assigned a topic that was related to and could write stories of any length. Between the
students’ personal experiences. The Robo-Writer text-based and graphics-based software there were
software provided audio feedback that helped no significant differences for the total number of
students notice misspelled words and sentences words that students produced, or total percentage
that did not make sense. Student behavior was an of different words. However, with the graphics-
important aspect of this study. The most frequent based software, the participants produced a higher
complaints were not having a topic or not knowing percentage of complex incorrect sentences. An
what to write about, along with having no mo- interesting finding is that students were reluctant to
tivation to write anything. The use of preservice revise their work, requiring more prompting from
teachers in the study helped to facilitate students’ the research assistants, and preferring to start a
idea generation and provide encouragement. Of new story than to put more effort into revisions.
all features in this study, the most helpful was the Some students were encouraged that they would
audio feedback, which allowed students to hear be publishing their work, sharing it with others,
their mistakes. Students had a positive attitude and as a consequence put more effort in revising
about the writing experience because of the pro- and editing their work.
fessional output of their stories. Students seemed
more eager to share their writing with teachers, discussion
peers, and family.
One of the problems the author noted in this The findings from the four studies reported
study was that the teacher and preservice teachers overall positive results with the use of AT in the
were not very familiar with technology. Conse- writing process for students with LDs. In 1998,
quently, there was not a continuation of use of MacArthur found that legibility and spelling were
Robo-Writer after the completion of the study. greatly improved by the use of word prediction
It was not mentioned whether the teachers used and speech synthesis. Even though in the first part
other technology in place of Robo-Writer follow- of his later study (1999), there were no differ-
ing the study. ences among conditions (handwriting, the use of
Bahr et al. (1996) compared graphics-based a word processor, and the use of a word processor
and text-based writing software in a study that with word prediction and speech synthesis) on
was conducted as an after school program. The spelling and overall readability of the text, in the
purpose of this study was to compare the effects second part of his study he found improvements
of two software-based planning tools on the story- in both legibility and spelling for two of the three
writing skills of students with LDs. There were no participants. The use of technology in Zhang’s
significant differences in terms of writing skills (2000) study, along with prompting from research
between software programs. Along with the stan- assistants encouraged some of the students to put
dardized writing measures, the students’ teachers more effort into revision and editing. This is not
were given questionnaires about students’ writing surprising, as MacArthur et al. (2001) stated that
and computer use. Questions dealt with students’ one of the benefits of using a word processor was
time spent doing handwriting activities, creative that students put more effort into revisions and
writing, and computer usage. The two software editing because of the attractiveness, neatness,
programs used in this study were Once Upon a and legibility of the text. The students benefited
332
the most from the audio feedback feature of the able to self-monitor their spelling and grammar.
software included in this study. The author noted Having adults or peers to actively communicate
that while students did benefit from the use of with students is also beneficial in that they are able
technology, the classroom teacher and preservice to think out loud and generate new ideas. However,
teachers were not familiar with the program and it is not sufficient to only have the technology, but
there was not a continuation of use of Robo-Writer teachers must be active in engaging the students
after the completion of the study. and facilitating them in the writing process.
Bahr et al. (1996) found that with the use of Teacher training is needed for full integration
the graphics-based writing software, many of the of technology in the general education classroom.
students spent a lot of time creating and arranging This training must be extensive and thorough
their graphic scenes. This did take away some of (Zhang, 2000). Funding will be necessary for
the time spent on actually writing their story. This future training of teachers at both the school dis-
conform to the findings of MacArthur et al. (2001), trict and university level (Zhang, 2000). General
that although the graphics may enhance students’ education teachers must be trained alongside
motivation, these may be distracting and students special education teachers, as most students with
may spend less time writing and revising. Students LDs spend much of the day in the general educa-
with LDs often lack psychological motivation due tion classroom.
to previous failures, and technology is one way
that the psychological barriers can be overcome
(Zhang, 2000). Technology can propel students in currIcuLum For PreservIce
writing who are otherwise unwilling and hesitant. teAcHer trAInIng
It can be a spur to help motivate hesitant, struggling
students to write (Bahr et al., 1996). However, In the previous sections we examined the AT needs
Bahr et al. cautioned teachers to not assume that of students with disabilities, as well as the needs
students will learn best or produce high quality of students and families from CLD populations.
work just because they are interested in and mo- We have found that teachers need more training
tivated by a particular software program. in the use of technology for students in general
and special education classrooms. The purpose
of this section is to address what teachers need
ImPLIcAtIons to know about AT to be able to use AT devices in
their classrooms, with the help of related service
This review yields several implications for gen- providers. At the University of Texas at Austin,
eral and special education teachers. These studies the College of Education’s AT Lab orientation
indicate that word processing software with and serves as an example of teacher training for these
without graphics can serve to motivate students purposes. The orientation introduces undergradu-
to participate more in all steps of the writing pro- ates to some of the technology they will use in the
cess. As students are able to produce legible text, public school setting, AT across the lifetime, and
they are encouraged to share with others and take how decisions are made regarding the selection of
pride in their work. This means that technology AT devices. This section describes the curriculum
should always be considered an option for those structure and how hands-on activities are used to
with LDs. ensure active participation.
The use of speech synthesis with word process- The AT lab works in collaboration with faculty
ing provides audio feedback that is beneficial to to ensure a cohesive and integrated orientation
students. This supports students in that they are curriculum. The lab operates as a service to all of
333
the College of Education, and most of the students indoor recreational area. As the students have
complete the orientation as a course require- been sitting at the table during this conversation,
ment related to an introductory course in special they have seen adapted appliances, utensils and
education. In this introductory course, students electronic equipment. After giving the students
learn about different disabilities, assessment some background information, the staff encour-
and identification, and the Individual Education ages the students to use and explore the aids for
Program process and team decision-making. The daily living in the four areas of the home.
orientation presents students with information In the kitchen area, the students try to use the
about AT throughout the lifespan of the individual, adapted materials they find on the table. The staff
addressing different disability types and how to will ask questions such as: What was hard and what
make proper decisions regarding the selection was easy? How did it feel using this? Who might
of AT for the individual. The lab staff takes the this be helpful for? The students take turns trying
students through a series of settings, beginning in some of the utensils in the kitchen section, such as
the home and moving to the classroom, workplace, the grabber/reacher, jar opener, talking scale, and
early childhood and communication areas. The tab grabber. Many of these devices are helpful in
items discussed in this section can be found at the the home and not just for people with disabilities.
College of Education’s AT Lab website (http:// Some of the students have commented that their
www.edb.utexas.edu/ATLab). mother or their grandparents regularly use some
The orientation begins in the home setting, with of these items. After the kitchen area, the students
the students gathered around a table with adapted move to the living room and bathroom simulation
utensils and plates. After getting to know each to try using the adapted equipment, such as back
other the staff facilitate an informal conversation scrubbers and combs with adapted handles, and
about everyone’s knowledge of AT. The purpose office items such as the talking clock, the talking
is to informally assess the students’ previous calculator, and the Braille money marker.
knowledge about AT and the special education The goal for the home section is that students
process. Some of the questions the staff asks will know more about different AT devices used
are: What do you think AT is? Do you have any in the kitchen, living room, bathroom, and den.
experience with AT? Have you ever met anyone They will learn about the requisite skills needed
who uses AT? Who has older relatives or neighbors to use the devices, and their benefits. The staff
that use equipment that they may not have needed gives them opportunities to use the tools so that
when they were younger? What devices did you they can become familiar with how to manipulate
see on the way into the building as you came here them.
today? What constitutes AT? What is the federal After familiarizing students with the assis-
definition? How are devices chosen? tive devices in the home, the students move to
It is important after this discussion to explain the classroom area, which contains instructional
the definition of AT and discuss the differences software currently used in schools. The classroom
between no-tech, low-tech, and high-tech op- simulation also has devices for students with
tions. The staff talks them through a process of cognitive disabilities, sensory impairment, and
choosing AT devices based on the student’s needs, physical disabilities.
using Bryant and Bryant’s (2003) framework for The classroom module begins with a dem-
selecting AT devices. onstration of how to use Braille. The staff show
The home setting, where this conversation the students technology used to produce Braille
takes place, includes a simulation of a kitchen such as portable and electronic note-takers such
with dining room, a den, a bathroom, and an as the Braille ‘n Speak and the pocket slate. Each
334
student is given a Braille math flash card which After the classroom, the students go to the
has a line of Braille at the top, and a cut corner. workplace, which is a simulation of an office
The staff asks them to close their eyes and tell setting. The tools and software programs in this
what they notice about the card. There is a line area are used to help individuals with physical
of Braille at the top of the card along with a cut disabilities and visual impairments to work in-
corner to help the student know how to hold the dependently. The students have a chance to try
card. Each student is then given a different Braille the alternative keyboards, FM system, automatic
book. Some are for emergent readers and some are page turners, and software used for individuals
high school textbooks and yearbooks. The staff with visual impairments. Some of the software
asks them how these books are different from the includes Kurzweil, Jaws, Dragon Naturally Speak-
books the students usually read and then answer ing, Magic Screen Magnification, and Duxbury
any other questions they have about the books. Braille translation.
After learning about Braille, the staff leads The goals for the students in the workplace area
the students through a hands-on activity with are to learn about different devices that individuals
instructional devices. The students each choose with primarily physical and visual impairments
one of the following: Quicktionary Pen, Alpha can use in a workplace setting. The students need
Smart, Leap Pad, Turbo Twists (Math, Spelling, to know about the skills required for individuals
and Brain Quest). Then they are given an instruc- to be able to use these devices, and the benefits
tion card with how to use their device and what to of using the devices. Students will also learn how
look for. The staff gives them approximately five to use the devices themselves.
minutes to explore their device, and then they ask The workplace is located next to the early
the students to come back together as a group. Each childhood area, which is the next section that the
person tells the group about their device, how it students visit. They sit around a large play mat that
works, and for whom it would be helpful. After has many adapted toys, communication devices,
that, students go in pairs to use different instruc- and equipment for positioning and mobility. The
tional software programs. Lexia, CoWriter, Math students explore the toys and devices on their own
Blaster, Show me Math, and Inspiration are some for a few minutes, and then the staff facilitate a
examples of the software in the classroom area. discussion about the devices. They ask the students
Again, there is a simple instruction card at their to name the features that make a toy appropriate for
computer and they have five minutes to explore a child with a sensory deficit, such as blindness or
their program as a small group. After using the deafness, and then to find another toy that would
software for about five minutes, everyone comes not be suitable for that same child. The staff asks
back as a large group to discuss the software. They them to think about the skills required to use a
share what they did, telling each other how the certain toy, and which toys would be effective to
software worked, who the software was useful for, increase socialization opportunities for children
and whether or not they would like to use this in with and without disabilities.
their classroom as a future teacher. The early childhood setting allows students
The goals for the classroom area are for stu- to manipulate adapted toys and hardware that are
dents to become familiar with different devices generally used by service providers (OT/PT and
to facilitate instruction for students with a variety speech pathologists) and teachers who work with
of disabilities. It is important that they know how children who have sensory or physical impair-
those devices can help individuals function more ments, and language or cognitive delays.
independently, as well as how to use the devices One of the goals for the students in this area are
and software. to understand developmental domains (cognitive,
335
motor, communication, and social) of children they were learning in their introduction to special
and how AT can be incorporated into their daily education course, and 94% expressed that this
environment to promote the development of these experience was “good” or “wonderful.”
domains. Another goal is to understand how toys By working with faculty to integrate the AT
from standard retail outlets can be made accessible lab orientation into their curriculum, the lab staff
to children with developmental delays, and how are able to give preservice teachers a meaningful
AT devices can increase children’s independence experience using some of the technology that will
and daily living skills. likely be available in the schools. Future research
After the early childhood center, students should be conducted to follow-up with those
move to the AAC center where they get hands-on students who become teachers, and ask how their
experience using different levels of communica- experience prepared them to work with students
tion devices. In this area students experience using AT in school.
both “low-tech” and “high-tech” communication
devices to help individuals who have expressive
communication difficulties. Here, students learn concLusIon
the concepts of communication systems and how to
manipulate each communication tool. They learn Teacher educators need to develop a curriculum
how communication devices can help increase the and training program for preservice teachers to
independence of individuals with disabilities and learn to use AT with diverse learners. It is evident
also how these devices help individuals interact preservice teachers need more comprehensive
with others in their daily lives. The first device training in AT to meet the needs of diverse learn-
the staff shows the students is an eye-gaze display ers. One of the ways to train preservice teachers
board as an example of a no-tech communica- in the use of AT is to first find funding for AT
tion device. The students take turns using the laboratories and then provide preservice teachers
device to communicate what they want to eat, for with hands-on experiences with this technology
example. After that, there are some one-button through curriculum development.
devices such as the Big Mac, and students record There is such a variety of AT devices that it
their own speech and learn how to operate the is important preservice teachers be made aware
devices. There are also a few high-tech complex of low-tech and high-tech equipment that are
communication devices such as the Vanguard and available to assist students. Preservice teachers
Dynavox systems and the staff will demonstrate should also have the knowledge base so that AT
these for the students. can seamlessly be incorporated into the home and
A major goal for the students in the commu- school environment. This way parents, family,
nication area is to become knowledgeable about peers and other staff will be able participate and
the different choices available for communication become comfortable assisting the child in the
devices. They also learn how to manipulate these use of their AT. This is necessary because as the
devices. When the orientation is complete, the stu- teacher interacts and has a greater rapport with
dents have a chance to give immediate feedback. the student, family, and other staff, they will be
They use computers in the AT lab to complete an able to serve as a liaison when needs may arise
online survey of their experience. The comments regarding the technology.
and feedback from students are very helpful for
improving the lab each semester. The majority of
students (96%) completing the survey reported
that the content of the orientation related to what
336
reFerences Hasselbring, T., & Bausch, M. (2006). Assistive

technologies for reading. Educational Leadership,
Achieving the Goals. (1996). U.S. Department of 63(4), 72–75.
Education. Retrieved April 25, 2008, from http://
www.ed.gov/pubs/AchGoal4/mission.html Huer, M. B., Parette, H. P., & Saenz, T. I. (2001).
Conversations with Mexican Americans regard-
Bahr, C., Nelson, N., & Van Meter, A. (1996). ing children with disabilities and augmentative
The effects of text-based and graphics-based soft- and alternative communication. Communica-
ware tools on planning and organizing of stories. tion Disorders Quarterly, 22(4), 197–206.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29(4), 355–370. doi:10.1177/152574010102200405
doi:10.1177/002221949602900404
Lee, Y., & Vega, L. (2005). Perceived knowledge,
Bausch, M. E., & Hasselbring, T. S. (2004). attitudes, and challenges of AT use in special edu-
Assistive technology: Are the necessary cation. Journal of Special Education Technology,
skills and knowledge being developed at the 20(2), 60–63.
preset-vice and in service levels? Teacher
Education and Special Education, 27, 97–104. Lerner, J. (2003). Learning disabilities: Theories,
doi:10.1177/088840640402700202 diagnoses, and teaching strategies (9th ed.).
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Binger, C., & Light, J. (2006). Demographics
of preschoolers who require AAC. Language, MacArthur, C. (1998). Word processing with
Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 37(3), speech synthesis and word prediction: Effects on
200–208. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2006/022) the dialogue journal writing of students with learn-
ing disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly,
Bryant, D., & Bryant, B. (1998). Using assistive 21(2), 151–166. doi:10.2307/1511342
technology adaptations to include students with
learning disabilities in cooperative learning ac- MacArthur, C. (1999). Word prediction for
tivities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(1), students with severe spelling problems. Learn-
41–54. doi:10.1177/002221949803100105 ing Disability Quarterly, 22(3), 158–172.
doi:10.2307/1511283
Bryant, D., & Bryant, B. (2003). Assistive tech-
nology for people with disabilities. Boston: Allyn MacArthur, C., Ferretti, P., Okolo, C., & Cavalier,
and Bacon. A. R. (2001). Technology applications for students
with literacy problems: A critical review. The
Building a Legacy: IDEA 2004. (2004). U.S. De- Elementary School Journal, 3(101), 273–301.
partment of Education, Office of Special Education doi:10.1086/499669
Programs. Retrieved November 25, 2007, from
http://idea.ed.gov McCord, S., & Soto, G. (2004). Perceptions
of AAC: An ethnographic investigation of
Duquette, C. (2007). Students at risk: Solutions Mexican-American families. Augmentative and
to classroom challenges. Ontario: Pembroke Alternative Communication, 20(4), 209–227.
Publishers. doi:10.1080/07434610400005648
Graham, S., & Harris, K. (2003). Students with Parette, H. P., Brotherson, M. J., & Huer, M. B.
learning disabilities and the process of writing: A (2000). Giving families a voice in augmentative
meta-analysis of SRSD studies. In Swanson, H. and alternative communication decision-making.
L., Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (Eds.), Handbook Education and Training in Mental Retardation and
of learning disabilities (pp. 323–344). New York: Developmental Disabilities, 35(2), 177–190.
Guilford Press.
337
Stuart, S., & Parette, H. P. (2002). Native Ameri- cated communication devices, microcomputers,
cans and augmentative and alternative communi- and other communication systems. (see FCTD
cation issues. Multiple Voices, 5(1), 38–53. Assistive Technology Glossary: http://www.fctd.
info/resources/glossary.php)
Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals
Assistive Technology (AT) Device: Any item,
with Disabilities Act of 1988. (Tech Act). (1988).
piece of equipment, or product system that is used
Public Law 100-407
to increase, maintain, or improve functioning of
Utley, C. A., Delquadri, J. C., Obiakor, F. E., & individuals with disabilities (Assistive Technol-
Mims, V. A. (2000). General and special educators’ ogy Act of 1998).
perceptions of teaching strategies for multicultural Bicultural: Being or relating to two different
students. Teacher Education and Special Education, cultures in one nation or geographic area.
23, 34–50. doi:10.1177/088840640002300107 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse
(CLD): in the context of this paper and US pub-
Woodward, J., & Rieth, H. (1997). A historical
lic schools and universities, we are using this to
review of technology research in special educa-
mean of non-White ethnicity or in a home where
tion. Review of Educational Research, 67(4),
English is not the native language.
503–536.
Communication Board: Communication
Zhang, Y. (2000). Technology and the writing boards are both AAC devices. That means that
skills of students with learning disabilities. Journal they are used to supplement or replace spoken
of Research on Computing in Education, 32(4), language as a means of communication, specifi-
467–478. cally non-verbal communication.
Low Incidence Disabilities: Disabilities that
do not occur frequently in the population but can
have a major impact on a student’s functioning;
includes autism, Asperger’s disorder, Tourette
syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome, and physical
Augmentative and Alternative Commu-
disabilities (Duquette, 2007).
nication (AAC): Any system that increases or
Universal Design: A broad-spectrum solution
improves communication of individuals with
that produces buildings, products and environ-
receptive or expressive communication impair-
ments that are usable and effective for everyone,
ments. The system can include speech, gestures,
not just people with disabilities.
sign language, symbols, synthesized speech, dedi-
338
339
Chapter 24
Supporting Early Childhood
Outcomes through
Diane Plunkett
Rashida Banerjee
University of Northern Colorado, USA
Eva Horn
AbstrAct
Assistive technology (AT) makes it possible for young children with disabilities to learn, play, and build
relationships. By improving their mobility, communication, and access to their environment, AT allows
children with disabilities more freedom and independence. The purpose of this chapter is to guide early
childhood professionals with examples and recommendations for the integration of AT in natural environ-
ments to meet early childhood outcomes for children up to the age of five. This chapter is organized in
three sections. Section 1 briefly discusses the legal background in early childhood services as it applies
to AT. Section 2 describes the framework for meeting young children’s needs for AT within the context
of early childhood outcomes. Section 3 presents the application of AT in meeting recommended family
outcomes. The Additional Readings section to this chapter offers relevant articles and research reports
in the area of early childhood and AT.
IntroductIon on their practices, approaches, and perspectives

to support all children to achieve their outcomes,
Assistive technology is a universal avenue for as- and for the families to support their children’s
sisting all children to engage with their environment development and learning. Historically, guides
and meet developmental milestones. However, this to the utilization of AT have addressed specific
requires early childhood professionals to reflect developmental domains. For example, if a child
had a delay in the area of social-communication
performance the solutions focused on that particular
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch024
Supporting Early Childhood Outcomes through Assistive Technology
domain. Similarly, if a child experienced a delay sons, such as information, resources, and support.
in mobility, then a mobility device was provided If all things were equal, every child would have
as the answer. Once early childhood profession- the opportunity to reach developmental milestones
als embrace assistive technology (AT), allowing ensuring their success and leading to a produc-
a child with disabilities to meet comprehensive tive and fulfilling adulthood. For children such as
developmental outcomes, as opposed to isolated Maria, developmental challenges are significant.
areas of development domains, the field can move However, a provision for early intervention ser-
towards recognizing the beneficial aspects of AT vices under the federal laws ensures that she and
in meeting early childhood outcomes. Assistive her family receive the assistance needed to help
technology allows children full participation with her in reaching developmental milestones. These
family, friends, and community. Upon completion services begin at birth and may well extend into a
of this chapter readers should be able to: child’s school years. According to the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), all chil-
• Summarize key legislation impacting AT dren who are eligible to receive special education
for young children with disabilities and or early intervention services are also eligible to
their families. receive AT at no cost to the family, if it is included
• Describe federally mandated early child- as part of their Individualized Family Service Plan
hood outcomes as they relate to AT. (IFSP) (34CFR§ 303.344[d]) or Individualized
• Identify evidence-based and promising Education Plan (IEP) (34CFR§ 300.105). The
AT solutions for children with disabilities following section explains the federal mandates
and their families to meet early childhood that may guide the provision of AT for children
outcomes. with disabilities, such as Maria.
• Identify evidence-based and promising AT
solutions for families of children with dis- Federal mandates governing At
abilities to meet family outcomes.
In 1988, federal initiatives developed definitions
for devices and services outlining support for
bAckground persons with disabilities in the form of AT (Tech
Act, 1988). What emerged from the original ini-
“maria” tiatives is now embodied in the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004
Maria, the youngest in a family of three children, (IDEA, 2004).
is an 8 month-old girl with Down syndrome. IDEA is the federal education program that
Maria has difficulty feeding, and she has to have assists states in developing and implementing
frequent hospital visits for a related heart condi- systems of comprehensive services for all eli-
tion. Maria’s parents live on a remote rural ranch gible individuals with disabilities, birth through
and travel up to three hours to the nearest clinic for 21 years of age. Part C of IDEA supports young
their daughter’s special health needs. With the help children with disabilities from birth to 3 years of,
of the clinic, Maria’s family has been in contact and Part B of IDEA supports children 3 through
with an early interventionist and an occupational 5 years of age. Part C and Part B stipulate that
therapist who visits weekly to assist Maria and these children receive these services in inclusive
her family with Maria’s disability. and natural settings (NECTAC, 2009). IDEA
In an ideal world, children and families have also requires AT be considered and provided for
resources to meet challenges inherent to all per- a child if it is determined the child needs such
340
technology to access and participate in everyday IDEA requires the intervention team routinely
activities in assisting with the child’s learning consider AT as part of the early intervention and
(Judge & Parrette, 1998). preschool evaluation. AT services include any
IDEA defines AT as: service that directly assists a child with a dis-
ability in the selection, acquisition, and use of
Any item, piece of equipment, or product system, an AT device. Services may also include training
whether acquired commercially modified or and coordinating with other service providers and
customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or family members. However, if AT has not been
improve the functional capacities of a child with considered at the time of the IFSP or IEP meet-
a disability. The term does not include a medical ings, the family or a team member may request
device that is surgically implanted, or the replace- an AT evaluation at any time. Even though IDEA
ment of such device [34CFR§300.5]. guarantees consideration and implementation
of AT services, underutilization of AT services
persists for young children with disabilities and
Assistive technology service means any service their families (Lesar, 1998; Mistrett, 2001). The
that directly assists a child with a disability in the exception of AT services that should be noted from
selection, acquisition, or use of an AT device. The IDEA 2004 is the explicit definition of medical
term includes: (a) The evaluation of the needs of devices and related services. This addition to
a child with a disability, including a functional IDEA makes clear the roles and responsibilities
evaluation in the child’s customary environment; of local education authorities in medical device
(b) Purchasing, leasing, or otherwise providing for and services as it is related to AT.
the acquisition of AT devices by children with dis-
abilities; (c) Selecting, designing, fitting, custom- (b) Exception; services that apply to children with
izing, adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, surgically implanted devices, including cochlear
or replacing AT devices; (d) Coordinating and implants. (1) Related services do not include a
using other therapies, interventions, or services medical device that is surgically implanted, the
with AT devices, such as those associated with optimization of that device’s functioning (e.g.,
existing education and rehabilitation plans and mapping), maintenance of that device, or the
programs; (e) Training or technical assistance replacement of that device. (2) Nothing in para-
for a child with a disability or, if appropriate, graph (b)(1) of this section—(i) Limits the right
that child’s family; and (f) Training or technical of a child with a surgically implanted device (e.g.,
assistance for professionals (including individuals cochlear implant) to receive related services (as
providing education or rehabilitation services), listed in paragraph (a) of this section) that are
employers, or other individuals who provide ser- determined by the IEP Team to be necessary
vices to, employ, or are otherwise substantially for the child to receive FAPE. (ii) Limits the re-
involved in the major life functions of that child sponsibility of a public agency to appropriately
[34CFR§300.6]. monitor and maintain medical devices that are
needed to maintain the health and safety of the
According to IDEA, all children who are child, including breathing, nutrition, or opera-
eligible to receive special education or early in- tion of other bodily functions, while the child is
tervention services are also eligible to receive AT transported to and from school or is at school; or
services at no cost to the family, if it is included as (iii) Prevents the routine checking of an external
part of their Individualized Family Service Plan component of a surgically-implanted device to
(IFSP) or Individualized Education Plan (IEP).
341
Figure 1. Legislation relevant to AT at early childhood
make sure it is functioning properly, as required mAndAted eArLy

