oa Human Resource Management Haman resource development has in recent years become the focus of attention of planners, policy-makers and administrators. Human resource development may be defined as the process of increasing the knowledge, skills and capacities of people. It is important not only for an enterprise but for a nation to develop its human resources. A country can develop only when its human resources are developed through health, nutrition, education, training and research. At the enterprise level, employee training and executive development are main areas of human resource development, 9.1 Concept of Training [Training is the process of increasing the knowledge and skills for doing a particular Ja it is an organised procedure by which people learn knowledge and skill for a definite purpose)fThe purpose of training is basically to bridge the gap between job requirements and present competence of an employee)ffraining is aimed at improving the behaviour and performance of a personitit is a never ending or continuous procesal Training is closely related with education and development but needs to be differentiated from these terms) : [Graining and Education) Training should be distinguished from education. [Training is any process by which the aptitudes, skills and abilities of employees to perform specific jobs are increased. On the other hand, education is the process of increasing the general knowledge and understanding of employees}! Thus, education is wider in scope and more general in purpose than training, Training is job-oriented or occupational having an immediate utilitarian objective and the major burden of training falls upon the employers. Training is vocational whereas education is general and major burden of education falls on the Government. Education is person-orlented while training is job-oriented. Training is essentially practical consisting of knowledge _ and skills required to perform specific tasks. On the contrary, education is theoretical consisting of concepts aimed at stimulating analytical and creative faculties of the individual. Table 9.1: Comparison between Education and Training Point of Comparison Education Training 1. Content and Scope Broad and general Narrow and specific-job related 2. Nature Pure and theoretical Applied and practical 3. Duration Long duration Short duration 4, Result Delayed and inapparent Quick and apparent Education generally refers to formal instruction in a school or college, whereas training is often imparted at the work-place. However, it is difficult in practice to differentiate between education and training because in many cases both of them occur simultaneously. There is some education in all training and in all education there is some training. The two are complementary and both involve development of talent and human potential. Training and Development. Employee training is distinct from management Training is a short-term process utilising a systematic and ory d i: ious : Prinetples of Personnel Management, p. 260,Employee Training 95 procedure by which non-managerial personnel learn technical knowledge and skills for a definite purpose. It refers to instructions in technical and mechanical operations Aike operation of a machine. It is designed primarily for non-managers. It is for a ‘Short duration and for a specific job-related purpose. On the other hand,[development is a long-term education process utilising a ‘gystematic and organised procedure by which managerial personnel learn conceptual g: theoretical knowledge for general purpose] Qf involves philosophical and eoretical educational concepts and it is designed for managersyf{t involves broader ucation/and|[its purpose is long-term development. In the words of Campbell, aining courses are typically designed for a short-term, stated set purpose, such as ¢ operation of some piece(s) of machinery while devélopment involves a broader ‘education for long-term purposes.”! | Training involves helping an individual learn how to perform his present job ‘satisfactorily. Development involves preparing the individual for a future job and owth of the individual in all respects. Development complements training because onan resources can exert their full potential only when the learning process goes beyond simple routine. Differences between training and development have been summarised in Table 9.2. Table 9.2: Training and Development Compared Point of Distinction Training Development 1. Contents ‘Technical and mechanical Conceptual and philosophical operations concepts 2. Participants ‘Non-managerial personnel Managerial personnel 3. Time period Short-term one shot affair Long-term continuous process 4. Purpose Specific, job related skills Total personality 5. Initiative From management—external From individual himself—internal motivation motivation 6. Nature of the Reactive process—to meet Proactive process—to meet future process current need needs 9.2 Need for Training ‘Training is required on account of the following reasons: 1. Job Requirements. [Employees selected for a job might lack the qualifications quired to perform the job effectively\New and inexperienced employees require bei instruction for effective performance on-the-job. In some cases, the past ‘perience, attitudes and behaviour Patterns of experienced personnel might be ‘appropriate to the new organisation] Remedial training should be given to such cople to match the needs of the organisation. New employees need to provided Fea training to make them familiar with the job and the organisation. 2. Technological Changes. Technology is changing very fast. Now automation nd mechanisation are being increasingly applied in offices and service sector. 1 J.P Campbell ; “Personnel Training and Development,” Annual Revtew of Psychology, Vol. 22, No. 1. 197196 Human Resource Management Increasing use of fast changing techniques requires training into new technology, For instance, staff in public sector bank are being trained due to computerisation of banking operations, No organisation can take advantage of latest technology without a well-trained personnel. New jobs require new skills. Thus, both new and old employees require training, 3, Organisational Viability. In order to survive and grow, an organisation must continually adapt itself to the changing environment. With increasing economic liberalisation and globalisation in India, business firms are experiencing expansion, growth and diversification. Jn order to face international competition| the firms must upgrade their capabilities | Existing employees need refresher training to keep them abreast of new knowledge) {raining programmes foster the initiative and creativity of employees hind |help to prevent obsolescence of skills\An organisation can build up a second line of command through training in order to meet its future needs