the maintenance of body
This constriction can
Muscular System
LECTRURE#1
7.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Following are the major functions of
the muscular system:
1. Movement of the body.
a) Contraction of skeletal muscles
is responsible for the overall
movements of the body, such as
walking, running, and
manipulating objects with the
hands.
2. Maintenance of posture.
a) Skeletal muscles constantly
maintain tone, which keeps us
sitting or standing erect.
3. Respiration.
a) Muscles of the thorax carry out
breathing movements.
4. Production of body heat.
a) When skeletal muscles contract,
heat is given off as a by-product.
This released heat is critical to
constrict.
temperature.
5. Communication.
a) Skeletal muscles are involved in
all aspects of communication,
including speaking, writing,
typing, gesturing, and facial
expressions.
6. Constriction of organs and vessels.
a) The contraction of smooth
muscle within the walls of
internal organs and vessels
causes those structures to
help propel and mix food and
water in the digestive tract,
propel secretions from organs,
and regulate blood flow through
vessels.
7. Contraction of the heart.
a) The contraction of cardiac
muscle causes the heart to beat,
propelling blood to all parts of
the body
7.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF
MUSCLE TISSUE
Muscle tissue has four major
functional characteristics:
1. Contractility is the ability of muscle
to shorten forcefully, or contract.
Skeletal muscle contraction, causes the
structures to which they are attached
(such as a bone) to move. Smooth
muscle or cardiac muscle contraction
increases pressure inside the organ it
surrounds, such as the intestines or the
heart. On the other hand, muscle
lengthens passively. Forces that oppose
contraction cause muscle to lengthen.
Examples of these types of forces
include gravity pulling on a limb and the
pressure of fluid in a hollow organ, such
as urine in the bladder. Thus, muscle
shortening is forceful and muscle
lengthening is passive.
2. Excitability is the capacity of muscle
to respond to a stimulus. For skeletal
muscle, the stimulus to contract is from
nerves that we consciously control.
Smooth and cardiac muscle fibers
contract spontaneously, but also receive
involuntary neural signals and hormonal
signals to modulate force or rate of
contraction.
3. Extensibility means that a muscle
can be stretched beyond its normal
resting length and still be able to
contract.
4. Elasticity is the ability of muscle to
recoil to its original resting length after it
has been stretched.
7.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF
SKELETAL MUSCLE
A. Describe the microscopic structure of
a muscle, and produce diagrams that
illustrate the arrangement of myofibrils,
sarcomeres, and myofilaments.
B. Describe a resting membrane
potential and an action potential.
C. Describe a neuromuscular junction.
D. Explain the events that occur in
muscle contraction and relaxation.
E. Define muscle twitch, tetanus,
recruitment, and summation.
F. Distinguish between fast-twitch and
slow-twitch fibers, and explain the
function for which each type is best
adapted.
G. Distinguish between aerobic and
anaerobic respiration.
H. Compare the mechanisms involved in
the major types of fatigue.
I. Distinguish between isometric and
isotonic contractions.
J. Define muscle tone.
Skeletal Muscle Structure
Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, with
its associated connective tissue,
constitutes approximately 40% of body
weight. Skeletal muscle is so named
because many of the muscles are
attached to the skeletal system.
However, some skeletal muscle
attaches to the skin or connective tissue
sheets. Skeletal muscle is also called
striated muscle because transverse
bands, or striations, can be seen in the
muscle under the microscope. Individual
skeletal muscles, such as the biceps
brachii, are complete organs. A skeletal
muscle consists of skeletal muscle
tissue, nervous tissue, connective tissue,
and adipose tissue.
Connective Tissue Coverings of
Muscle
 Each skeletal muscle (such as
the biceps brachii) is surrounded
by a connective tissue sheath
called the epimysium or
muscular fascia.
 Each whole muscle is subdivided
into numerous visible bundles
called muscle fascicles.
 A loose connective tissue called
the perimysium separates
muscle fascicles from each other.
 Each fascicle is then subdivided
into separate muscle cells, called
muscle fibers.
 A loose connective tissue called
the Endomysium surrounds