in Sec. 300.113(b). cHILdHood outcomes
Even children with disabilities who are not Substantial progress has been made for young
eligible for special education under IDEA may children with disabilities and their use of and
also be entitled to the provision of AT under Sec- access to AT. In 2005, the Office of Special
tion 504 of the Rehabilitation Act or under the Education Programs (OSEP) mandated for each
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (National state receiving federal dollars to fund early inter-
Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center, vention (Part C) and special education preschool
NECTAC, 2009). The Figure 1 summarizes ad- programs (Part B) must report on child and family
ditional legislation that influences AT services outcomes (ECO, 2009). The OSEP uses resulting
and their relevance to early childhood. data to support program planning, research, and
342
early intervention services (ECO, 2009). For the evidence-based and promising AT methods and
purpose of accountability, states must report on practices chosen in the case study examples are
the percentage of infants and toddlers with Indi- guided by the review of evidence for teaching
vidualized Family Service Plans (IFSPs) and on young children to use AT provided by Campbell,
preschool children with Individualized Educa- Milbourne, Dugan and Wilcox (2006) and Mistrett
tion Plans (IEPs) who demonstrate improved: et al. (2001).
(a) positive social-emotional skills (including
social relationships), (b) acquisition and use of Early Childhood Child Outcome 1:
knowledge and skills (including early language/ Positive Social-emotional Skills
communication and early literacy), and (c) appro-
priate behaviors to meet their needs. The ultimate Research indicates positive social and emotional
goal is “to enable young children to be active and skill attainment in early childhood has an enor-
successful participants during the early childhood mous impact on the children’s success later in
years and in the future in a variety of settings…” life. Children’s development of positive skills is
(ECO, 2009). States are also required to report the shaped by successful interpersonal relationships.
family outcomes to OSEP. For family outcomes, Positive attachment to parents or a primary care-
early intervention programs are required to report giver facilitates successful interpersonal relation-
the percentage of families who are participating ship and the development of positive emotional,
in Part C and report early intervention services social, and academic skills. Attachment in infancy
helping them to: (a) know their rights, (b) ef- is facilitated by rudimentary behaviors of smil-
fectively communicate their children’s needs, ing, prolonged eye contact, and separation. After
and (c) help their children develop and learn. the age of 18 months, a child demonstrates more
Additionally, state 619 preschool (Part B) pro- sophisticated interactions with peers and parents
grams must report the percentage of parents with by cooperating in social games, enjoying being
a child receiving special education services who the center of attention and solitary play (Allen
report that schools facilitated parent involvement & Marotz, 2007). As a child prepares to enter
as a means of improving services and results for preschool, rule-related skills are observed in
children with disabilities. peer play with materials, active engagement,
and self-regulating behaviors (Allen & Marotz,
early childhood child outcomes 2007). Rule-related skills include taking turns with
simple board games, waiting to be served a snack,
Each of the following sections discuss one of the and being able to transition from one activity to
three early childhood child outcomes mandated the next. The following section discusses early
by the OSEP by explaining and responding to the childhood child outcome one and illustrates ways
following question: “So what do these outcomes of selecting AT for an infant with disabilities and
look like for a child in the home and classroom?” potential AT solutions as the child ages.
The following section will also illustrate these “Charles”. Charles is a 6-month-old boy, the
behaviors and outcomes by discussing specific second of two children in the family, who was
cases of children with disabilities and the possible born by cesarean section at 27 weeks gestation and
solutions that AT would provide. We conclude each weighing 2 pounds, 1 ounce. Shortly after birth,
outcome with evidence-based and promising AT Charles experienced a grade 3 brain bleed on the
methods. Evidence-based practice is inherent in left hemisphere, and the placement of a shunt was
quality service provision to young children with necessary. The extent of his disability remains
disabilities and their families. Therefore, the uncertain, but his doctors anticipate Charles may
343
have mild to moderate mental retardation, cere- ror that placing Charles in the swing and turning
bral palsy, vision impairment, and hydrocephaly. on the vibrator element allowed him the longest
Charles’ parents are worried if he will grow up, and period of sustained contentment. With this
if he does live, what quality of life he will have. medium-tech device, Charles was able to tolerate
His 8 year-old brother is embarrassed, as Charles his family members holding his hand, talking to
looks different than other babies and cries often. him, and stroking his face. Charles might also
His brother has asked if they can leave Charles at benefit from additional physical supports such
home instead of taking him to the church nursery as a Boppy pillow, wedge pillows, or a vibrating
as other children are making fun of him. Charles’ pillow to support him physically and encourage
parent’s immediate concern is their inability to sitting during typical routines such as lap reading
comfort Charles. Extended hospital stays and his with his grandparents.
disabilities are causing him to exhibit symptoms Assistive technology may also encourage oth-
of anxiety which prevents him from successfully ers to interact with Charles. Between the ages of
interacting with his parents, brother, and grand- 2 and 3, medium-tech assistive devices, such as
parents. Charles takes a number of medications to switch-activated sound and vibrating toys will
deal with seizures and muscle spasticity. Charles’ be useful to encourage Charles to interact with
physicians and family are unwilling to add any his environment. Adapting popular toys, such as
more medications to address anxiety. Coming “My first RC Car” with a switch to encouraging
home from the hospital, a Part C early interven- others to play with him would help ease Charles’
tionist met with the family to provide support and social interactions at church functions and give
suggest resources available to them. An IFSP was his brother a positive role as well. The early
developed and with the help of the occupational intervention team may also suggest seating and
therapist, techniques were introduced to provide positioning devices for Charles to support him
brief periods of relaxation for Charles. However, during typical family routines. When Charles
the family would like to see Charles have more begins attending preschool, AT can help facilitate
consistent and longer periods of relaxation. peer interactions. The use of electronic story-
Prematurity, or birth before the gestational books on the computer or specifically designed
age of 37 weeks, can result in numerous medical activity boards that encourage peer contact have
problems affecting different body systems. Most been demonstrated to be effective moderators
commonly associated with prematurity are de- for peer interaction (Spiegel-McGill, Zippiroli,
velopmental disabilities, seizure, cerebral palsy, & Mistrett, 1989).
retinopathy of prematurity (blindness/low vision), Evidence-based and promising AT solutions.
and breathing problems (Centers for Disease Con- For Charles and other children like him, AT
trol and Prevention, 2009). Extended hospital stays provides solutions to promoting interpersonal
are common and may make the transition to home relationships. Studies have demonstrated AT as
stressful for all the family members. However, AT an effective means for facilitating the develop-
can assist children who were born prematurely ment of social emotional skills between the child
with resulting delays or disabling conditions and and their caregiver and the child and his peers
their families in a number of ways. (Sullivan & Lewis, 2000; Whaley, 1990). Typi-
As Charles’ example illustrates, the use of cally, AT solutions for social and interpersonal
off-the-shelf baby equipment might improve a relationships are built around communication.
prematurely born child’s experience by allowing Numerous research studies have confirmed the
positive interactions among family members. social benefits of communication (Schepis, Reid,
Charles’ family discovered through trial and er- Behrmann, & Sutton, 1998). Schepis and col-
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leagues reported positive peer interactions during features. As a result, Haley has difficulty swal-
typical classroom routines and activities. Butler lowing, hearing, and verbally communicating
also reported positive psychosocial gains from effectively. Haley is unable to articulate clearly,
parental perspectives and offered the benefit of drools frequently, and her facial expressions
self-initiated behaviors with powered mobility do not reflect her feelings. The syndrome has
for children as young as 23 months -old (1986). resulted in delays in Haley’s speech and social
Additionally, social facilitation utilizing computer skills. Additionally, Haley is experiencing gross
games resulted in positive gains for children with motor delays due to mild cerebral palsy. She
significant social interaction deficits and speech recently started crawling and pulling herself to
and language impairments (McCormick, 1987; standing and uses a wheelchair for most outings.
Spiegel-McGill, 1989). Since she is their only child, Haley’s parents have
enough time and energy to anticipate her needs
Early Childhood Child Outcome 2: and are quick to do things for her, but they can
Acquisition and Use of Knowledge rarely understand what she is trying to say and
and Skills (Including Early Language/ are concerned about their ability to care for her.
Communication and Early Literacy) As a result of her parents’ inability to understand
her, Haley has begun exhibiting tantrums. Haley’s
Children understand the physical and social world parents are reluctant to take her to public places
through activity and exploration, which involves such as restaurants and the grocery store. After
thinking, reasoning, remembering, solving witnessing children removing their toys from her
problem, as well as using symbols and language reach and moving away from her, Haley’s parents
(Dunst & Shue, 2005). These interactions involve are concerned that children will not want to play
exploration of early concepts, symbols, pictures, with Haley. Living in a rural area, Haley’s parents
numbers, classification, spatial relationships, have had limited access to, and success with, early
imitation, expressive language, and early literacy. intervention, but they visit a large medical center
For children with disabilities, this process of and have received suggestions for simple AT to
exploring the world is often interrupted by their facilitate and improve Haley’s language and com-
inability to demonstrate an understanding through munication with parents and peers.
questioning and inquiry. Their language may be For any child, including Haley, communication
impaired or ineffective unless they are given al- development in infancy is necessary for acquiring
ternate means of communication and expression. information. Before developing formal speech,
Children are typically expected to move through infants use a number of facial expressions, body
stages of language development and communi- language, and gestures to demonstrate emotion
cation which are interlinked with later literacy and participate in interactions. Parents read their
skills (NIFL, 2009). AT can provide solutions to infant’s facial expressions and react to them, thus
children who are unable to move to the next level providing their children with learning opportuni-
of communicative intent. The following section ties and access to information. The expressions of
discusses early childhood child outcome two and the eyes and mouth reveal when a child understands
illustrates ways of selecting AT for a toddler with and is at ease with solving problems. If a child
disabilities and potential AT solutions. senses wonder, utterances of “oh” emerge, which
“Haley”. Haley is a 26-month-old girl and an the adult can reinforce with more information or
only child. Haley has moebius syndrome, which questions. For children like Haley, however, the
is marked by the paralysis of facial muscles that natural give-and-take of exchanging information
control speech, jaw, eye movement, and facial through a look of confusion or awe is not possible
345
because they do not express thinking, reasoning, More sophisticated voice recording technology,
and remembering in a typical fashion. such as assistive augmentative communication
Expressive and receptive demonstrations of devices, will also help children like Haley meet
language are a hallmark for the development of their communicative needs in the future. Such
children between the ages of 2 and 3. Disability devices include a portable Tango (a speech gen-
or delays, however, impede the crucial exchange erating device which contains a broad array of
of information that commonly scaffolds develop- communication methods, a built-in camera, voice
ment in multiple areas. Unfortunately, children morphing and highly robust scanning options with
with moebius syndrome cannot make themselves multiple symbols) or a Springboard Lite (a small,
understood as their speech clarity is poor. Haley, light-weight and portable speech generating device
for example, is unable to clearly state her choice designed for just beginning AAC communicators
of clothes for the day, which limits her expres- with 4, 8, 15, and 36 display options).
sions to pointing out objects with her fingers or Evidence-based and promising AT solutions.
hands. When her mother asks, “Haley would you Augmentative and alternative communication
like the blue or pink sweater today?” for instance, (AAC) systems enable children to communicate
Haley can respond only by pointing to the sweater expressively. Early provision of AAC systems
she prefers. Her opportunity to expand on what promotes cognitive development and social com-
she understands remains unexplored because petence and thereby allows young children with
pointing does not indicate she recognizes the expressive communication delays to participate
color she is choosing; only that she is making a in a variety of activities that are otherwise impos-
choice. However, a medium-tech solution, such sible. Through these activities, children acquire
as digital recordings in a picture frame, could skills they will need to succeed in school and
help with Haley’s expressive and receptive com- their social life (Schepis et al., 1998). In addition,
munication. Multiple picture frames or modified researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness
greeting card recorders of Haley wearing the outfit of supporting early literacy skills through AT
of her choice can provide the means for Haley to by reducing physical barriers and enhancing
voice her choice of items from her closet. Each participation (Farmer, Klein, & Bryson, 1992;
morning, the picture frames can be laid out for Pierce & McWilliam, 1993; Steelman, Pierce, &
Haley to choose from. As she gets older, Haley Koppenhaver, 1993). The findings are consistent
will learn to make more choices by responding with Soto, Belfiore, Schlosser, and Haynes (1993),
to an increasing number of frames. who conducted research with a child who had
Moreover, Haley’s need to engage in social severe disabilities; found that the child demon-
communication with peers and exchange infor- strated a clear preference for using one device
mation with unfamiliar adults will grow as soon over another. These researchers also found that
as she begins to transition to preschool. Digital the child’s overall performance was better with
recording mechanisms, which are now financially the preferred device than with a device assigned
feasible and can be attached to a key chain, can to the child. Even though children have more
help children like Haley to communicate. For success with devices when their preferences are
instance, if Haley were to ride the school bus respected, professionals do not usually take the
home and wished to address the bus driver, she children’s preferences into account during assess-
could activate a key chain recording saying: “Hi ments. In a survey of state practices regarding the
Mrs. Timmer.” This digital recording device assessment procedures used to prescribe commu-
would help in a communication exchange typical nication devices for young children, Parrette and
for preschool aged children with adult models. Hourcade (1997) found that child preferences were
346
only considered 39% of the time in assessments. and his older sisters were recently placed with
Early childhood professionals should, therefore, his grandmother after being relocated by state
consider child preference as a prerequisite for social services. His grandmother is concerned
any AT solutions. Zander still drinks from a bottle and she would
like him to begin eating table food. Social services
Early Childhood Outcome contacted the local education agency (LEA) to
3: Appropriate Behaviors initiate early intervention services for Zander
to Meet Their Needs and his family. The early intervention team has
referred Zander’s grandmother to local resources
As children integrate motor skills into complet- in addition to developing an Individualized Family
ing tasks and develop self-help skills (toileting, Service Plan (IFSP).
feeding, grooming) they are acting on the world Zander has entered early intervention services
to get what they want and need. Children integrate with a number of significant needs. Not only does
various skills to complete tasks, gross motor and Zander have to face significant physical challeng-
fine motor, working in tandem to take care of their es, but his living environment has also multiplied
basic needs (e.g., choosing what to wear, walking his difficulties for typical development. Children
to a door, responding to a request). Children con- with a history of prenatal exposure to drugs are
tribute to their health by following rules, assisting more likely to have environmental risks than
with hand washing, avoiding inedible objects, those without exposure (Carta, Atwater, Green-
mobilizing from place to place, and using tools wood, McConnell, McEvoy, & Williams, 2001).
(e.g., forks, pencils). This outcome includes the Tasks for Zander include acquiring the strength
function of multiple behaviors working simulta- and muscle control to begin acting upon his en-
neously. Children gain the emotional maturity to vironment. Providing Zander with opportunities
plan, execute, and meet a variety of competing to reach, grab and pull can be achieved through
needs. For example, their need to satisfy thirst assistive, off-the-shelf technology. Activity gyms
requires recognition of being thirsty, being able that encourage ‘cause and effect’ require Zander
to mobilize or ask for something to drink and to manipulate the item.
then actually drinking a beverage. The following Zanders’ grandmother’s concern about his
section discusses early childhood child outcome self-feeding is a valid concern. Developmentally
3 and illustrates ways of selecting AT for an in- Zander is of an age to be exploring self-feeding.
fant with disabilities and potential AT solutions As he should begin eating table foods, assisting
as he ages. him from bottle-feeding will require incremental
Zander. Zander, the youngest of three children changes. Weaning from his current feeding bottle
in the family, is a 16-month-old boy with signifi- and trained to use more typical cup forms will ne-
cant delays in speech and motor development. cessitate Zander to grip with two-fist formations.
Zander has been identified with fetal alcohol This in turn will allow him to transition more easily
syndrome (FAS). FAS may result in poor motor to other utensils and also generalize to grabbing
control, distractibility, poor fine and gross motor items such as toys and smaller food pieces.
control and problems with concrete thinking (NO- Between the ages of 2-3, the OT and early
FAS, 2009). Zander has not had the opportunity interventionist could suggest low-tech AT that will
to develop along typical lines as he spent his first allow Zander to gain strength and mobility, and to
16 months confined in his car seat and playpen. roam safely in his home. Push-walking toys can be
Zander appears to be alert, but is having difficulty modified to increase the surface friction between
holding up his head and raising his arms. Zander the wheels and floor and allow Zander to gain
347
strength as he mobilizes around his environment. While each of these children has unique needs,
Exploring his environment safely will also require they do share one aspect in common—each child’s
an element of internal regulation on Zander’s part. family is part of a team. In the following section,
Children prenatally exposed to alcohol and drugs we will examine how the OSEP early childhood
have a higher incidence of impaired adaptive family outcomes may be positioned with respect
behaviors (Whaley, 2001). These behaviors may to AT devices and services in early intervention.
include communication, socialization, self-help
skills, and distractibility. Zander may benefit early childhood Family outcomes
from the use of picture schedules to guide his
adaptive behavior with sensitivity to his age and A family outcome is defined as “a benefit experi-
developmentally appropriate expectations. enced by families as a result of services received…
Upon entering preschool, children experience A family outcome is not the receipt of services,
multiple opportunities for meeting their develop- but what happens as a consequence of providing
mental needs. Putting on a jacket and washing services or supports” (Bailey, Bruder, Hebbeler,
and drying hands for snack time are all typical Carter, Defosset, & Greenwood, 2006, p.228).
activities within a classroom routine. Simple low- Family outcomes have received less attention
tech solutions are available with creative input. from researchers than child outcomes due to the
Attaching a small key ring toy to the zipper pull lack of focus on and clear definition of family
would allow Zander to pull the zipper closed while outcomes (Bailey & Bruder, 2005). The OSEP has
encouraging independence. Additionally, placing recommended three family outcomes to address
a strip picture prompt sequence at eye level above accountability issues in early childhood special
the hand washing sink will assist Zander in plan- education; families must: (a) know their rights, (b)
ning his movements during hand washing. effectively communicate their children’s needs,
Evidence-based and promising AT solutions. and (c) help their children develop and learn.
The majority of the research studies in AT has Additionally, state 619 preschool programs must
centered on mobility devices enabling children report the percentage of parents with children who
access to their world. Researchers have estab- receive special education services and report that
lished the withholding of mobility for developing schools facilitated their involvement as a means of
infant’s increases a pattern of apathy, learned improving services and results for children with
helplessness, and an unwillingness to venture disabilities (OSEP, 2006).
and explore (Butler, 1986; Beckwith, 1971; Har- Recently, the delivery of early childhood in-
ter, 1978). However, AT devices such as robotic tervention services has shifted from professional,
armature, infant mobility devices, wheelchairs, clinical models to a family-centered model in all
and prosthetic limbs all encourage exploration. areas of service delivery, including AT (Bailey,
Therefore, a child mobilizing autonomously in a McWilliam, & Winton, 1992; Judge, 2002; Keilty
self-realizing manner is beginning to operate from & Galvin, 2006). Due to the increased importance
a view of self-determination. This is a beginning of the family in the provision of early intervention
foundation for acts of self-determination which and early childhood services for children up to five
continue through the life span (Erwin & Brown, years of age, it’s critical to include family outcomes
2003; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2000). in the overall child outcomes required by OSEP.
Using case studies, we have offered a variety Further, Part C of IDEA clearly states the benefit
of potential AT solutions for Charles, Haley, and of services should be provided to families, and
Zander. Part B states that services should support family
348
participation to meet the developmental needs of Maria, who lives with her family on a remote
the children. In fact, AT can help families support rural ranch, has Down syndrome with a related
their children’s development and learning, and heart condition and has special feeding needs. In
promote their participation in daily activities order to access and provide support for Maria, her
and routines at home and in community settings parents must understand their rights. Maria’s par-
(Campbell et al., 2004). In a study examining ents play an important part in the decision-making
the factors in families’ daily lives increasing or process. Under IDEA 2004, Maria’s parents have:
impeding AT use, Hider (1999) found that parents (a) the right to have an evaluation, assessment,
were the largest determinant of whether AT was IFSP development, service coordination and
used or not used. Thus, inclusion of the family is procedural safeguards at no cost. They may be
crucial for understanding and reporting outcomes charged for other early intervention services on
of children using AT because children’s uses of a sliding fee schedule; (b) the right, if eligible
AT are intertwined within their homes, schools, under Part C, to appropriate early intervention
and community contexts. services for Maria and her family as addressed
The following sections discuss each of the in an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP);
three family outcomes mandated by OSEP for (c) the right to be invited to and participate in all
children and families receiving services under Part meetings in which a decision is expected to be
C. The section begins with the description of the made regarding a proposal to change the place-
early childhood family outcome, then discusses ment for Maria or the provision of services to
a specific case demonstrating how the outcomes Maria or her family; (d) the right to request a
may be achieved through the use of AT. change in service coordinators; (e) the right to
choose or not to use their health insurance to pay
Early Childhood Family Outcome for early intervention or AT services for Maria;
1: Families Know Their Rights (f) the right to receive timely written notice (Prior
Notice) before a change is proposed or refused
IDEA 2004 outlines the rights for parents of in the identification, evaluation, or placement of
children with disabilities. This set of rights en- Maria, or in the provision of services to Maria
ables parents to participate actively in decisions or her family; (g) the right to receive services in
regarding the design and delivery of services. the natural environment, to the maximum extent
Families must have knowledge of their rights and appropriate for Maria; (h) the right to have all
responsibilities under the law, and have access personally identifiable information treated as
to information empowering them to advocate confidential; and (i) the right to an impartial
effectively on behalf of their children. hearing to resolve parent/provider disagreements.
Parents’ opinions and suggestions are critical The family also has a right to refuse evaluations,
in understanding the child’s needs and preferences assessments, and services.
for AT. With the help of families, the Individu- If Maria’s parents are not satisfied with the
alized Family Service Plan (IFSP) team or the evaluation by the agency, they have the right to
Individualized Education Plan (IEP) team may seek an independent evaluation. To better sup-
be able to determine the appropriate AT, such as port families in the partnership, it is imperative
special seating or an adaptive switch that has been that the professionals are aware of the family’s
useful for the child in different settings-both at rights and support families in advocating for
home and school. Let’s revisit 8-month-old Maria these rights. Professionals must provide a copy of
and allow her family’s needs to guide us through the procedural safeguards listing parental rights
family outcome one. at the time of the beginning of services under
349
IDEA, and thereafter at least once a year. Maria’s institutions of social, spiritual, or religious nature.
parents may also request the document any other For the families of children who use AT, formal
time. However, providing a copy of rights is not and informal supports may include persons such
enough. Professionals must allow families time as, technology experts, technicians, and product
to reflect on these rights, and return to ask more customer service representatives.
questions if required. Turnbull, Summers, Turnbull, Brotherson,
Winton, and Roberts (2007) argue that the early
Early Childhood Family Outcome childhood field has not sufficiently addressed the
2: Families Communicate specific needs of families to enhance the outcomes
Their Child’s Needs for families themselves and for their children in
terms of the types of services offered on the indi-
One of the critical components of IDEA (particu- vidual family service plans (IFSPs). The authors
larly in Part C) is the inclusion of families as equal state that while the child-focused services, such as
partners in the design and delivery of intervention occupational therapy, speech therapy and physical
for their children. As the main decision makers therapy increased, the family-centered services
for their children, parents must have opportuni- such as family training, social work services, and
ties to participate in the eligibility determination, respite care service decreased between 1994 and
goals to be addressed, and the specific services to 2001. Further, most families do not have access
be provided to their children. In order to support to information from other families on evidence-
families to act as equal partners, professionals based strategies that have been helpful to their
must encourage questions, comments, and requests children in the short and long-term.
for clarifications, and provide families with tools For families to better understand and com-
and resources to support their children to grow to municate their children’s needs to profession-
their highest expectations. als, they must understand the stages of typical
Most families need to have access to, and par- development and be aware of the difference in
ticipate in, a “wide range of community resources, developmental patterns among children (ECO
services, programs, and activities…[However], Center, 2005). Knowledge of the special risk fac-
families of children with disabilities often ex- tors to their children’s development and learning
perience challenges in accessing community and the recommended interventions and prac-
resources, especially those that seem responsive tices related to these risk factors allow families
to their needs and those of their children” (Bailey to communicate and meet their children’s needs
et al., 2006, p. 5). For instance, a family’s need for more effectively. However, understanding the
inclusive services and resources is often guided by development of children using AT poses a unique
their child’s age and needs, the family’s culture, challenge as young children grow, mature, and
religion, and priorities and its desire to participate develop quickly. As children grow and develop,
in these activities. their needs for AT devices and services change.
Additionally, families of children with a delay They may either outgrow their devices or surpass
or a disability need formal and informal supports the capability of their devices (Isabelle, Bessey,
which can help attenuate the stress and loneliness Dragas, Blease, Shepherd, & Lane, 2002). Using
these families may already feel. Formal supports the previous vignette for 6-month-old Charles,
may include support from professionals, parent let’s see how his family’s needs are met through
groups, and agencies. Informal supports may in- early childhood family outcome two.
clude extended family, friends, or neighborhood Due to Charles’ premature birth and post-natal
communities, participation in church or other complications, he has significant sensory, physical,
350
and cognitive needs. His visual disability, poor of the child. Families must have the knowledge
cognitive functioning, and heightened anxiety are and understanding of effective ways to enhance
affecting his daily living. Further, the significant their child’s learning within the daily routines and
caring needs for 6-month-old Charles are impact- activities in natural environment (Dunst, Hamby,
ing the family’s quality of life. Charles’ IFSP team Trivett, Raab, & Bruder, 2000). For children who
not only needs to identify AT for Charles, but need special adaptive equipment, families must
also his family’s needs for support and services. know how to use the special equipment to benefit
His family will also need training in teaching their child in the home environment, the primary
Charles within the natural routines to utilize his learning environment for young children.
other senses of touch, smell, hearing, and taste to Researchers agree for the successful implemen-
tation of AT, it is imperative families are involved
benefit from his environment.
in the assessment and implementation. When AT
For all AT devices, Charles family should be
is selected by the family it is more likely to be
a part of the assessment of the device and plan-
incorporated in use throughout the child’s daily
ning in how best to use the device within Charles’
routine (Judge & Parette, 1998). Further, training
natural environment and routines. Parents may
the family in the use of AT is critical to success-
recognize opportunities to use the devices such that ful implementation of AT (Judge, 2002). Parents
it brings him and his brother emotionally closer. may need minimal training or no training in order
Amongst the varied AT devices for sitting and to incorporate simple adaptations and low-tech
positioning the early intervention team suggests devices such as special spoons, single switches,
Charles’ family should be encouraged to voice and Velcro in their child’s daily routines. However,
their preferences. As the family lives in a small families will require planned instruction in the ef-
two bedroom condominium, a bulky wheelchair fective use of high-tech devices such as powered
or large positioning devices will not be feasible. wheelchairs, alternative and augmentative com-
The team will have to research smaller positioning munication devices, and highly specialized switch
devices that can be folded and made portable. interfaces that are not readily available (Long,
As Charles grows older, the early interven- Huang, Woodbridge, Woolverton, & Minkel, 2003;
tion team, which includes his parents, may con- Mistrett, 2004).
sider introducing Braille for him. Throughout Despite the importance cited in research con-
the decision-making process, the family must cerning parent training and the call for embedding
be placed in a pivotal position and their needs instruction within the natural environments and
respectfully listened to and their suggestions daily routines and activities, Campbell, Milbourne,
adhered to. If a device is not working for the Dugan, and Wilcox et al. (2006) found that profes-
parents, if the technology is too difficult for them sionals did not train families using AT to embed
to understand, or if there is a problem with the high-tech and low-tech devices in their daily rou-
device use at home, parents should be encouraged tines and activities. Instead, families were “provided
to communicate these challenges and their needs separate training sessions that parents carried out
to professionals. at home” (p. 9). Only one in 23 studies reported
teaching children to use voice output communica-
tion aids within the context of routines in special
Early Childhood Family Outcome
education preschool classrooms. Additionally, no
3: Families Help Their Children
studies reported routines-based instructions in a
Develop and Learn
typical home environment.
In their study of parent perception, Wilcox et
A safe, nurturing, and stimulating home envi-
al. (2006), found parents begin using AT with their
ronment is critical to the healthy development
351
child as early as 6 months of age. Parents reported provided by the agency. Occupational, physical,
a high use of low-tech, high-tech, and positioning or speech therapists are typically responsible for
devices with their infants and toddlers irrespective assessment, acquisition, training, and follow-up
of the severity of their disability. Numerous chal- processes required for providing the AT services
lenges were cited in the study for low success rate in medical and educational settings (Benedict &
in the use of the device, and thereby, increased Baumgardner, 2009).
probability of abandonment and underutilization Due to Zander’s feeding problems the OT may
of the AT. The findings suggest that families are suggest using special spoons or feeding bottles
often unaware of available resources support- with a larger opening. The OT may also suggest
ing the use of AT. In addition, families received special positioning and seating system for Zander
little support from service providers for locating to better support his body during play and daily liv-
or using these devices. A number of factors are ing skills. Further, the speech therapist may provide
responsible for children receiving appropriate AT Zander with adapted or off-the-shelf toys to help
services they need: financial resources (of both exercise his mouth muscles and practice inhaling
family and program, which includes health insur- and exhaling, which will further his feeding and
ance) and access to the service delivery system speech development. As Zander grows older he
(educational and medical). may need low-tech augmentative communication
Contrary to popular belief, receiving early devices such as picture cards or high-tech devices
special education services does not guarantee that such as voice output devices to support his social-
children’s AT needs will be met. In the United communication needs. Zander’s grandmother will
States, children primarily access AT services need to be trained in the use of new high-tech
through the health care and public education or low-tech devices until she feels competent to
systems. Carlson and Ehrlich (2006) revealed use the AT by herself. However, throughout this
that the most common source of funding for AT process, the professionals will need to consult
is personal and family funds. Wilcox et al. (2006) with the family during the Zander’s assessment,
also found that families identify, use, and pay for goal development, and choice of AT to best sup-
their preschool children’s AT. As in the previous port his needs in the natural environment. They
two outcomes, we will now revisit another vignette may also provide the family with a list of stores
and allow Zander and his family to guide us through where they can purchase the AT and if needed, the
early childhood family outcome three. professionals may suggest other no-cost options
Exposure to alcohol with additional environ- such as toy libraries or tech resource centers. In
mental challenges of being confined to car seat addition, professionals will help Zander’s family
and play pen has resulted in speech and motor to identify the source of funding for the AT.
delays for Zander. Once 16-month-old Zander
was identified as having a developmental delay, Early Childhood Family
he and his family began to receive services under Outcome for Part B: Section
IDEA. IDEA mandates that AT be considered 619 Preschool Programs
when developing goals for the Individualized
Family Service Plan (IFSP; or the Individual Turnbull et al. (2005) suggest that family func-
Education Plan, IEP). If Zander’s IFSP team, tions are affected when families proceed through
which includes his grandmother (who is Zander’s a sequence of developmental stages, non-devel-
guardian and is legally responsible for Zander’s opmental stages and transitions throughout a
welfare), decide that AT is required for Zander child’s life. One of the important transitions for
to meet the IFSP goals, the needed AT must be children with disabilities is the transition from the
352
family-focused service in early intervention (Part rangements. Arrangements will also need to be
C) to child-centered education programs (Part made within the preschool classroom for Haley’s
B) on the child’s third birthday. IDEA requires wheelchair and provide her easy access and ma-
a minimum of six months transition period from neuvering capabilities. Haley’s teacher may need
Part C to Part B services. Let us revisit Haley’s to reconsider the layout of the classroom. The
vignette and allow her and her family to guide us school administrator may consider an alternative
through this family outcome. classroom to accommodate the wheelchair if the
The early intervention team has informed classroom is too small. Additionally, administra-
26-month-old Haley’s parents about the upcom- tors may reassign staff as Haley’s need for para-
ing transition. This period has been filled with professional support in active participation in the
the evaluations and meetings required by the classroom becomes evident. When Haley begins
law. Haley’s parents have met with her preschool to receive services through Part B, the school
teacher and have visited her new preschool. De- will continue to facilitate parent involvement in
spite the preparation, Haley’s family feels rushed all aspects of Haley’s education, through assess-
to make decisions. They frequently feel the need ment, goal development, program planning, and
for additional conversations to answer questions decisions on the use of AT If any new technology
about Haley’s potential services. They wonder is introduced, Haley’s family will need to be equal
who will provide the services for Haley. Would partners in decision-making and may need to be
the professionals be familiar with her Tango? Can provided training with the technology.
she continue to use the Tango that her early inter-
vention agency loaned her? What if she cannot?
Would she have any AT to help her communicate? Future reseArcH dIrectIons
If a new device is provided, who will teach them
how to use it? It took them and Haley almost six Our primary intent in this chapter is to present
months to learn to use the Tango, thanks to the an outcome based framework for meeting early
patient training with the early interventionist. What childhood outcomes for children with disabilities
about the wheelchair Haley used? Would the new utilizing AT. As such, we are reluctant to offer
classroom have enough space for the wheelchair too many conclusions about AT in early interven-
to maneuver? tion. Clearly, we are able to identify a handful of
To support Haley’s family through the transi- “evidence-based” AT practices in early interven-
tion process, professionals from the local Part B tion according to criteria set forth by Campbell,
agency receiving Haley, need to facilitate the fam- Milbourne, Dugan, & Wilcox et al. (2006) and
ily’s involvement as a means of improving services Mistrett et al. (2001). Despite the findings, gaps
and results for Haley. They need to meet with her continue to be reported in AT research with infants
family prior to the transition meeting and take the and young children. Whether the reasons for these
time to listen to the questions and concerns that gaps are due to AT underutilization or abandon-
Haley’s family has. Since the sources of funding ment, it is an area that bears further scrutiny.
are different for the two agencies, the Part B team, Additionally, one of our primary concerns is the
along with the early intervention team, need to misunderstanding of professionals and families
clearly plan the transition of the AT equipment about the power of AT in a young child’s life to
when Haley moves to Part B. Early intervention meet developmental outcomes. The solution to
agency may continue to loan the Tango to Haley meeting early childhood outcomes through AT
until the Part B agency can make alternate ar- has little merit if we, as professionals, are unable
353
to overcome professional misunderstanding and Bailey, D. B., Bruder, M. B., Hebbeler, K., Carta,
discomfiture in the use of AT with very young J., Defosset, M., & Greenwood, G. (2006). Recom-
children. mended outcomes for families of young children
with disabilities. Journal of Early Intervention, 28,
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This chapter focused on the application of AT
intervention: A team-based model for change.
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Benedict, R. E., & Baumgardner, A. M.
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(2009). A population approach to understand-
disabilities and their families in meeting early
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childhood outcomes. Supported by legislative
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directives, young children with disabilities and
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that supports the knowledge, skills and experi- Butler, C. (1986). Effects of powered mobility on
ences that contribute to positive lifelong goal at- self-initiated behaviors of very young children
tainment, it is hoped that these recommendations with locomotor disability. Developmental Medi-
help to ensure the successful application of AT for cine and Child Neurology, 28, 325–332.
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Campbell, P. H., Milbourne, S., Dugan, L. M., &
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Wilcox, M. J. (2006). A review of the evidence
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key terms And deFInItIons developmental needs of a child from age birth to
three with a disability or developmental delay.
Boppy Pillow: An ergonomically correct po- Low-tech: A technology device with simple,
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Boppy pillow makes positioning during feeding,
lying, playing supported.
358
Section 6
It has often been stated that we learn from past experiences. While that is true in the context of developing assistive devices,
we also find that the landscape is in such a state of change that it is difficult to predict the future based on what we know
today about learners with diverse needs. The presence of learners with diverse needs, caused by disabilities, is changing.
Technologies are advancing. The costs of computer technology are becoming more affordable. Social networking is changing
communications and greater investments are being made in technologies that benefit all learners. Freeware and shareware
are gaining in popularity in the market place with the pooling of talent. And, we are seeing younger people with a life time
of exposure to technology, becoming the entrepreneurs of the future. This is not to suggest that the past holds no value as
one looks to the future of assistive technologies. However, it does suggest that the changing conditions of the present may
have greater impact on the future than what has occurred in the past. Just as obsolescence in computer technology occurs
at a rapid rate, so may those ideas that were driven by the past for the creation of assistive technology become obsolete? As
odd as that sounds, it is not uncommon in research and development units, where students are employed, to have significant
ideas shared by students, naive in the focus of the research, but tuned into technologies that have a positive influence on the
learning of young adults. If there is an area in which programmatic research applies, it may well be in the area of assistive
technologies. In programmatic research, there is a focus of work committed to the long term, often carried through from
conceptualization to development, research and implementation. It is formative in nature in that participants are always
open to new ideas and to changes in their consumer needs and the contributions of the many disciplines that impact their
work. While outputs emerge, there is always new work evolving. Nothing seems to be the consummate solution. Offering a
list of needs for the future would be presumptuous; however, with some risk, it may be appropriate to share a couple of ideas
for readers of this section. Those engaged in the development and research on assistive technologies, are creative people
committed to visions of what needs to be done with technology to benefit diverse learners. Thus, areas of emerging work be-
ing done today that benefits all diverse learners will be reinforced. The first example is the work being done that integrates
cognitive science with technology that is delivered by interactive student tutorials. Of particular importance is the reduction
of cognitive load. For example, the teaching of mathematics via online tutorials is often complicated by the level of reading
required by the learner to benefit from the learning experience in mathematics. Through the use of animation and interactivity,
combined with scaffolding and feedback, students have a greater opportunity to demonstrate what they are learning in the
targeted area of instruction. Their rate of learning and retention may also improve. A second area that is evolving with great
potential for the future includes the integration of the Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) model into elearning instructional
models that result in instructional decision-making as a systemic element of the elearning experience. While teachers are
adept at evidenced-based instruction decision-making, the frequency and level of instructional decision-making could be
altered through change in elearning models allowing teachers to devote more time to the challenges presented by diverse
learners. This could also result in instructional time becoming more powerful.
360
Chapter 25
Assistive Technology’s
Past, Present and Future
Barbara J. Kouba
California State University, San Bernardino, USA
Brian Newberry
California State University, San Bernardino, USA
AbstrAct
Even though the term is relatively new, assistive technologies of various types have helped people over-
come, achieve, and perform for many years and come in many forms. In fact, many familiar technologies,
some that might even be considered mainstream, were in fact initially conceived as assistive devices.
Recently, assistive technology has become the subject of legislation including the Rehabilitation Act
and the Americans with Disabilities Act and much more legislation regarding access to and funding for
assistive technology is expected. Currently, much attention in the area of assistive technology focuses
on the computer, and communications technology, including portable devices, which help individuals
use powerful tools for accessing information and communicating with others. The future of assistive
technology certainly will continue these areas of development but will also likely begin to adopt newer
methods for interfacing various assistive technologies directly with the human sensory system. As has
happened in the past, it is expected that many technologies initially created as assistive will be adopted
by non-disabled individuals.
IntroductIon friends” (Lennon & McCartney). Increasingly, the

