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.
(a) free particle (©) simple harmonic oscillator
Fig. 2.8 Phase space orbits: (a) free particle; (b) simple harmonic oscillator.
Hamiltonian. The hamiltonian will play a crucial role in subsequent
developments. We illustrate its role in classical mechanics. Define it as
H(p,q) =
For the simple harmonic oscillator, for example, it follows from Eq. (2.10)
that
(p) + V(q) ; hamiltonian (2.11)
2
Hq) = 2+ dag? ; sho. (2.12)
2
Hamilton’s equations. After two centuries of classical mechanics, it is
not too surprising that a more symmetric, and more elegant, formulation Classical Physics 13
of Newton’s laws could be found. This was done by Hamilton. Consider
H(p,q), and take
aH(,a) [# pds
p 4p \aaconst, ™ at
oh ae =(¢ (2.13)
p=const.
Hence Hamilton’s equations, which are here fully equivalent to Newton’s
laws, state that
OH(p,q) _ dq : oy
=4 ; Hamilton's equations
OH(p,q) _ _ dp 1,
pe at & Newton's laws (2.14)
The partial derivatives on the left-hand-sides (1-h.s.) of these relations, de-
fined in Eqs. (2-13), imply that the other variable in H(p,q) is to be held
fixed during the differentiation. The hamiltonian, through these relations,
describes how the particle moves in phase space. At the end, after the equa-
tions of motion have been computed from the hamiltonian in Eq. (2.11),
one has the statement of conservation of energy
H = E = constant } energy conservation: (2.15)
2.1.2 Continuum Mechanics
String. The equation of motion of a continuous string can now be obtained
by applying Newton’s second law to each little mass element of the string.
Suppose the equilibrium stretched position of the string lies along the «-
axis. Then (Fig. 2.9):
* A differentially small mass element of the string is given by dm = pdz
where
dm
p= GT, = mass density (2.16)
© The force transmitted along the string is given by the tension T
tension (2.17)
« Suppose the displacement of the string from equilibrium takes place in
the (2,y) plane. Denote this displacement in the y-direction by q(c, t); 4 Introduction to Modern Physics: Theoretical Foundations
© To simplify, assume that both p and 7 are constant along the string.
y-axis
t ‘
dm= p dx
x-axis
Fig. 2.9 Motion of a string with mass density p and tension 7. The displacement of
the string in the transverse y-direction, from its equilibrium stretched position along the
z-axis, is denoted by q(c, t).
Now write Newton’s second law for the little mass element. The mass
times the acceleration at a given x is
a
mass x acceleration = pdx | <4
de x fixed
The force in the y-direction on the little mass element at a given instant in
time is (see Fig. 2.10)
(2.18)
Fy = 7 (sin0(@ + dz) — sin 6(2)]+ fixed (2.19)
For small displacements, this expression can be linearized by assuming
sin@ ~ tan, which is then given by the slope of the string at either end of
the small element
Fy © 7 [tan O(a + de) — tan9(2)); fea
a a) _ da
dx in+da dx tt fixed
= a&q
=rde [3] - (2.20) Classical Physics 15
T 7
Ou+dx)
8@
t
Fig. 2.10 Force in the y-direction on the little element of string in Fig. 2.9.
‘Newton's second law for the small mass element of the string is obtained
by combining the above expressions
&q = &q
08s Liane
Upon cancelation of the factor dr, one obtains the one-dimensional wave
equation for the string
GPa (x,t) _ 1 Ha(x,t)
Ox?
ae
} wave equation
3 (velocity)? (2.22)
Pp
Here the partial derivatives again imply that the other variable in q(z,t)
is to be held fixed during the differentiation. This is a very important
result. ‘The planar motion of the string is governed by the second-order
partial differential wave equation for the transverse displacement of the
string q(z,1); and that equation has been linearized in the displacement,
which is assumed to be small. The square of the wave velocity appearing
in this equation is given by the ratio of the tension to the mass density of
the string.
D’Alembert’s Solution. Let f(z) be any twice differentiable function
(Fig. 2.11), and define @ = x—ct. Then f(z) = f(x — ct) provides
D’Alembert’s solution to the one-dimensional wave equation
f@) = fle — et) ; D’Alembert’s solution (2.23) 16 Introduction to Modern Physics: Theoretical Foundations
1~
x
Fig. 2.11 Example of a twice differentiable function f(¢).
This is proven simply by using the chain rule for differentiation
Of df OE
4 FE _ 1)
a:
2
Sh = (ofa) (2.24)
Hence q(x,t) = f(#) = f(x — ct) satisfies Eq. (2.22), and the result is
established.