for human resources\ Trained staff is the most valuable asset of a company} 4. Internal Mobility. (Training becomes necessary when an employee: moves from one job to another due to promotion and transferEmployees chosen for higher level jobs need to be trained before they are asked to perform the higher responsibilities, Training is widely used to prepare employees for higher level jobs. Thus, there is an ever present need for training people so that new and changed techniques may be taken advantage and improvements in old methods are effected. Need for training has increased due to growing complexity of jobs, increasing professionalisation of management, growing uncertainties in the environment, global competition, growing aspirations, vast untaped human potential, ever-increasing gay between plans and results and sub-optimal performance levels. * oy Importance of Training A well-planned and well-executed training programme can provide the following advantages: 1, Higher Productivity. Training helps to improve the level of performance. Trained employees perform better by using better method of work. Improvements in manpower productivity in developed nations can be attributed in no smiall measure to their educational and industrial training programmes. 2. Better Quality of Work. In formal training, the best methods are standardised and taught to employees. Uniformity of work methods and procedures helps to improve the quality of product or service. Trained employees are less likely to make operational mistakes. 3, Less Learning Period. A systematic training programme helps to, reduce the time and cost involved in learning. Employees can more quickly reach the acceptable level of performance. They need not waste their time and efforts in learning through trial and error. z 4. Cost Reduction. Trained employees make more economical use of mate and machinery. Reduction is wastage and spoilage together with increase in productivity help to minimise cost of operations per unit. Maintenance cost is alsoaployee Training 97 educed duc (o fewer machine breakdown and better handling of equipments. Plant ynaeity can be put to the optimum tise, 5. Reduced Supervision. Well-trained employees tend to be self-reliant and qotivated. They need less guidance and control. Therefore, supervisory burden is duced and the span of supervision can be enlarged. 6. Low Accident Rate. Trained personnel adopt the right work methods and ike use of the prescribed safety devices. Therefore, the frequency of accidents is duced, Health and safety of employees can be improved. 7. High Morale. Proper training can develop positive attitudes among employees. Job satisfaction and morale are improved due to rise in the earnings and job security employees. Training reduces employee grievances because opportunities for internal promotion are available to well-trained personnel. 8. Personal Growth. Training enlarges the knowledge and skills of the parti- cipants. Therefore, well-trained personnel can grow faster in their career. Training prevents obsolescence of knowledge and skills. trained employees are a more valuable { to,any organisation. Training helps to develop people for promotion to higher 's and to develop future managers. 9. Organisational Climate. A sound training programme helps to improve the dimate of an organisation. Industrial relations and discipline are improved. Therefore, decentralisation of authority-and participative management can be introduced. Resistance to change is reduced. Organisations having regular training programmes can fulfil their future needs for personnel from internal sources. Organisational stability is enhanced because training helps to reduce employee turnover and absenteeism. {fraining is an investment in people and, therefore, systematic training is a sound business investment. In fact, “no organisation can choose whether or not to train employees . . . the only choice left to management is whether training shall be haphazard, casual and possibly misdirected or whether it shall be made a carefully planned part of an integrated programme of human resource administration.” pos 9.3.1 Benefits of Training to Employees Training is useful to employees in the following ways: (i) Self-confidence. Training helps to improve the self-confidence of an employee. It enables him to approach and perform his job with enthusiasm. (ii) Higher Earnings. Trained employees can perform better and thereby earn more (iii) Safety. Training helps an employee to use various safety devices. He can handle the machines safely and becomes less prone to accidents. (iv) Adaptability. Training enables an employee to adapt to changes in work procedures and methods. (v) Promotion. Through training, employee can develop himself and earn quick promotions. 1. Paul S and Charles A. Myers : Personnel Administration, p. 377.98 Human Resource Management (vi) New Skills. Training develops new knowledge and skills among employees, ‘The new skills are a valuable asset of an employee and remain permanently with nim. ‘Training at Infosys Infosys training programmes are designed to enable company professionals enhance their skill sets in tune with their respective roles. New student hires complete approximately three months of integrated on-the-job training before becoming billable to clients, Infosys’ training spectrum includes software development, managerial skills, soft skitis, leadership, and domain specific training (banking, insurance), ete. The education philosophy at Infosys is to equip Infoscions with the knowledge to find the best solution, rather than to teach ‘one way to do it’ and also to relate to real life situations. In addition to technical training, the Learning and Development Department of Infosys trains employees in a variety of soft skills. For example, programmes are conducted for Infoscions who travel abroad, to help them acclimatise and sensitise themselves to new cultures in the workplace and outside, The company offers language training to those people doing long-term business with another country or to those groups of individual staying for long stints in a forelgn country. The attention given to detail by Infosys can be understood by the fact that it runs:a two-! hour module called ‘Bon Voyage’ for all travellers at the time of collecting tickets and: passport. It's a refresher programme covering cultural differences, immigration processes and tips on making one’s way in a new country. yeni : The Economic Times, June, 18, 2004. «¥-4 Types of Training aes Training is required for several purposes. Accordingly, training programmes may be of the following types: oa 1. Orientation Training. Induction or orientation training seeks to adjust newly appointed employees to the work environment. Every new employee needs to be made fully familiar with the job, his superiors and subordinates and with the rules and regulations of the organisation. Induction training creates self-confidence in the employees. It is also known as pre-job training. It is brief and informative. 