Beatle’s perceptive words are true for everyone, and
In 1967, the Fab Four harmonized their lyrical in- they have an even greater importance for people
sights: “I get by with a little help from my friends,” living with special needs. In order to communicate,
and, “I’m gonna try with a little help from my function, and participate in this society, people with
disabilities need extra help and rely on some form
of assistive technology (AT).
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch025
Assistive Technology’s Past, Present and Future
bAckground child will go to school and will be a visible member

of the adult community (2005, p. 34).
Anyone can become a person with disabilities.
Former President Ronald Reagan, credited with Without the ability to communicate, whether
tearing down the Berlin Wall, and Hollywood naturally or through artificial devices, learning,
superhero, Christopher Reeve, both became in- self-improvement, and social inclusion are im-
dividuals with disabilities. It is not an exclusive possible.
club. Young and old, rich and poor, famous and Stephen Hawking, Ph.D. is one of the most
obscure, powerful and weak, males and females recognized users of AT. Without the use of AT,
can all belong. No exceptions are made for race, Professor Hawking would have been unable to
creed, nationality, sexual preference, or socio- share his scientific genius with the rest of the
economic status. world. This brilliant mathematician and theoreti-
Helen Keller, one of the most admired persons cal physicist discovered that when one fused the
in 20th century America, was both deaf and blind. ideas of quantum mechanics with those of general
In her 1957 book, Ms. Keller said, “All about relativity, it was no longer true that black holes
me may be silence and darkness, yet within me, were completely black. Throughout most of his
in the spirit, is music and brightness, and color adult life, Dr. Hawking has had Amyotrophic
flashes through all my thoughts” (Keller, 1957). Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), a motor neuron disease.
Educator Annie Sullivan helped to break through Through the use of augmentive communication
the silence and darkness to release this inner light. devices, the professor continues sharing his teach-
As Helen Keller learned to communicate, her ings, lectures, and written works.
genius emerged. In the 1970s, Dr. Hawking’s speech became
Throughout history, people with disabilities so slurred that very few people could understand
were often relegated to lead frustrated, isolated, him. By 1985, after undergoing a tracheotomy to
and dehumanized existences. Some even trace the help him breathe easier, he lost all remaining abili-
origins of the word “handicap” to describe people ties to speak. For several years, the only way he
with disabilities as beggars who went “cap in hand” could communicate was to spell out words letter
(Barnes, 1992). Twenty-first century technology by letter, by raising his eyebrows when someone
can complement basic education by delivering a pointed to the correct corresponding letter on a
voice to the voiceless, sound to the deaf, sight to spelling card. It was laborious for this genius to
the sightless, movement to the incapacitated, and carry on a simple conversation, let alone write a
independence to the dependant. scientific paper.
Marcia J. Scherer, Ph.D. referred to these David Mason, of Cambridge Adaptive Com-
people as “lives nearly lost forever” and spoke of munication, fitted a small portable computer and a
the assistive technology revolution by comparing speech synthesizer to his wheelchair. This system
the past and present opportunities for users: allowed the professor to communicate much better.
He was able to manage up to 15 words a minute
The choices available today for communication— which he could either speak or save to disk. Once
from gestures to wordboards to computerized in a digitized format, his thoughts could be printed
devices that speak for the person—are nothing out or disseminated using a variety of methods,
short of a major revolution. Today, the mind of a including email. Using this system, he began to
child born with cerebral palsy who cannot speak write books and scientific papers and has also
is not apt to be a mind “nearly lost forever.” That given many scientific and popular talks.
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In the June 20, 2001 edition of Business Week dentures, prosthesis devices, drinking tubes, the
Online, John Williams (2001) described the impact talking telegraph, and optical technologies.
of AT on the life of Professor Hawking: Interestingly, many technologies that were
developed initially for people with disabilities
Had Stephen Hawking lived a century ago, many became mainstream in time. Within the past 200
of his thoughts on the universe would never have years, technology was developed for people with
been recorded, and the world would have lost disabilities that became embraced by the entire
tremendous input from a truly original and great society because of its benefit for all members.
mind. Here’s a model example of how assistive Many of these devices are so essential they are
technology is contributing mightily to the intel- not even considered AT.
lectual capital of the world. “While I have lost Some of these technologies include:
the ability to speak, I have not lost my ability
to think. These products were designed specifi- • Typewriter: developed in 1808 by
cally for people, like me, who can’t speak,” says Pellegrino Turri so his blind friend,
Hawking. Now, the world can hear him loud and Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzono,
clear, as he unlocks the mysteries of the universe could write legibly.
thanks to intelligence, perseverance, software, • Telephone: developed by Alexander
and hardware. Graham Bell in 1876 as a device to help
people with hearing loss.
Clearly, AT has impacted the life of Professor • Hearing Aid and Headset: developed in
Hawking as it has the lives of countless others in 1916 by Harvey Fletcher working at the
the past, continues to do so today, and will continue Research Division of Bell Labs.
on into the future. The past, present and future of • Recorded music: developed in 1934, the
AT is one of breaking down barriers, overcoming Readphone reproduced literature and mu-
obstacles, and adding capacity to perform. sic on long-playing discs to be used by the
blind. Later, these discs became 33-1/3
History of Assistive technology RPM records, the precursor to CDs and
eventually digitized music.
Thomas W. King, in his book, “Assistive Tech- • Audio Books: used by the American
nology Essential Human Factors,” explained the Foundation for the Blind in 1935.
perception that AT being a recent human develop- • Speech synthesis: developed in 1936 by
ment is inaccurate. He described people in many H.W. Dudley at Bell Labs to help deaf
cultures throughout history (and prehistory) who or hard-of-hearing people learn to speak
have been brilliantly creative in adapting, de- intelligibly.
veloping, and using special tools and devices to • Tape recorder: commissioned by National
help others in their societies with special needs Bureau of Standards in 1948 for a low-
(King, 1999). cost reliable talking-book machine for the
Indeed, the phrase assistive technology may blind.
have been recently coined, but the concept of AT • Speech recognition: developed at Bell
seems to be as old as human ability to innovate. Labs in 1952 as an off-shoot of Alexander
Many have described various simple strategies Graham Bell’s work to ease the isolation
that heralded the development of more complex of the deaf.
solutions. Some important technologies include • Captioning: developed in 1960 by Pilgrim
Imaging for the Captioned Films for the
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Deaf Program, under the Department of federal and state legislatures to legislatively im-
Health, Education and Welfare. prove the lives of people with disabilities. These
• Chat Rooms: developed in 1964 by two laws and mandated standards regulate business,
deaf California scientists who attached a government, and architectural practices resulting
teletype machine to a telephone system so in equal employment, housing, and educational
long-distance phone communication could opportunities (Wattenberg, 2004; First & Hart,
take place between deaf people. 2002; Frieden, 2003; Levy, 2001).
• Text Messaging: developed in 1972 by
Vinton Cerf, one of the pioneers in the de- sections 504 and 508 of
velopment of the ARPANET, precursor of the rehabilitation Act
the Internet. Cerf was hard-of-hearing and
wanted a way to communicate electroni- In the history of the disability rights movement,
cally with his wife and other deaf friends. Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation
• Optical Character Recognition Amendments of 1973 represented a significant
Technology: developed in 1975 by Ray coming together of the disability community
Kurzweil as a way for blind users to have (Lathrop, 1997). The Act’s passage began legal
access to type-written text. protections for students at elementary schools,
• Picture-based keyboards: developed in colleges, and universities from discrimination
1988 to enable people who could not speak. based on physical, mental, or learning disabilities.
This technology is now used mostly in fast These rights included many types of reason-
food restaurant point-of-sale machines. able accommodations in the physical facilities,
• Online newspapers: used by the National programs, and specialized services that enable
Federation of the Blind in 1994 as a dial-up, students with disabilities the same opportunities
synthetic-speech, talking daily newspaper as those students without disabilities.
available for blind or low vision people. Under Sections 504 and 508, the Rehabilitation
• Loopset: released by Nokia in 1998 allow- Act attempts to prevent discrimination in em-
ing hearing aid users to talk on digital mo- ployment and education in any facility receiving
bile phones. Ushered in hands-free opera- federal monies. In 1998, amendments to Section
tion of telephone. 508 expanded these guarantees to electronic and
information technologies (Wattenberg, 2004).
Assistive technology
Legislation and mandates Americans With disabilities
Act (AdA)
Even though life-altering AT has been developed,
it does not necessarily mean that it is immediately Millions of Americans heralded the enactment of
available for the people who need it. Invisible the Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) of
barriers, such as prohibitive cost and lack of ac- 1990 as the landmark victory that awarded long-
cess, serve as tangible obstacles. In the past few denied civil rights for people with disabilities. It
decades, landmark laws and mandates have been was expected that this historical legislation would
enacted to help overcome these obstacles to help usher in major social change, impacting every level
improve the lives of people with disabilities. Many of government, business, and education. This has
of these were inspired by the successful civil rights in fact been the case. In addition, after 18 years, the
legislation of the 1960’s, and the disability rights United States Congress amended the Americans
movement in the United States has motivated with Disability Act. Effective January 1, 2009,
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major changes have been enacted affecting the nificantly increased the availability of accessible
way the definition of disability is interpreted. telecommunications products and services to
One purpose of this Act is to carry out the people with disabilities both in the workplace and
ADA’s objectives of providing “a clear and com- at home (Moulton, Huyler, Hertz, & Levenson,
prehensive national mandate for the elimination 2002).
of discrimination” and “clear, strong, consistent,
enforceable standards addressing discrimination” Web Accessibility Initiative
by reinstating a broad scope of protection to be
available under the ADA.” (The ADA Amend- The Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 1.0
ments Act of 2008, Section 2 (b) (1)). In other have been adopted by the World Wide Web Con-
words, the purpose of the original ADA was to sortium (W3C) as the Web Accessibility Initiative.
eliminate discrimination. However, if hardly any- Guidelines provide comprehensive methodology
one was covered, then hardly anyone was actually and production standards for Web development
being protected from discrimination. So, in the to ensure accessibility.
Amendments Act, Congress fixed the definition
of disability to cover more people and as a result, comprehensive Individuals
prevent more discrimination. That means that with disabilities Act (IdeA)
once the Act goes into effect, the question of who
has a disability will no longer be the main focus; The makeup of traditional classrooms has changed
instead, the focus will be on whether discrimina- due to disability rights legislation concerning
tion has occurred. inclusion and students with special needs. Under
the Comprehensive Individuals with Disabilities
technology related Act (IDEA), each child, regardless of disability,
Assistance for Individuals with is entitled to a “free, appropriate public education
disabilities Act (tech Act) (FAPE) in the least restrictive environment ap-
propriate to his/her individual needs.” Moreover,
The United States Congress recognized the im- IDEA amendments require that the Individualized
portance of technology in the lives of people with Education Program (IEP) teams consider whether
disabilities and passed the Technology Related a student requires AT and services. If such a de-
Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act termination is made, federal law mandates that
(Tech Act) of 1988. It was replaced with the As- all AT devices and services be provided free of
sistive Technology Act of 1998. This legislation charge by the local school district.
established projects in each state to implement This legislation marked a significant shift in
changes in laws and policies, develop information how AT is viewed. Prior to the 1997 reauthoriza-
resources, and provide legal advocacy services. tion of the IDEA, AT had been viewed almost
exclusively within a rehabilitative or remediative
section 255 of the context. Within the context of planning individu-
telecommunications Act alized education plans, technology was now con-
sidered a viable tool for expanding access to the
Section 255 of the Telecommunications Act of general education curriculum. With the growing
1996 required telecommunications products and acceptance of AT, much work needs to be done
services, including the Internet, to be accessible to ensure that IEP teams consider the maximum
to people with disabilities. Section 255 has sig- benefits of technology.
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current AssIstIve tecHnoLogy to perform a given task. In understanding AT, it