each muscle fiber.
 is due to hypertrophy in - associated with
response to muscle usage. enlarged portions of the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum called the
MUSCLE PROTEINS sarcoplasmic reticulum.
-T tubules connect the
Each sarcomere consists of an
sarcolemma to the terminal
actin myofilament and myosin
cisternae to form a triad
myofilament. The middle-most region is
called the M line that is found within the Sarcoplasmic reticulum
H zone all enclosed inside the A band
which is found between two I band.  The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber
Muscle Development Each sarcomere is separated by a Z has a relatively high
disk which are seen within each I band. concentration of Ca2+, which
1. Myoblast precursor cells plays a major role in muscle
a. mononucleated cells that Muscle Fiber Structure contraction.
fuse together to form a  each muscle fiber contains
myoblast. Muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell,
many bundles of protein
2. Myoblast- “myo” (muscle) with several nuclei located at its
filaments. These bundles
“blast” (young cells) periphery.
are
multinucleated, immature The largest human muscle fibers can called myofibrils
muscle fibers (myocytes). be almost a foot long; The range is from
a. Accumulates contractile 1 cm to 30 cm. They are 0.15 mm in
proteins in the cytoplasm diameter. Such giant cells may contain
to develop into mature cell. several thousand nuclei.
3. Muscle Fibers-
a. mature cells that make up Sarcolemma
the functional unit of the
muscular system-  cell membrane of the muscle fiber
sarcomere.  has many tubelike inward folds:
 Muscle fibers no longer Transverse tubules or T
Myofibrils consist of two major kinds
multiply maintaining a tubules
of protein fibers:
relatively constant number -occur at regular intervals
after birth. The increase size along the muscle fiber and extend 1. Actin myofilaments
into the center of the muscle fiber. 2. Myosin myofilaments.
Terminal cisternae cross-bridge with the myosin light -The parts of the myosin
chains. molecule that resemble golf club heads
 The enlarged portions 2. Series of tropomyosin molecules- are referred to as myosin heads.
Sarcomeres hides the active sites of F actin
molecules. Composition of Myosin (thick)
 is the basic structural and functional 3. Series of troponin which has myofilaments:
unit of a skeletal muscle because it three subunits: 1. Many elongated myosin
is the smallest portion of a skeletal molecules- composed of 2 heavy
muscle capable of contracting. Troponin I (TnI)- binds to actin
chains wounded together and 2
 Structures called Z disks separate Troponin C (TnC)- binds to light chains on each heads of
one sarcomere from the next. A Z calcium the heavy chain.
disk is a network of protein fibers  Heavy chains connect each of the
Troponin T (TnT)- binds to
that forms a stationary anchor for sarcomere
tropomyosin
actin myofilaments to attach. One  Light chains interacts with the
sarcomere extends from one Z disk Troponin active sites of the F actin.
to the next Z disk.
The myosin heads have three
 molecules have binding sites for
Actin and Myosin Myofilaments important properties:
Ca2+
 attached at specific intervals (1) The heads bind to attachment sites
Actin Myofilaments
along the actin myofilaments on the actin myofilaments;
-or thin filaments, are made up of
three components: actin, troponin, and
Tropomyosin (2) they bend and straighten during
contraction; and
tropomyosin. The actin strands have  filaments block the myosin
attachment sites for the myosin myofilament binding sites on the (3) they break down ATP, releasing
myofilaments. They resemble two actin myofilaments energy.
minutes strands of pearls twisted
 cover the attachment sites on the
together. actin myofilament, which prevents
Types of Muscle Contractions
Composition of Actin (thin) a contraction from occurring. two types of muscle contractions:
myofilaments: isometric and isotonic.
Myosin myofilaments
1. Two strands of fibrous (F) actin
-or thick myofilaments, resemble
molecules- has active sites
bundles of tiny golf clubs
responsible for the formation of
 Isometric
Are responsible for the constant
length of the body’s postural muscles,
such as the muscles of the back.
during eccentric contractions, and
muscles can be injured during repetitive
eccentric contractions, as sometimes
occurs in the hamstring muscles when a
person runs downhill.
 Myotonic muscular dystrophy-
failure of the muscle to relax after
a forceful contraction.