Let us try to interpret this solution. Introduce a coordinate system
whose origin O moves with a velocity c along the z-axis relative to the
fixed (laboratory) system with origin O, as illustrated in Fig. 2.12. The
spatial coordinate in this moving frame is just Z = « — ct, and the function
J(@) retains its shape relative to this coordinate system. Hence we conclude
that:
This pulse f(z) = f(x — ct) moves without change in shape with
velocity ¢ in the x-direction.
Readers are urged to demonstrate this for themselves by sending a small
amplitude pulse of any shape down a stretched string (or spring).
Clearly, since the wave equation is linear, any linear combination of so-
lutions again provides a solution. This is referred to as linear superposition.
Furthermore, changing ¢ + —c does not affect the argument in Eqs. (2.24).
‘Thus a disturbance of the form
(x,t) = f(w—ct)+g(a+ct) — ; D’Alembert’s solution
linear superposition (2.25)
One says there is “no dispersion” of the solution. Classical Physics 7
again provides a solution to the one-dimensional wave equation for any twice
differentiable functions (f,g). The second term has the interpretation of a
pulse moving in the opposite direction.
2.12 Interpretation of D’Alembert’s solution with a function f(z) as illustrated in
2.11, O is the origin of a coordinate system moving with velocity c in the z-direction
relative to the fixed (laboratory) frame with origin O. The function f(z) = f(x ~ ct)
retains its shape relative to this moving coordinate system.
Wave Solution. Consider a particular form for the function f(z)
. Qn :
F(&) = cos [% (w- ] j wave solution (2.26)
From the previous discussion we know that this represents a wave moving
without change in shape in the z-direction with velocity c. A snapshot of
this wave at a given instant in time yields the curve shown in the upper
part of Fig. 2.13. The disturbance repeats itself after a spatial distance 2,
which represents the wavelength of this disturbance.
= wavelength (2.27)
If one sits at a fixed position «, the disturbance oscillates in time and
repeats itself after a time period p = X/e
a
e=s ; period (2.28)
The frequency v with which the disturbance repeats itself is just the inverse
of the period
; frequency
ole
die
(2.29) 18 Introduction to Modern Physics: Theoretical Foundations
‘The last result vA = c is a crucial one for waves described by the one-
dimensional wave equation.
fixed t x
fixed x at
a4 9
Fig. 2.13 Interpretation of the wave solution in Eq. (2.26). Snapshot at a fixed time
(upper figure); time-dependent oscillation at a fixed x (lower figure)
The wavenumber k and angular frequency w are defined as
; wavenumber
; angular frequency (2.30)
Hence the solution in Bq. (2.26) can also be written as
J(@) =cos(ke—wt) —_; wave solution (2.31)
Normal Modes. Let us look for a solution to the wave Eq. (2.22) where
everything oscillates with the same frequency. Try
q(x, t) = q(x)cos(wt+6) ; Try it (2.32)
Upon substitution of this expression, and cancelation of the factor
cos (wt + 6), the wave equation is reduced to
&
ale) = —K4(2) ; Helmholtz eqn (2.33)
This is an ordinary second-order differential equation in the spatial coor-
dinate x, the scalar Helmholtz equation.” It can be integrated numerically,
7 We will meet this equation again in quantum mechanics when we look for stationary-
state solutions to the Schrédinger equation. Classical Physics 19
for example, exactly as in our discussion of Newton’s laws. If one spec-
ifies (q,dq/dz)z,, the displacement and slope at a boundary position 9,
then the solution is determined for all other values of the coordinate x. Of
course, one can specify other boundary conditions; one needs two of them
for this second-order equation.
Fig. 2.14 Numerical integration of the Helmholtz equation upon specification of the
boundary values (q,dq/d2)25
Fixed Endpoints. Consider a string with fixed endpoints (Fig. 2.15). In
this case, if one is solving numerically as discussed above, it is necessary
to start with the correct slope at the boundary where x = 0 so that the
solution comes back to zero at the second boundary where « = L.
Fig. 2.15 String with fixed endpoints.
The general solution to Eq. (2.33) can be written as a linear combination
of sines and cosines
g(a) = Asinka + Beoskx (2.34)
where (A, B) are constants. Here the solution must vanish at the endpoints, 20 Introduction to Modern Physics: Theoretical Foundations
which gives the conditions
q0)=0 +B=0
q(L)=0 = AsinkL=0 (2.35)
The last relation in Eqs. (2.35) can evidently only be satisfied for certain
values of k, label them kn, with a corresponding set of frequencies wn = knc
kab =n ; 2 =1,2,3,-++,00
re i
= ® n eigenvalues (2.36)
These are known as the eigenvalues for this problem. The corresponding
solutions, labeled as gn(z), are known as the eigenfunctions.® We choose
to normalize them with a factor (2/L)'/? for reasons that will become
apparent. Thus
2\"? onc
an(z) = (3) sin(“) 5 n=1,2,3,-++,00
eigenfunctions (2.37)
With these boundary conditions, one finds a discrete set of frequencies for
the normal modes; these include the fundamental frequency w; and all the
harmonics 2w;,3w,---. The full time-dependent, normal-mode solution is
then
ay? nme
dn (2,t) = (3) sin CF) cos (Wnt +4n) ; normal mode (2.38)
where d, is an arbitrary phase. Each of these normal modes provides a
particular solution to the wave Eq. (2.22).