is important that society becomes aware of this
The thirty-second President of the United States view and appreciate how enabling technology has
used canes, eyeglasses, braces, automobile hand become a seamless part of everyone’s life. AT is
controls, and wheelchairs to help him guide the not necessarily some esoteric technology used only
American people out of the Great Depression and by a small segment of population; instead, many
through World War II. But even Franklin Delano mainstreamed tools are readily used by people with
Roosevelt would be amazed at the evolution of and without disabilities. Four common examples
the very items that sustained him throughout his of this phenomenon are computer accessibility
four terms in office. applications, literacy tools, way-finding devices,
In fact, especially since the advent of micro- and speech recognition technology.
chips and personal computers in the 1980s, the AT
field has exploded. Screen reading, screen mag-
nification, speech recognition, optical character current comPuter
recognition, augmentative and electronic commu- AccessIbILIty APPLIcAtIons
nication, microprocessor augmented prosthetics,
GPS technology, and universal design have opened Most people find it easy to turn on a computer,
educational and vocational doors of opportunity click a mouse, tap a keyboard, use a software ap-
for millions of people. If these trends continue, plication, and surf the Web. Twenty-first century
an exciting future awaits AT users. Current tech- technology has transformed the way society learns,
nology will be improved, new technology will works, plays, and communicates. Regrettably,
be developed, and as-yet inconceivable hybrid this same technology is not always user friendly
technology will emerge. for people with disabilities, who comprise nearly
Despite this and although most people consider 18.7% of the American population (Brault; U.S.
AT to involve specialized microprocessor-based Census Bureau, 2008). Assistive Technology ex-
computer equipment, it can be as commonplace ists to maintain, increase, or improve functional
as adapted eating utensils, lowered drinking foun- capabilities of children and adults with disabilities
tains, curb cuts, bendable straws or eyeglasses. and bridges this digital divide by utilizing innova-
King (1999) described the most commonly pre- tive accessibility equipment.
scribed AT relied on by well over half of the The inherent design of a computer requires
population of North America is optical – glasses use of vision and motor skills. King (1999) noted,
and contact lenses. “If you have visual difficulties that preclude you
Consider how vision augmentation has moved from seeing the keyboard and/or monitor screen,
beyond eyeglasses. We now have contact lenses, or if you have motoric difficulties that interfere
implantable lenses and various surgeries all with or preclude your ability to press the keys
designed to reshape the eye in order to improve on a standard computer keyboard, you will be
vision. Over the past two centuries, Western effectively locked out of use of the personal
society has embraced assistive, enabling optical computer” (p. 18).
technologies to the point they are now an invis- To help overcome some of the challenges that
ible AT. This universal acceptance comes with blind computer users experience, various software
little or no social penalty or stigma, regardless applications have been developed. Screen read-
of age group. ing software converts visual text to other more
In reality, all technology can be considered accessible formats. In a drive to incorporate
assistive in that it augments users’ capabilities more Universal Design, Windows and Macintosh
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operating systems are designed with basic screen these readily available tools. On-Screen Key-
readers included. Speech synthesizers allow us- boards display virtual keyboards onto computer
ers to listen to material. For computer users who screens. Users can enter data by using a mouse
process information in a tactile way, the screen or an alternative input device to select the screen
reading programs can send it to refreshable Braille contents without having to rely on a standard
displays. Optical Character Recognition (OCR) keyboard or mouse.
technology is used in conjunction with a computer Hardware alternative input devices vary
and a flatbed scanner. Type-written text (not hand- greatly. Some are developed for use with hands
written documents) can be scanned, recognized, or feet, others with breath or mouth. Some track
translated, and read aloud to the user. eye or head movements and the newest genre are
Computer users with limited vision rely on designed to interact cerebrally with a person’s
magnification software to enlarge the screen thoughts. Alternative and ergonomic keyboards
content. Magnification levels range from 1x – 36 have been miniaturized, expanded, and even
x. The greater the magnification, the smaller the re-designed into one-handed styles. Switches,
proportion of the original screen content that can touch screens, pen systems, scanners, alternative
be viewed; that is why users tend to use the low- mice, touchpads, joysticks, and trackballs are also
est magnification level they can manage. Other available.
features also provided include color inversion, Typical non-technical pointing devices can
smoothing, pointer cursor and color enhance- range from modular mouth sticks to inexpensive
ments, and screen reading capabilities. unsharpened pencils with eraser tips. A mouth
Alternative data entry devices can include stick is a plastic stick designed to be placed in
software, hardware, and non-technical technolo- the mouth and has a rubber tip at the end. This
gies. A plethora of software exists to augment tip gives a user with no use of hand usage the
keyboards and mice or to bypass them entirely. ability to press keyboard keys, activate mouse or
Morse Code Software involves a system of dots trackball buttons, and turn pages.
and dashes used to represent the characters on a
keyboard. It is available as freeware, but is often current Literacy tools
bundled with switch input devices.
Voice recognition applications convert spoken Spell checkers are comprised of programming
words into screen text. After a successful training routines that scan text and compare it with a list
period when the software learns to recognize the of correctly spelled words. Any words not in the
user’s voice, every keystroke or mouse click that algorithms are flagged and the user can accept
would otherwise be entered with a keyboard or the suggested form or choose from a list of other
mouse can be entered through voice command. suggested words or phrases. Originally developed
Accessibility features built directly into Win- in the late 1970s for mainframe computers, spell
dows and Macintosh Operating Systems include checkers have moved to more ubiquitously used
Sticky keys and an On-screen keyboard. Sticky applications such as word processors, web brows-
keys provides a modifier key, such as Shift, Ctrl, ers, and email clients.
or Alt that can be pressed and remains active In the past 30 years, software developers
until another key is depressed. This alleviates the have built on the widespread acceptance of spell
need to use two fingers simultaneously for those checkers. Even more sophisticated programs have
computer users who can use only one hand, one evolved that assist users with grammar, homo-
finger, or for those using mouthsticks. People with phone usage, and word meaning. All these tools
arthritis, tremors, or spasms can also benefit from help users navigate the sometimes murky waters of
366
complicated language structures. Although some Computer users with vision limitations also
language arts professionals criticize literacy tools benefit from language tools. Because blind users
as a form of laziness and an inability to learn the are unable to see the actual words on a screen,
nuances of language, most users welcome the as- screen reading technology provides an auditory
sistance and consider it an essential aid to improve means to navigate through applications. Literacy
writing, research, and communication skills. This tools such as spell checkers will automatically flag
criticism is oftentimes refuted as being unfounded misspelled words so the user is able to ascertain
and compare literacy tools to other emerging whether or not the word in question is spelled
technologies that society once decried. correctly. However, this is not always effective
One often-cited comparison is with the criticism with words that sound alike but have vastly dif-
by early Greek philosophers of the print culture. ferent meanings. Homophone tools provide an
Even Socrates complained about writing, feeling added benefit so people with vision limitations
it forced one to follow an argument rather than can choose the correct usage of words that are
participate in it, and he disliked both its alienation pronounced identically. Early software tools were
and its persistence. He was unsettled by the idea unable to point out the correct contextual use of
that a manuscript travelled without the author, words but newer programs are addressing this
with whom no argument was possible. Worse, the important facet of language.
author could die and never be talked away from A project funded by the National Institute on
the position taken in the writing (Kay, 1991). Disability and Rehabilitation Research of the
Over the centuries, printed material evolved U.S. Department of Education, reported that the
to benefit the masses; but, at the dawn of the 21st study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness
century, electronic material has quickly replacing of four AT tools on literacy. These were speech
printed text as the preferred form of communi- synthesis, spell checkers, a homophone tool and
cation. For this nascent technology, specialized an electronic dictionary (Lange, McPhillips, Mulh-
tools are emerging to improve accessibility to all ern, & Wylie. 2006). A total of 93 secondary-level
users. To benefit people with cognitive processing students with reading disabilities participated in
disabilities, spell checkers and other literacy tools the study which found that these technologies
provide added functionality. Built-in spell check- have a positive effect on literacy among students
ers, grammar programs, and dictionaries are the with reading disabilities.
most common form of AT for people with language
processing difficulties. Having the immediate current Way-Finding devices
ability for software to flag incorrectly spelled
words or improper grammar usage alerts the user On June 26, 1993, the United States Air Force
and provides multiple modalities to process the launched the 24th Navstar satellite into orbit,
complexities of language successfully. completing a network of 24 satellites known as
People with mobility limitations often struggle the Global Positioning System, or GPS. Like the
with standard means of inputting data through Internet, this technology was originally developed
a keyboard. Having literacy tools such as word for military applications but was soon embraced
prediction help limit the amount of keyboarding by the civilian sector.
required. Furthermore, built in synonym and A popular way-finding device used in the first
dictionary tools provide an all-in-one environ- decade of the 21st century is a small GPS receiver
ment that limits the amount of extra movements costing less than a few hundred dollars. It gives
required. immediate feedback about the user’s location on
367
the planet in terms of latitude, longitude, and even range of choices dramatically increases the ease,
altitude. Some GPS receivers have the ability to efficiency and safety of the travel experience.
store attribute information in addition to position In the spring of 2006, a project examined the
information. Examples of attribute information are impact of GPS technology on the orientation and
street signs, names of roads, or the condition of mobility of 12 secondary students with visual
a fire hydrant. Position and attribute information impairments (Special Education Technology).
can be stored in a Geographic Information System The project, known as Trekker, used an accessible
(GIS) to help users manage their assets more ef- PDA-based GPS device to help the participants
ficiently. Within the past decade, this technology learn how to navigate their environment better.
has become so commonplace that it is built into Surveys and interviews were completed by both
ground transportation, automobiles, boats, golf students who applied to participate in the GPS
carts, and airplanes. It is used in such diverse fields project and their orientation and mobility instruc-
as weather forecasting, space exploration, mining, tors. In addition, interviews with instructors were
telecommunications, and tourism/recreation. conducted after three months to record the short
Through voice guidance, drivers can receive term feedback on impact of GPS technology in
turn-by-turn voice and video directions to their orientation and mobility instruction. Informal
destination by announcing lane guidance, street responses from students were also invited at the
names, and directions. Real time traffic reports are three month mark. Data from three-month follow-
also able to be relayed and users can be directed up interviews indicated that GPS technology:
around traffic bottlenecks.
Traveling without benefit of being able to see • Helped the students become more confi-
signs and other way-finding cues places extreme dent to explore their community.
demands on travelers with visual impairments and • Increased sense of safety, lessened fear of
can severely limit peoples’ horizons resulting in being lost, and provided a safety net.
exclusion rather than inclusion. It can also force • Lessened cognitive load for order of streets
individuals to become overly dependent on oth- on route to destination.
ers, thus creating a life of dependence. In a worst • Helped students to feel more connected to
case scenario, people with vision limitations can their community, providing information on
be thrust into dangerous or even life-threatening community services and places.
situations.
Accurate to within a few feet, GPS receivers, current speech recognition
maps, and points of interest databases can provide technology
spoken and/or Braille access to location informa-
tion in any outdoor environment. GPS technology Speech recognition refers to the ability of a ma-
provides compact accessibility that allows users chine or software to understand spoken words for
critical navigational information so the traveler the purpose of receiving data input from a speaker.
can make informed decisions about route, path of When these words are converted, specific com-
travel, direction and destination. It can provide mands or actions are completed.
essential location information including street In 1966, American science fiction fans were
names, approximate addresses, and selected points introduced to speech recognition technology in
of interest so a blind user can explore unknown the Star Trek fictional universe created by Gene
areas, find businesses and community services, Roddenberry. “Computer On” became a familiar
access public transportation, and follow a route command enticing viewers with the ease with
to a selected destination. Having access to this which the 23rd century Starship Enterprise crew
368
was able to communicate with their powerful of people with disabilities continues to grow.
mainframe-like centralized computers. Within Although humans will live longer and healthier
a few decades, speech recognition jumped from lives than at any time in history, everyone, at one
the realm of imaginative television scripts to 20th time or another, will be in need of some form of
century reality. Its use is becoming increasingly AT.
more widespread as its multifaceted capabilities
are being realized.
One of the earliest domains for the commercial Future oF AssIstIve
application of speech recognition in the United tecHnoLogy
States was health care; in particular, the field of
medical transcription. The impact has also been Imagine a day without technologies such as a
felt in the fields of law, military, air traffic control, spell checker, a GPS in-vehicle navigation system,
and business document completion. In the early eye glasses or contacts and then understand that
21st century smart phones, speech is commonly all technology is assistive. Technology permits
used as an integral user interface. individuals to do things they couldn’t otherwise
For those with disabilities, the benefits of accomplish or to do things better or faster than
speech recognition technology are manifold. A would be possible without the technology. This
wide range of physical disabilities can prevent broad definition of AT is not accepted by everyone.
people from using a keyboard—from arthritis For example, Cook and Hussey (2007) note that
and amputation, to repetitive stress injuries and the term AT does not normally include devices that
paralysis. An alternative for many people is to use are used by the non-disabled. However, with the
their voices for data input. After a brief training advent of Universal Design, the idea that measures
period, they can operate a computer or telephone taken, or technologies created to make anything
by voice commands. Individuals with learning more user friendly has been done so merely for
disabilities can also benefit from speech recog- those who are labeled disabled is outdated (Rose
nition technology and is an important alternative & Meyer, 2002). Universal Design is good design
for people who have difficulties transferring their and good design helps everyone. The future of
thoughts to written communication. AT is bright, and it seems that increasingly the
The humane implementation of technology to definition of AT will continue to blur as the same
assist those with disabilities ensures all members technologies that some use to play games will be
will be able to play an active role in society. For used by others to access email and communicate
anyone needing more pragmatic rather than purely on the job.
legalistic or altruistic reasons, Sara Basson, Ph.D., Recent developments in AT have largely
Director of Accessibility Services for IBM Global involved, or have been driven by, advancement
Services, said, “It’s just good business.” (Franklin, in communications technologies, especially
Wilson, & Ebel, 2004). It’s good business prob- those related to computer assisted technologies.
ably because it is potentially so profitable. The Future AT may well become possible because of
disabled population of the United States, almost developments in human-machine interfaces that
20 percent of the country’s adult population, has effectively create a direct connection between the
a potential disposable income to rival that of the human nervous system and machines.
coveted teenager market. The categorization of existing AT into several
With advances in medical and rehabilitation groups can provide a glimpse into AT’s future.
services and the teeming number of Baby Boom- Mobility aids, such as wheelchairs, scooters, leg
ers entering their retirement years, the number braces, crutches, etc. are examples of one category
369
of existing technology. Recent advancements in can now get a phone that uses GPS and various
prosthetics led to a challenge that almost kept databases to allow the user to locate nearby busi-
double amputee sprinter, Oscar Pistorius, from be- nesses or places of interest. These capabilities
ing able to try out for the Bejing Olympics because will be embedded in more and more devices and
his carbon fiber prosthetics were thought by some perhaps even one day into clothing, eyeglasses or
to give him an advantage over competitors with sunglasses. With the advent of neural interfaces,
two normal legs (Longman, 2007). Although no these capabilities will be available as direct sensory
advantage was proven in the case of Pistorius, the input. These could be combined to provide cloth-
trend suggests that at some point some prosthetics ing that directs individuals towards their expected
may indeed prove to be, in some ways, superior or desired destinations or to help them remember
to the limbs they replace. In the nearer future, where they are supposed to go or be.
mobility devices that do not rely on joystick or Information access and storage has been a
mouthstick directions might be available. Instead, large area of development for ATs. The range
a network of brainwave detectors may be arranged of technologies, both hardware and software,
to receive the user’s thoughts that will then be that are designed to assist individuals with dis-
interpreted into direction and speed commands abilities to use computers, access information on
for the device. Related developments will no the Internet and to communicate with others has
doubt continue the many recent advances made grown exponentially. This is another area that in
in computer controlled prosthetic devices which the future promises to be enhanced greatly by
also network directly with the nervous system. emerging technologies that connect the human
Aside from mobility improvements via canes, nervous system with machines. A demonstration
crutches and chairs, some of the earliest ATs were of this technique allowed an individual to move a
aimed at augmentation of senses to enhance abili- mouse cursor on a computer screen with thoughts
ties, such as in the case of eyeglasses and hearing alone (Pollack, 2006). Another initiative has
aides. Technology continues to improve the effec- demonstrated an electrode studded cap that can be
tiveness of these aides and to develop alternatives worn by a user who can then control a cursor on
to some. For example, various surgeries have been a screen (BBC, 2004). Interfaces like these, and
developed to address various visual impairments those that may be implanted, have the potential to
and in some cases can result in better than normal allow individuals to do much more than control
eyesight for some patients. Functioning artificial a cursor. For example, a researcher had an array
eyes have been developed and cochlear implants of sensors implanted in his arm and through this
help thousands to once again hear sound. The neural interface he was able to control a robotic
trend-line suggests that such developments will hand and an electric wheelchair (Warwick, Gas-
continue to improve. son, Hutt, Goodhew, Kyberd, Andrews, Teddy,
There has been an explosion of technologies & Shad, 2003).
that build on the availability of Global Position- Others have demonstrated that cap-mounted
ing Systems (GPS) technologies to provide way- neural interfaces can be used by individuals with
finding assistance. These devices range from the disabilities to navigate the virtual environment
simple hand-held GPS systems that assist people Second Life (Science Daily, 2008). These and
so they know where they are, to advanced systems other devices will permit individuals with vari-
that provide turn-by-turn directions from point-to- ous challenges to access electronic information
point. Current mobile phone technology integrates as effortlessly as thinking.
this capability to provide the user’s whereabouts These devices will no doubt be combined
through the phone’s location. Additionally one with new categories of software to augment the
370
individual memory. This might include facial that communication. In addition, improvements
recognition abilities that prompt the user with in speech recognition software can be anticipated
the name of people they know but have forgot- to better apprehend meaning from non-standard
ten. Another useful tool would be social behavior vocal, or even direct from brain thoughts via
prompts to help users speak and act appropriately neural transponders, utterances. This software
in whatever circumstances they find themselves. could even be extended to help the user shape the
Additionally such devices could augment users’ message in multiple ways. The future promises
memories by allowing them to access memories tools that will serve as real time translators from
and information stored in machines rather than one language to another allowing those with the
in their own brains. disability of knowing only one language to bet-
There has been a generalized communication ter communicate with the world. Additionally,
revolution underway, in part attributable to the these real time tools, which will no doubt first be
widespread adoption of the Internet as well as cell text-based, but which could mature to work in an
phone and other portable devices. This has resulted auditory mode through generated speech, might
in increased modes of communication as well as an even be able to perform grammatical corrections
increased acceptance of forms of communication on the fly to improve not only the tone of com-
that make use of various technologies. Many of munication, but also its quality.
the technologies, now taken for granted, such as The future of AT will be characterized by ad-
spell and grammar checkers, are in a very real way vances in human/machine interfaces that remove
assistive in that they help improve communica- or circumvent barriers to individuals’ ability to
tion attempts by making them conform to higher interact with their environment, move confidently
standards of production. Many of these forms of in the world, access information and communicate
communication are asynchronous, meaning that with others. These new ATs will be so useful that
there is an acceptable and even expected time they will become technologies used by many in
between communication events. This time lag society which will further blur the lines between
allows more time to more carefully craft messages what is considered AT and technologies for the
and, in the case of individuals who have difficulty masses. This blurring will herald needed attention
using available interfaces, this time lag provides to legislation dealing with AT. Areas that may need
them the opportunity to communicate at a speed examination or review include funding require-
that is most effective for them while removing ments and the use of devices that result in better
any stigma that difficulty in participating in other than “normal” abilities. As more ATs are adapted
forms of communication can bring. by mainstream society, the stigma associated with
The future promises more developments in using such devices will no doubt be diminished.
AT to improve everyone’s communication abili- In addition, with larger markets, such ATs can be
ties. It is not difficult to foresee the development expected to be available to all at much more at-
of communication improvement tools that not tractive prices than if the technologies were only
only help with spelling and grammar, but with able to serve a smaller more specialized popula-
production and presentation of communication tion. Ultimately, all technology is assistive and as
as well. In other words, software will no doubt Universal Design has shown, good design, and
be developed that will examine communication good technologies work well for all.
and suggest better ways of phrasing or structuring
371
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stream, 32-34.
Barnes, C. (1992). Disabling imagery and the
media: An exploration of the principles for media Lennon, J., & McCartney, P. (1967). With a little
representations of disabled people. Derby: The help from my friends [Recorded by The Beatles].
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Brault, M. (2008). Current population reports.
Household economic studies. Americans With Levy, T. (2001). Legal obligations and workplace
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p70-117.pdf nal of Law & Education, 30(1), 85–121.
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computer. Retrieved December 7, 2004, from
Frieden, L. (2003). When the Americans with http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4074869.
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ADA to the Internet and the worldwide web (1st
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tion. Scientific American. September.
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Keller, H. (1957). The open door. Garden City, student in the digital age: Universal design for
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human factors. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Scherer, M. (2005). Living in the state of stuck:
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Science Daily. (2008). Using brainwaves to chat key terms And deFInItIons
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for individuals with disabilities.
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iheduc.2004.03.002
373
374
Chapter 26
Digital Inequity:
Understanding the Divide as it
Relates to Culture and Disability
Monica R. Brown
Michael Fitzpatrick
AbstrAct
A major challenge in education is to ensure that ALL students are prepared for the technological ad-
vances of the 21st century and beyond. This means that ALL students must have access and use of infor-
mation/educational technologies (I/ET), including assistive technologies for students with disabilities,
in their schools. Unfortunately, there is evidence that indicates that I/ET is not equitably distributed in
schools and across all types of students (i.e., students with disabilities and students from culturally and
linguistically diverse (CLD) backgrounds) (Brown, 2004; Brown, Higgins, & Hartley, 2001; Fitzpatrick
& Brown, 2008). This chapter will: (a) discuss what access and use looks like for certain at-risk popu-
lations (i.e., students with disabilities and CLD students), (b) discuss some of the factors that account
for the inequitable access and use of I/ET for those groups, and (c) offer solutions for increasing I/ET
access and use for students with disabilities and CLD students.
IntroductIon and those who are potentially being left behind (i.e.,
students with disabilities and students from CLD
As we move further into the 21st century, it is evi- backgrounds) (Brown, 2004; Brown, Higgins, &
dent that technology (instructional/educational and Hartley, 2001; Fairlie, 2005; Fitzpatrick & Brown,
assistive) will continue to play an integral part in 2008; Mossberger & Tolbert, 2003; U.S. Department
the lives of children and adults. And, as it becomes of Commerce, 2002).
increasingly prevalent, there will continue to be The most recent data from the Computer and
concern regarding the “digital divide” between Internet Use Supplement to the Current Popula-
those children and adolescents who are benefitting tion Survey (CPS) of 2003 detailed information on
computer and Internet access. The report indicated
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch026 that there is a large and substantial digital divide that
Digital Inequity
currently exists in the United States. This divide bAckground