Isotonic MUSCLE CONDITIONS AND

(equal tension) contractions have
a constant amount of tension while
decreasing the length of the muscle.
Movements of the arms or fingers are
predominantly isotonic contractions.
Most muscle contractions are a
combination of isometric and isotonic
contractions. The muscles both shorten
and have increased tension.
Concentric contractions
are isotonic contractions in which
muscle tension increases as the muscle
shortens. Many common movements
are produced by concentric muscle
contractions.
Eccentric contractions
are isotonic contractions in which
tension is maintained in a muscle, but
the opposing resistance causes the
muscle to lengthen. Eccentric
contractions are used when a person
slowly lowers a heavy weight.
Substantial force is produced in muscles
THEIR KNOWN CAUSES
 Cramps- dehydration and ion
imbalance.
 Chronic muscle pain syndrome-
“myalgia”; idiopathic.
 Hypertrophy- normal in skeletal
muscles; abnormal in cardiac
muscles.
 Atrophy- occurs due to muscle
disuse.
 Myasthenia gravis- autoimmune
disease that competes with
acetylcholine.
 Tendinitis- overuse of skeletal
muscle.
 Fibrosis- deposition of connective
tissue.
 Fibrositis- prolonged skeletal
muscle tension.
 Dystrophy- group of genetic
disorders of muscle degeneration.
 Duchenne- type muscular
dystrophy- alteration of genes
that code for dystrophin.
 Nervous System
LECTURE#2
 The regulatory and coordinating
activities of the nervous system
are necessary for the human
body to function normally.
3. Integrating information.
 The MOST COMPLEX SYSTEM
in the body
 Formed by a network of many
billion nerve cells (neurons), all
assisted by many more
supporting cells (glial cells)
 The nervous tissue is distributed
throughout the body as an
4. Controlling
integrated communication
network
The nervous system allows for
this in the following ways:
1. Maintaining homeostasis
Trillions of cells work together to
maintain homeostasis
2. Receiving sensory input
5. Establishing and maintaining
Sensory receptors monitor
numerous external and internal
stimuli. We are aware of
sensations from some stimuli,
such as sight,
hearing, taste, smell, touch, pain, 2 GENERAL DIVISIONS
body position, and temperature.
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Other stimuli, such as blood pH,
blood gases, and blood pressure, (CNS)
are processed at an unconscious  Brain
level.  Spinal Cord
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
(PNS)
The brain and spinal cord are the
 Cranial Nerves
major organs for processing
 Spinal Nerves
sensory input and initiating
 Peripheral Nerves
responses. The input may
 Ganglia
produce an immediate
response, be stored as memory,
DEVELOPMENT OF NERVE
or be ignored.
TISSUE
muscles and
glands  The nervous system develops
from the outermost of the 3
the nervous system controls the
embryonic layer (ectoderm),
major movements of the body by
beginning in the 3rd week of
controlling skeletal muscle. The
development
nervous system controls the
secretions from many glands,  The process is termed as
including sweat glands, salivary NEURULATION
glands, and glands of the
STEPS IN NEURULATION
digestive system.
1. Neural folds and neural groove
form from the neural plate.
mental activity
2. Neural folds elevate and
The brain is the center of mental
approach one another.
activities,including consciousness,
3. As neural folds prepare to fuse
thinking, memory, and emotions.
and form the neural tube and
dorsal epidermis.
 4. The mass of neutral crest cells  Ganglia close to the CNS  NUMEROUS elongated
initially lies to a newly formed  Controls the body’s SHORT PROCESSES
neural tube. responses during extending from the
emergencies and PERIKARYON and
SENSORY DIVISION excitement SPECIALIZED to receive
(AFFERENT) PNS --- CNS stimuli from the
NEURONS environment, from the
A. SOMATIC: sensory input
sensory epithelial cells or
perceived consciously (ex. Eyes,  Also known as NERVE CELL
from other neurons at
ears, skin)  Structural and functional of unique sites called
B. VISCERAL: sensory input not nervous system SYNAPSES
perceived consciously (ex.  3 MAIN PARTS:  200,000 axonal endings
Internal organs and
can make functional
cardiovascular structure) CELLBODY/ SOMA contact with the dendrites
MOTOR DIVISION (EFFERENT) /PERIKARYON of a single large Purkinje
- Contains the nucleus and most of cell of the cerebellum
CNS ---- PNS
the cell’s organelles  Dendrites become much
A. SOMATIC: motor output - Serves as synthetic or trophic thinner as they branch
controlled consciously or center for the entire neuron  Nissl granules extend into
voluntarily - Genetic center of neuron the dendrites
B. AUTONOMIC: motor output not - NUCLEUS: spherical or oval,
controlled consciously usually large, pale staining AXON
- CYTOPLASM: contains Nissl’  ETYMOLOGY: “AXON”-
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS granules/ Nissl bodies/ Nissl AXIS
