Strain Gauges If aq meta) conductor is stretched or compressed, sts resistance changes en account of the Fach that both length and diamctey of conductor change. Also L+ere is a change 3m the voluc of vesistivi of the conductor when it is shrained ang this property is called. piczoresistive effect. Therefore resistance shrain gauges are also Known as piezoresishive gauges- The strain gauges qve used for measyremer} of strain and associated stress. Secondly, many other detectors and transduces like load cells, terque meters, pressure auges, temperature sensors , accelerometers ang flow meters , use sivain gauges as secondary transducers. Theory of Strain gauges be ol CV See BU ae ane change in dimensions of strain Gauge. L= Lenght D> Diameter A> Area € = rvesishvil Re resistance MISS ies eo ae pene eed ed ead > |ry[ematve. | / F ma a tensile shress ‘s’ be applied +o the gauge wir: This produces 9 positive strain causing the Leng} +e increase and areq to decrease as shown above. - | AL = change in_lengt | BD = change in diameter AR = Change-in resistance In order to find how AR depends | upon the materia) physical quanhties, the expression for R_ is differentiated |_ with respect to stress s.- = Avis Se sg eo it Be Sar Dividing above equaten by ~esistance Re sb we have eee hes et st aa As ASA * Ta ans ——— pee eee La. dk a 1 2A 1 of (R7 as i as E a = SD = 2 aD ees Ds:PH Eee eS 3.28 as *) . T a a a a Tengifadqmar rap - 2D/p eL/L a ae i D = | 1. ak oe AS As re =a oS Ds For sme)| variehons we can uyjte =e = AR _ Bt aeov Sey AS = w The Gauge factor Ge is defined as whe raho of pet unit change in wesistance +o per unit change in Jength. Gauge Fachor = Ge = Sf or SR = Ge a Gee where ‘2’ = strain i= AL TeThe strain is usually We have Gauge factor SR, a AU/L and exe fore hangs in hLengtp So beet BR re Gs | SOsOIS. ous eae s | 240 =e) aioe Young’s Modula = E Piles LOS x2- & 6xI8$ ae. Eola 2°46X196 X109 StrainForce = Areq Stress = Force eee I EFesAv = soga <10Sx4 xX Lo" | = 23037 AIG N a _= o A compressive force is applied to La shuchival member. The shrain is _5 microspain. Two separate shresn gauges ave attached fo the spucira) La member, one is Q_ nickel wire shrain [ gauge having Q_ gauge factor of -12:) land +he ether is Nichrome CNi 80% Cro 207%.) wirs strain gauge having a gauge factor of 2+ calcwate +he value of lvesistance °F the gouges after they o7e strained. The resistance of shrain gaages bezore being shrained is 120-2. sol”) According to the convenKion, the tensile Shain js taken as posiBve while the compress). | sWroin is taken as negabve. | There fore, strain =—-5x107S Cimioostrain = Jum, Now AR“ = Ge & = Gauge factor R iy FOr MRE) coire Shain gauge — “Gauge Fada GF “OR = Cle) C-5x10-6) C20) = 726X101 =Ta} Syrain =-5x1o R= 2025Gi) For NiclWome wire sfrajn aauge gouge factor=as=2 _AR= (296 sx106) C120) = The “Following arc the major rypes (oF strain gauges ¢ 1] Unbonded meta) strain gauges 2) Bonded metal wire strain gauges 3] _Bended metal foil Strain gauges 4) Vacuum deposited thin metal £ilm strain gauges 5] Spatter deposited “thin metal strain _ ___ gauges : 6] Bonded semiconductor strain gauges 7) Diffused meta) strain gasges *’ Applications -— foncenin| Strain gauges are broadly used for ttoo major Types of eri ane aud they ars = Dp Expedmental stress anal ysis- ef pocteinee and shructures , and ii) Conshiuchion of force, torque, pressure, flow and accelcration transducers. i) Unbended Meta) Strain Gauges. ce \= Diak hragen Ds strain sauge windings-€tand = poets = +) Sant 9: a = Witetnec Chay7 - bridge | : | An. unbonded meta) consists slrain gauge of a wire shretched between | +wo points. The wires’ qve’ made of coppes s nickel, chrome nickel’ or nickel icon allogs+ They a7 about 0-003 mm _in diameter. have aq gauge factor of ate 4 ‘and sustain a force of 2 ™N, wit ‘hs «25. mm- : The