may have serious economic consequences for
disadvantaged (i.e., CLD students and students Prior to delving into this issue, it is important to
with disabilities) groups as I/ET skills are be- make a distinction between I/ET and assistive
coming increasingly more important in the labor technology (AT) as it is used in this chapter. The
market, and the Internet is expected to become literature is replete with definitions of I/ET and
a primary medium for communication, com- AT. Typically, AT was considered only for students
merce, education, and entertainment in the 21st with developmental disabilities because it was
century (U.S. General Accounting Office, 2001). thought that these devices (e.g., communication
Advancements (e.g., economic, educational, and wallets, electronic communication devices, wheel-
political) for these groups may hinge on access to chairs, prone standers, adapted eating utensils,
and effective use of computers, the Internet, and large print or books on tape, Braille watches,
other technologies (Fairlie, 2005). closed-circuit television units, hearing aids, etc.)
There is a need for greater understanding of were necessary for their “compensatory” function
ways in which culture and other forms of diver- and helpful in compensating for the students’
sity affect information/educational technology (I/ deficits that are barriers to their achievement.
ET) access and use. There is a noticeable digital There is a clear relationship between the function
divide with regard to computer and Internet ac- lost or impaired and the function AT replaces or
cess and use by certain groups (i.e., students with enhances (Blackhurst, 2005). Sadly, Warger (2005)
disabilities and students from CLD backgrounds) noted that there is still misunderstanding regard-
of individuals and this topic has been discussed ing the “compensatory” nature of AT despite the
in the literature (Brown, 2004; DeBell & Chap- widespread availability of resources containing
man, 2003; Fairlie, 2005; U.S. Department of descriptions of devices and services available to
Commerce, 2002). educators.
In order to gain a better understanding of the It was once believed that AT were devices
issues associated with I/ET access and use for provided only to persons with sensory, physi-
students with disabilities and students from CLD cal, and communication disabilities (Parette &
backgrounds, we will examine digital equity in Peterson-Karlan, 2007). Their visible disabilities
education by combining several datasets in order were perceived as something that required AT to
to present a picture of I/ET access and use for the help compensate for some deficit (e.g., deafness,
aforementioned groups. We will show that I/ET blindness) exhibited by the children. However,
are, in fact, distributed and used differentially there has recently been a convergence of student
across student demographics (disability status and achievement-related factors emphasizing not just
race/ethnicity). Therefore, this chapter will: (a) physical access, but also the role of AT in facilitat-
discuss what access to and use of I/ET looks like ing access to educational experiences as a means
for students with disabilities and CLD students, to achieving important curricular outcomes (for
(b) discuss some of the factors that account for example, in the general education environment).
the inequitable access and use of I/ET for those Assistive technology can now be used for educa-
groups, and (c) offer solutions for increasing I/ tional functions associated with academic deficits
ET access and use for students with disabilities and learning disabilities (Edyburn, 2000).
and CLD students. Additionally, we will offer There is a range of technology that can support
topics for future research regarding technology students with their reading, writing, math, infor-
access and use for students with disabilities and mation acquisition, organization, and cognitive
CLD students. processes. But, there is oftentimes a blurring of
375
Digital Inequity
the distinctions between I/ET and AT. Instruc- (2003) used it to describe patterns of unequal and
tional/educational technology is defined as the inequitable access to I/ET based on factors such
application of “scientific knowledge about human as income, race/ethnicity, gender, age, disability
learning to the practical tasks of teaching and status, and residence in urban and rural areas.
learning” (Newby, Stepich, Lehman, & Russell, Becker (2006) considered I/ET to be “a set of
2000, p. 10). It typically addresses three desired learning resources distributed differentially across
learning outcomes of instruction, including: (a) student and school characteristics” (p. 3). In 2003,
instructional effectiveness (results in the students Soloman, Allen, and Rester described differential
learning a better way than without the I/ET ex- access to I/ET in education as digital equity.
perience), (b) instructional efficiency [results in To address the digital divide/equity, schools
the same amount (or more) learning in a shorter must provide full access for special populations of
amount of time], and (c) instructional appeal students (i.e., students with disabilities and CLD
(enhances the possibility that students will devote students) to the Internet, as distance learning and
time and energy to the learning task) (Parette & multimedia materials (Mason & Dodd, 2005). The
Peterson-Karlan, 2007). following sections will address the demographic
Instructional/educational technology in the factors, specifically the inequity that exists for
classroom is used to teach new skills, supplement students based on race/ethnicity (e.g., African
or expand the curriculum, or remediate skill defi- American, Asian/Pacific Islander, Latino/a, and
cits (Parette & Peterson-Karlan, 2007). They are Native American) and disability status.
helpful, but not essential to learning. However,
when students with disabilities require continued
use of the I/ET tool after its use in typical “learn- Issues, controversy,
ing situations” is done for the student without And ProbLems
disabilities, the tool becomes “compensatory”
and is then AT (i.e., individually matched to and As schools become more and more challenged
uniquely required for a student to make educational by a technologically-savvy student population,
progress or participate in the curriculum and/or they have been forced to incorporate the use of
classroom (Rose, Hasselbring, Stahl, & Zabala, computers and the Internet into the curricula.
2004). As Peterson-Karlan and Parette (2005) Unfortunately, not all students (i.e., students with
pointed out, AT allows the student to: (a) access disabilities and CLD students) are afforded the
the classroom materials, media and instructional same access to it, and this inability to keep pace
activities; (b) enhance their productivity; (c) in- has created a digital divide that is continuing to
crease the amount, frequency, rate, and duration of widen (Mason & Dodd, 2005).
communication; and (d) improve his or her work There is no shortage of research confirming
output while decreasing cognitive or physical time the existence of a digital divide along racial/ethnic
and effort. Ultimately the goal of AT is to aug- and disability lines (Brown, 2004; Fitzpatrick
ment and develop student capacity to increase the & Brown, 2008; Kalyanpur & Kirmani, 2005;
quality of their communication skill sets, social Mellander, 2007; U.S. Department of Commerce,
interactions, and academic outcomes. 2000; U.S. Department of Commerce, 2002). This
divide particularly affects students who are African
digital divide/equity defined American, Latino/a, Native American, are poor
and/or have a disability (Bohlin & Bohlin, 2002;
There have been numerous attempts over the years Mellander, 2007). These groups are less likely to
to define the digital divide. Mossberger and Tolbert have computers or Internet connections at home
376
Digital Inequity
than their Caucasian or Asian peers (Fairlie, these things regarding African-American chil-
2005). Therefore, schools become the primary dren and computer and Internet use: (a) African-
source of computer and Internet access and are American children are much less likely to have
oftentimes the only place they can go online. Ad- access to computers in the home than Caucasian,
ditionally, many students with disabilities cannot non-Latinos (50.6% to 74.6%) (Fairlie, 2005); (b)
use the computers to participate in online activi- African-American children are less likely to have
ties because the equipment in their schools is not Internet access at home (40.5% to 67.3) (Fairlie,
compatible with their learning and/or physical 2005); and (c) One out of 7 African-American
needs (Mason & Dodd, 2005). Next we take a children has broadband at home compared to
closer look at how the digital divide affects each 26.1% of Caucasian, non-Latinos (Fairlie, 2005).
of those aforementioned populations. However, African-American students are aware
that the digital divide is not solely about computer
I/et and African-American students and Internet access. It involves access to the social
networks that ease the path to success in high-tech
Statistics indicated that as of 2001 about three- careers (Payton, 2003).
quarters of the children between 5 and 7 use
computers at school and 56 percent use computers I/et and Latino students
at home (DeBell & Chapman, 2003). Despite this
increase in access and use at home and at school, According to Bohlin and Bohlin (2002), Latinos
other research has indicated a somewhat polar- were the most highly underrepresented ethnic
ized picture of technology access and use in U.S. group in the United States in terms of computer
schools (Dividing Lines, 2001). Schools serving usage and computer science participation. And,
Latino/a, African-American, and low socioeco- despite the fact that ethnic groups have made
nomic status (SES) students tended to have the progress in computer usage and Internet access, the
least access, and the most remedial usages of new gap between Latinos and Caucasian non-Latinos
technology (Brown, 2004; Dividing Lines, 2001). was still considerable and had increased during the
In addition, there is a significant gap in home second half of the last decade (Bohlin & Bohlin,
computer ownership and Internet access between 2002). Additionally, Fairlie (2005) reported that:
African-American and Caucasian households (a) all Latino groups were less likely to own a
(Brown, 2004; DeBell & Chapman, 2003). computer or have Internet access at home than are
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 (NCLB, Caucasian, non-Latinos; (b) one out of 8 Latino
P.L. 107-110) and its subset Enhancing Education children had broadband at home compared to
Through Technology (ED Tech) program was 26.1% of Caucasian, non-Latinos; and (c) Latino
enacted to improve the academic achievement of home computer and Internet access rates were
elementary and secondary schools through tech- lower than Caucasian, non-Latino rates (51.6
nology use, and help students become technically and 40.9% respectively). Likewise, DeBell and
literate by grade 8, and to ensure that teachers were Chapman (2006) reported that for students living
in fact integrating technology into the curriculum in households that speak only Spanish, the rate
to improve student achievement (Judge, 2005). of computer use was 11 percentage points lower
Numerous studies have found that, on average, than those in households where other languages
African-American children arrive at kindergarten (usually English) are spoken. And, that Internet
or 1st grade with lower levels of school readiness use by students in Spanish-speaking monolingual
than their Caucasian counterparts (Farkas, 2003; households was less than half of students in other
Lee & Burkham, 2002). Additionally, we know households.
377
Digital Inequity
Many reasons have been posited regarding of their homelands and cultural heritages, that they
why the divide is increasing for this population, feel empowered and less isolated from their peers
both economic and affective. In fact, Badagliacco because they are the technology experts, or at least
(1990) found that Latino students had the least are perceived as such. It is obvious that there are
favorable attitudes toward computers, Bohlin and barriers to decreasing the technology divide that
Crozier (1996) found that 4th grade Latino students exists between Latino students and their peers.
had more negative attitudes toward computers But, before this can be achieved, we must find
than African-American and Caucasian students, ways to change the attitudes that these children
and Bohlin and Bohlin (1998) found that Latinos have towards the potential benefits of technology
students believed learning about computers to to their current and future lives.
be important, but did not see that they would be
personally important to their future. I/et and native American students
Factors affecting the usage of technology
for CLD students includes not only differences In 2001, Davis and Trebian (2001) illustrated
in cultural values, as pointed out by Guice and the dismal picture of Native Americans and their
McCoy (2001), or communication styles (Janey access to the nation’s infrastructure. They re-
Wang, 2001), but also language barriers (Na- ported that: (a) 76.4% of rural Native American
tional Education Association, 1997). For Latino households had access to telephones, far below
students, Cullen (2001) pointed out that “the use the national average of 94.1%; (b) 26.8% of
of English as the lingua franca of the Internet is rural Native American households had access to
far more inhibiting than English speakers real- computers, again below the national average of
ize” (p. 9). For students for whom English is a 42.1%; and (c) only 18.9% of Native American
second language (ESL), there is: (a) a dearth of households had access to the Internet, compared
high-quality software and websites in languages to the 26.2% national average. Additionally, the
other than English (Gorski, 2005); (b) when Benton Foundation (1999) reported, in their study
there are software programs and websites avail- of Native networking in Indian country, that: (a)
able, the content is often based on stereotypical of 185 schools supported by the Bureau of Indian
assumptions of interests (Gorski, 2005); (c) ESL Affairs on Reservations, only 76 (41.1%) were
programs tend to be poorly funded and often lack connect to the Department of Interior’s Internet
basic computer equipment, thus restricting ESL service T1 lines; (b) classroom cable drops were
students’ access when they are included in typical present in 104 schools; (c) more than 80% of some
academic classrooms (Zehr, 2001); and (d) direc- homes on reservations (i.e., some in New Mexico,
tions in drop-down menus are often in English, Arizona, and Utah) lacked telephone services; and
making it more difficult for older students with (d) as of 1998, TribalWeb, showed that only 100
limited English proficiency (LEP) to acquire the of 550 (18.2%) tribes had official websites acces-
skills to manipulate software programs (Kalyanpur sible to the public. A cursory check of TribalWeb
& Kirmani, 2005). (see http://www.doi.gov/bia/ia_tribal_directory.
Despite the information gap between Latino html) indicated that there are now 180 tribal sites
students and their peers, there is hope for closing available, up from the 100 in 1998. Although this
the gap between this traditionally marginalized is nearly double the sites from 1998, it still only
group and their peers. The National Education represents 32.7% of all 550 tribes.
Association (1997) found that when traditionally In 2002, Twist asked where Native Ameri-
marginalized ESL students are introduced to tech- cans were regarding online/Internet access and
nology towards creating multimedia presentations use. In February of 2002, the U.S. Department
378
Digital Inequity
of Commerce’s National Telecommunication social factors a lack of connection has occurred.

Information Administration (NTIA) released To illustrate the lack of connectedness between
A Nation Online. As with Falling Through the Native American populations and technology,
Net (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2000), the Guice and McCoy (2001) reported what they
NTIA report served as a reference point for those observed at two tribal schools. They found that
interested in developments with the digital divide. the most important issue affecting technology use
Unfortunately, as with Falling Through the Net, in the two tribal schools they visited involved the
there was no data relating to Native Americans tribe’s attitudes towards education. The authors
included in the report by the U.S. Department of concluded that differences in cultural values, and
Commerce (2002). Consequently, there was no not lack of funds and materials, were the real cause
current measurement of progress of information of the digital divide for these two schools.
technology efforts with Native American popula- As is evident from the wealth of research avail-
tions. The concern with this exclusion was that able extolling the benefits (i.e., social, financial,
critical issues regarding Indian Country’s digital educational, etc.) of access to technology, Native
divide were being excluded from the radar screen American are still not connected to the extent they
of federal decision makers. should be. The research suggests many barriers
To illustrate this divide between Native (i.e., lack of infrastructure, cultural and identity,
American and other populations, researchers weak economic base, lack of education and train-
reported that: (a) one out of 8 Native American ing, lack of information, and/or exclusion from
children has broadband at home compared to federal discourse) (Sherson, 2000; Twist, 2002)
26.1% of Caucasian, non-Latinos (Fairlie, 2005); to closing that divide and one can see how each
(b) 26.8% of rural Native American households could be an impediment to Native communities’
have computer access, compared to the national closing the technology gap. However, until both
average of 42.1% (OMB Watch, 2002); (c) 18.9% sides find ways to mitigate these barriers, Na-
of Native Americans reported having Internet active American children will not be able to bridge
cess, compared to the national average of 26.2% the digital divide, and consequently they remain
(OMB Watch, 2002); (d) 39% of rural households disconnected from information and miss out on
in Native communities have telephones, compared the educational, social, and affective benefits of
with 94% for non-Native rural communities (OMB technology.
Watch, 2002), (e) 9% of rural Native households
have personal computers and, of those, 8% have I/et and students with disabilities
Internet access (OMB Watch, 2002); and (f) 90%
of Native schools and libraries have basic computer As with the aforementioned marginalized groups,
and Internet access, yet lack access to high-speed the spread of the Internet and other technologies
Internet connections (OMB Watch, 2002). has the potential to enhance the lives of people
Access to technology is a requirement for with disabilities (PWD) (Dobransky & Hargittai,
having any part to play in the future of society as 2006). But, one would be hard pressed to identify
education, politics, and economic functions are existing research to suggest that PWD are actively
progressively being digitized (Sherson, 2000). participating in these new technologies. In fact,
Although this is true, there is still a segment of there are numerous studies in the United States and
society that is clearly not connected and therefore elsewhere that have found that PWD lag behind
ends up on the “unconnected” side of the divide. those without disabilities in access to computers
Native Americans are one such group. Because and the Internet (Kaye, 2000; U.S. Department
of a complex set of geographic, economic, and of Commerce, 2000, 2002).
379
Digital Inequity
Soloman (2000) suggested that not only is because the impact of technology integration
there a digital divide but possibly a “disability has on educators within these programs is one
divide” as well. To support this assertion, in area that needs more research (Pollard & Pollard,
2000 the U.S. Department of Commerce reported 2004/2005; Roblyer & Knezek, 2003). Moreover,
their major findings, including: (a) people with the dearth of literature and research related to
disabilities were half as likely to have Internet how teacher preparation programs address the
access and computer use than their peers without unique educational needs of CLD students with
disabilities and (b) More people with disabilities disabilities continues to pose difficulties for edu-
had never used a computer compared to their peers cators when implementing AT and I/ET devices
without disabilities (60% and 25%, respectively). and services.
Additionally, Kaye (2000) reported that people One factor is related to special educator’s
with physical disabilities were less than half as confidence when matching the needs of students
likely to have computer access at home as people with appropriate AT and IT devices and services.
without physical disabilities (23.9% and 51.7%, According to Michaels and Mcdermott (2003)
respectively). effectively implementing AT helps students with
disabilities participate in the general education
curriculum. Based on the issues outlined above,
soLutIons And teacher preparation programs need to focus
recommendAtIons on technology integration (Brown, Higgins, &
Hartley, 2001; Edyburn, 2000; Kovalik, 2003)
Novice and veteran educators will continue to and technology awareness (Anderson & Petch-
encounter complex problems within the classroom Hogan, 2001).
and school setting which were not addressed in Aside from technology integration and aware-
their teacher preparation programs. For example, ness, teacher preparation programs need to address
Turner (2007) claimed that “preparing prospective culturally responsive curriculums (Ajayi, 2005;
teachers to work effectively with culturally diverse Costa, McPhail, Smith, Brisk, 2005) and charac-
students remains an ongoing challenge” (p. 12) teristic traits. Below are five characteristics that
and Smith (2000) suggested that educators are Grant and Gillette (2006) suggested that every
entering the classroom ill prepared to effectively educator should possess: (a) have the ability to
use or implement technology. Each of these factors build a community of learners and connect with
often leaves educators wrestling with issues of the students’ families, (b) vary instruction to meet
how to implement technology (Bauer & Kenton, the unique needs of CLD students, (c) recognize
2005) and differentiate curriculum and instruc- that CLD students have a wealth of knowledge
tional strategies (Carson & Johnston, 2000). The and skills and use these in teaching, and (d) be
following suggestion focuses on teacher prepara- introspective about themselves and their teaching
tion and advocates for technology integration and and monitor actions for bias. Finally, in addition
culturally responsive curriculum. to these five character traits, Valentin (2006) sug-
Although Higgins, Belland, Conceicao-Run- gested that a holistic approach needs to be used to
lee, Santos, and Rothenberg (2000) and Lombardi, look at diversity throughout all teacher education
Bauer, Peters, and O’Keefe (1992) focused on the programs in order to determine an accurate under-
use of technology in SPED teacher preparation standing if the programs are adequately preparing
programs; Smith (2000) advocated for greater preservice educators for diverse classrooms.
technology-rich teacher preparation programs
380
Digital Inequity
Future reseArcH dIrectIons Finally, evidence suggests that learners born

during the outset of the digital age and after are
Unfortunately, despite the research presented in different thinkers than their elders (Fitzpatrick &
this chapter, CLD students with disabilities con- Knowlton, 2009). However, as noted earlier, the
tinue to receive inadequate support with regards key is that both digital “immigrant” and “native”
to AT and I/ET. Therefore, in an effort to promote educators must come to their classroom equipped
the integration of AT and I/ET and increase ac- to employ technology and to engage in life-long
cess to the general education curriculum for CLD learning as trackers of the advances in AT and I/
students with disabilities, this section provides ET applications for ALL students including CLD
suggestions for future research directions. students with disabilities.
The following recommendation is based on the
belief that integrating AT and I/ET will enhance the
academic and social outcomes for CLD students concLusIon
with disabilities. Accordingly, the authors hope
that each recommendation will stimulate action Compared to the last 200 years, recent techno-
on the part of practicing professionals working logical advances have had the greatest impact on
with CLD students with disabilities. civilization (McDonald & Hannafin, 2003) and as
Theoretically general and special educators discussed in previous chapters innovative high-
born after the 1980s are considered “digital na- and low-tech AT and I/ET devices and services
tives” (see Tapscott, 1997). Conversely Prensky enhance the learning outcomes of students with
(2001) suggested that individuals born prior to the disabilities (Raskind & Higgins, 1998). However,
1980s are considered “digital immigrants” and despite current and past legal mandates (e.g.
are often resistant to interacting with technology. IDEA, 2004) educators often have difficulties
Sadly, beyond what has been presented in this implementing technology into their curriculums
chapter, we know very little about how educators for CLD students with disabilities.
who have been in the field for more than ten years As discussed throughout this chapter, these
incorporate technology (Fitzpatrick & Knowlton, difficulties have exasperated the digital divide and
2009) especially for CLD students with disabilities created a sense of digital inequity among CLD
(Fitzpatrick & Brown, 2008). students with disabilities within k-12 educational
Regardless if an educator is an “immigrant” settings. Although African Americans and Asian/
or “native” they must come to school equipped Pacific Islander’s have experienced major issues
to use technology pedagogically (Fitzpatrick & regarding technology integration, Latinos and Na-
Knowlton, 2009). According to Becker (2001), tive Americans are the two most underserved CLD
educators with constructivistic mindsets typically groups when attempting to access and use AT and
employ computer-based and computer-assisted I/ET. As noted above, the increasing digital divide
instruction in sophisticated ways. Additionally with regard to computer and Internet access and
Wozney, Venkatesh, and Abrami (2006) suggested use by CLD students with disabilities has been
that educators who are comfortable with using discussed in the literature (Brown, 2004; DeBell &
technology in their personal lives are more likely Chapman, 2004; Fairlie, 2005; U.S. Department of
to incorporate technology into their classroom. Commerce, 2002). Regrettably, despite the slowly
Therefore it is recommended that educators learn emerging literature base regarding CLD students
how to generalize their ability to use technology with disabilities, it is difficult to employ AT and I/
in their personal lives and apply their knowledge ET for this student population because of factors
of technology to transform their classrooms. ranging from archaic equipment to systems that
381
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388
Chapter 27
Cognition and Learning
Blessing Nma Okrigwe
Rivers State College of Education, Nigeria
AbstrAct
Because of the failure of the behaviorist tradition in developing the full potential of the individual,
there is a shift to a cognitive paradigm which emphasizes the process of learning as against methods of
teaching. Each of us has the potential to excel if we have the right opportunities at the right time of our
development and backed up with a stimulating environment in the process of learning. The effectiveness
of any teaching learning process is measured by the extent to which it has met the individual’s needs
and expectations. The cognitive view of learning refers to individual’s mode of thinking, remembering
or problem-solving, because learners learn in different ways of absorbing information and demonstrat-
ing their knowledge. Individualized instruction is a personalized learning which meaningfully involves
only the learner working on his own and at his own pace. On a practical level, a personalized learning
environment entails flexibility to enable learners to interact with resources when it is most appropriate
for them. There is awareness that many learners today are already creating personalized learning envi-
ronments using digital resources. Without digital technology, meeting individual learner needs will be
practically impossible. The implications of the introduction of technologies in homes and schools have
created the problem of reinforcing the existing inequalities in the education system of the developed and
developing countries. To arrest this situation, there is the need to ensure that access to digital resources
is universal. Without a commitment to this goal, the learning landscape will be easily navigable only by
those with the relevant economic and cultural resources. The present evolutionary trend in education
technology has enhanced mass education making learning to be more individualized. Innovations in
teaching and learning have thus been dominated by computer and the Internet.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-61520-817-3.ch027
IntroductIon the extreme complex structure of mental abilities.