SYSTEM substance or chromatophilic  SINGLE LONE PROCESS
substance, which are basophilic ending at synapses
A. PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION granules due to abundance of specialized to generate
REST-AND-REPOSE SYSTEM granular reticulum, and and conduct nerve
 Ganglia within or near the ribosomes in the cytoplasm impulses to other cells
effector organs
 MOST NEURONS have
 Maintain normal body DENDRITES only ONE AXON, typically
homeostasis
 ETYMOLOGY: “dendron”- longer than its dendrites
B. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
TREE
FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT RESPONSE
  Axons may receives ear, Vestibular ganglia of
information from other the inner ear
neurons MULTIPOLAR
 Originate from a  More than 2 processes
PYRAMID-SHAPED  With one axon and two or
region at the perikaryon more dendrites
called AXON HILLOCK  MOST COMMON
 PLASMA MEMBRANE OF  EXAMPLES: Motor
AXON: AXOLEMMA neurons of CNS and
 CONTENTS OF AN AXON: Peripheral autonomic
AXOPLASM ganglia
STRUCTURAL CLASSES OF
TRANSPORT OF MOLECULES NEURONS TYPES OF NEURON
WITHIN AXON ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
PSEUDOUNIPOLAR
ANTEROGRADE TRANSPORT  Also known as UNIPOLAR SENSORY NEURONS
 Organelles and NEURONS  Also known as AFFERENT
macromolecules  Single process close to the NEURONS
synthesized in the cell perikaryon but divides into  Involved in transmission of
body move along the 2 branches, with the longer sensory stimuli form the
axonal microtubules via branch extending to a environment or within the
kinesis from the perikaryon peripheral ending and the body
to the synaptic terminals other toward the CNS  Transmits impulses to the
RETROGRADE TRANSPORT  EXAMPLES: CNS
 Carries certain Cerebrospinal ganglia MOTOR NEURONS
macromolecules taken up  Also known as EFFERENT
by endocytosis via dynein BIPOLAR NEURONS
from the periphery to the  Has 2 processes,  Transmits impulses from
cell body consisting of a single the CNS to the effector
dendrite and a single axon organ (skeletal muscle) or
 EXAMPLES: Retina, form other efferent
Olfactory epithelium, neurons that ultimately
Spiral/cochlea of the inner supply the effectors
 (smooth muscle, cardiac - 20-30nm wide -excites activity in
muscle, and glands) intercellular space that neurons to promote
INTER-NEURONS separates the pre- cognitive
- Associated neurons that transmit synaptic and post- - function in the brain
impulses from one part of CNS to synaptic membranes (learning and memory)
another c. POST-SYNAPTIC CELL - most common
- Their process do not leave the MEMBRANE neurotransmitter in the
CNS - Contains receptors for brain
the neurotransmitter, b. Gamma-aminobutyric Acid
SYNAPSES and ion channels or (GABA)
other mechanism to - Synthesized from
- Are sites where nerve impulses
initiate a new impulse glutamate
are transmitted from one neuron
- Primary inhibitory
to another, or from neurons and TYPES OF SYNAPSES neurotransmitter in the
other effector cells
brain
- Synapses convert an electrical 1. Axosomatic Synapse- Axon to
- Influences muscle tone
signal (nerve impulse) from the Soma
c. Glycine
presynaptic cell into a chemical 2. Axodendritic Synapse- Axon to
- Inhibits activity
signal that affects the post- dendrites
between neurons in the
synaptic cell 3. Axoaxonic Synapse- Axon to
CNS
- It consists of: Axon
3. MONOAMINES
a. PRE-SYNAPTIC AXON
COMMON a. Serotonin (pituitary gland)
TERMINAL
NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND - Also known as 5-
- Also known as
hydroxytryptamine
TELEDENRON THEIR ACTIONS
(5-HT)
MEMBRANE OR
1. ACETYLCHOLINE - Various functions in the
TERMINAL BOUTON
- Active in CNS and in brain related to sleep,
- Contains synaptic
both somatic and appetite, cognition
vesicles from which
autonomic parts of (learning, memory),
neurotransmitter is
PNS and mood
released by exocytosis
2. AMINO ACIDS - Modulates action of
b. SYNAPTIC CLEFT
a. Glutamate other neurotransmitters
- also known as
SYNAPTIC GAP
 b. Dopamine (happy hormone) (fullness) and repress FUNCTIONS:
- Produces inhibitory hunger
activity in the brain  Helps keep the blood-brain
GLIAL/NEUROGLIAL CELLS barrier
- Important roles in
 Regulate interstitial fluid
cognition, motivation,
 Supporting cells of the CNS composition
behavior, and mood
 Support neuronal survival and  Provide structural support and
c. Norepinephrine
activities organization to the CNS
- Also known as
 They do not synapse with each  Assist with neuronal development
NORADRENALINE
other  Replicates to occupy spaces of
- Neurotransmitter of
 On H and E stain, only the nuclei dying neurons
PNS (SYMPATHETIC
DIVISION) are seen while the cytoplasm and
2 TYPES:
d. Epinephrine (pain killer) processes of the neuroglia are
- Also known as not visible  FIBROUS ASTROCYTES: with
ADRENALINE  6 major kinds of glial cells (4 in long delicate processes;