2. Job Training. It refers to the training provided with a view to increase the knowledge and skills of an employee for improving performance on-the-job. Employees may be taught the correct methods of handling equipment and machines used in a job. Such training helps to reduce accidents, waste and inefficiency in the performance of the job. 3. Safety Training. Training provided to minimise accidents and damage to machinery is known as safety training. It involves instruction in the use of safety devices and in safety consciousness. a ‘ 4. Promotional Training. It involves training of existing employees to enable them to perform higher level jobs. Employees with potential are selected.and they are given training before their promotion, so that they do not find it difficult to shoulder the higher responsibilities of the new positions to which they are promoted. 6. Refresher Training. When existing techniques become obsolete due to the development of better techniques, employees have to be trained in the use of new methods and techniques. With the passage of time, employees may forget some of9.14 lil... Guidelines for Training * Make learning one of the fundamental values of the company. * Commit major resources and adequate time to training. * Use training to bridge the gap with the external world. ; © Integrate training into initiatives for change management. * Use training as a developmental tool for individuals. * Link organisational, operational, and individual training needs. * Install training systems that substitute work experience. * Ensure that training allows the soft skills to bloom. * Use retraining to continuously upgrade employees’ skills. * Create a system to evaluate the effectiveness of training, Source: Business Today, January 7-21, 1996, p. 185. 9.8 Methods and Techniques of Training The methods employed for training of operatives may be described as under: 1. On-the-job Training (OJT). In this method, the trainee is placed’on‘a regular job and taught the skills necessary to perform it. The trainee learns under the guidance and supervision of the superior or an instructor. The trainee learns by observing and handling the job. Therefore, it is called learning by doing. Several methods are used to provide on-the-job training, e.g., coaching, job rotation, commiltes assignments: etc.! A popular form of on-the-job training is Job Instruction Training (JIT) or step by step learning. It is widely used in the United States to prepare supervisors. It is appropriate for acquisition or improvement of motor skills and routine and repetitive operations. The JIT involves the following steps: : (a) Preparing the trainee for instruction. This involves putting the trainee at ease, securing his interest and attention, stressing the importance of the job, ete. (b) Presenting the job operations or instructions in terms of what the trainee is required to do. The trainee is put at work site and each step of the job is explained to him clearly. (c) Applying and trying out the instructions to judge how far the trainee has understood the instructions. } : (d) Following up the training to identify and correct the deficiencies, if any. JIT method provides immediate feedback, permits quick connect errors and provides extra practice when required. But it needs skilled trainers and preparation in advance. ‘ : Merits. The main advantage of OJT is that the trainee learns on. the actual | machine in use and in the real environment of the job. He gets a feel of the actual job. Therefore, he is better motivated to learn and there is no problem of transfer of 1. These methods are described in detail in the next chapter on Executive Development.employee Training 9.15 yaining skills (o the job. Secondly, this method is very economical because no additional space, equipment, personnel or other facilities are required for training. she trainee produces while he learns. Thirdly, the trainee learns the rules regulations and procedures by observing their day-to-day applications. Fourthly, this is the most guitable method for teaching knowledge and skills which can be acquired through acrsonal observation in a relatively short time period. It is widely used for unskilled and sem-skilled jobs, e.g., machinist, clerical and sales jobs. Fifthly, line supervisors ake an active part in training their subordinates. Job Instruction Training Procedure Aow to Get Ready to Instruct 1. Have a timetable How much skill you expect and when. Break down the job. List the important steps. Pick out the key points. rything ready. The right equipment, material, and supplies. Have the workplace properly arranged. — As you would expect the worker to maintain it, @ow to Instruct Gtep 1: Prepare the Worker Step 3: Try Out Performance (a) Put the worker at ease, (a)’ Have the worker perform the operation. (b) Find out what he or she knows: (b) Have the worker explain the key points. (c) Arouse interest {c) Correct errors. (4) Place the worker correctly. (d) Reinstruct as needed. Glep 2: Present the Operation Step 4: Follow-up (a) Tell (a) Put the worker on his or her own. (b) Show. (b) Encourage questioning. (c) Explain. ()_ Check frequently. (d)_ Demonstrate. (d)_Taper off assistance. Gource: K, Wexley and G. Latham, Developing and Training Human Resources in Organisations. 2nd ed Demerits. First, it on-the-job training, the learner finds it difficult to concentrate ue to noise of the actual workplace. Secondly, this method is often haphazard and @norganised. The superior or experienced employee may not be a good trainer. Thirdly, in this method, the trainee may cause damage to costly equipment and @aterials. On-the-job training is, however, the most widely used and accepted method of training. It is suitable for all levels of employees, workers, supervisors and executives. It is appropriate for teaching knowledge and skills which can be learnt in a relatively short period of time and where only a few persons are to be trained on-the-job. In order to make on-the-job training successful, some conditions must be satisfied: (a) what and how to teach should be carefully decided. (b) the instructor should be carefully selected and trained, and (c) a definite follow-up schedule should be used to judge the results of training.ae 9.16 Human Resource Managemen, 2. Off-the-Job Training. Under this method. the trainee learns outside the joy, and devotes whole time on learning. The main techniques used in off-the-job train; are given below: 8 (a) Vestibule Training. In this method, a training centre called vestibule tg gq up and actual job conditions are duplicated or simulated in it. Expert trainets are employed to provide training with the