BIOCHEMISTRY

OF
HORMONES
Dr. Sumaira Irum Khan
Hormone:
 “A substance which, produced in any one part of an organism, is transferred to another part and there
influences a specific physiological process.”
 The tissues or organs where they are produced are called as effectors and those where they exert their
influence as targets.

Classification of Hormones:
1. According to Chemical Nature
2. On the basis of Mechanism of Action
3. According to Nature of Action
4. According to Effect
5. On the basis of Stimulation of Endocrine Glands.
1. According to Chemical Nature:
(a) Steroid Hormones:
 These are made up of lipids, which basically derived from cholesterol, e.g. Testosterone, Estrogen, Progesterone etc.
(b) Amine Hormones:
 These hormones are made up of amines. Amine hormone is derivative of the amino acid tyrosine. e.g. T3, T4, epinephrine,
norepinephrine.
(c) Peptide Hormones:
 These hormones are made up of few amino acid residues only and present as simple linear chain. e.g. Oxytocin
and vasopressin both consist of only 9-amino acid residues only.
(d) Protein Hormones:
 These hormones are also made amino acid residues which are much more in numbers. They represent primary,
secondary and tertiary configuration. e.g. Insulin, glucagon, STH (Somatotrophic Hormone) etc.
(e) Glycoprotein Hormones:
 These hormones are glycoprotein in nature. They are conjugated protein where carbohydrate groups are
mannose, galactose, fucose etc. e.g. LH (Luteinizing hormone), FSH (Follicle Stimilating Hormones), TSH
(Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)etc.
(f) Eicosanoids Hormones:
 The eicosanoids are small fatty acid derivatives with a variety of arachidonic acid. e.g. Prostaglandins.
2. On the Basis of Mechanism of Action:
(a) Group I hormones:
 These hormones bind to intracellular receptors to form hormone-receptor complexes (HRC), through which
their biochemical functions are mediated. These hormones are lipophilic in nature and are derivatives of
cholesterol (except T3 and T4). They are found in circulation in association with transport proteins and possess
relatively longer half-lives (hours or day). e.g. Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone, T3, T4 etc.
(b) Group II hormones:
 These hormones bind to cell surface (plasma membrane) receptors and stimulate the release of certain
molecules, namely the second messengers which in turn, perform the biochemical functions. Thus, hormones
themselves are lipophobic in nature, usually transported in the free form and possess short half-lives (in
minutes).
 Group II hormones are subdivided into three categories on the basis of chemical nature of second
messengers:
 (i) The second messenger is cAMP. e.g. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone), FSH, LH etc.
 (ii) The second messenger is phospholipid/inositol/Ca++.e.g. TRH (Thyrotropin-releasing hormone), GnRH
(Gonadotropin-releasing hormone ), Gastrin etc.
 (iii) The second messenger is unknown. e.g. STH (Somatotropin hormone ), LTH (Luteotropic hormone),
Insulin, Oxytocin etc.
3. According to Nature of Action:
 (a) Local Hormones: These hormones have got specific local effects by paracrine
secretion. e.g. Testosterone.
 (b) General Hormones: These hormones are transported by circulation to the distal target
organ/tissue. e.g. Insulin, Thyroid hormone etc.
4. According to Effect:
 (a) Kinetic Hormones: These hormones may cause pigment migration, muscle
contraction, glandular secretion etc. e.g. Pinealin, MSH, Epinephrine etc.
 (b) Metabolic Hormones: These hormones mainly changes the rate of metabolism and
balance the reaction. e.g. Insulin, Glucagon, PTH etc.
 (c) Morphogenetic Hormones: These hormones are involved in growth and
differentiation. e.g. STH, LTH, FSH, Thyroid hormones etc.
5. On the Basis of Stimulation of Endocrine Glands:
 (a) Tropic Hormones: These hormones stimulate other endocrine glands for secretion. e.g. TSH of pituitary stimulates se-
cretion of thyroid gland.
 (b) Non-tropic Hormones: These hormones exert their effect on non-endocrine target tissues. e.g. Thyroid hormone
increases the O2 consumption rate and metabolic activity of almost every cells.
Function of Hormones:
 The hormones conduct a wide variety of functions ranging from growth, vegetative and
sexual development, cellular oxidation to thermal production and the metabolism of
carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
 The various functions performed by hormones may, in general, be discussed under
following heads:
1. Regulatory or homeostatic function. The hormones have regulatory effects on the
composition of the body fluids, the rate of gaseous exchange and the activity of the vascular
system and the central nervous system (CNS). There always exists a high degree of
precision and constancy in the composition of the body fluids in a normal individual for the
conduction of various activities.
2. Permissive function. Not only does each endocrine gland affect a number of processes, but
these glands also affect the functioning of one another. Thus certain hormones require the
presence (or permission‘) of another hormone for the expression of their activity. This helps
in maintaining a perfect hormonal balance. Derangements of this balance, either clinical or
experimental, lead to a variety of metabolic aberrations
3. Integrative function. The integrative function of the hormones is reflected in the fact that
they support the role of nervous system. However, the integrative properties of the endocrine
system are slow and steady whereas those of the nervous system are rapid. This close tie
between the two systems has led to the emergence of a new discipline of science called
neuroendocrinology.
4. Morphogenetic function. The hormones govern the ontogenetic development of an
individual from the embryonic to the adult state.
 Chemically, a hormone may be any kind of organic molecule. Most known hormones are
either steroids or peptides with usually high molecular weights. A third group of hormones,
which is less common, consists of amino acid derivatives (or phenolic derivatives) with
relatively low molecular weights. Thus, three categories of hormones may be recognized:
steroids, peptides and amino acid derivatives.
Where the hormone is Hormone(s) secreted Hormone function
produced
Adrenal glands Aldosterone Regulates salt, water balance, and blood pressure