- Has various affects in CNS; 2 in PNS) abundant in white matter
the CNS, especially the  PROTOPLASMIC ASTROCYTES:
NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF THE with many shorter processes;
spinal cord, thalamus,
and hypothalamus CNS predominate in the gray matter
4. NEUROPEPTIDES 1. ASTROCYTES
a. Enkephalin 2. OLIGODENTROCYTES
 ETYMOLOGY:
- Helps regulate  ETMOLOGY:
 “ATRO” STAR
response to noxious  “OLIGOS” SMALL
 “KYTOS” CELL
and potentially harmful  “DENDRON” TREE
 Most important supporting
stimuli  “KYTOS” CELL
cells of the CNS
b. Substance P  Most predominant glial
 Most numerous glial cells
- Assists with pain cells in white matter
of the brain
information  Processes are less
 Nucleus is spherical,
transmission into the numerous and shorter
centrally located and pale
brain  Smaller and nucleus is
staining
c. Cholecystokinin round, small, and dense
 Have large numbers of
- Stimulates neurons in
long radiating, branching FUNCTIONS:
the brain to help
processes
mediate satiation
  Myelinates and insulates CNS  Lines the ventricles of the brain  Electrically insulates PNS cell
axons and central canal of the spinal bodies
 Allows faster action potential cord  Regulates nutrient and waste
propagation along axons in the  Assist in the production and exchange for cell bodies in
CNS circulation of CSF ganglia
3. MICROGLIAL CELLS
 Removes any microbial NEUROGLIAL CELLS OF PNS CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
invaders and secretes a (CNS)
1. SCHWANN CELLS
number of
 Named after Theodor  Major structures comprising the
immunoregulatory
Schwann CNS are:
cytokinesis
 Also called as  CEREBRUM
 Originate from circulating
NEUROLEMMOCYTES  CEREBELLUM
monocytes
 Found only in PNS  SPINAL CORD
 Smaller, denser, and
 Forms myelin sheaths A. CEREBRUM
elongated (cigar-shaped)
around the portion of only  Consists of outer cortex of gray
 Evenly distributed
one axon matter and an inner medulla of
throughout gray and white
white matter
matter FUNCTIONS:
 The most conspicuous cell in the
FUNCTIONS:  Surround and insulate PNS cerebral cortex in the pyramidal
axons neurons which functions for the
 Phagocytosis integration of sensory information
 Allow for faster action potential
 Protects the CNs by engulfing and the initiation of voluntary
propagation along an axon in the
infectious agents motor responses
PNS
B. CEREBELLUM
4.EPENDYMAL CELLS
2. SATELLITE CELLS  Composed of an outer and
 Provided with cilia which gray matter of cerebellar
 Form a thin, intimate glial
facilitates movement of the cortex and an inner
layer around each large
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) cerebellar medulla
neuronal cell body in the
and long microvilli for
ganglia at the PNS  GRAY MATTER OF
absorption
 Insulate, nourish, and CEREBELLAR CORTEX
FUNCTIONS: regulate neurons contains:
 Molecular layer
FUNCTIONS:  Purkinje Cell layer
  Granular layer
 MEDULLARY WHITE
MATTER is composed of:
 Myelinated nerve
fibers
 Glial cells
C. SPINAL CORD
 Made up of inner core of
GRAY AND an outer core
of WHITE MATTER
 GRAY MATTER:
composed
ANTERIOR/VENTRAL
HORNS and
POSTERIOR/DORSAL
HORNS joined at the
center by a thin GRAY
matter called THE
CENTRAL COMMISSURE,
surrounding the central
canal
 The neurons are found in
the gray matter including
neuroglial cells
 The myelinated nerve
fibers and neuroglial cells
are found in the WHITE
MATTER
COVERINGS OF THE CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The skull and vertebral column
protect the CNs, but between the
bone and nervous tissue are
membranes of connective tissue
called the MENINGES
3 MENINGEAL LAYERS
A. DURA MATER (LATIN: TOUGH
MOTHER)
 Also known as PACHYMENINX
 Dense irregular connective tissue
organized as an outer periosteal
layer
 The dura mater may be
separated from the ARACHNOID
by formation of thin subdural
space
B. ARACHNOID MATER (SPIDER
WEB-LIKE)
 Delicate impermeable membrane
 APPEARANCE: COBWEB-LIKE
 Has 2 components:
1. Sheet of connective tissue in
contact with the dura mater
(avascular)
2. System of loosely arranged
trabeculae composed of collagen
and fibroblasts
C. PIA MATER (TENDER MOTHER)
 Innermost meningeal layer
 Consists of flattened,
mesenchymally derived cells
closely applied to the entire
surface of the CNS tissue
 Vascular membrane closely
investing the brain and spinal
cord
 Composed of loose connective
tissue with fine elastic fibers
BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
 Is a functional barrier that allows
much tighter control than that in
most tissue over the passage
moving from blood into the CNS
tissue.
 Protects neurons and glial cells
from bacterial toxins, infectious
agents, and other fluids
 Helps maintain the stable
composition and constant
balance of ions in the interstitial
fluid
 MEDICAL CONDITIONS of the head followed by
AFFECTING THE CNS mental impairment

1. ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
 Common type of PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
DEMENTIA in the elderly
SYSTEM (PNS)
 Affects both neuronal
perikaryon and synapses  NERVES: bundles of
within the cerebrum nerve fiber
 CAUSE: accumulation of  GANGLIA: group of cell
tau protein forming bodies outside the CNS;
plaques along perikaryon found in the PNS
and axon hillock regions  NERVE ENDINGS
2. MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS
 Myelin sheaths
surrounding axons are
damaged by an
AUTOIMMUNE
MECHANISM that
interferes with the activity
of affected neurons
3. HYDROCEPHALUS
 Decrease in the absorption
of CSF or a blockage of
outflow from the ventricles
during fetal or post-natal
development
 ETMOLOGY: (GREEK)
 “HYDRO” WATER
 “KEPHALE” HEAD
 Characterized with
progressive enlargement
 Nodes of Ranvier/ Nodal Several bundles of nerve fibers
Peripheral Nervous 
Gaps can be found

are enclosed by epineurium,
System between adjacent which is also made up of dense
Schwann cells on an axon, connective tissue
which renew the action
LECTURE#3 GANGLIA
potential and produce
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS salutatory conduction
 Aggregations of nerve cell bodies
which causes the nerve
SYSTEM (PNS) outside the CNS
impulses to jump and
 Ovoid structures encapsulated
MAIN COMPONENTS: move rapidly from one
with dense connective tissue and
node to another anode.
 NERVES: bundles of nerve fiber associated with nerves
 GANGLIA: group of cell bodies b. UNMYELINATED NERVE FIBERS  2 TYPES:
outside the CNS; found in the
 Glial cells do not form the multiple A. SENSORY GANGLIA
PNS
wrapping of a myelin sheath
 NERVE ENDINGS  Also known as CRANIO-SPINAL
 Without the thick myelin sheath
GANGLIA
NERVE FIBERS  Nodes of Ranvier are not seen
 Receive afferent impulses that go
along the unmyelinated nerve
 Analogous to the tracts in the to the CNS
fibers
CNS  Associated with both cranial and
 Contain axons enclosed within COVERING OF NERVES spinal nerves
sheaths of glial cells specialized  The nerve cells of these ganglia
 In all peripheral nerves, both are pseudounipolar and relay
to facilitate axonal function
myelinated and unmyelinated are information from the ganglion’s
 Sheathed by Schwann cells or
protected and strengthened by nerve endings to the gray matter
neurolemmocytes
connective tissue investments of the spinal cord via synapses
a. MYELINATED NERVE  The loose connective tissue that with local neurons
FIBERS encloses the individual nerve
fibers is called endoneurium B. AUTONOMIC GANGLIA
 Axons that are engulfed  The nerve fibers are grouped into
along their length by a  ETYMOLOGY: (GREEK)
bundles or fascicles called  “AUTOS”- SELF
series of differentiating perineurium which is made up of
neurolemmocytes  “NOMOS”- LAW
dense connective tissue
  Effect the activity of smooth FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION brain where the sensation
muscle, the secretion of some OF THE PNS is perceived.
glands, heart rate, and many  Proprioceptor senses.
other involuntary activities by  Sensory (afferent) division o Originate in muscles and
which the body maintains a o Nerve fibers that carry joints. Impulses sent to the
constant internal environment information to the central brain enable perception of
(HOMEOSTASIS) nervous system the position of the body
 Consist of both sympathetic and  Motor (efferent) division and its parts in space
parasympathetic ganglia o Nerve fibers that carry maintaining posture and
 Oval-shaped structures with large impulses away from the balance
numbers of large and oval central nervous system  Special senses.
nucleus o Two subdivisions o These are sight, hearing,
 Lipofuchsin granules are more  Somatic nervous balance, smell and taste
frequent in these ganglia system = voluntary  Autonomic afferent nerves.
 Surrounded by layer of cells  Autonomic o Originates in internal
called satellite cells nervous system = organs, glands and tissues,
 The nerve cells are multipolar involuntary e.g. baroreceptors
type involved in the control of
SENSORY RECEPTORS blood
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AXON pressure ,chemoreceptors
 Specialized endings of sensory involved in the control of
AND DENDRITE neurons - respiration and smell
o respond to different stimuli
AXON DENDRITE
NUMBER Usually Abundant (changes) inside and CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORY
LENGTH ONE SHORTER outside the body. RECEPTORS categorized by:
NISSL LONGE PRESENT  Somatic, cutaneous or
GRANULES R common senses.  Type of stimulus
COLLATERAL ABSEN NUMEROU o These originate from the  Mechanoreceptors
S/ T S
skin- pain, touch, heat and  Thermoreceptors
BRANCHES
FEW cold.  Photoreceptors
SPINES/ PRESENT  When stimulated,  Chemoreceptors
GEMMULES ABSEN o an impulse is generated  Nociceptors
T and transmitted by the  Location in the body
sensory nerves to the  Exteroceptors
  Interoceptors SPINAL NERVES o Smooth muscle regulation
 Proprioceptors o Heart and blood pressure
 Structure There is a 31 pair of spinal nerves at the regulation
 Non-encapsulated or level of each vertebrae. o Regulation of glands
Encapsulated nerve o Digestive system
CRANIAL NERVE regulation
endings
 Lamellar or Bulbous Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are  Somatic reflexes
corpuscles associated with the brain o Activation of skeletal
 Muscle spindles muscles
 Tendon organs THE REFLEX ARC
 Joint kinesthetic receptors
 Reflex
STRUCTURE OF A NERVE o rapid, predictable, and
involuntary responses to
 Endoneurium surrounds each stimuli
fiber  Reflex arc
 Groups of fibers are bound into o direct route from a sensory
fascicles neuron, to an interneuron,
 Fascicles are bound together by to an effector
epineurium

CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES
 Mixed nerves
o both sensory and motor
fibers
 Afferent (sensory) nerves
o carry impulses toward the
CNS
 Efferent (motor) nerves
o carry impulses away from TYPES OF REFLEXES AND
the CNS
REGULATION
 Autonomic reflexes

The Endocrine System
 Second messenger system of the
body
 Uses chemical
messages(hormones) that are
released into blood
Hormones control several major
processes
 Reproduction
 Growth and development
 Mobilization of body defenses
 Maintenance of much
homeostatis
 Regulation of metabolism
HORMONE OVERVIEW
 Hormones are produced by
specialized cells
 Cells secretes hormones into
extracellular fluids
 Blood transfers hormones to
target sites
 These hormones regulate the
activity of other cells
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
The Chemistry of Hormone
 Amino acid-based hormones
-Proteins
of -Peptides
-Amines
 Steroids – made from cholesterol
 Protaglandins – made from highly
active lipids
Effects Caused by Hormones
Mechanism of Hormone Action
 Hormones affect only certain
tissues or organs (target cells or
organs)
 Target cells must have specific
protein receptors
 Hormone binding influences the
working of the cells
Effects Cause by Hormone
 Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
 Synthesis of proteins, such as
enzymes
 Activation on inactivation of
enzymes
 Stimulation of mitosis
 Hormones affect only certain
tissues or organs (target cells or
organs)
 Target cells must have specific
protein receptors
 Hormone binding influences the
working of the cells
 Changes in plasma membrane
permeability or electrical state
 Synthesis of proteins, such as
enzymes
 Activation or inactivation of
enzymes
 Stimulation of mitosis
 1. Hormone binds to a
membrane receptor
2. Hormone does not enter the
cell
3. Sets off a series of reactions
that activates an enzyme
4. Catalyzes a reaction that
produces a second
messenger molecule
5. .Oversees additional
intracellular changes to
promote a specific response
Hormonal Stimuli of Endocrine
Glands

 Endocrine glands are activated

by other hormones

Humoral Stimuli of Endocrine

Steroid Hormone Action
1. Diffuse through the plasma
membrane of target cells
2. Enter the nucleus
3. Bind to a specific protein
within the nucleus
4. Bind to specific sites on the
cell’s DNA
5. Activate genes that result in
synthesis of new proteins
Non-steroid Hormone Action
Glands
 Changing blood levels of certain
ions stimulate hormone release
Control of Hormone Release
 Hormone levels in the blood are
Neural Stimuli of Endocrine
maintained by negative feedback Glands
 A stimulus or low hormone levels
 Nerve impulses stimulate
in the blood triggers the release
hormone release
of more hormone
 Most are under control of the
 Hormone release stops once an
sympathetic nervous system
appropriate level in the blood is
reached
Location of Major Endocrine Organs

Pituitary Gland
 Size of a grape
 Hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus
 Protected by the sphenoid bone
 Has two functional lobes
 Anterior pituitary –
glandular tissue
 Posterior pituitary –
nervous tissue

Hormones of the Anterior

Pituitary
 Six anterior pituitary hormones
  Two affect non-endocrine Growth Hormone (GH) - Stimulates follicle development in
targets ovaries
- Four stimulate other  General metabolic hormone - Stimulates sperm development in
endocrine glands (tropic  Major effects are directed to testes
hormones) growth of skeletal muscles and
long bones •Luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Causes amino acids to be built -Triggers ovulation
Characteristics of all anterior into proteins
pituitary hormones  Causes fats to be broken down -Causes ruptured follicle to become the
for a source of energy corpus luteum
 Proteins (or peptides)
 Act through second- Functions of Other Anterior -Stimulates testosterone production in
messenger systems males
Pituitary Hormones
 Regulated by hormonal Referred to as interstitial cell-stimulating
stimuli, mostly negative  Prolactin (PRL)
hormone (ICSH)
feedback - Stimulates and maintains milk
production following childbirth Pituitary - Hypothalamus
- Function in males is unknown Relationship
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone
 Release of hormones is
(ACTH)
controlled by releasing and
- Regulates endocrine activity of inhibiting hormones produced by
the adrenal cortex the hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus produces two
•Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) hormones that are transported to
neurosecretory cells of the
- influences growth and activity of
posterior pituitary
the thyroid
 The posterior pituitary is not
•Gonadotropic hormones strictly an endocrine gland, but
does release hormones
 Regulate hormonal activity of the
gonads
•Follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH)
 Hormones of the Posterior  Antagonistic to parathyroid
Pituitary hormone