unbonded meta) wir shain gauges, employ preloaded wesistance wires Cgauge wires) connected ing wheaksione | ‘brid At initial preload the slraims and cesistan of the four arms are equa} so ofp veltege 5 =O Chalanced condiben) “Application of pressure produces a smal) displacemen+ Cabouk 0.004 mn), the displacemen} The, length of increases tension in two and decreases i+ [thereby in crease the [sires swahich are [She “resistance | — waives in other two, "distance of +wo in tension cand decreasin ef the wremaining Tae ures. =This causes 2 unbalance aa the. ae prducing an Wheat voltage which is proposkona) to the inpat Aisplacement and bence +o the applied pressure. slechical Resish of each sae S 120 2 Folo60 ip Volt = Sto Iov : = ec, Lop volt = 2omv te Somyv. Bonded Wire Strain Gauges - eo Camiet (base) id 1) SS a pe, << 7 C +0025 mm india t —— r > > 7 i ean Gauge wires gwi'e} fos Eines Strain Gauge As wire, gridThe bonded meta) wire stein gauges are used for both shress analysis grid “for conshucten of tansdiders. A resistance wij sain -gauge consists of a grid of Fine resjstaqnce wire of abou, 0:025 mm in dia. The wire gvid is cemented +e carrier Cbase) Lwhich may be a thin sheet of teflon. The carrier Chase) $s bonded with an adhesive material +o the specimen under study. CAdhesive = cement).For excellent and ~wepaducible wesalts Ibis desirable that the resistance wire strain gauges should have the Fellowing cheracterishes 7 ; 7 7 @iMe shen gauge shoatd have a high value of gauge factor which will give high sensibYily.-*- @_The vesistance of the ‘sk. gauge should be as high as possible, Typica) values @ 350% and looon- But veduces sensibvily- higher J20 a, high resist To get high sensibvily have to be used. & They should have low temp coe. of sesistaace. @ They should not have hysterisis effect ® Linear characterises © Frequency response should be goed. bridge voltages Materials for slain Gauge e ee eee : [Materia] Composibon| Gauge |Resit emp | Upper factor [O8P7 °C | Tempanchn "6. Nichrpme Nis 60% 4 25 ox? | 1200 Gr 320% ae Nis asZ+ 2) +o0-02xn3] 400 1 Cut S55Y, Isoslastic [Nit a tG8y) asc an ize6 { Bas +Moroshf | _ a Nickel] Sea en oe Plabnum ae 4+0x)0-3\@__Bended Metal foil Strain Gauges 4 — tT la = Tr _ Fos) Ie : =}— Bonded [ | Bll Metal foil ime ig gauge $ Se Evo on The bended metal wire shoin gauges z _have been completely siperseded by bonded meta) foil _shuin gauges. They are used fos stress analysis applications and for may _}runsducers. pease Foi) type gauges have a much greater heat dissipabon capacihy due to greater *_suryace © areq. So they can be used~ for higher operating temparalwe range, Also layge Suypoce greg Loom +o _ better bonding. Soldering iS easier. 5 Gauge facty 2404 Gauge Resistances dare “hypically. 120%, 350-0 and [roo 2, gauge cimrent 5 te koma. Fatigue lige Io million’ wcles ; at + lseo micwsbeun. withoup Failure. temp range — 269° to B16 °C,| | =) = ee ; ‘fy aa Mi CONAaCOT SFT) LL! is @)_Semi conductox Strain Gauges a | on a8 HCG) \ ALE NSSemiconductor sain gauges have very Lhigh gauge . factor which means higher Lchange in resistance which gives high sensibvihy, Semiconductors’ s0i9 gauges the wesistance_ changes mainly due +o change in resisbvihy | auter applied shkuin C piczo resishve effect): _Ctn metal wire shun gauges the vesist- lchankes Aue to slength g dia change). Semi conductor matevicls such _as_ silicon Land germanium are used. 1 % Advantages 1) High “Gauge fackoy=t 180. Smal) shan | Gupte 0:01 micros}oin) can be measured, (2) Hysterisis chavech is, Sa 3) Fatoue lige loxio® ops¥abons (A) Vern small gauges, 07 be 7 mm. length. Se Useyul for measurement of local shrain. * Disadvantages a » They are ven; sensibve to changes in temper 2) lincarily of the semi cond uchr sain gouges js poor. - 55 3)~ They ave more expensive. and difficult to -alftach +5 the