help of equipment and machines which ar identical with those in use at the workplace. sn Merits. The main advantage of vestibule training is that the trainee Gay concentrate on learning without disturbance of the workplace noise. Secondly, the interest and motivation of the trainee are high as the real job conditions are duplicated. Thirdly, this method is essential in cases where on-the-job training might result in a serious injury, a costly event, or the destruction of valuable equipment and material, e.g., aeronautical industry. Fourthly, correct method can be taught effectively by the trained instructor who knows how to teach. Fifthly, it permits the trainee to practice without the fear of being observed and described by thé superior, co-worker. Lastly, it is a very efficient method of training a large number of employees of the same kind of work at the same time. This method is also useful when it is not advisable to put the burden of training on-line supervisors and when. a_ special coaching is needed. It is often used to train clerks, bank tellers, inspectors, inactive operators, testers. typists, etc ‘Stee Demerits. Vestibule training is the most expensive method because of additional investments in classroom, equipment and expert trainers. Secondly,-the training situations is somewhat artificial and the trainee does not get a feel of the real job, Thirdly, separation of training from the supervisory responsibilities ‘may lead to problems in the organisation. a (b) Apprenticeship Training. In this method, theoretical instruction and practical learning are provided to trainees in training institutes. In India, the Government has established Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs).for this. purpose. Under the Apprenticeship Act, 1962 employers in specified industries are required to train the prescribed number of persons in ‘designated trades’. The aim is to develop ail-round craftsmen. Generally, a stipend is paid during the training period. Thus, it is an “earn when you learn” scheme. ea Merits. First, the main advantage of this method is that it combines theory and practice. Secondly, the trainee acquire skills which are valuable in the job market. Thirdly, apprenticeship programmes provide skilled workforce to industry. Demerits. Apprenticeship training is time-consuming and expensive. Many persons leave the training programme midway as the training period ranges from one year to five years. ¥ Apprenticeship training is the oldest method of training. It is particularly,suitable for scanning crafts and technical trades wherever job proficiency is the result of @ relatively long training period. Draughtsman, machinist, printer, tool maker, patter® designer, mechanic, carpenter, weaver, fitter, jeweller, engraver, electrician, etc. are examples of such areas. apnployer Framing 9.17 (c) Classroom Training. Under this method, training is provided in company J ginesrooms or It educational institutions. Lectures, case studies, group discussions, and audio visual aids are used to explain knowledge and skills to the trainees. | Classroom (raining is suitable for teaching concepts and problem-solving skills. It is giso useful for orientations and safety training programmes. Some companies gaintain their own training institutes or schools. Special training courses are @esigned, e.g-, Management course for foremen, computer course for typists, etc (Courses in retraining and upgrading may also be conducted. Small firms depend on outside schools and courses. ~ The Ingredients of a Good Training Programme ] Maximise the similarity between the training situation and the job situation. Provide as much experience as possible with the task being taught. 5 Provide for a variety of examples when teaching concepts or skills. 4 Label or identify important features of a task. Make sure that general principles are understood before expecting much transfer. 6 Make sure that the trained behaviours and ideas are rewarded in the job situation. 7. Design the training content so that the trainees can see its applicability. 8. Use adjunct questions to guide the trainee’s attention. (d) Internship Training. It is a joint programme of training in which educational mstitutions and business firms cooperate. Selected candidates carry on regular studies for the prescribed period. They also work in some factory or office to acquire practical knowledge and skills. This method helps to provide a good balance between ‘theory and practice. But it involves a long-time period due to slow process. This method of training is used in professional work, e.g., MBBS, CA, ICWA, Company Secretaries. etc. (e) E-Learning. Business firms are increasingly using electronic technology for training. E-learning methods include training through CD-ROM, internet and intranet, satellite broadcasts, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration between trainees. Most firms using e-learning invest in a learning management system. This system | provides a single log on point for all e-learning opportunities offered through the company. E-learning makes use of social software such as blogs, wikis, podcusts | and virtual world. This phenomenon is also known as ‘Long Trait Learning’. r ‘Advantages of E-Learning * Training can be conducted at remote or international sites, 24/7. + Training is available on demand, when needed or when the work schedule permits. sts for trainers and travel are very limited. + New programmes and updates can be delivered worldwide simultaneously. * Very large numbers of people can receive the training at the same time. + Learning management systems can keep and update records on who has commenced or completed which programmes. When self-paced, the average time to complete a learning unit is usually considerably less than when the same material is presented using traditional classroom methods.10.2 Human Resource Management Executives are the most valuable assets of any organisation. The manager is the dynamic life-giving clement in an organisation. The success and growth of an organisation depends largely upon the calibre and performance of its executives, Therefore, every organisation should improve the quality of its managers. It 1s essential to train and develop executives who can succeed as the managers of today, systematic and continuous efforts are necessary to prepare managers who can successfully meet the challenges of present and the future. 