Oxytocin

-Stimulates contractions of the uterus

during labor

-Causes milk ejection

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

-Can inhibit urine production

-In large amounts, causes Thyroid Gland

vasoconstriction leading to increased
 Found at the base of the throat
blood pressure (vasopressin)
 Consists of two lobes and a
connecting isthmus
 Produces two hormones: Thyroid
Parathyroid Glands
hormone and Calcitonin
 Tiny masses on the posterior of
Thyroid Hormone
the thyroid
 Major metabolic hormone  Secrete parathyroid hormone
 Composed of two active iodine- -Stimulate osteoclasts to remove
containing hormones: calcium from bone
Thyroxine (T4) – secreted by -Stimulate the kidneys and
thyroid follicles intestine to absorb more calcium
Triiodothyronine (T3) – -Raise calcium levels in the blood
conversion of T4 at target tissues

Calcitonin
 Decreases blood calcium levels
by causing its deposition on bone
  Sex hormones
-Produced in the inner layer of
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex the adrenal cortex
 Mineralocorticoids (mainly -Androgens (male) and some
aldosterone) estrogen (female)
-Produced in outer adrenal cortex
-Regulate mineral content in
blood, water, and electrolyte
balance
-Target organ is the kidney
-Production stimulated by renin
and aldosterone
-Production inhibited by atrial
natriuretic peptide

Adrenal Glands
Hormones of the Adrenal
 Two glands
Cortex – outer glandular region in Medulla
three layers  Produces two similar hormones
Medulla – inner neural tissue (catecholamines):
region -Epinephrine
 Sits on top of the kidneys -Norepinephrine
 These hormones prepare the
body to deal with short-term
stress
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
 Glucocorticoids (including
cortisone and cortisol)
-Produced in the middle layer of
the adrenal cortex
-Promote normal cell metabolism
-Help resist long-term stressors
-Released in response to
increased blood levels of ACTH
 Insulin – allows glucose to cross
plasma membranes into cells
from beta cells
Glucagon – allows glucose to
enter the blood from alpha cells
 These hormones are antagonists
that maintain blood sugar
homeostasis

Hypothalamus and Adrenal

Glands in Stress Response

Pancreatic Hormones and Blood

Pancreatic Islets
 The pancreas is a mixed gland
 The islets of the pancreas
produce hormones:
Sugar -May have other as-yet-un- Hormones of the Testes
substantiated functions  Interstitial cells of testes are
Thymus hormone-producing
 Located posterior to the sternum  Produce several androgens
 Largest in infants and children  Testosterone is the most
 Produces thymosin important androgen
-Matures some types of white -Responsible for adult male
blood cells secondary sex characteristics
-Important in developing the -Promotes growth and maturation
immune system of male reproductive system
Hormones of the Ovaries -Required for sperm cell product
 Estrogens Ion
-Produced by Graafian follicles or
the placenta
-Stimulates the development of
secondary female characteristics
Pineal Gland -Matures female reproductive
organs
 Found on the third ventricle of the
-Helps prepare the uterus to
brain
receive a fertilized egg
 Secretes melatonin
-Helps maintain pregnancy
-Helps establish the body’s wake
Prepares the breasts to produce
milk
Hormones of the Ovaries
 Progesterone
-Produced by the corpus luteum
-Acts with estrogen to bring about
the menstrual cycle
-Helps in the implantation of an
embryo in the uterus

and sleep cycles

 Endocrine Function of the ENDOCRINE ORGANS
Placenta
 Produces hormones that maintain
the pregnancy
 Some hormones play a part in the
delivery of the baby
 Produces HCG in addition to
estrogen, progesterone, and
other hormones

Other Hormone-Producing
Tissues and Organs
 Parts of the small intestine
 Parts of the stomach
 Kidneys
 Heart
 Many other areas have scattered
endocrine cells Effect of Growth Hormone
Developmental Aspects of the
 Greatest production occurs
Endocrine System
during childhood
 Most endocrine organs operate -Lack of GH = pituitary dwarfism
smoothly until old age -Excess = gigantism
-Menopause is brought about by
lack of efficiency of the ovaries
-Problems associated with
reduced estrogen are common
-Growth hormone production
declines with age
-Many endocrine glands
decrease output with age
  Feet, hands, and face become
“heavy” in appearance

Addison’s disease
 ACTH accumulates
causing stimulation of
melanocytes (bronze skin
color).
 Without cortisol, there is
no mobilization of glucose
under stress; can be life-
threatening.
 Hyposecretion of
aldosterone-most serious,
causes hyperkalemia (low
Abnormalities of The Thyroid
blood potassium) leading
 Cretinism- abnormal thyroid
to cardiac arrest
development; short, stocky body
type. Severe hypothyroidism
causes mental retardation
Cushing’s syndrome
 Myxedema - Hypothyroidism in  Hypersecretion of the
adults-lethargy, weight gain, loss adrenal cortex hormone,
of hair. cortisol is primary problem.
 Grave’s disease-  Results in Diabetes
hyperthyroidism; causes mellitus from increased
exophthalmic goiter-edema blood glucose;
behind eyes causes bulging;  Subcutaneous fat
hyperactivity, arrythmias. deposited in midsection;
Acromegaly  High blood pressure
 Excess production of GH; the
growth plates of bone have
closed so no increased growth in
height.