68 Choices in Numerical Integration 223 68 CHOICES IN NUMERICAL INTEGRATION : Except for special geometries such as rectangular and parallelogram elements, with uni- formly spaced side nodes (if present), numerical integration.of element stiffness coeffi- cients cannot provide exact results. Accuracy of integration can be increased by using ‘more integration points. Will more points also increase the accuracy of computed FE. results? Not necessarily. FE results may become more accurate if the order of quadrature is reduced. But use of a low order quadrature rule may allow elements to have one or more. spurious modes, with consequences that may or may not be serious, depending on the physical problem and the nature of the spurious mode. Spurious modes can be avoided by using some tricks in element formulation, but each trick may introduce some other trou- ble. These matters are summarized in the present section. Full Integration. We define “full integration” as 2 quadrature rule of sufficient accuracy to exactly integrate all stiffness coefficients ky of an undistorted element. Quadrilateral and hexahedral elements are undistorted if they are rectangular and side nodes (if present) are uniformly spaced along straight sides or straight edges. The Jacobian J of an undis- torted element is constant within the element. Consequently all terms in the stiffness matrix integrand are polynomials rather than ratias of polynomials. The simplest example of this behavior appears in Eqs. 6.1-6 to 6.1-8 when xp = (x, + 3)/2. Equations in Sec- tion 62 show that the [B] matrix of a four-node plane rectangle is a linear function of € and 7, Then, if thickness is uniform and (E) is constant, the stiffness matrix integrand {B)"[E)(B] r J contains squares of £ and 7. Therefore an order 2 Gauss rule (four points) integrates (| exactly. Similarly, (k] of an eight-node rectangular solid element is inte- grated exactly by an order 2 Gauss rule (eight points). The (B] matrix of an undistorted cight- or nine-node plane element contains squares of £ and 7, so fourth powers appear in the integrand and a 3 by 3 Gauss rule provides exact integration. If element geometry is distorted, “full integration” is taken to mean the integration rule bal would be exact if element geometry were not distorted. Thus, for an arbitrarily shaped ight-node solid element, an order 2 Gauss rule is considered full integration. Underintegration and Spurious Modes. Use of an integration rule of less than full order is called “underintegration” or “reduced” integration. Underintegration reduces computa- tion time, which may be an important consideration in some analyses that are nonlinear and/or dynamic. Also, underintegration may improve the accuracy of computed FE results by offsetting the overstffness associated with compatible elements based on assuined dis- placement fields. Underintegration has a softening effect because some polynomial terms vanish at Gauss points of a low-order nile and therefore make no contribution to strain energy. But underintegration introduces the defect variously known as spurious mode, sin- ‘gular mode, zero-energy deformation mode, hourglass mode, kinematic mode, instability, ‘and mechanism. An element whose stiffness matrix incorporates a spurious mode has no resistance to nodal loads that tend to activate the mode. Mathematically, an underinte- ‘rated [Kk] is called rank-deficient, which means that its order minus the number of possi- ble rigid-body motions is greater than its rank. Consider independent displacement modes of a four-node plane element, as shown in. Fig, 6.8-1. Modes 1 through 3 are rigid-body modes. They display no strain energy. Modes 4 through 6 are constant-strain modes, and modes 7 and 8 are bending modes. Full integra- tion for this element is a2 by 2 Gauss rule, which provides an element stiffness matrix that