Let us examine a few of the eigenfunctions. Consider the first eigen-
function with n = 1 as illustrated in Fig. 2.16. In this case
a\? xe
OPE oe
re
aa fundamental (2.39)
One can understand this eigenvalue by simply fitting one-half wavelength
Note that n = 0 produces no displacement of the string, and the eigenfunctions for
the negative integers are not linearly independent of those given here. Classical Physics a1
Fig. 2.16 igenfunction with n = 1.
between the fixed boundaries of the string
; half wavelength
of (@)" (2.40)
Here the explicit expression for the wave velocity in Eq, (2.22) has been
inserted in the last equation.
‘The situation for the first overtone with n = 2 is illustrated in Fig. 2.17.
Fig. 2.17 Eigenfunction with n = 2.
In this case
ONG ee
a(2)=(F) sin
oe first overtone (2.41) 22 Introduction to Modern Physics: Theoretical Foundations
To understand this solution, one simply fits a full wavelength into the string
; full wavelength
sob
vou
yla>
dle
2ne
L
&
I
y
y
y= etc. (2.42)
General Solution with Fized Endpoints. Let us now construct the full
solution to the wave Eq, (2.22) for a string with fixed endpoints. First, we
again employ linear superposition and observe that any linear combination
of the normal modes in Eq. (2.38) again yields a solution
atest) = > Anda(2) cos (ont +5)
=
= 2\? Pa AULA
= Xu a (3) sin () cos (wat + bn) (2.43)
where (An, dn) with n = 1,2,--+ ,0o are constants, to be determined. This
expression has the following properties:
« It satisfies the wave Eq. (2.22), since each term does;
© It satisfies the boundary conditions of fixed endpoints, since each term
does.
The question is, what is left? From Newton’s second law for a mass point,
as discussed in the previous section, we know that we must specify both the
position and velocity of each little mass element in order to find a solution
for the subsequent motion of the string. Thus, to complete the solution, we
must match the initial conditions
Initial Conditions. To complete the solution in Eq. (2.43), we must
specify both the shape of the string at the initial time, say t = 0, as well as
the initial velocity. Thus both q(z,0) and [0q(zx,t)/Ot};—0 must be matched
for all x, as illustrated in Fig. 2.18.
4(z,0) = Classical Physics 23
These equations indeed determine the constants (An, 6,) for all n (see be-
low). Equation (2.43) then provides the full solution to the wave equation,
and hence the complete motion of the string, for all subsequent time.
.q(x.0)
ot
Fig. 2.18 Initial conditions for string. Both q(z,0) and [8q(z,t)/dt}z=0 must be
matched.
2.1.3 Some Mathematics
The expressions in Eqs. (2.44) are Fourier series of the form
J (2) = Yanda (2)
n=l
n(x) = Gy" sin (F) (2.45)
‘A large class of functions can be represented in this fashion. The series
are complete for the class of functions required for our continuous string
problem.? To solve for the Fourier coefficients, one makes use of the or-
thonormality of the eigenfunctions (see appendix C)
[entoestete= 2 [team (82) sn (2)
Here dmn is the Kronecker delta defined by
mn (2.46)
bmn =1 ; ifm=n
=0 jifmén (2.47)
See, for example, [Fetter and Walecka (2003)]. We do not here go into the niceties
of operating on these series term-by-term, which depends on convergence. Suffice is to
say that integration, as a smoothing function, is generally permitted. 24 Introduction to Modern Physics: Theoretical Foundations
Now multiply Eq. (2.45) by ¢m(z) = (2/L)¥?sin (mnz/L), and integrate
on z from 0 to L using the orthonormality of the eigenfunctions
:
ff ¢n(e (2) de = om (2.48)
This solves for the Fourier coefficients. The application of this procedure
to Eqs. (2.44) yields
ia 2\'? mmx
Am 008 6 -f (2,0) (2) sin (™™) ae
: ” 1 8q(a,t) 2)? ommnx
stm sind = f oe (2) sin (™) ae (2.49)
This provides an explicit solution for the Fourier coefficients (Am; 6m) in
terms of the initial conditions q(z,0) and [0q(z,t)/dt|+-0. Note, again,
that these functions must be provided for all x. Note also that it is now
clear that both q(x,0) and [8q(z,t)/Ot]:-0 must be specified in order to
determine the entire set of coefficients (Am, 5m) for all 1
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