10.1 Concept of Executive Development [Executive development or management development is a systematic process of learning and growth by which managerial personnel gain and apply knowledge, skills, attitudes and insights to manage the work in their organisations effectively and efficiently is an educational process through which executives learn conceptual and theoretical knowledge and managerial skills in an organised manner. Management development involves relating experience to learning) Executive development consists of all the means by which executives learn to improve their behaviour and performance. It is designed to improve the effectiveness of managers in their present jobs and to prepare them for higher jobs in future. According to Flippo, Ennabegement development includes the process by which managers and executive acquire not only skills and competency in their present jobs but also capabilities for future managerial tasks of increasing difficulty and scope.”1] Thus, executive development is any planned effort to improve current and future managerial performance. It is an attempt at improving an individual's managerial effectiveness through a planned and deliberate process of learning. An analysis of these definitions reveals the following characteristics of executive development: (i) Executive development is a planned and organised process of learning rather than a haphazard or trial and error approach. (ii) It is an ongoing or never ending exercise rather than a ‘oneshot’ affair. It continues throughout an executive's entire professional career because there is no end to learning. Executive development is a long-term process as managerial skills cannot be developed overnight. (iv) Executive development is guided self-development. An organisation can provide opportunities for development of its present and potential:managers. But the image for learning has to come from the executive himself. Executive development is possible only when the individual has the desire to learn and practice what he learns. No amount of coercion can lead to development. Executive development is eventually something that the executive has to attain himself. But he will do this much better if he is given encouragement. guidance and opportunity by his company.”2 1. Edwin B. Flippo : Principles of Personnel Management, p. 51. 2. Michael Armstrong : Op. cit., p. 315.gycotttive Development re (v) Executive development aims at preparing managers for better performance and helping them to realise their full potential. 10.2. Objectives of Executive Development Any programme of executive development aims at achieving the following purposes: 1. To improve the performance of managers at all levels in their present jobs. 2. To sustain good performance of managers throughout their careers exploiting their full potential, t.e., to prepare managers for higher jobs in future. 3. To ensure availability of required number of managers with the needed skills so as to meet the present and anticipated future needs of the organisation. 4. To prevent obsolescence of executives by exposing them to the latest concepts and techniques in their respective areas of specialisation. 5. To replace elderly executives who have risen from the ranks by highly competent and academically qualified professionals. 6. To provide opportunities to executives to fulfill their career aspirations. 7. To ensure that the managerial resources of the organisation are utilised optimally. EDPs provide experiential learning. Today, EDPs are not just good networking ns, where executives rub shoulders with more of their ilk but also a platform or exchanging training skills and picking up new skills, necessary to survive ina ighly competitive business environment. Prof. A. Dasgupta has given objectives of executive development at various levels ority. These are stated in Table 10.1. It can be seen that, for top management, the objectives are mostly general and aim at developing the ability to understand and decide. On the other hand, objectives at middle and lower levels are more specific. Table 10.1: Executive Development Objectives at Three Levels of Authority 1) To Management ‘To improve though processes and analytical ability in order to uncover and examine problems and take decisions in the best interests of the country and organisation; 2. To broaden the outlook of the executive in regard to his role, position and responsibilities in the organisation and outside; ‘To think through problems which may confront the organisation now or in the future: .nderstand economic, technical and institutional forces in order to solve business problems: and a © acquire knowledge about the problems of human relations. \b) Middle Line Management ) establish a clear picture of executive functions and responsibilities; 2 ‘to bring about an awareness of the broad aspects of management problems, and an acquaintance with, and appreciation of, inter-departmental relations; Jo develop the ability to analyse problems and to take appropriate action; 4 To develop familiarity with the managerial uses of financial accounting, psychology, business law and business statistics; 5. To inculcate knowledge of human motivation and human relationships; and 6. ‘To develop responsible leadership.10.4 Human Resource Management (c) Middle Functional Executives and Special 1. To Increase knowledge of business functions and operations in specific flelds in marketing production, finance, human resource: 2, To Increase proficiency in management techniques such as work study. inventory, contros, operations research, quality control To stimulate creative thinking in order to Improve methods and procedures; To understand the functions performed in a company: To understand Industrial relations problems: and To develop the ability to analyse problems in one’s area or functions. Pree 10.3 Importance of Executive Development Executive development is necessary for the following reasons: (0 The size and complexity of organisations, both business and non-business are increasing. Managers need to be developed to handle the problems of giant and complex organisations in the face of increasing competition. (i The rapid rate of technological and social change in society requires training of managers so that they are able to cope with these changes. Automation, cut throat competition, growth of new markets, enlarged labour participation in management, growing public and government interest in business activities are the major problems that have to be handled. ae (iii) Business and industrial leaders are increasingly recognising their. social and public responsibilities. They require a much broader outlook to discharge these new responsibilities. Executive development is required to.broader the outlook of managers. () Labour management relations are becoming increasingly complex. ‘Executives require new and better skills in union negotiations, collective, bargai grievance redressal, etc. Workers are better educated and more aware. More competent managers are needed to manage the modern workforce. ‘There is a noticeable shift from owner—managed to professionally managed enterprises, even in family business houses. Executive developniént' pro- grammes are required to train and develop professional