object under _shidy-d skein gauges A They Gre primanly Used in fransducexs. Rose TTES In_addiben to single clement shojo gauges, a combinakon of shoin gauges called _fRosettes? are available jn many combinabions fee Specific s}ress qnalysis or transducer applicabon . elemen} Rosette So® stacked CFoil) 9 elemen} Rosette 30° plan i CFo))Pressure Measurement — Py Pressure a, 2 p Soy [Saris ger peer i 2 * cs eens Vacuum Piped bute: Hie eure The atmospheric pressure, at seq Jevel, js Nearly 14:7 s/f CPS) oF Crois x08) Nigar Pascal) “oF Feo mm of HS ee atmospheric pressure = 147 Lb/> © PSs) a sea leve) =O:013 x05) ON ae = C013 x15) Pascay = Zaomanm sof hg | Tosy = 133-332 Pasca) Cfo) {Pa = 107% bar | Gauge Pressure = P~ Pa Ceorresponding to absolute pre. P)> Vacuum pressure, = Pa-Fa ; Cremes ponding Fo absolule - . = Pressure fay aePressures higher than looo atmospheric gre usually _ regarded as very high pressures Pressuws Of the order of 1mm of Hg or bclow are regarded as ver low: | Type oF Measuring. Pressure Range device oe Soe a Manomeler [te te 1e® Pascal | Bourden Gauge a 103 to 5x08 aa | Elashic aaa : nee to lof fy PYDT er capacitance of 4 esis slain gauge Transducer Piezo eclectic — Transducer | Mcleod gauge Piranj Gauge Tonisakbon Gauge | Knudsen gauge Hydmstabe Compression Gauge > 100 to 105 | : atiPressure Sensitive Primary Devices celestic members) Mos} pressure measuring devices _are use elastic members for sensing pressure at the primary stage. These elastic members convert pressure Tinto mechanical displacement which ts | later converted into an elecWical signal using a secondary Transducer. These devices ave known as Force summing devices. Sk (SY > Hi ey)} NES se Pressure Dy! pressure Spiral_ Diaphragms me) t a F “SARAH TCoTvugate df@_Beardon Tubes The bourdon Tubes are designed in Vvaricous forms f) 6 Wee Gi) Spiral : Twisted Tube @_ Helical The bourdon tubes are made cub of an__elliplically flaHened tube, One end of the tubte is closed. The otsy end is open for the Fluid to enter. When the Fluid whose pressure is to be measured enters the tube , the tube tends to straighten out on account of the pressure applied. Tie causes the movement of the Free end cclosed end). : This displacement can be ampli fred and given +o the pointer scale arrangement or may be given to a secondary transducer whieh converts it into an elechicad signal. Chor exp. Bourdon hibe-LVBD). This_ elechica) output is proporBonal +o the fates of the Fluid- So it is Vi brated cea oF the pressure, leo see =s uA planer 50mae | | =a | Pressure measurement /* + —— eed coloaed = es OFatieg tr ~ \ ia =“ ] Je 6 IS y; _ ! WH / Tube am Lo =z ee eens | \ iN 2/p Voltage can be } vor laid Doh pressure F | core col braked inserms of pressure Bourdon Tube VS +t *: 7 + | es aa Wi Ww4s Sore z iy Le Tip free end - re | SEES ee x I Sis J 34 “Tube crosssechon = E > Youngs Modulus of Slashioly PATE 2 _displacement | of the +ip_4a 2o05 SFE) Gy ey The accuracy of ¢ ype is about a ae a Spiral) Type => I+ is! clear fi0m +e Labove’ equaben that the displacementr [of tip © e/p> Varies As the wall. thickness “Ub? and depends upon Fhe cxss sechona) form oF +ne tube: T+ also -v@ries direchly propestiena) te the length ef are 6a? which depends upon the angle subtenied by the are through which it is bent. Therefore the displacement of +e tip may be increased by “increasing the length of the arc. . J When’ +he angle thr!’ which the arc is bent reaches aco, its len gt “can be increased further im two ways © The tbe can bs made in the form of a_spival or @® It can be made in the form of a helix. ee E ilhen the pressure +o be measured _ is applied to +he spira), it tends to unceil producing 9 relatbvely long movement of the tip which is used for indicabon or transmission. fu The accuray of the Spiral Fube a elements jis higher than that of c_ type