The study of individual functioning will require
The past three or four decades have witnessed new and different approaches to learning. This
tremendous growth in the body of research on chapter will identify appropriate cognitive and
teaching and learning. The invention of the instructional strategies that will enhance learning
microprocessor in the late sixties brought in the and increase the individual’s performance, thus
personal computer and electronic media which making him an able learner and not a disabled
has necessitated this growth. Furthermore the learner.
advent of the World Wide Web brought instant
dissemination of information enhancing research
activities. This has resulted in a striking variety bAckground
of approaches to study how people learn because
the greatest challenge to educators in this era cognitive Psychology
of information technology is how to make all
learners with a variety of social and intellectual Cognitive psychology developed around the late
backgrounds benefit maximally from school. 1950s when technology was developing comput-
Thus, the search for different ways, means and ers capable of manipulating large amounts of data
techniques of identifying, developing and utilizing very rapidly. Over the last two decades cognitive
learners’potentials has pre-occupied educators and psychology has been widely embraced because
psychologists for many years. Researchers have of the insights the theories have demonstrated in
also come to the realization that group research describing and explaining cognitive processes
does provide valuable information about group such as thinking and problem-solving. Cognitive
characteristics, but has not taken cognizance theories deal with intrinsic motivation. Motiva-
of a particular child with a particular need. It is tion serves to create intentions and goal seeking
therefore not advisable to take a single study as a acts. Cognitive views of learning refer to an
defining word. Efforts are converging from cogni- individual’s mode of thinking, remembering,
tive psychology, developmental psychology, social or problem-solving (Santrock, 2003). There is a
psychology, anthropology and neuroscience. In tendency to behave in a certain manner known as
this chapter, a theoretical literature review on mental models. Mental models are representations
cognitive theory will be adopted with emphasis of reality that people use to understand specific
on the three important cognitive theories - Piaget’s phenomena. These models provide prediction
cognitive development theory, Vygotsky’s socio- and explanatory power for understanding the
cultural cognitive theory, and the theory behind the interaction. Cognitive psychology studies mental
information processing approach. They have the processes underlying behavior. It uses informa-
most complete descriptions of children’s cognitive tion processing as a framework for understanding
development (Santrock, 2003). the mind. Furthermore, cognitive psychology
These cognitive theories, especially Piaget’s also makes and attempt at understanding the
and Vygotsky’s, emphasize the individual’s ac- nature of mental representation that underline
tive construction of understanding, but did not perception since most of the relationships that
give adequate attention to individual variations we establish with the environment are carried
in cognitive development. The information out through perception. Cognitive psychology is,
processing approach, on the other hand, offers a therefore, the science that studies mental activities
detailed description of cognitive processes, thus in terms of information processing (reasoning),
complementing the missing link in understanding
389
concept formation, recognition, imagination, and • Sensory motor stage (0-2 years), where in-
problem-solving. telligence takes the form of motor actions.
Cognitive psychologists focus on the way • Pre-operation stage (3-7 years), where in-
human’s process information. They apply a ho- telligence is intuitive in nature.
mothetic approach where cognitive changes are • Concrete stage (8-11 years), where intel-
said to be common to children across cultures to ligence is logical, but depends upon con-
discover human cognitive processes. They also crete referents.
have adopted idiographic techniques through using • Formal operation stage (12-15 years),
case studies. They argue that those who empha- where intelligence involves abstraction.
size the homothetic approach may often see more
orderliness than actually exists (Gray, 1990). This The stages of cognitive development, as
chapter attempts to adopt the case study approach proposed by Piaget, vary for every individual
in recommending the intervention strategies which child. Furthermore, each stage has many detailed
are highly dependent upon the nature of the task structural forms. Take for instance the concrete
and differences across learners. operational stage; it has more than forty distinct
structures covering: classification and relations,
the three cognitive Approaches spatial relationships, time, movement, number,
(Piaget, vygotsky, and the conservation and measurement (Brainerd, 1978).
Information Processing Approach) He further added that culture and education ex-
ert strong influence on child development. For
Piaget’s Theory example, the age at which children acquire con-
servation skills is related to the extent to which
Piaget revealed how cognitive change is likely to their culture provides relevant practice. The main
occur if the context is structured to allow gradual points spelled out in his theory include the fol-
movement to the next higher level and that a con- lowing principles:
cept does not emerge suddenly, but rather through
a series of partial accomplishments that lead to • Children will provide different explana-
increasingly comprehensive understanding (Haiti tions of reality at different stages of cog-
& Benson, 1998). Piaget proposed a cognitive nitive development. As a result, learning
developmental theory where children go though materials and activities should involve ap-
cognitive stages that are largely independent of propriate levels of mental operations for a
instruction from the teacher. They just need to be child of given age. In other words, a teacher
nurtured through their own stages of self-discovery should consider the cognitive level of the
instead of being taught according to any particular children he is teaching, and then choose
schedule. He called his theoretical framework material and teaching methods that are ap-
“genetic epistemology” because he was primarily propriate to the child’s reasoning capacity.
interested in how knowledge developed in human • Cognitive development is facilitated by
organisms. Cognitive development involves con- providing activities or situations that en-
stant effort to adapt to the environment in terms gage learners and present challenge. For
of assimilation and accommodation. The stages example, teachers of infants should try
of cognitive development as proposed by Piaget to provide ample objects to play with
are as follows: while primary school teachers (concrete
operation) should involve problems of
390
classification, ordering, location, and con- assistance of adults and more skilled children. His
servation, using concrete objects (Bybee & ‘ZPD’ is, therefore, the distance between the level
Sand, 1992). Activity methods, especially of actual development and the more advanced
at the primary level, lays stress on the im- level of potential development that comes into
portance of children manipulating objects existence in interaction between the more and
with widely differing properties of texture, less capable participant. Normally, intelligent
color, and shape. This together with discov- quotient (IQ) is a measure of learning potential
ery, collection, classification, construction, just as the zone of proximal development is also
and analysis of materials are essential for a measure of learning potential. The difference is
the natural development of cognitive skills that IQ emphasizes that intelligence is a property
such as perceptions, conception, memory, of the child, while ZPD emphasizes that learning
language reasoning and creativity. These is interpersonal. It is inappropriate to say that the
cognitive skills underline all academic child has a ZPD; rather a child shares a ZPD with
learning. Absence of these skills predis- a more skilled individual. Vygotsky did not believe
poses the child to academic failure. that formal standardized tests are the best way
to assess children’s learning. Rather, he argued
Vygotsky’s Theory that assessment should focus on determining the
child’s ZPD. Hence, he claimed that the range of
Vygotsky’s theory consists of three basic claims skill that can be developed with adult guidance or
about cognitive development. The major theme peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained
of this theory is that social interaction plays a alone (Discovery Learning - Piaget).
fundamental role in the development of cogni- Vygotsky’s third claim is that cognitive skills
tion. His first claim is that cognitive skills need are mediated by language. He believed that lan-
to be interpreted developmentally. Like Piaget, guage plays a key role in guiding cognition. He
Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the said language and thought initially developed
basic abilities for intellectual development. While independently, but then children internalize their
Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory egocentric speech in the form of inner speech
abilities, Vygotsky refers to elementary mental which becomes their thoughts. This transition oc-
functions as attention, sensation, perception, and curs at about 3 to 7 years of age. He went further
memory. Through interaction with the social en- to say that language plays two critical roles in
vironment, these are developed into more sophis- cognitive development. The first one is that it is
ticated effective mental processes and strategies, the means by which adults transmit information
which he refers to as higher mental functions. For to children. While the second role is that language
example, having noted that the memory of a child itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual
is limited by biological factors, its subsequent adaptation (Santrock, 2003).
development determines the type of memory
strategy we develop. Contrasting Piaget and Vygotsky
A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea
that the potential for cognition depends upon what In comparing Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories, both
he calls “zone of proximal development (ZPD)” emphasize the individual’s active construction of
as the area where the most sensitive instruction understanding; while Vygotsky’s theory is social
or guidance should be given. It is the stage at constructivists, Piaget’s is cognitive constructiv-
which the child finds the task difficult to master, ist. They both acknowledge the importance of
but which can be learned with the guidance and examining developmental changes in children’s
391
thinking—that of Vygotsky is determined by the hardware, cognition as its software. Working

social and cultural context, while that of Piaget memory is where information is temporarily
is determined by biological changes. They both processed. Long-term memory (LTM) is where
view the teacher as a guide and a facilitator rather information is stored indefinitely as knowledge.
than a director. Vygotsky gives the more skilled Working memory is, therefore, equivalent to a
individual a stronger teaching role than Piaget. computer’s central processing unit (CPU), where
In the area of language, Vygotsky argues that the data is processed; and LTM is equivalent to a
children internalize their egocentric speech in computer’s hard disk, external disk, or magnetic
the form of inner speech, which becomes their media, where data is stored persistently. The pro-
thoughts. This view contrasts with Piaget’s view cessed information is displayed on the screen or
that young children’s inner speech is egocentric as a hardcopy. The human equivalent is talking,
and immature. walking—simply put-action. According to this
Neo-Piagetians believed that children’s cogni- view there are three kinds of memory:
tion needs to be studied in more specific ways than
the stages of cognitive development that young • Sensory registers: The part of the memory
children go through as outlined by Piaget. They, that receives all the information a person
therefore, presented an information processing senses.
model. • Short-term memory: Also known as
working memory—the part of memory
The Information Processing Approach where new information is held temporarily
until it is either lost or placed into LTM.
According to Bjorkland and Rosenbaum (2000) • Long-term memory: The part of memory
and Chen and Siegle (2000), the information which has an unlimited capacity and can
processing approach emphasizes that individuals hold information indefinitely (Roblyer &
manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize Edwards, 2000).
about it. Individuals develop a gradual increasing
capacity for processing information, which allows Information gets selected when people pay
them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge attention. The new information will only be trans-
and skills. The study of human information pro- ferred to LTM when it is linked in some way to
cessing is based upon systems analysis and an prior knowledge already in LTM. Information is
understanding of internal stages of response to translated into some meaningful form (encoded)
external stimuli. The approach views the person and retrieved through a process of identification
as an active and adaptive part of the environment. and recall for a particular purpose. Learning now
Information theory tells us that behavior depends becomes the result of individuals successfully
upon all the stimuli that might have occurred and encoding new information or recording existing
not only upon the particular stimuli that did oc- information in a new way. This knowledge can then
cur. People are capable of processing the same be recalled from memory and used. The key fac-
information in several different ways. tors for effective encoding of information include
The information processing perspective is ensuring that the material is meaningful and that
compared to computer processing. Like a com- activation of prior knowledge occurs. Informa-
puter, where information (data) is entered through tion processing theory is highly acknowledged
a keyboard, scanner, or another input device, the by educationists because it deals with intellectual
human mind takes information through the senses. performance which covers the following areas:
The physical brain is described as the computer’s
392
• Attention-directing mental efforts towards the most well known of the American Presidents,
important aspects. was described as dull and backward because he
• Memory strategies could not say his ABCs until he was nine and
• Highlighting key points and making could only read and write at age eleven.
summaries. Teaching during that period was based on the
• Concept mapping assumption that effective learning is a matter
• Problem-solving of conditioned response or “conditioning” and
• Metacognition failure to respond correctly is punished, whereas
• Pattern recognition successful responses are rewarded. Motivation for
• Elaboration learning is derived from the need to gain rewards
for success and avoid punishment for failure.
From the information processing view point, Conditioned learning is passive learning. Con-
people are active learners who can control and sequently, emphasis is placed on the mechanics
manipulate information and devise strategies to of teaching or “teaching methods”, which define
deal with particular situations. the teacher’s function in terms of their ability to
meet given learning requirements or “learning out-
Paradigm shift in Learning comes.” Students are taught how to meet teacher’s
expectations. The knowledge acquired is evaluated
The tremendous growth of the body of research and measured in terms of a standardized system
on teaching and learning has demonstrated that of evaluation, i.e., grades. Emphasis on grades
below average children could become function- creates a dependency on extrinsic motivation, the
ally gifted when given proper development. This likely cause for educational crisis. Teachers are too
does not negate the physical reality that people are quick to label children with the slightest learning
born with different aptitudes. It simply states that problem as having a learning disability, instead
the margins of differences in our natural aptitudes of recognizing that the problem may rest in their
are most often less significant than the differ- ineffective teaching. Many children are being
ences in our environmental and developmental diagnosed without understanding extensive pro-
opportunities. The case of Maria Montessori is a fessional evaluation based on input from multiple
glaring example. She was able to teach a number sources. From research findings it is very obvious
of children with cognitive disabilities, who were that learners learn in different ways of absorbing
residing in an asylum, both to read and write so information and of demonstrating their knowledge.
well that she was able to present them at a public By implication, there has to be a reversal on the
school for examination together with children standardized evaluation system, by moderating
without disabilities where her students passed suc- the authority of the teacher. People need not ac-
cessfully. Furthermore a number of gifted children cept information because somebody in authority
have dropped out of school under the supervision said so. They accept the information if it makes
of uninformed teachers. For example, Albert Ein- sense to them, if they know about it, if it makes
stein, whose theory of relativity has challenged their thinking clear, or if it makes things better for
the best minds in the world, was expelled from them. The effectiveness of any teaching learning
school because it was said that his presence had process is measured by the extent to which it has
a disruptive effect on the class and other children. met individual’s need and expectation.
Bill Gates, one of the founders of Microsoft, not to In the last two decades, printed instruction
mention one of the richest men in the world, also constituted one of the most widely utilized forms
dropped out of school. Woodrow Wilson, one of of instructional materials. This is being replaced
393
by technology media since it is being realized data. It is one of obtaining new understanding and
that only 10% of what is read can be recalled better ways to do things. In this situation, teachers
(Alcorn, Kinder, & Shunert, 1979). Today, there help students to construct knowledge rather than
are many kinds of innovative learning systems to reproduce a series of facts. The teachers’ effort
through which information is given to the learn- is thus aimed at developing students’ competen-
ers through some media other than the teacher. cies and talents.
Such modern media includes programmed in- This approach has implication for individualize
structional materials (books), motion pictures, learning. By individualized learning, learners can
photographic prints and television and video learn at their own pace, and can also work indepen-
tapes, audiotapes, microfilms, and computers. dently. It thus encourages the individualization of
The present evolutionary trend in educational instruction in accord with students’ characteristics
technology, where instructional materials made and aptitudes. The following characteristics can
available at scale has enhanced mass education. be identified of individualized instruction:
This means students received education via few
teachers and instead, learning is being made more • Criterion-Reference Testing: With crite-
individualized which collaborates with the cogni- ria-reference testing, students’ performance
tive psychologists’ theory. Many interventions on is assessed against specific determined
learning disabilities have focused on improving criteria and not against grades relative to
the child’s reading ability, like using individual peer performance. This is done to encour-
reading materials, individual viewing and listening age each learner to achieve mastery of the
equipment, language laboratory, and programmed learning experience or topic.
printed material (Cable & Ralph, 1965). • Self-Pacing: The students are allowed to
move at their pace. They are allowed suf-
Issues and controversies ficient time needed to accomplish the task,
thus reducing the frustration that will oc-
The traditional behavioral paradigm with its em- cur if they followed the fixed time table.
phasis on methods of teaching is being replaced Flexible scheduling of time tables encour-
by the cognitive paradigm which emphasizes the ages individualization of instruction as
process of learning. The cognitive paradigm is con- each learner may learn in accord with his
cerned with teaching as the facilitation of natural own pace, or rate of understanding. This is
learning and learner empowerment. In this process, what Ferguson (1968) called promoting re-
knowledge is discovered as the learner constructs sponsible learning freedom.
and adapts to the new challenges. What cognitive • Presentation Mode Selection: Where it
psychologists have in common is getting the learn- is practicable, learners can select the pre-
ers involved with the whole tasks or problems as sentation modes that best suit them instead
contrasted with the traditional approach where of using a pre-specified media. They might
students are passive learners. The belief is that decide to choose computer assisted instruc-
getting students involved with realistic whole situ- tion or the Internet.
ations will help them for appropriate schema and • Learning Criteria: Behavior change is
mental models. These internal representations are recognized as the index of learning. This
believed to facilitate their later application of their is why repeated tests are used to allow for
newly acquired knowledge and skill. The process mastery of learning where the student is
of learning is not just piling data on top of more experiencing learning difficulty.
394
ProbLems soLutIons And

recommendAtIons
Creating instructional opportunities that can
be adapted to diverse learners require the use The aim of this chapter is to understand how
of variety of instructional strategies which will human beings learn from the perspective of the
demand flexible and responsible environments. cognitive theorist approach. It is very obvious that
This laudable ambition unfortunately will not be we cannot directly control internal conditions.
realized in the existing institution. On a practical However, Gagne’s theory has led to a set of strate-
level, personalized learning environments should gies for providing external support for learners as
be sufficiently flexible to enable learners to inter- they attempt to achieve a goal. These strategies
act with resources when it is most appropriate for differ depending on the domain of learning. The
them. Digital technology—like the Internet can following strategies below will help to decide on
make flexibility possible. There is awareness that effective strategies for each domain as we create
many learners today are already creating personal- our instructional strategy (adapted from Essentials
ized learning environments for themselves, out of of Learning for Instruction by R.M. Gagne and
school, using digital resources. For most young M.P. Driscoll, 1988).
people, technology is part of their daily life. In
spite of the innumerable positive attributes of verbal Information
personalized learning, the Nigerian educational
system is still very slow to catch up. This is a • Provide a meaningful context for effective
result of the numerous constraints. For example, encoding of information.
many teachers in Nigerian schools are still not • Draw attention to distinctive features by
computer literate and this is compounded by low variations in print or speech.
level awareness of the benefits of the potentials • Use terms or definitions in a sentence.
of digital technology. Such complications have • Present information so that it can be made
led many researchers, students and teachers to into chunks.
still depend heavily on the traditional method of • Relate the information (term or definition)
teaching, such as searching for information in to preexisting knowledge.
libraries. Most information technology materi- • Present all terms clearly using the fewest
als and equipment are not within the reach of number of words to convey the meaning.
the poor. Where these facilities are available, If more than five terms or units of infor-
their high cost of installation and maintenance mation are to be presented in one lesson,
pose much resistance since the technology is not group related terms or units into five or
indigenous. It is very obvious that without digital fewer clearly defined categories.
technology we are unlikely to be able to meet • Use a variety of concrete (observable) ex-
the needs of learners. And unfortunately, digital amples when possible, emphasizing the
technology in Nigerian educational system is still clear and well defined features that relate
at the basic level. directly to the information.
• Explain clearly how learners will be ex-
pected to recall the information while it is
initially presented.
• Make information readily accessible to
learners, and provide opportunities for
395
them to explore “nice-to-know” informa- cognitive strategies

tion associated with the knowledge.
• Practice with immediate feedback! • Recall relevant rules and concepts.
• Provide cues for effective recall and gener- • Describe or demonstrate the strategy.
alization of information. • Provide a variety of occasions for practice
using the strategy.
Intellectual skills • Provide information feedback as to the
creativity or originality of the strategy or
• Encourage learners to recall previously outcome.
learned information or examples that illus-
trate concepts or rules being presented. Attitudes
• Clearly communicate the definition of de-
fined concepts, using the fewest number of • Establish an expectancy of success associ-
words. ated with the desired attitude.
• Call attention to distinctive features. • Assure student identification with an ad-
• Stay within the limits of working memory. mired human model.
• Present verbal cues to the ordering or com- • Make students aware of the personal ben-
bination of component skills. efits gained by making choices based on
• Break down the process of performing or attitudes (preferably by someone the stu-
applying rules into steps, and clearly com- dents admire).
municate these steps to the students. • Clearly identify examples of choices made
• Demonstrate an application of the rule for by people who possess the desired attitude
the students. (credible and attractive-similarity, famil-
• Present varied examples or instances of iarity, appearance).
concepts and rule applications, calling at- • Clearly identify instances in the students’
tention to the distinctive features of exam- lives in which making choices are based on
ples, definitions, and procedures. the attitude being presented.
• Present non-examples or non-instances of • Allow students the opportunity to practice
the concept if they will help to clarify the making choices associated with the desired
concept. attitude (role-playing, group discussion,
• Schedule occasions for practice and spaced etc.) and give them feedback.
review. • Arrange for communication or demonstra-
• Provide learners with opportunities to tion of choice of personal action.
“play” with concepts and rules within sim- • Positive feedback for successful perfor-
ulated or “real” environments, identifying mance, or allow observation of feedback
and selecting their own examples and non- in the human model.
examples of concepts and rule applications
if possible. motor skills
• Present a variety of contexts or experiences
that allow the students to practice applying • Verbally guide learners through routine.
the rules or identifying/describing concepts • Visually present example of routine
(transfer), providing guidance throughout execution.
early stages of practice. • Encourage the use of mental practice.
• Arrange repeated practice.
396
• Furnish immediate feedback as to the ac- technology in developing nations would require
curacy of performance. developing new infrastructure rather than taking
advantage of infrastructure already existing. This
calls for government intervention.
The use of cognitive strategies such as—rehearsals,
elaboration, transformation, imagery, mnemonics, research Question 2
chunking and organization—can increase the ef-
ficiency and confidence with which the learner What kind of policies should be put in place to
approaches a learning task, as well as his ability overhaul the system? The new technology, which
to develop a product, retain essential information, encourages individual constructivism and in so
or perform a skill. While teaching these strategies, doing deprives the teacher of his autonomous
it requires a high degree of commitment from control, will be seriously resisted by the tradi-
both the teacher and learner, the results are very tional educational establishments characterized
encouraging. The key to education now is helping by rigidity, bureaucracy, and conformity.
students learn a rich repertoire of strategies.
research Question 3
Future reseArcH dIrectIons How will the innovation be introduced to such