managers. (vi) Executives need education and training to understand and adjust to changes in socio-economic forces. Changes in public policy, concepts of social justice, industrial democracy, ecology (pollution) ekistics (human settlements), ergonomics (working environment), cultural anthropology (problem of fitting machines to men) are the main socio-economic changes. Without management development programmes, executives may become obsolete. Executive personnel will not be able to survive in future unless they keep'pace-with modern management education, research, principles and practices. (vit) Management of public utilities, state enterprises and civic bodies is being professionalised in order to improve operational efficiency. Similarly. agriculture, rural development and public administration require professional executives. No organisation can be successful in the long run without a planned approach to the development of its managerial persons. In the words of Peter Drucker, “an (v;evs that should be made the trainee’s behaviour, rating of the tests and changes in productivity, quality, cost, etc. c: programmes. General results of development programm« long run. But some specific results may be assessed during 10.5 Methods and Techniques of Executive Development Various techniques of executive development may be classified into two brogy categories as shown in Fig. 10.1. 2 es can be me the short-term, & Executive Development On-the-job Techniques Off-the-job Techniques |— Coaching [— Lectures [— Under Study |— Case Studies [— Position Rotation j-— Group Discussions |_— Project Assignment |— Conferences }— c = ommittees Role Playing. }— Multiple Management [-— Management Games — Selected Readings [— In Basket |— Sensitivity Train {__ programmed Instruction Fig. 10.1. Executive Development Techniques. die On the job training is most suitable when the aim is to improve on the job behaviour of executives. Such training is inexpensive and time saving. The motivation to learn is high as training takes place in the real job situation. The trainee can sizepaccutive Development io up his subor dinates and demonstrate his leadership qualities without artificial support, But neither the trainer nor the trainee are free from the daily routine and pr ae of their respective jobs. On-the-Job training is given through the following methods 1, Coaching. In this method, the superior guides and instructs the trainee as hh, The coach or counseller sets mutually agreed upon goals, suggests how to these goals, periodically reviews the trainee’s progress and suggests changes fequired in behaviour and performance. Coaching method offers several advantages: ({) It is learning by doing. (it) Every executive can coach his subordinate even if no executive development programme exists. (iii) Periodic feedback and evaluation are a part of coaching, (iv) It is very eful for orientation of new executives and for developing operative skills. (v) It fnvolves close interactions between the trainee and his boss. Coaching method, however, suffers from certain disadvantages: (i) It tends to & petuate current managerial styles and practices in the organisation. (ii) It requires hat the superior is a good teacher and guide. (iii) The training atmosphere is not {free from the worries of daily routine. (iv) The trainee may not get sufficient time to make mistakes and learn from experience. Coaching can be effective if the coach is a good communicator, an able motivator and a patient listener. Coaching will work well if the coach provides a good model with whom the trainee can identify; if both can be open with each other, if the coach accepts his responsibility fully, and if he provides the trainee with recognition of his ‘mprovement and suitable rewards!"! In some cases, an assistant to position is created. The trainee is made the assistant of a specific manager. The manager teaches arid exposes the trainee to managerial principles and practices. 2. Understudy. An understudy is a pérson selected and being trained as the feir apparent to assume at a future time the full duties and responsibilities of the Position presently held by his superior. In this way, a fully trained person becomes available to replace a manager during his long absence or illness, on his retirement, @ansfer, promotion or death. The superior routes much of the departmental work through the junior, discusses problems with him and allows him to participate in the decision-making process as often as possible. The junior is generally assigned (asks which are closely related to the work in his section and he is deputed to attend exccutive meetings as a representative of his superior. Understudy method provides many advantages: (i) The trainee receives {continuous guidance from the senior and gets the opportunity to see the total job. (ii) It is practical and time saving due to learning by doing. (iti) The trainee takes ‘mtcrest and shares the superiors’ workload. (iv) The junior and the senior come loser to each other. (v) It ensures continuity of management when the superior eaves his position. Understudy method, however, suffers from the following disadvantages: (i) It perpetuates the existing managerial practices. (ii) As one employee is identified in 4. Stephen R, Robbins : Personnel—The Management of Human Resources, 1978, p. 169.10.8 Human Resource Managemen, advance as the next occupant of a higher level managerial position, the motivation of other employees in the unit may be affected. (iti) The subordinate staff may ignore the understudy and treat him as an intruder without clear authority and responsibility. ((v) Under an overbearing senior, the understudy may lose his freed of thought and action. The success of this method depends upon the teaching skill, and cooperation of the superior with whom the understudy is attached, i 3. Position Rotation. It involves movement or transfer of executives from one position or job to another on some planned basis. These persons are moved from, one managerial position to another according to a rotation schedule. Position rotation} is also called job rotation. The aim is to broaden the knowledge, skills and outloo, of executives. Job rotation or position rotation is often designed for junior executives, It may continue for a period ranging from six months to two years. According tg Bennett, “job rotation is a process of horizontal movement that widens the manager’, experience horizon beyond the limited confines of his own."