element, On account of absence of magn) ejements.Ame) ce ypically, Bees +o5 os Helical Type ii < a The displacemen} of the tip oF ay lar belica) element. Is largey than that of _spizal element d | The advantages oF helix clements I Mmelude. She: high over range cogeabi lit Hes | Cio: 1 rahe), its stabilihy in Flucuating | pressure applicabens and its adaptabilshy _fov high pressure service. The number Of coils depends &pon the prssure, to be | measured Cas many as 16 coils or even | more for high _pysssure measurmen}y), — SS —— Pressure PBourdon tube. bronze are used for low pressure While im applicatinns where compsin and/or high pressure is a pwblem, shainless | steel pr Monel are used. i Range | ¢ type —» vacuum te. zoo mPa spite) > vacuum to 30 Pa belical) > 15 MPa to S50 MiG Bellows A_metallic bellows is aq sesies of Civewar pasts vesembling the folds in an accordian. These pasts are formed in suchq i manner that they are expanded or conpracted _ axially by shonges in pressure. dhe materia} used must be flexible, duchle and havea high: wesistance +o fatigue failure. Matesials used -> brass , bronze alloys of nicke) & coppev, steel and mone). ) Pressure, +} =(i Sa ee a ee ee given by 25 Ge a Pn B= 7 aa = “ et i aeaeet Pressure Nf b= vadius ef each corugahon , m n> number of semicircular _comugahons tS thickness °F the wall, m D-— msean_ diameter,m E = Modulus of claskicily » N/m™ V => Poisson's ratio , I Ee i : There gre three main configurabons Lin which bellows dements are used and these ore for measurement of O absolute @ gauge gnd © differenba) pressure Pp pressu re i | Pa pressy re =| be - = a=i ay ay Jets | aiiev adie. Beli pess A md B: The "pressure applied to bellows Ais Pp and that to bellows B js Po. For measuvement of absolute pressure bellows 3 is See oe aid mast nel ie eeu hens pressure P is the absolute pressure. Fox measurement of GAUuge pressure bellows B js opened upto atmosphere uit pesssuve fa equal to the atmogpheric pressure and theregere the reading of the Gauge is the gauge pressure CP, — Pain). Pressure For measurement of a eae P, —— aifferenba} pressure , p ih p= P,-Pe Pa p—— tsa L pressure f, js applied ee te bellows 4 and pater | pressure P2 is applied x gee eae i te bellows B. — oxo— Measurement of pressure using Bellows -LVvaT aa. iS thee LIT TPES — beseech rere — I _h4 = ” Vormica =eom di Fereotal lpThe peessure iis converted into displace _ment by bellows, And LVDT converts | this displace menh jnts velt rear the voltmeter can be calibrated interms Of. pressure: ose ote ne eck Comes Uae oa ae acre een Am RS oe ie eePressure Calibration Catibra, = Sue Se Pressure, [ ]]<- Sensor under d h cali brabon pn fs U Screwed plunger Standard dead weight Tester for pressure Calibration Hyalraulic ‘or pneumatically operated _dead weight tester, is a basic stundary} calibrajing device for pressure gauges. The dead weight tester consists of two accurately machined wlinders, honed to micron tolerances, inserted inte two closed and Kndwn cross sectiona) areas +with @ coupled together +o a veseryojr. One of the wlinders is fitted with a elose fitting precision piston with a top platform where accurately known weights in the form of discs can be \oaded- The pressure transducer gauge under test js connected +o the othereae : The Fluid pressure is then gradually applied until the “force is large enough +o just NFt the pricision pisron -weight combinabon-. when +his piston is Floating freely, the pisten with arranged weights Lis in equilibriam vith the pressure Jevelom} in the cylinder. T The vrelakonship can be expressed as ic Dynamic calibrahon | Reperence standard Transducer = T t Tes} ens TCS ss | Dynamic caljbration of pressure’ measuring inshu ments _ - is quite evolved- 3 ans The shakey is used to create sinusoida) | variahions in pressure. at desired , frequencies. 