Adrenal glands Corticosteroid Controls key functions in the body; acts as an anti-
inflammatory; maintains blood sugar levels, blood
pressure, and muscle strength; regulates salt and
water balance
Pituitary gland Antidiuretic hormone Affects water retention in kidneys; controls blood
(vasopressin) pressure
Pituitary gland Adrenocorticotropic hormone Controls production of sex hormones (estrogen in
(ACTH) women and testosterone in men) and the
production of eggs in women and sperm in men.

Pituitary gland Growth hormone (GH)
Pituitary gland Luteinizing hormone (LH) and
follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH)
Affects growth and development; stimulates
protein production; affects fat distribution
Controls production of sex hormones (estrogen in
women and testosterone in men) and the
production of eggs in women and sperm in men
Where the hormone is Hormone(s) secreted Hormone function
produced
Pituitary gland Oxytocin Stimulates contraction of uterus and milk ducts in
the breast
Pituitary gland Prolactin Initiates and maintains milk production in breasts;
impacts sex hormone levels

Pituitary gland Thyroid-stimulating hormone Stimulates the production and secretion of thyroid
(TSH) hormones
Ovaries Estrogen Affects development of female sexual
characteristics and reproductive development,
important for functioning of uterus and breasts;
also protects bone health

Ovaries Progesterone Stimulates the lining of the uterus for fertilization;

prepares the breasts for milk production

Pineal gland Melatonin Releases melatonin during night hours to help with sleep
Where the hormone is Hormone(s) secreted Hormone function
produced
Kidneys Renin and angiotensin Controls blood pressure, both directly and also by
regulating aldosterone production from the
adrenal glands

Kidneys Erythropoietin Affects red blood cell (RBC) production

Pancreas Glucagon Raises blood sugar levels

Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood sugar levels; stimulates metabolism

of glucose, protein, and fat

Parathyroid glands Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Most important regulator of blood calcium levels

Thyroid gland Thyroid hormone Controls metabolism; also affects growth,

maturation, nervous system activity, and
metabolism
Adrenal glands Epinephrine Increases heart rate, oxygen intake, and blood
flow
Where the hormone is Hormone(s) secreted Hormone function
produced

Hypothalamus Growth hormone releasing hormone Regulates growth hormone release in