! é Job rotation method offers the following advantages: (i) It helps to reduc, monotony and boredom by providing variety of work. (ii) It facilitates inter. departmental cooperation and coordination. (iii) It infuses new concepts and ideas into elder personnel. (iv) Executives get a chance to move up to higher. position by developing them into generalists. (v) Best utilisation can be made of each executive's skills. i Job rotation method suffers from the following disadvantages: (i) Job rotation may cause disturbance in established operations. (ii) The trainee executive may find it difficult to adjust himself to frequent moves. He may feel insecure in the absence of stable interpersonal relationships. (iii) The new incumbent may introduce ill conceived and hasty innovations causing loss to the organisation, (iv) Job rotation may demotivate intelligent and aggressive trainees who seek specific responsibility in their choosen specialisation. (v) It may cause jealously and friction-due to the game of ‘musical chairs’. Job rotation can cause class distinctions and, misunder- standing, Executives who are not moved may develop defensive reactions. (vi) It may upset family and home life when transfers are made to different geographical areas, Inter-departmental transfers can: Motivate Ensure high return on investment Broaden horizons Increase the knowledge pool Enable better coordination and efficiency 4. Project Assignments. Under this method, a number of trainee executives are put together to work on a project directly related to their functional, area. The group called project team or task force will study the problem and find appropriate solutions. For instance, accounts officers may be assigned the task of designing and developing an effective budgetary control system. By working on this project, the trainees learn the work procedures and techniques of budgeting, They also come !0 LW jennett : Manager Selection, Education and Training, pp. 169-70.ve Developme gxceutive Development oD yarn the interrelationships between accounts and other departments. This is a genible (raining device due to temporary nature of assignments. Sometim! yndicate or team consisting of persons of mature judgement and proven ability is constituted. It is given a task properly spelt out in terms of briefs and background papers, Participants represent different functional areas to facilitate jnicrchange of ideas and experiences. Each syndicate prepares a report to be disc ed by other executive groups. In some cases the management trainees are allowed (o work full time analysing and solving problems in other departments. This is called action learning. 5, Committee Assignment. A permanent committee consisting of trainee gxccutives is constituted. All the trainees participate in the deliberations of the gommittee. Through discussion in committee meetings they get acquainted with @ifierent viewpoints and alternative methods of problem-solving, They also learn interpersonal skills. 6. Multiple Management. This technique was developed by Charles P (McCormick of the McCormick Corporation of Baltimore, USA. Under it, a junior board of young executives is constituted. Major problems are analysed in the junior (board which makes recommendations to the Board of Directors. The young executives Jearn decision-making skills and the Board of Directors receives the collective wisdom of the executive team. Vacancies in the Board of Directors can be filled from the junior board members who have received considerable exposure to problems and issues. Committees and union boards offer the following advantages: (i) The participants gain practical experience in group decision-making and team work. tii) The committee or board contributes to the productivity and human relations in the organisation. (iii) The method helps to identify executive talent. Board rating system provides multiple judgement on each individual. (iv) It is relatively in- expensive method. The method suffers from some disadvantages: (i) Specific attention to the developmental needs of executives is not possible. (ii) The method is not suitable for lower level executives. (iii) The discussions in committees and boards often degenerate fnto academic debates. There is lack of purpose and commitment on the part of participants. 7. Selective Readings. Managing has become a specialised job requiring a close touch with the latest developments in the field. By reading selected professional books and journals, managers can keep in touch with the latest research findings. theories and techniques in management. No executive can afford to rely solely on others to keep him informed of innovations in management. Reading of current management literature helps to avoid managerial obsolescence. Selective readings constitute an individual self-development programme for executives. Many organisations maintain libraries for their executives and managers are encouraged. fo continually read and improve their skills. 8. Lectures. These are formally organised talks by an instructor on specific @opics. Lectures are essential when technical or special information of a complex mature is to be provided. These can be supplemented by discussions, case studies. jemonstrations, audio-visual aids and film shows. Lecture method is a simple way10.10 Human Resource Management CEOs Back in Classroom for Honing Skills Corporate India echelons are getting back to classrooms to sharpen leadership skills to up productivity and dare economic downturn. ersh More and more corporates are subscribing (0 leadership programmes at universities’ or with HR trainers, According to Mr. Ramakrishnan of Leadership Management: International's South India licencee Laras, “WE have worked with 200 companies tn the Ist five years.” Lara’s client list includes St. Gobain, Eveready, Cavinkare, Cognizant) Tvs, ‘SRF Amrutanjan and several others. nates at While cynics may call such programmes occasional ‘intellectual massaging’ of ‘old wine in new bottle’, clearly those in practice don’t mind being in the booming business, Mr. Mohapatra says, “The difference between a manager and a CEO is quality of leadership, Conventional management programmes have little to offer on leadership.” aig Source: The Economic Times, June 27, 2003. . i! of imparting knowledge to a large number of persons within a short time..It 18 very useful when facts, concepts, principles, attitudes and problem-solving skills aré to be taught. More material can be presented within a given time than by any) other method. Lectures can be used to introduce a subject, to reduce. anxiety, about upcoming training programmes or organisational changes, to present basic material that will provide a common background and to illustrate the application; of rules and principles. 3 audience. (ii) The audience loses attention quickly as they are passive listeners: Thé focus is on accumulation and memorisation rather than on application of knowledge: (iii) It requires a great deal of preparation and speaking skill for which executives may lack time. (v) The presentation of material has to be geared to a common level of knowledge. (v) It becomes unpalatable to the audience when too much informatioa is packed in the lecture. sq Lecture method can be made effective in the following ways: + kewl (a) A lecture should be well-planned as to its purpose and contents! !