7 The |‘ veterence transducer should havea Flat fice wesponse over the t+tesh Frequencies qnd the |_peszormance Of: the +esk transducer can be - against the -same. i] ' | bgene A _manomerer is the simplest device for measuring stahc pressure. vl y Pa- h=ce-Ryeg * “ E ife 5 = mass density oF the liquid tn the manometor U_ Tube Nanomerer A_simple vu tube manomejyer uses water, mercury of any other suitable Fluid. The [difference in levels ‘h’? Between the two ‘limbs 18 an indjcation of the pressure difference CP,- Pa) between the two limbs. ale one of the pressures , say tho} applied +o limb 2, 4 is atmospheric, the difference gives the gauge pressure applied +o limb 4. The desitable sharactesisbes of a manometer fluid are ‘a It should be non corrosive @® it should have low Viscocihy and +hus Densurs quick adjustment with pressure _ change @_I should not have any chemical reachoo with the Fluid whose pressure js being measured @ it should have negligible surzace tension and capillary effects. _Modified manometers with high _ Sensitivi ly Py © cisten or well type manometer In this type ia the well _areg ae Aves is large compared “fe that of the hibe, “Thus only a single leg veading may Ube noted and the change in | level in +he wel) ae ell may be ignored. af ?, and Pa are absolute pressures applied, Force equilibrium oives : Aheg = P,A-PsA *e? being mass densiky of the liquid- (Si ime) i TF Po is atmospheric pressure _h is a measure of the Gauge Pressure? applied at the well-H @ In clined Tube Manometer On application of pressure levels P;) avd Px difference in levels is u 5 oP “ht be = st rs A, and Az ar vespechvye “areas of | +wo limbs | | Ayh, = Azl h. = Lsine | “t fron above“ equapens "We ge | p= 8, = gail +4ine | 7 if A, >>> Aa then (22) is negligible | i z 7 Bi “, P,—Pe = @ Bi bsines s+ PDhb (La @ = Be b=2he and thus it | would. be more accurate to read 1. - Since Ay >> Aa» the reading 09 | ene Se online) wens reguirtd.@ Micrometer type manometer ay <— Miczometer seats head For increased accuracy in reading the outpet OF the manometer i.e. Liguid displacement can be measured with micrometer beads. The contact between the mi cmmeter mevable points and +he Uguid may be sensed slechically or visually.. —_|___ Force Balance type _ Pressure aces heer | ___For higher sensitivily “the perzor mance of pressure transducers desing elashe Lelements C bourdon tube, bellows etc) is affected by bysterisis , low stiffness je. | The transducess become bulky and get g | atfected by vibrabon. g | a 7 | RA | =z ie | KD | is | | Won == nal T T i Af by ole Lp ag Cl, t ea ave | f * Amplifier Beom /'* (ya IL oo = | ae | [tes Belk Assembly Ly = Hp fs | prota eg Elechd Force q magner coil To overcome some of +hese problems _feedback principle using balance of | forces is used: In Force balance transducer Pressure Force Fy =p force due +o Viscocity | Q) Fe > force due to -+urbulance @® Fe * force due to compressi byl lyr Thy net force Fe = CFa) 2. + CFR + CRO CF Ds + CRae Euler's Galuah on of “motion | This! is “the esjudhion of “mehbén in which the forces due to gravihand pressure art haken into considerabsn Censides a sheam-line jn which Plduwis “taking place im s—diredKon, as shown im) Fig- é i considers a cylindrical clement i of ctoss section 4A and Jengthds-| Force on a fluid aemen}. __ The forces acting ona eglindrical _element are , __|@ Pressure forse PdA in the divechon of flow @ Pressure Force (PTSE de) da opposite to she | direchon ‘of Flow © Weight of Fluid vadads Let @ be the angle beF7 the divecton tof flew andi the line of achon of the weight of element: The resultant force onthe fluid element in the Aivecthon -of |S must be equa) +o the mass of the Fluid clement x acceleration tm the = Girvechons.