(GHRH) the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) Regulates thyroid stimulating hormone

release in the pituitary gland

Hypothalamus Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) Regulates LH/FSH production in the

pituitary gland

Hypothalamus Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) Regulates adrenocorticotropin release

in the pituitary gland

Thymus Humoral factors Helps develop the lymphoid system

Adrenal glands Norepinephrine Maintains blood pressure

Testes (testicles) Testosterone Develop and maintain male sexual

characteristics and maturation
Regulation of melatonin synthesis by the pineal gland to control circadian
rhythms in the brain
Endocrine System:
 The endocrine system is made up of seven different glands that make
chemicals called hormones.
 Hormones are substances that act as "messengers" to control many body
functions. The endocrine system makes hormones that help control.
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Sexual development
• Use and storage of energy
• Response to physical stress or trauma
• Levels of water, salt and sugar in the body
Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is located in the center of the brain. It makes hormones that increase or
decrease the release of the hormones made in the pituitary gland. It also makes hormones
that help to control water balance, sleep, temperature, appetite and blood pressure.
Pituitary
 The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain and is about the size of a pea. It is the
master gland in the endocrine system. It regulates the amounts of hormone made by the
thyroid gland, adrenal gland, and testes or ovaries. It also makes the hormones prolactin and
vasopressin, and growth hormone.
Thyroid and Parathyroid
 The thyroid gland and parathyroid glands are located in front of the neck, below the larynx
(voice box). The thyroid plays an important role in the body's growth and development, as
well as metabolism. Both the thyroid and parathyroid glands also play a role in controlling
the level of calcium in the body.
Adrenal Gland
 The adrenal glands are located on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands make hormones
that help the body deal with stress and illness. The hormones made by the adrenal gland
also maintain blood pressure and blood glucose, and plays a role in sexual development.
Pancreas
 The pancreas is located behind the stomach. It plays a role in digesting food, but it also
makes hormones. The pancreas makes insulin, which is important for blood sugar control.
Ovaries
 A female's ovaries are located on both sides of the uterus, below the opening of the
fallopian tubes (which extend from the uterus to the ovaries). In addition to containing the
egg cells necessary for reproduction, the ovaries also produce the hormones estrogen and
progesterone. These hormones regulate the menstrual cycle.
Testes
 A male's testes are located in the scrotum. The testes produce testosterone and sperm.
 Endocrine System Disorders
• Acromegaly. Sometimes the pituitary gland makes too much growth
hormone and your bones get bigger. It usually affects your hands, feet, and
face. It usually starts in middle age.
• Adrenal insufficiency. When you have this, your adrenal glands don’t make
enough of certain hormones, like cortisol, which controls stress.
• Cushing's disease. In this, your body makes too much cortisol. You could
gain weight, get stretch marks, bruise easily at first, then get weakened
muscles and bones and possibly develop a hump on your upper back.
• Hyperthyroidism. This is when your thyroid gland makes more hormones
than your body needs. You might hear it called overactive thyroid. It makes
your system run fast and you might feel nervous, lose weight, and have a
rapid heartbeat or trouble sleeping.
• Hypothyroidism. When your body doesn’t make enough thyroid hormone,
your system slows down. You might feel tired, gain weight, have a slow
heartbeat, and get joint and muscle pains.
• Hypopituitarism. Sometimes your pituitary gland doesn’t make enough of
certain hormones and your adrenal and thyroid glands can’t work right.
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia. This is a group of disorders that affect your
endocrine system. It causes tumors on at least two endocrine glands or in other
organs and tissues.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome. An imbalance of reproductive hormones can
cause your ovaries to either not make an egg or not release it during ovulation.
This can throw off your periods, cause acne, and make hair to grow on your
face or chin.
• Precocious puberty. When glands that control reproduction don’t work
properly, some kids start puberty abnormally early -- around 8 in girls and 9 in
boys.
Intracellular structure of a typical endocrine cell.
 The process of protein hormone synthesis begins when a hormone or an active
metabolite stimulates a receptor in the cell membrane.
 This leads to the activation of specific molecules of DNA in the nucleus and the
formation of a prohormone.
 The prohormone is transported through the endoplasmic reticulum, is packaged into
secretory vesicles in the Golgi apparatus, and is ultimately secreted from the cell in its
active, hormone form.
Islets of Langerhans
The islets of Langerhans
contain alpha, beta, and
delta cells that produce
glucagon, insulin, and
somatostatin,
respectively. A fourth
type of islet cell, the F
(or PP) cell, is located at
the periphery of the islets
and secretes pancreatic
polypeptide. These
hormones regulate one
another's secretion
through paracrine cell-
cell interactions.