a closed system to adopt such an explosive
Innovations in teaching and learning have been change?
dominated by the computer and the Internet. In
response to these innovations, schools in the de-
veloped regions of the world have made moves to concLusIon
ensure that children have computers and Internet
access to use both in school and at home. In the Cognitive psychologists view learning as an
United States, as far back as 2001, the average active process, and for learners to benefit from
ratio of child to computer was three to one. While such a learning experience, they must be actively
in Nigeria, one of the Sub-Sahara African countries involved. In order for instruction to bring about
classified as a developing country cannot boast of effective learning, it must be made to influence the
a single computer in most of their schools. There internal processes of learning. A cognitive strat-
is now a digital divide between developed areas egy serves to support the learner as he develops
of the world; and also a digital divide between the internal procedures that enable him to perform
rich and the poor in the developing countries due tasks that are complex.
to the lack of basic infrastructure and electricity. According to the cognitive information pro-
Consequently, we call out the following questions cessing theory, most new learning depends on
of importance: connections made to prior learning. This will,
therefore, take into account prior knowledge,
research Question 1 motivation, attitude, the importance of metacogni-
tion and the need for knowledge to be available
How can we reduce the digital divide between in an integrated form.
those in the developed and developing regions The traditional paradigm with its emphasis on
of the world, with a view of providing equal methods of teaching is being replaced by the new
opportunities to every school age child in any holistic paradigm, which emphasizes the process of
country? Bear in mind that introducing the new learning and individualized approach. The teacher
397
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Pask, G. (1976). Styles and strategies of learning. Concepts: This is our means of dividing the
The British Journal of Educational Psychology, world into Manageable units (Atkinson, Atkinson,
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to know the properties common to all. Concepts
are categorization of objects, events, people or
animals that share common characteristics. Such
categorization enables us to organize complex
Programmed Learning: A teaching method information into simpler, easily manageable
which places emphasis on teacher’s written com- cognitive categories.
munication. It is a method whereby the learner Concept Mapping: E.g., setting out the rela-
teaches himself by working though a series of tionship between key ideas in a topic in diagram
steps all leading to carefully defined goals or form.
objectives. He cannot go on to the next step Chunking: This is the grouping together of
until he has mastered the preceding one, based several separate items in order to aid in their
on the feedback received through the answers retrieval. Short term memory can encode only
to the questions. The information to be taught about seven separate items (plus or minus two)
is presented in a form known as a “Program.” and can hold them for only limited time (e.g., the
Programs can be presented either in book form 11 digits phone number—08066734720—can
or through machines. be chunked like 08066-734-720). Each chunk is
Perception: Is the foundation of learning. It counted as an item.
is the process whereby an individual becomes Cognition: A general term covering all the vari-
aware of his environment. It is a selective process ous modes of knowing – perceiving, remembering,
and an individual style of perception is unique to imagining, conceiving, judging, and reasoning.
such individual’s previous experience, attitude, The cognitive function, as an ultimate mode or
knowledge and interest. aspect of the conscious life is, contrasted with
Metacognition: Is an internal awareness of the affective and cognitive-feeling and willing
cognitive abilities, including self-awareness of (Drever, 1952).
both learning and retrieval strategies (Sprinthal, Cue: Signal to do something.
Sprinthal, & Oja, 1994). Whereas cognition helps Scaffolding: In cognitive development, Vy-
us to learn, metacognition helps us to monitor gotsky used this term to describe the changing
and structure our learning strategies. Thinking support over the course of a teaching session, with
about thinking and deciding how best to manage the more skilled person adjusting guidance to fit
mental processes. the child’s current performance level.
Mnemonic Device: A system for enhancing Schema: In Piaget’s theory, this is a cognitive
memory work. It involves a set of symbols that structure that helps individuals organizes and
can substitute for the material to be remembered. understands their experiences.
The common example, “Every Good Boy Deserves
Favour”, used for the notes on a music staff.
400
401
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About the Contributors
Soonhwa Seok has an M.A. and Ph.D. in curriculum and instruction in special education from the
University of Kansas. Dr. Seok has interests in educational communication and technology with applica-
tions for teaching English as a second language and special education. Most recently, as a post-doctoral
researcher, Dr. Seok has examined and developed intersensory learning models, assistive technology,
and motivation and feedback for students with learning disabilities. Another research focus is assistive
technology evaluation, such as functional evaluation for assistive technology, and supports intensity
scales implementing assistive technology for the students with disabilities. She has served as a peer
reviewer for conference proposals, presented on web accessibility, and published articles on distance
education and special education technology.
Edward Meyen is a Budig professor of special education and co-director of the eLearning Design
lab at the University of Kansas. His research interests are in the development of elearning tools for use
by educators in K-12 and post secondary education. His current work is in developing online tools to
enhance the blending of assessment with instruction that is aligned with curriculum standards K-12
Education.
Boaventura DaCosta has a B.S. in computer science and an M.A. and Ph.D. in instructional systems
design. Dr. DaCosta is a researcher and the cofounder of Solers Research Group, Inc. in Orlando, FL.
Among his research interests in cognitive psychology and information and communication technology
innovations, Dr. DaCosta is also interested in how games can be used in learning. Complimenting his
work as a researcher, Dr. DaCosta has worked in the commercial and government training sectors for
the past 15 years as a software engineer and has been involved in a number of defense programs.
***
Rashida Banerjee is assistant professor and early childhood special education program coordina-
tor at the University of Northern Colorado, School of Special Education. She is an alumnus of the Ford
Foundation International Fellowships program. Rashida has received the J. David Sexton Doctoral Student
Scholarship from the Division of Early Childhood, the Council for Exceptional Children, Division of
Research Student Research Award, and the Outstanding Dissertation for the School of Education Award,
University of Kansas. Rashida’s main emphasis has been acting as a catalyst to promote quality services
for children with disabilities and their families in early childhood. As a classroom teacher, Rashida
has worked extensively with children with significant support needs requiring assistive technology.
Her research areas and interests are assessment of young children, specifically issues around diversity;
effective community, family, and professional partnerships; effective inclusive intervention for young
children; teacher preparation, and; international support systems for persons with disability.
Marcie M. Belfi is a doctoral student at the University of Texas at Austin in the field of multicul-
tural special education. She received her M.S. (2003) from the University of Houston in instructional
technology, and her B.S. (1999) from the University of Texas at Austin in communication sciences and
disorders. She has taught in a variety of settings, including residential centers, life skills and resource
classrooms, as well as the university classroom. Her research interests are in preparing special education
teachers to work within culturally and linguistically diverse populations, web-based teacher prepara-
tion, and assistive technology.
Monica R. Brown is an associate professor in the Department of Special Education/Communication

Disorders at New Mexico State University. Dr. Brown teaches graduate and undergraduate courses of a
general special education nature as well as those courses (i.e., transition, secondary methods) specifically
for the student, special and general education, seeking to work in a secondary classroom. Her current
research interests include disaffected adolescents, multicultural special education, technology access
and use, teacher preparation and secondary education.
Brian R. Bryant lives and works in Austin, Texas. After teaching special education students for
3 years in Maine, 2 years in Grades K-8 and 1 year in Grades 9-12, Brian moved to Texas to work on
his doctorate at The University of Texas at Austin. Since graduating in 1984, Brian has served in many
professional capacities, including as the Director of Research at Pro-Ed, Inc., an educational publish-
ing company located in Austin, Texas; adjunct faculty member at The University of Texas at Austin
and Florida Atlantic University; Research Fellow at The University of Texas’ Vaughn Gross Center for
Reading and Language Arts; and Project Manager of the Institute for Mathematics Disabilities and Dif-
ficulties in the Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk. His research interests involve service
provision for individuals with learning disabilities and mental retardation, particularly with regards to
reading, mathematics, and assistive technology applications throughout the lifespan.
Jennifer Delisi works as the Therapeutic Services Coordinator and Neurologic Music Therapist for
Lifeworks Services. She is a member of the Governor’s Advisory Council on Assistive Technology in
Minnesota, and manages Lifeworks’ device lending library. Her clinical areas of interest are assistive
technology and sensory impairments.
Muhammet Demirbilek is a visiting Post Doctoral Researcher at Games, Learning, and Society
(GLS) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and an Assistant Professor of Educational Technology
at Suleyman Demirel University. Demirbilek earned his doctorate and masters degree in Educational
Technology program from the University of Florida. He also holds B.S. and MS degrees in electronics
engineering. He worked on the PT3 project and served as a graduate assistant in the School of Teaching
and Learning at the University of Florida. His dissertation research examined the effects of different
modes of human-computer interfaces and individual differences on user disorientation and cognitive
load in hypermedia learning environments. His current research interests include the impact of mobile
media and digital games and simulations on teaching and learning; relationship between second language
444
learning achievement and game play; how the electronic game environment helps adult players learn;
and designing digital learning environments.
Gary Paul Dotterer is an IT Developer / Trainer for Northeast Technology Center District (voca-
tional and technical training) located in NE Oklahoma. He has worked as an educator and trainer of
advanced technologies including assistive technologies. Gary is currently a graduate student at Oklahoma
State University with his research emphasis in virtual environments utilizing advanced and assistive
technology in individual learning processes. He is the recipient of the prestigious Ausburn Research
Award at Oklahoma State University in 2009 and received the Outstanding Professional Development
Award at the Career and Technical Education Research and Professional Development Conference in
2007. He is a consultant to the Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Advisory Council
for the state of Oklahoma. Gary has served as the president of the Phi chapter of Omicron Tau Theta
and is a member of the Golden Key International Honor Society, The National Scholar Honor Society,
and Phi Kappa Phi.
Michael Dunn has taught at the elementary level as a special education consultant teacher in inclu-
sive classrooms and English as a second language teacher for 11 years in the Toronto (Ontario) area.
As a professor of special education and literacy at Washington State University Vancouver (WSUV)
since 2005, Michael teaches courses applicable to K-12 educators in the Special Education Endorse-
ment Program and Master’s in Teaching Certification Program. Michael conducts research in response
to intervention and literacy skills/strategies. Recent research includes general educators’ perspectives
about response to intervention as well as mnemonic strategy instruction for early-elementary students’
narrative story writing.
Estrada-Hernández is an Assistant Professor in Rehabilitation Counseling with the Department of

Counseling, Rehabilitation, and Student Development at the University of Iowa. Among his responsibili-
ties Dr. Estrada-Hernandez coordinates research activities with the Iowa Center for Assistive Technology
Education and Research as well as teaching various core courses in the MA program in rehabilitation
counseling. His research interests include the areas of Psychosocial adaptation to disability, especially
on persons with Albinism, Employment/Vocational outcomes on persons with visual impairments, and
Assistive technology. Dr. Estrada-Hernandez is member of various professional organizations such as
the American Counseling Association, American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, and National
Council on Rehabilitation Education.
Michael Fitzpatrick is an assistant professor in the college of Special Education / Communication

Disorders at New Mexico State University. He currently teaches undergraduate and graduate courses
and is involved with teacher preparation and technology integration across the lifespan. His research
interests include increasing the academic and social outcomes for students with and without disabilities
in urban school settings, policy and leadership, technology integration, multicultural education, and
Media Literacy. Additional focus areas include infusing technology, cognitive based strategies, and
behavior management systems to enhance the academic, social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes of
students with mild-to-severe emotional and behavioral disorders.
445
Joan B. Hodapp served nine years as a Special Education administrator for Area Education Agency
267 in Clear Lake, IA and supervised the Assistive Technology Resource Teams serving 61 school
districts. Prior to that she served for 24 years as a school psychologist. Her research interests include
curriculum-based measurement, behavioral interventions, study skills, and the impact of accommoda-
tions such as text-to-speech software.
Eva Horn is a Professor of Early Childhood Education in the School of Education at the University
of Kansas. Having worked as an early childhood special educator for 10 years, Dr. Horn focuses on
the development of effective instructional approaches for infants, toddlers, and young children with
developmental delays and disabilities. Her research examines how these effective strategies can be
implemented within the context of ongoing routines and activities in inclusive and natural environ-
ments. She has led numerous research, demonstration, and personnel preparation projects. Dr. Horn
has published numerous chapters and articles about early intervention and education and is the former
editor of Young Exceptional Children.
Vivian Johnson has been involved in seeking equity and since 1976 has created programs for re-
cruiting, retaining, and improving the academic performance of women and under-represented students
including those with learning differences in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
Dr. Johnson also was High School science and computer science teacher who was the departmental
liaison to the Child Study Team. Dr. Johnson is the parent of a 17-year-old girl diagnosed in 1st grade
with severe dyslexia, central auditory processing deficit, and ADHA. She is a presenter on the topics
of technology integration, technology-related professional development, and digital equity at local,
regional, and national conferences.
Kristen E. Jones is a doctoral student at the University of Texas at Austin in the field of multicul-
tural special education with a focus in vocational rehabilitation and disability studies. She holds a M.Ed.
(2006) in special education from the University of Houston. Her research interests focus on transition
to adult life and post secondary education, self-determination, and assistive technology.
Neha Khetrapal is currently a graduate student at the Center of Excellence “Cognitive Interaction
Technology”, University of Bielefeld, Germany studying the interaction of spatial processes and language
and is supported by a grant from by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) grant managed through
the Graduate School of the Centre of Excellence “Cognitive Interaction Technology”. The author has
been a holder of various prestigious awards and has done work on developing theoretical frameworks
that have been well received both nationally and internationally. The most important recognition earned
by her is from Marquis Who’s Who in the World for 2009.
Carolyn Kinsell holds a PhD in Instructional Technology and a certification in Human Performance.
Her career expands over 18 years in which she focused on the application of training that spans from
analysis, to the development of virtual environments, to defining requirements and solutions for human
performance standards; and, more recently, to research and development of training applications. She
has worked closely with the military to include Cryptologists, Intelligence Specialists, Naval Diving
and Salvage experts, to Foce XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2) Joint Capabilities
446
Release (JCR). She has also supported commercial clients such as Cingular and North America Honda,
to name a few.
Barbara J. Kouba is an Assistive Technology Assessment & Training Specialist at California State
University San Bernardino (CSUSB). She has 19 years technology training experience, the last 1 ½
years working with California Popartmont of Rehabilitation clients to narrow the digital divide. Ms.
Kouba is also a co-instructor at CSUSB and utilizes her M. A. degree in Instructional Technology to
effectively infuse technology into instruction to develop transformative instructional materials for all
students, regardless of disabilities.
James Laffey is a Professor in the School of Information Science and Learning Technologies and a
former researcher and systems developer at Apple Computer, Inc. Dr. Laffey has a Ph.D. in Education
from the University of Chicago and has won awards for the design of innovative, media-based com-
puter systems. Through his design work and scholarship he is internationally recognized as an expert
in the area of human-computer interaction. He currently teaches graduate level courses on development
of systems to optimize HCI and learning, including methods to improve the social nature of online
communities. He has received over $6 million of funding during the past 10 years, and is currently
the principal investigator for grants from AutismSpeaks and the Institute of the Education Sciences to
research and develop iSocial.
Mary Ann Lowe is Program Professor in the Programs for Speech, Language, and Communication
Disorders and Director of Academic and Faculty Support at Nova Southeastern University. She teaches
courses in AAC and Language Disorders in Children. Dr Lowe earned her master’s degree in com-
munication disorders from Florida Atlantic University, her Educational Specialist degree in Assistive
Technology from the University of New Mexico and her doctorate from Nova Southeastern University.
Mary Ann has presented at state, national, and international conferences on AAC topics. She is the Vice
President for Professional Affairs of the United States on the Board of Directors for USSAAC as well
as a member of the Steering Committee for the ASHA Division of AAC.
Cindy Nankee is a RESNA certified ATP Assistive Technology Consultant. She has worked with
WATI (Wisconsin Assistive Technology Initiative) and has a background as a school based Occupational
Therapist. Cindy’s background has focused on learning, teaching and implementing switch technologies
with an emphasis on the use of electronic switches for powered mobility and computer access while
working on the Independence by Design project coordinated through WATI and Adaptive Switch Labs,
Inc. Cindy has established UTLL (Universal Technology for Learning & Living) to provide consulta-
tion, professional development and implementation of assistive technology.
Brian Newberry received his doctorate in Curriculum and Instruction with an emphasis in Educa-
tional Technology and communication from the University of Kansas in 2003. In addition to a successful
career as a teacher, computer instructor and technology coordinator, Dr. Newberry has worked for a
number of years to improve the use of technology in teaching and learning.
Blessing Nma Okrigwe: I was born in 1949 in a town called Omoku in Rivers State of Nigeria. I
am the first child of my parents. My childhood experience was very rewarding as my parents provided
447
me with basic requirements to face the challenges of life. As luck will have it I was privileged to attend
school at a time women’s education was not encouraged. My father’s motivation and encouragement
propelled me in my academic pursuit. Presently, I hold PhD degree in Sociology of Education which I
obtained in 1993 at the University of Port Harcourt in Nigeria. I was privileged to win a scholarship that
enabled me to study abroad where I did my first and second degree. I specialized in Primary Education
with a developmental course in Geography for my first degree then for my Masters I did comparative
Education – all at the University of London, Institute of Education, London from 1974-1981. I have
been a Lecturer at the College of Education Port Harcourt affiliate of University of Ibadan since 1982
till present. I became a Senior Lecturer in 1997 and thereafter I served one year Sabbatical Leave in a
Federal College of Education 1997/1998 Session. I have held the following positions in the College –
Director Remedial Studies, Head of Department for Primary Education Studies and Teaching Practice
Coordinator. I have written five articles in some reputable journals, published two chapters in a book and
have written five books. I am a member of four professional bodies, the most recent being Comparative
Education and International Education Society. I have had the opportunity of visiting other countries
like Russia, Spain, France and South Korea because of my love for traveling to acquire more empirical
knowledge. I am a grandmother having married since 1972.
Jeffrey Pascoe is a researcher and a member of the Curriculum Development Team at Laureate
Learning Systems (Winooski, VT). Dr. Pascoe received his B.A. in Psychology from Framingham State
College in Massachusetts, and his Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Vermont, specializing in
experimental psychology and neuroscience. He has coauthored a number of papers with Dr. Wilson in
the area of using contemporary linguistic theory and research as a guide in developing more effective
strategies for treating language disorders.
Diane Plunkett serves as a Graduate Research Assistant for the Department of Special Education at
the University of Kansas. Having completed her Master’s of Science in Education at the University of
Kansas she is completing her doctoral coursework in special education with emphasis on early childhood
intervention. She has several years experience working with young children in both public and private
settings. Her research interests examine early literacy, assistive technology and bridging research to
practice barriers for early childhood professionals working with young children.
Carol Price, a graduate student at Hamline University, has been involved in education as a profes-
sional special education teacher, Master-Mentor Teacher, and Adjunct Professor at the University of
New Orleans. Ms. Price has a long history of providing guidance, direction, and technical assistance to
school, district, and state-level personnel regarding accommodations and assistive technology supports
to students with disabilities and to English language learners for instruction and assessment. She is a
presenter on the topics of assistive technologies, computer-based and typical large-scale assessments,
federal legislation regarding the assessment of students with disabilities and English language learners,
early learner literacy, and the assessment of preK children.
Cinda Rachow holds degrees in the area of Child Psychology, Elementary Education and Special
Education with emphasis on Learning Disabilities and Emotional / Behavioral disorders. She has been
an educator for 33 years providing instruction as a General education teacher, Special education teacher
for students with severe learning disabilities and behavioral/ emotional disorders. As a Special Education
448
Consultant for Loess Hills Area Education Agency 13, Council Bluffs, IA, she focuses her experience
on removing barriers to learning for students who struggle with reading by implementing assistive
technology to support reading improvement. Her research interest is in examining the effectiveness of
text-to-speech software.
Matthew Schmidt is a PhD candidate in the School of Information Science and Learning Technolo-
gies at the University of Missouri. His current research interests focus on designing and implementing
3D virtual environments for individuals with autism spectrum disorders. He holds a B.A. and M.A. in
German Language and Literature with an emphasis on Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL).
He has designed and developed educational technologies and curricula for diverse disciplines including
special education, second language acquisition, veterinary medicine, biological anthropology, nuclear
engineering, and health physics. Matthew also serves as the project coordinator on a 3 year project
funded by IES to advance methods for supporting youth with ASD to learn within 3D VLEs.
Benjamin Slotznick is President, founder and principal of Point-and-Read, Inc. Dr. Slotznick is a
lawyer and software developer, with broad research and interface design experience. He is the inven-
tor of several Point-and-Read technologies (both patented and patent pending) and holds a number of
other patents with respect to electronic products and interfaces for them. In a prior academic setting,
he conducted laboratory studies of small-group decision-making. His recent research has focused on
interfaces for screen readers, instant messaging and email software for users with cognitive and reading
disabilities. In 2008, this research won a National Center for Technology Innovation grant award. For
the past several years, Dr. Slotznick has presented results of this research at the following conferences:
Closing the Gap, ATIA Orlando and CSUN (California State University Northridge).
James R. Stachowiak is the associate director of the Iowa Center for Assistive Technology Educa-
tion and Research (ICATER) in the College of Education at the University of Iowa. James has a BSE
in Industrial and Operations Engineering and an MSE in Biomedical Engineering from the University
of Michigan. James is a member of the Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society
of North America (RESNA) and is a RESNA certified Assistive Technology Professional. James has
also served three terms as the chair of RESNA’s Educator’s Professional Specialty Group. James has
presented several presentations on providing AT training to pre-service teachers at conferences such as
RESNA, Closing the Gap, ATIA, and the Technology, Reading, and Learning Diversity Conference.
Janine Stichter is a Professor in the Department of Special Education and has worked with schools
and students with Autism and behavioral needs for over 20 years. Dr. Stichter presents nationally and
conducts research in the following areas: functional analysis, social competence and the correlation
of instructional variables with in prosocial and academic behaviors. She has published over 50 peer
reviewed articles and provided over 70 national presentations on her research. She currently directs or
co-directs 4 federally funded grants over 4.5 million targeted at partnering with educational personnel
to train educators and social competence programming in school-based contexts.
Raschelle Theoharis graduated from the University of Kansas with a doctorate in Special Education.
Currently, she is an assistant professor in the college of Education at Gallaudet University in Washing-
ton, DC, where she teaches undergraduate and graduate courses. The courses emphasize elementary
449
and early childhood instruction, specifically, curriculum, methods, and assessment. In addition, she
also oversees practicum students and student teachers. Her research interest include teacher induction
and mentoring programs for first-year teachers, special education teacher attrition and retention, and
improving the academic and social success for students who are deaf and hard of hearing from non-
English speaking homes.
Cynthia L. Wagner is an occupational therapist with Lifeworks. She is a member of the American
Association of Multi-Sensory Environments. Her current work involves addressing sensory processing
issues for children and adults with autism and developmental disabilities in the multi-sensory environ-
ments at Lifeworks.
Mary Sweig Wilson is President of Laureate Learning Systems and Professor Emerita, Commu-
nication Sciences, University of Vermont. She received her B.A. from Smith College, her M.A. from
Emerson College, and her Ph.D. in Communicative Disorders from Northwestern University. She has
been the Principal Investigator on 12 grants from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) that supported
development of Laureate’s Sterling Edition programs. She is an international presenter who has received
numerous awards and honors including Fellow of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Associa-
tion, Honors of the Vermont Speech-Language-Hearing Association, the TAM Leadership Award, and
Emerson’s Alumni Achievement Award.
450
451
Index
A assistive listening devices (ALD) 177, 178