} | edads x as a PaAX ae -~esdads cose | As = acceleraben tide as = a tohere. rs'4 Bancvos of et at 5 ~WAs—= 2 As 4 BV Sabshfbeg Value of Ge in above eg” gdAds V2V _ BP asda — 334A ds cose 1 = oS = dividing by $aads NS RS oree +8 cose =O oz =o we have COs. © = oz at $3 2e Rava as - pest fee Seed am Ths is Known as Euless Scie acpkou aia mo’L Bernoalli2s equation fmm: Euler’, Equation | Ente grating Euler's <9” We got _ Bernoulli's equahon | | Been 3 (a dz + [vdv = constant rae ia - i 2 i iS +S = eonstat— pie g ct aie ya zu = COnsTanr, This \s Barneulli's equabon yo_which alae pressure head = (Peressure: energy, per i Gnyr weight oF Fluid Potental head = Potenkal energy per unit weight.[means / Assumphons ‘in the above, derjvakon ef Bernoulli's theorem DT ERG TS deal) Theis eblelendy G2) The flow 15\ “incompressible (The flow is irsotationa): Statement of Bernoulli's Thearer > It states that ina steady, ideal Flow ef an incompressible fluid, the +otal energy at any point of the Fluid is iconstan}. “The total energy consists of Prebsyndl ehergulll _kinetidvenierakt anil potenba) energy or dabum energy. ——— _Besnoulli’s Equation for rea) fluid The Bernoullits equafion, was derived On the assumpthon that fluid, isi. non— viscous and frichonless. But all the F)uids ar viscous and hence offer resistance Uo Flow. Thus +ere are always some losses in Fluid Flow. t Thus the Bernoalliis equahbon. for Rae fluids between points 1 and 2 jis given a : = ar saea as 7 sh 2a $21 S35: —— +Zo the where hi is Joss of Penergu b yween points {and 2.\ | jo 2 i Types ofi Fluid Fléu The fluid flow .is clessiBed as Q steady and unsteady flows s aD @ Uniform and non uniform flows; Gi) Laminar and +arbulent flows: GY Compressible and= incompressible flows; @) Retahona) and irvrotationa) flows and (GH) One, two and tice steady Flow vis defined as that type of Flow: in which tne fluid charach like velrci hy, pressure, | density ete. at a _ poimbi co not change with bme 2 Gi Uniform and, Non uniform, Flows > | __ Uniform flow is defined as that [aype of flow jn‘ shich othe veleci ly leak | any veivert tin ef jdoess mots chang, b with | space f { Dv I as | ov = change sf velocihy Z2O as = Length sf) flew in che. asrection 8. (i) Laminar and turbulent flows Laminar flow is “defined as that type of flow in which the Fluid parbeals move along wel) defined poths ov stream line.for a pip Flow the hype of flow detesmined by gq non dimentonas numbs called the Reynold number. Reynold number = Bae D= Digmeter of pipe wm | | V= Mean velocity of flow in "pes Ne Kinematic viscocihh of Fluid bs No/m2 If the Reynold number is less than 2000, the flow is called Jaminax If the Reynold number js more than 4000, jt is called turbulent Flow. IF the Reynold number lies between 2000 and 4000 whe Flew may be laminar or tutbulent. GY) Compressible and Ancompyvessible Flows. _ For compressible flow the densily tH of the Fluid changes form point +o point = constant + G)_ Refational and srrotabona) flows Rotational) flow is that hype of Flow in which the fluid pasteals while Flowing aleng steam lines, also rotate about their DWN _axjs- Ww) One , too and three di menbenal FlovasSuppo Q, Vand w are velocity cmposents in -x,4vand z directions pectvely lOne dimensional flow > For a steady one _dimensiona) flow, the velocihy is a-funeton oF one space .co ordingte -only. H yee flz)-, Veo ‘and wee - | Tioo . dimensional Flow For a steady tuo dimensiona) How she velocihy iste! funckon oF hue Space | coords iades oAly 4 Qos oct beogh = Prox a) i va f2Ce,yvatid wie F6 Three odimen ‘sional Flowesaus i or a steady ~ Fn eee Ai Hensjona] [Slew the velosiy is 9 funchow of btwe space coordi nayes| 4 | z us £)¢%9,2) ve face yz) w= $, yy (zyMeasuring devices pa J + Primary devices Secondary devices or quantity meters ov Yate meters The seconday ox rate meters are also termed as inferential type devices, They do not measure the flow directly bub instead measure another physical quantity which is relaled +o the flow. : Secondary devices or vote meters 1 Eo ae See floo rate meters Velociy meters )Varigble head meter: D Variable bead meters 2) Variable areq mehexs 2) Target flow meter 8) Varighle head and Variable areq mehers 2) Turbine hype Meter 4) Constan} head device 4p) Vikrasonjc Fflous messy Ss) Elecho magneke Flovs meter 6) Hof wire/ hot Film anemometer oD) Laser Doppler anemormeteyVerieile Weed Meio _ These devices can be termed as ebshuction type of flow meters. The Ferm obshuchon meter applies +o the devices that_act as obstacles placed in the path of Flowieg fluid, causing localised changes in ithe velocihy- concurrently with the velocily change there is a corresponding pressure change in Ltre Flow. This variahen in pressure change is _covelated with the rate of Flow of the fluid. The main forms of yvesitichion used in the flow ave ventur tube, orifice plate anda nozzle. 1 pate a 5 1 piace T a | comvsig.ng | akdo| Ssckon | Throat seehon ke. Diverging Seek: et 1 i { I Xara 5° tos? Pressure ae SePSiS & U tube: manometer i __ Venturi Meterfev tube _# Tmanomeler Orifice Meter 1 oe H The variation of pressure in these differentia) pressure devices is shown in he diagrams. The positon of minimum pressure is located slightly downstream | from the restriction at a point where the stream |S the namwest and is called he Vena-contracta. Beyond this point, (the pressuve again rises bub does not [return to the upsbream value and thus there is a permanent pressure loss. The magnitude of this loss depends on +he ype of “sestriction and on the dimensions of device.| U_tubeu manometer Nozzle Metey _ 4 4 Genera) Expression fer the rate of Flow 4 Suppose the pressure, velocily and grea af fluid stream a+ point £47, upstream of Lobstrustion, are PP)» V) and A) .and at point ‘2’. just downstream of the obshuction are fo, V2 and Ar. Alss we assume that he Flow is incompressible i-e. S$ is constant | Applying the continuihy equation we get , Rate of discharge Q= AN, =A2V2 = equalrele emcee en cata ome eaa es | 4 SMS Pt SE Sn | the differentia) pressure head Ab is fafa ae I S&S) Eliminating Vy and V2 frm eq? Gand eg? 2 and substi ng the value of [4b foro eg? 3 we get te ideal Lvate of discharges as Ay Ao —— Orca} 28 sh = i APSAS In actual prachce +ne achial rate of fluid. flow ts always less han Qideal ‘because of +he losses in the fluid Flow rich + accoun i diserepancy, we define’ +pe Ferm __|_coctficienk ischor a= Gachal | Qideal Theis we wiyite -the actaal rete of flow as Qachal = Cd 22 fae Gah GeaQactua) = Cd kK Jah where K is the constant of Fflous obshuction device and x eae a aS | | VAP=-Az | U where "Cd is the coefficient of discharge | Lushich depends on the type oF Flow, obshuction type configuration gnd also Lon the Reynolds number of Flow. a Comparison of Venhri Metey Onifice meter and Nozzle Meter and their characteristics. The venturimeter offers the. best accuracy » least head loss as.compared to both 4 nozzle meter as well as orjfice meter. Because of the smooth surpace, I+ Lis not much affected by the 6B and abrasion from dirhy Fluids, Fuyther due Tite dieaiaciall eteeliieetbaecea ia ealteciehdiamieeealls 4 ito low value of losses, the coeffi cient of dischararge ‘Cd’ is high and approaches unity under favourable conditions. However ib is expensive and occupies substontial space. The Nozzle meler otferes all the advantoyes of the venturimeter to a lesser __ || extent. _| but 1+ occupies erreidace dy less Space. The Nozzle is however difficult +o i _instoll and is limited +o moderate pipe Ss zes- eer On the otherhand , an orifice metcr | consists of thin orifice plate @bich may be clamped bebween pipe Flanges. Since its Qcomeby is Simple, itis Jou Lin cost, easy to insta)) oF replace and +akes almost} no space, However jr suakers fom a head loss Coto 40%). | Also it has