assistive technologies (AT) 1, 4, 17, 18, 22, 44,
AAC software 169 45, 54, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 97,
AAC users 169, 170, 171, 173, 174 98, 101, 109, 110, 114, 119, 133, 177,
ABLEDATA software 196 178, 180, 183, 184, 192, 193, 194, 195,
accelerated reader (AR) 201 196, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268,
adaptations 271 269, 271, 272, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290,
adaptive control of thought-rational (ACT-R) 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 299,
theory 301, 302, 305 300, 301, 302, 363, 364, 365, 367, 369,
advanced audio coding (AAC) 169, 170, 171, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 380, 381,
172, 173, 174 382, 387
African-American students 377, 378, 382 Assistive Technology Act (2004) 193
AlphaTalker AAC device 327 assistive technology / augmentative and alter-
alternate assessment frameworks 160 native communication (AT/AAC) 251,
alternate input software 366 252, 253, 257, 258, 261
alternative input devices 366 assistive technology professionals 159
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990) assistive technology teams 160
177, 190, 191, 240, 342, 363, 364, 372, associationism 18
373 associative systems 99
amplification 178, 184 AT/AAC strategies 251
analysis of variance (ANOVA) 306, 307, 309 AT/AAC tools 251
Anderson, John 301, 302, 303, 305 AT continuum 160, 297
anger 99, 100 AT devices 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,
An Introduction to the Assistive Technology 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 265, 266, 271,
Project (lecture) 289 338
anthropology 389 AT evaluation 265
anxiety 98, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 106 attention 7, 13, 18, 19
anxiety, selective processing in 98, 99, 106 attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
apraxia 122 194
Area Education Agencies (AEA) 241, 245, audiograms 191
286, 287 auditory impairments 122
artifacts 258, 262 augmentative and alternative communication
Asperger’s disorder 338 (AAC) 251, 252, 253, 257, 258, 260,
Assessing Students’ Needs for Assistive Tech- 261, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 336, 337,
nology (ASNAT) guide 160, 162, 165, 338
167
Index
augmentative and alternative communication cognitive development 389, 390, 391, 392,
(AAC) systems 346, 357 398, 400
augmentative communication tools 121, 122, cognitive development theory 389, 390
124, 125, 128, 129, 131 cognitive difficulties 97
authentic assessment 237 cognitive disabilities 18, 21, 22, 193
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) 76, 77, 78, cognitive functioning 96, 97, 98, 101
92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 108, 121, 122, 124, cognitive impairments 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67,
125, 129, 130, 131, 134, 338 68, 69, 70, 71, 74, 122, 124, 158
automaticity 8, 11, 14, 15, 18 cognitive limitations 253
autonomic nervous system reaction 123 cognitive load 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
avatars 76, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 95 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41,
114, 116, 119,
B cognitive load theory (CLT) 18, 22, 23, 26, 27,
backwards fading 40 28, 30, 34, 35, 36, 40, 46, 54, 58, 114,
behavioral processes 98 116, 119, 301, 302, 305, 312
behaviorism 5, 18, 19 cognitive model of emotion 99, 107
between-subjects variability theory 66 cognitive overload 112, 113, 114, 115, 116
bicultural area 338 cognitive processes 98, 104, 105, 107, 389,
boppy pillow 344, 358 390
Braille displays 366 cognitive psychologists 390, 397
Bush, Vannevar 110, 116 cognitive psychology 4, 5, 16, 18, 98, 389
cognitive rehabilitation 96, 97, 98, 104, 105
C cognitive theory 389
cognitive theory of multimedia learning
CAST Strategy Tutor™ software 195
(CTML) 18, 22, 29, 32, 33, 40, 44, 45,
CAST UDL Book Builder™ software 195
46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 58
central auditory processing deficits 194
cognitive views 389
central auditory processing disorder 122
communication boards 338
cerebral palsy 344, 345
communication challenges 252
checklist of strengths and limitations 267
communication devices 158, 159
checklist of technology experiences 268
Compass Access Assessment Software 160
Chomsky, Noam 133, 134, 135, 139, 151, 152,
completion examples 40
153
complex transfer 67, 68
chunking 400
comprehensive understanding 390
chunks 18, 302, 305
computer-aided notetaking (CAN) 181
circuits, electrical 158, 161, 168
computer-based simulations 61, 62, 64, 66, 74
CLD backgrounds 374, 375
computers 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 167
CLD students 374, 375, 376, 378, 380, 381,
concept mapping 400
382
concepts 400
closed captioning 181, 312
concerns based adoption model (CBAM) 221,
closed caption video 305
222, 226, 228
cochlea 178, 179, 185, 189
concrete operational stage 390
cochlear implants 177, 178, 179, 184, 185,
conditional knowledge 18
186, 189, 341
conditioned response 393
cognition 388, 400
content validity 250
cognitive access 218
contextual matching inventory 267
cognitive architecture 96, 97, 103
452
Index
Council for Exceptional Children (CEC) tech- Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy
nology standards 245, 287 Skills (DIBELS) assessments 316
CoWriter:SOLO software 319, 320, 321 Dynavox AAC device 327, 336
CTML, active processing assumption 46, 58 DynaVox DV4 device 173, 174
CTML, dual-channels assumption 46, 58 dyslexia 194
CTML, limited capacity assumption 44, 58, 59
cue 400 E
cultural and linguistic diversity (CLD) 325, East, Inc. 173
326, 327, 329, 333, 338, 387 echoic memory 18
curriculum-based measurement (CBM) 319, ecological assessments 265, 268, 271
323 ecological AT assessment 265
educational programming suggestions 256
D
educational technology 374
data analysis tools 220 effective load 25
data-based decision-making 271 egocentric mapping 301, 312
deaf and hard of hearing (d/hh) students 176, Einstein, Albert 393
177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185 electrocardiography (ECG) 307, 309, 310, 312
Deaf community 176, 181, 182, 184, 185 electronic portfolios 254, 255, 257, 258, 259,
deafness 134 260, 261, 262, 263
declarative knowledge 18, 302, 305 electronic text 169, 170, 174, 175
DeltaTalker AAC device 327 Elementary and Secondary Education Act
DesktopChat® software 169, 171, 172, 173 (ESEA) (1965) 193
desktop virtual reality (DVR) 299, 300, 301, element interactivity 41
302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 310, e-mail 169, 170, 171
311, 312 emotional difficulties 97
determiner phrase (DP) 136, 139, 140 emotional disorders 99, 100, 101, 108
developmental disabilities 121, 122, 124, 126, emotional functioning 96
128, 129, 130, 131, 375 emotions 99, 100, 103, 107
developmental psychology 389 emotions, complex 99, 100
digital divide 365, 374, 375, 376, 377, 379, emotions, disorders of 100
380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387 empiricism 19
digital equity 375, 376, 382, 383, 384, 385, employees with disabilities 299
387 English as a second language (ESL) 378
digital portfolios 254, 262 Enhancing Education Through Technology (ED
digital text artifact matrix 222, 226 Tech) program 377
direct selection 159 episodic memory 19
disgust 99, 100 e-portfolios 288, 291, 297
disorientation 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, equity 376, 387
117, 118, 119, ethnic populations 327
diverse worked examples 35, 41 Every Move Counts, Clicks and Chats (EMC3)
divided attention 18 assessment 160
Down Syndrome (DS) 122, 124, 134, 340, executive control system 19
349, 358 expectancy-value theory 67
dual-coding theory 41, 44, 46, 58, 59 experts 69, 70
dynamic agents 95 expressive language skills 314
extraneous load 24, 25, 26, 41
453
Index
F Higginbotham, Jeff 173, 174

highly qualified teachers 176, 177, 187
face-to-face communication 170, 171 high-tech devices 358
face validity 250 human cognition 21, 22, 23, 35
far transfer 41 human-computer interfaces (HCI) 97
fear 99, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106 human information processing 21, 22, 392
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) 347 human memory 112, 115, 116
fonts 271 Hunt, Earl 301, 302, 304, 305, 312
formal operation stage 390 hypermedia 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,
free appropriate public education (FAPE) 133, 116, 117, 118, 119,
193, 197 hypermedia learning environments (HLE) 109,
frequency modulation (FM) systems 178, 179, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116
180, 184, 185 hypertext 111, 113, 117, 118, 119,
Functional Evaluation for Assistive Technology
(FEAT) 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270 I
G iconic memory 19
iGroup 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 92, 95
Gates, Bill 393 image instructional principle 51, 59
general education 193 IM (instant message) 169, 170, 171, 172, 174,
general education classrooms 133 175
general technological literacy 269 implementation 217, 219, 236, 237,
generative grammar theory 133, 135, 139 Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA)
genetic epistemology 390 (1994) 193
geocentric mapping 301, 312 individualized education programs (IEP) 160,
germane load 25, 26, 34, 35, 41 164, 165, 192, 194, 195, 197, 199, 202,
global positioning system (GPS) 365, 367, 244, 245, 266, 271, 286, 314, 340, 341,
368, 369, 370, 373 349, 352, 358, 364
grammar 133, 135, 137, 139, 142, 143, 153, Individualized Family Service Plans (IFSP)
154, 155 340, 341, 343, 344, 347, 349, 350, 351,
Grays Silent Reading Test 267 352, 358
growth portfolios 255 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
H (IDEA) 61, 158, 161, 167, 168, 240,
248, 340, 341, 342, 348, 349, 350, 352,
happiness 99, 100 353, 364
Hawking, Stephen 361, 362 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
head-directionality parameter 135 (IDEA) (1990) 240, 244, 248
headedness principle 134, 137 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
heads 134, 135, 137 (IDEA) (1994) 221
hearing aids 177, 178, 179, 180, 184, 185, 189, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
191 (IDEA) (1997) 193, 197, 199
hearing aids, behind-the-ear (BTE) 179, 191 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
hearing impairment 314 (IDEA) (2004) 132, 176, 177, 193, 199,
hearing loss 177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 187, 189, 240, 313, 318, 321
190, 191 individual-technology evaluation scale 269
hearing loss, postlingual 178, 191 individual-technology evaluation worksheets
hearing loss, prelingual 178, 191 269
454
Index
individual-technology match 269 IQ (intelligence quotient) 314, 315, 317, 318,

information/educational technology (I/ET) 319, 320, 322, 323, 324, 391
374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, irrelevant load 41
382 iSocial project 76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 83, 86, 87,
information processing approach 389, 392 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95
information processing models 5, 19, 392 iTalk 81, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95
information processing roadblocks 22
innate language faculty 133 K
innovation configuration 221, 222 King, Thomas W. 362, 365, 372
input overload 301 Knapp, David 301, 302, 305, 312
instructional/educational technology 387 knowledge, comorbidity—generalization of 98
instructional principles 48, 50, 58, 59, 60 Kurzweil 3000 text-to-speech software 200,
instructional principles, animation and interac- 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 209, 211, 213,
tivity 51, 58 215, 219, 222, 223, 224, 226, 232, 238,
instructional principles, cognitive aging 51, 58 290, 295, 296
instructional principles, coherence 48, 58 Kurzweil, Ray 363
instructional principles, collaboration 51, 58
instructional principles, guided-discovery 51, L
58
lack of preparation 301
instructional principles, modality 50, 59
language acquisition 133, 134, 135, 137, 142,
instructional principles, multimedia 51, 59
154
instructional principles, navigation 52, 59
language acquisition needs 133
instructional scaffolding 79
language disorders 135, 137, 138, 139, 143,
instructional technology (IT) 177, 178, 180,
155
184, 374
language impairment 134, 150, 151, 153, 154
insufficient training 301
language intervention software 132, 133, 143,
intellectual disabilities 124, 125, 130
147, 152
international patient aid standards (IPAS) 63
LanguageLinks®: Syntax Assessment & In-
intervention 313, 315, 318, 319, 323
tervention program 134, 142, 143, 144,
intrinsic load 24, 25, 26, 31, 32, 34, 41
146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 155
Iowa Assistive Technology Needs Assessment
Latino ethnic group 376, 377, 378, 382, 387
239, 241, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247
learner-centered education 19
Iowa Assistive Technology Text Reader Project
learners with barriers 109
201
learning disabilities (LD) 4, 19, 22, 31, 32, 33,
Iowa Center for Assistive Technology Educa-
36, 45, 54, 61, 313, 314, 315, 317, 318,
tion and Research (ICATER) 243, 244,
320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 329, 330,
250, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292,
331, 332, 333
295, 296, 297
learning, knowledge-based 64, 65
Iowa Department of Education 201, 216, 241,
learning promotion 313
246, 248
learning, rule-based 64, 65
Iowa Test of Basic Skills (ITBS) 202
learning, skill-based 64, 65
Iowa Text Reader Projects 221
learning, transfer of 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69,
Iowa Text Reader Study (2005-2006) 201, 202,
70, 71, 72, 73, 74
212, 213, 214, 220
least restrictive environment (LRE) 133, 193,
Iowa Text Reader Study (2006-2007) 202, 206,
197
220
level of use interviews 221, 226, 228
455
Index
level of use survey 222 N

lexicon 133, 135, 136, 137, 139, 143, 144, 155,
156 National Center for Education Statistics 192,
Liberator VOCA AAC device 327 196
Lifeworks Services 121, 124, 125, 126, 128, National Center for Technology Innovation
129 (NCTI) 170, 173, 174
limbic systems 123 National Early Childhood Technical Assistance
linguistic theory 132, 133, 134, 135, 137, 140, Center (NECTAC) 340, 342, 356
144, 146, 151, 154, 156 National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 241
Local Education Agencies (LEA) 193 Native American students 376, 378, 379, 383,
long-term memory (LTM) 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 384, 386, 387
14, 15, 19, 23, 26, 46, 47, 301, 305, 392 near transfer 41, 68
low incidence disabilities 338 needs assessment 239, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245,
low socioeconomic status (SES) students 377 246, 247, 250
low-tech devices 358 negative transfer 67, 68
Neo2 mini-keyboards 319
M neuroscience 389
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) (2001) 176,
magnification software 366 177, 187, 188, 193, 199, 221, 234, 377
mainstream education systems 109 non-technical pointing devices 366
Matthew effect 62 Norman, Donald 77, 94
meaningful learning 45, 55, 59 Northeast Technology Center in Oklahoma 306
medical information 256 novices 69
memex machine 110
mental retardation 314 O
mental retardation and development disabilities
(MRDD) 62, 73 occupational therapists 159
metacognition 12, 15, 16, 19, 393, 400 Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP)
metacognitive knowledge 19 342, 343, 348, 349, 354, 356
metacognitive regulation 19 on-screen keyboards 366
Minimalist Program 134, 135, 139, 142 optical character recognition (OCR) 269, 271,
mnemonic devices 400 280, 283, 366, 373
mobile assistive technology (MAT) Lab 288, optimum learning 301, 305
289, 290, 291, 294, 297 orientation 301, 302, 305
modality principle 29, 30, 34, 41, 115 orientation and wayfinding theory 301, 305,
modal model of memory 19 312
modularized connectionist networks 99 outcome measures 219, 237
moebius syndrome 345, 346 P
Montessori, Maria 393
motor speech deficits 122 parent educator connection (PEC) group 244
multimedia 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55, Parents, Let’s Unite for Kids (PLUNK) soft-
56, 57, 58, 59 ware 196
multimedia learning 45, 56, 58, 59 pedagogical strategy 88, 95
multi-sensory environments (MSE) 121, 122, peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) 316
124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131 perception 19, 400
personal information 256
456
Index
personalization instructional principle 51, 55, Q

57, 59
person-centered assessment approach 265, 266 QuickTime virtual reality (QTVR) 302, 305,
person-technology match 265, 271 307, 311, 312
phonemic-awareness skills 314 R
phone-to-phone communication 171
phonological loop 19, 44, 46 radical behaviorism 19
physical access tools 288, 290 Rasmussen, Jens 64, 73
physical challenges 252 Read and Write Gold text-to-speech software
physical impairments 122, 131, 158 196, 200, 219, 290
physical limitations 253 reading and writing aids 288, 289, 295
physical therapists 159 reading disabilities 267
Piaget, Jean 389, 390, 391, 392, 398, 399, 400 Reading Recovery intervention program 317,
Point-and-Chat® software 169, 170, 171, 172, 321
173, 174 Read Naturally software 319, 322
Point-and-Read, Inc. 169, 172, 173 real time captioning (RTC) 181
portfolios 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, real-world simulators 97
259, 260, 261, 262 reasonable accommodation 250
positioning strategies 256 receptive language skills 314
positive transfer 67 redundancy effect 114
pragmatic language use 124 redundancy instructional principle 48, 59
pragmatic skills 124 redundancy principle 31, 41
pre-operation stage 390 rehabilitation 96, 97, 98, 103, 104, 105, 106,
Prepositions! program 134, 142, 144, 146, 147, 107
148, 149, 150 Rehabilitation Act Amendments 240
preservice teacher education 286, 287 relay systems 191
preservice teachers 325, 326, 332, 333, 336 research models 220
pre-training instructional principle 50, 59 response to intervention (RTI) model 133, 150,
pre-training principle 41 313, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321,
prior knowledge 19 324
prior knowledge instructional principle 52, 59 reticular activating system 123
problem-solving intervention model 317 RTI, problem-solving approach 324
procedural knowledge 19, 32, 41, 302, 305 RTI, standard-protocol approach 324
process knowledge 41 RTI, tiers of 316, 317, 318, 319, 324
production rules 302, 305
programmed learning 400 S
progress monitoring 219, 237 sadness 99, 100
project portfolios 255 Saltillo Corporation 169, 170, 171, 172, 173
proprioception 123, 131 scaffolding 79, 95, 400
psycholinguistic research 133 scanning 271
psychological disorders 98, 105, 107 schemata 11, 19, 69, 74, 400
Public Law 94-142 (1975) 132, 193, 220, 240, Schematic, Propositional, Analogical and
247 Associative Representational Systems
(SPAARS) 99, 101, 102, 103, 107
Scherer, Marcia J. 361, 372
screen magnifying software 297
457
Index
screen readers 169, 171, 172 speech recognition software 297

screen reading software 297, 365, 366 speech recognition technology 288
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act 342 spell checkers 366, 367
segmentation instructional principle 50, 59 split-attention effect 114, 116, 118
segmenting principle 33, 34, 41 split-attention principle 28, 29, 41
selective attention 19 Stages alternate assessment framework 160,
selective processing 98, 99, 106 167
self-explanation instructional principle 52, 59 stages of concern survey 221
self-help skills 347, 348 stenotype machines 181
self-regulating behaviors 343 sticky keys 366
semantic memory 19 structure dependence principle 134
sensory challenges 121, 127 student digital text matrix 221, 222, 223
sensory impairments 122 student, environment, task, tool (SETT) frame-
sensory information 121 work 160, 167
sensory integration 123, 126, 128, 130 student learning portfolios (SLP) 253, 256
sensory issues 131 student portfolios 254
sensory memory 6, 19 students with disabilities 239, 240, 241, 243,
sensory motor stage 390 244, 247
sensory needs 121, 122, 128 subject-verb-object (SVO) pattern 135, 136
sensory registers 19, 392 SuccessMaker Enterprise software 319, 323
sensory sensitivity 121, 123 survey strategies 220
SENSwitcher program suite 161, 167 Sweller, John 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 301,
short message service (SMS) 169, 170, 171, 302, 304, 305, 311, 312
175 switches 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163,
short-term memory (STM) 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 19, 164, 166, 167, 168
20, 44, 122, 392 switches, electronic 161
signaling instructional principle 49, 59 switches, fiber optic 161
signaling principle 20 switches, infra-red beam 161
simple transfer 68 switches, mechanical 161, 162
Simplex theory 66 switches, mercury 161
site map instructional principle 52, 59 switches, pneumatic 161
slot 20 switches, proximity 161
social benefits 97 switches, sound activated 161
social interaction 391 switches, tilt 161
social orthotics 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88, switches, wireless 161
90, 91, 92, 93, 95, symbol-based learning 288, 289
social psychology 389 syntactic computational system 133, 139, 141
socio-cultural cognitive theory 389 syntax 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 142, 143, 144,
socioeconomic status (SES) 315 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154
spatial contiguity instructional principle 49, 59 synthesized computer voice 169
special education 77, 110, 115, 116, 192, 193, synthesized voices 170
194, 326, 327, 329, 330, 333, 334, 336,
337, 338 T
special education services 61, 192, 315 teacher digital text matrix 222, 223, 224
special educators 133, 145 teacher educators 325, 336
speech and language pathologists 133, 146, team-based problem-solving 265, 266
159
458
Index
technology-centered approach 20 U
technology characteristics inventory 268
Technology in the Classroom course 288, 289, universal design 247, 250, 338
295, 296 universal design for learning 177, 247, 250
Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals universal design for learning aids 288
with Disabilities Act (1988) 110, 119, universal grammar 133, 134, 153, 156
240, 364 University of Iowa College of Education 286,
Technology Related Assistance for Individuals 297
with Disabilities Act (1992) 193, 195 University of Iowa (USA) 239, 243, 286, 287,
telecomunications 191 295, 296, 297
telecomunications device for the deaf (TDD) University of Missouri (USA) 76, 93
182, 191 University of Oregon 316
teletype (TTY) 177, 178, 182, 188, 191 V
temporal contiguity instructional principle 50,
60 validated measures 201
tense phrase (TP) 136 validated measures, lack of 201
text messaging 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, vestibular input 123, 131
175 vibrating pillow 344
text-to-speech software, implementation tools virtual environments (VE) 97, 102
for 220 virtual learning environments (VLE) 78
text-to-speech software (TTS) 199, 200, 201, virtual reality (VR) 96, 97, 102, 103, 104, 105,
202, 203, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 106, 107, 301, 305, 311, 312
213, 214, 215, 216, 218, 219, , 220, 221, virtual tours 299, 303
222, 223, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 232, visual access aids 288
237, 238 visual environments 301
text-to-speech teacher portfolio artifacts 220 visual impairments 122, 314
text-to-speech teacher portfolio artifacts, ru- visuospatial sketchpad 20, 44, 46
brics for 220 vocabulary 133, 142, 143, 146, 147, 148, 149,
theoretical framework 74 150
threat evaluation system (TES) 98, 99 Vocational Rehabilitation Amendments (1973)
three dimensional (3D) virtual environments 363
76 voice instructional principle 51, 59
three dimensional virtual learning environment voice output communication aid (VOCA) 252,
(3D-VLE) 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 92, 93, 257
94, 95, Vygotsky, Lev 389, 390, 391, 392, 400
time sequence differential concurrent (TSCD)
model 216, 218, 219, 232, 238, W
Tourette syndrome 338 Waller, David 301, 302, 304, 305, 312
toys 159, 163 wayfinding 301, 302, 304
transdiagnostic approach 96, 98, 105, 107 Web accessibility 364, 373
transdiagnostic processes 96, 97, 98, 101, 103, Web-based treatments 305
104 wedge pillows 344
transfer of learning 41, 67, 72, 73, 74 wheelchairs 159, 161, 162, 163, 165, 252
transition portfolios 256, 262 Wilson, Woodrow 393
traumatic brain injuries 122
triangulation 327
Tukey HSD 308, 309
459
Index
Wisconsin Assistive Technology Initiative working memory 9, 11, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
(WATI) 160, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
168 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 56,
WordQ 290 58, 59, 301, 314
worked example-problem pairs 42 Wynn Scan and Read text-to-speech software
worked examples 27, 28, 35, 41, 42 219
worked-out example principle 52, 60
worked-out examples 41 Z
zone of proximal development (ZPD) 391
460

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Handbook of Research

on Human Cognition and

Medical inforMation science reference

Published in the United States of America by

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

British Cataloguing in Publication Data

Banerjee, Rashida / University of Northern Colorado, USA ............................................................ 339

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 401

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 443

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 451

Preface ................................................................................................................................................ xxi

Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 401

About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 443

Index ................................................................................................................................................... 451

IntroductIon and since amended and replaced with the Assistive

Definitions for the term “cognitive disability”

An Introduction to short- 568-0854. Furthermore, since it is a local num-

Classifications of Knowledge we posses. Because it is implicit, procedural

reFerences Brown, A. L. (1987). Metacognition, executive

Baddeley, A. D. (1998). Human memory: Theory Automaticity: The automatic execution of

Empiricism: The belief that knowledge origi- Metacognitive Regulation: A dimension of

Short-Term Memory (STM): A memory Technology-Centered: An approach which

IntroductIon have examined cognitive load under the premise

bAckground of which have been published in peer-reviewed

AvoIdIng extrAneous, into consideration in the design of instructional

Empirical Support for the practice problems depended on prior knowledge

There is wealth of researching investigating the the split-Attention Principle

the redundancy Principle Empirical Support for the

activities that are otherwise optional to learning reFerences

AddItIonAL reAdIng Renkl, A. (2005). The worked-out examples

Worked Example-Problem Pairs: The strat-

IntroductIon non-verbal subsystem, organizes information in

Signaling Principle We learned in the last chapter that a split-attention

learner-controlled segments rather than continuous Animation and Interactivity Principles

Navigation Principles Worked-out Example Principle

The prior knowledge principle is focused on the

IntroductIon to comprehend. He gets picked on in class and is

Figure 1. Theoretical framework and study measures

concLusIon Anderson, J. R. (1980). Cognitive psychology and

IntroductIon Learning Environment (3D-VLE) to assist youth

3D Internet-based virtual world (Laffey, Schmidt, bAckground

Figure 1. A conversation console as an early prototype of social orthotics

Figure 2. Conceptual diagram of social orthotics for iSocial: Round 2

Figure 3. An example of a “virtual” physical social orthotic

Figure 4. Illustration of an iGroup notification prompting re-orientation

Figure 5. Mock-up of the iGroup settings panel

Figure 7. Mock-up of iTalk settings panel

• Acquisition behavior, iGroup will adjust in order to increase

key terms And deFInItIons iTalk: A form of software-based social or-

IntroductIon how these could give rise to disorders. A major

IntroductIon Hypermedia presents information in an interactive

AssIstIve tecHnoLogIes classified in categories such as writing, computer

Hypermedia is a combination of networks of 1996). Hypermedia is flexible in terms of repre-

disorientation in Hypermedia dependent problems in terms of limiting the use-

meaningful topics and omit crucial ones (Nunes reFerences

IntroductIon Every day we take in sensory information

Adoption of a community-referenced approach to Pragmatic skills are “the knowledge of how

key terms And deFInItIons Multi-Sensory Environment: A designated

IntroductIon als with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) is

most important mandate in the law covering Part bAckground

language is accomplished through listening; it is universal principle is the Structure Dependence

when two elements combine, one becomes the the Lexicon