inaccuracies resulting for emsion, corrosion, cloging etc due +o dixhy Flow. Call the tres) These - Variable” head sidevices , are widely used iv practice’, because they [have no moving ports and require prackeal)y ho mainkainance. Furtbey they can be Lused without calibration if made to stendord dimensions. However -the -major Seas is | os [the square reot relationship between the pressure loss and the ratecof Fluid flow. Fur thes it js vob practica) +o Lmeasure +he Flow below 20% of the rated _meter capacih, becouse of the fnaccuraci |Example Av orifice meter with ovifice Ldiameter 15 cm is inserted ina pipe of 30 cm diameter. The pressure diference _measured by a mercury o3| differential manometer on the +wo sides of the orifice imetey gives a reading of Socm of mercury. LEind the vate of flow of oil of sp. gravily 0:3 when the coesficient of discharge of Lthe ovifice meter 20-64: Sol -> | Diameter of orifice de =15¢cm | Area Qo =F cis? = 176-7 om® Diqgmeter of pipe d) = 30cm Areq G, = Ft (309% = 7oe.s5 em* Sp. gravity of oj] = So = og i Reading of differenhial manometer = x = “2 BO cm of mercury o. Differenkal head h =x\ S35) | 5 eu em of oj] - = 50x Uhl = 705-5 cm ef oj] Cd = oré4 Sg = Spscific” gravity of mercury 218-6 oe ee _The rate of flow { Ce Ss roel eee ee ee | Jav-as | = O64 xe AOS ES _ x Joxgsixzoss (706 -85)*= 76-7)* = 1374)4-25 cm/s — = 137-414 litres ae example > | "4A venturi tube of threat diameter 60mm is placed in gq water ipipe of diameter joomm +o measure the volumetric Flow. The volumetic flow wate through the tube is 0108 w/s jcand. the woter has:-4 density of 10% kg/m feme viscosily of jo Ns/m> @® Determine the Reynolds number few these conditions ® The cocfficient of discharge is 0-39 Ldstermive the upsbreqm +o thqt differentia) pressure olubon > @) Area of throat in Bu ( Viscosity of water Dp > diameter V = Velocily = 1633 x10% S We hare Gacual =a iain a jzs [An APA AE B aad Extoes ital sg : PP: “| GQacua) = Cd Ar Az fas [= Ay |i fA ae V Ay) ee eae eae |2.CP-Pa) Jey IsRocha) = 0-08 mm Il Cd = 0-99 eae, aya. a a (Soxtes) = 2827 x08 m2 [ya fase = [1 — (son WS ag? V “Ctes} — = fos =e Patting above values we get =& [0:08 = 0:39 x2B27 210 ZCR=Pe) 2 To? | I | (p,-Ps) = AP = ditferenta) pressure I S Set nnexample A nozzle is fitted jtnaq_horizonta) _ pipe. diameter isc, carrying a gas of a densiy~ IS kg/m? , for the purpose oF i | flow measurementi the ditferenbal. A _ pressure head indicated by aD hibe manometer containing: oih) Of« Specific gravily OB is - in coms Ifthe cocfficieo}. of discharge sieeiet and ‘diameter of mozzle ar os: and 5cm, ieespechively , detesmine the Héw of gas iShedughs ein nozale Flow. meter: 1 if . Pressure eee Ab indicated ity tthe 3 Ser ‘Qo ‘em of oils ofosps eis of ag Seen of aay aS Ka/n els ara kg + oa JSxBSS ae al ee ae ri5. Be = 6956.52. cm of QS acral = Cd AiAz_. fog Jan ki ARIAL : s.0'8 CI7$'71) C853) | = 583878-48 crv QE)X 69S 2Rotameter i Cvoriable Areg flow meter) | Dn vavigble grea meter the greg _of +he yvestichion can be altered to | maintain steady pressure difference. {| Rotameter js aq commonly used Lvariable area flow meter, In tis device, the flow enters the bottom lof a verhcally placed tapered +ube and | causes the ‘Floal Cishich has higher densihy -+han the fluid) +o. move upwords The float will vise te a point i9. the tube where the drag force Cupward directs Land: bucyant force cupward direchion> is. balanced by the weight .of the float al Cdownward direchion). The position of [the fleat in tne tube is sfaken as Lindication ef the flow rate. Since the Lelevation of the Float iso dependent on [the annalar greq_ beltween i+ and the tapered glass tube, itis, also called +e \Naviable area orifice meter, The force balance equation of the Float is i Fan gt Fuoyancy = FEwejght Ag CPa= Pa) +P 9Ve = Se OVE CPd- Pu) = a ob Se- Pee]