*** (b) The lecturer should be competent and a good speaker. seunepton (c) He should keep in mind the listener's needs and interests. ie (d) The lecture should not be for more than an hour. (e) The lecture should be made interesting through leading question3) guided discussions and audio-visual aids. : eRe 9. Group Discussions. It is a variant of the lecture method. Under it } prepared and presented by one or more trainees on the selected topic. This is by acritical discussion. The chairman of the discussion or seminar summar! contents of the papers and the discussions which follows. Often the material to be discussed is distributed in advance. Seminars and conferences enable executives t0 learn from the experiences of each other and have become quite popular. » 10. Case Study Method. Under this method, a real or hypothetical business problem or situation demanding solution is presented in writing to the trainees.grecutive Development 10.11 They ave required to identify and analyse the problem, suggest and evaluate alternative courses of action and choose the most appropriate solution. The trainer guides the discussion and ensures that no relevant fact is overlooked. ——= Peer-to-Peer Learning Methods Elearning ts passe, We-learning is in, Organisations, tired of assimilating knowledge through traditional means, are turning to peer-to-peer (P2P) learning methods. They are doing this to assimilate knowledge faster. Though the concept is in its nascent stage, but companies like Dr. Reddy's, Wippro and IBM are pioneering its adoption. In P2P learning, employees across all hierarchical levels share knowledge freely with each other. They either meet in person in specially designated forums, meet online or exchange ideas through in-house technical journals, P2P can only reinforce the traditional mode of learning, but not substitute it Earlicr, coordinating and exchanging ideas among thousands of employees at dispersed locations was a problem but technology available today takes care of that. Take for example, IBM's online tool for peer-to-peer learning called Expert-and-Knowledge Tracker that supports collaboration, knowledge re-use and question answering, It safeguards experts’ availability by providing them with control over when they appear available for collaboration and expertise sharing via their favourite instant massaging client. ‘Source: The Economic Times, March 6, 2007. A variant of the case method is incident process, wherein only an outline rather than full details of a situation is given. The trainees find out what information is required and seek it out from the trainer through questions. Case study method was developed at Harvard Business School whereas incident method was developed at MIT, USA. The advantages of case method are: (i) It promotes analytical thinking and problem-solving skills. (ii) It encourages open-mindedness and provides a means of integrating interdisciplinary knowledge. (iii) The trainees become aware of managerial concepts and processes and their application to specific situations. (iv) Detailed descriptions of real life situations help to create interest of trainees. (v) It makes trainees aware of obscurities, contradictions and uncertainties involved in business. This method is widely used in professional schools of law and management, and in supervisory and executive training programmes in industry. Case study method suffers from the following disadvantages: (i) A case may degenerate into a dreary history undermining analytical reasoning, (ii) It may suppress the critical faculties of mediocre trainees. (iii) The cases may be used indiscriminately as permanent precedents. (iv) It is time saving and expensive to prepare good case studies. (v) A real life case may not be useful in different cultural situations. The case method can be made more effective in the following ways: (i) The group of trainees must consist of person who can understand quickly. (ii) The case should be a true representation of the issues involved. It should be objective without comments from the case writer. (tii) It should be well documented with history, facts and figures. (iv) It should be based on first hand information so as to be realistic. } The discussion leader should allow full opportunity to the learners to think and ‘ticipate.10.12 Human Resource Management 11, Conference Method. A conference is a formal meeting conducted jn accordance with an organised plan. Problems of common interest are discussed, ‘The participants pool their ideas and experience to deal with the problems effectively, A conference may be divided into small groups (buzz sessions) for intensive discussions. These small groups report back to the conference. This method stresses upon small group interactions and active participation of the trainees. It 18 fdeally suited for analysing problems and issues and examining them from different viewpoints. It helps in developing conceptual knowledge, reducing dogmatism ang modifying attitudes. The trainee actively participates and his interest in,learning jg maintained. ya The conference method is suitable only for a small group of 15 to’20'persong because a larger group often discourages active participation of all the learners. The progress is usually slow because everyone is allowed to speak and irrelevant issues easily creep in. The method can be effective provided: (a) the learners have some knowledge of the subject to be discussed at the conference; (b) conference leader is good and stimulating so that he can summarise material at appropriate times during a discussion, encourage members to express themselves without fear, control more verbose members and ensure a general consensus without forcing agreeme! size of the group is small enough to allow everyone to participate in the disc (d) the discussion is relevant to the problems of the participants. siutanet 4 12. Role Playing. In this method, the trainees act out a given role‘as they would in a stage play. Two or more trainees are assigned parts to play before thé rest of the class. Thus, it is a method of human interaction which involves realistic beliaviour in an imaginary or hypothetical situation. Role playing primarily involves employer employee relationships, hiring, firing, discussing a grievance procedure, ‘coriducting a post appraisal interview or disciplining a subordinate or a salesman‘ma a presentation to a customer. Hane Role playing offers several benefits: 6 ah ; (a) Trainees learn to accept criticism from others, and the group soon recognises that sound suggestions benefit everyone. Sais (b) When a trainee criticizes another's performance, that individual has an incentive not to perform similarly later. (c) Role players practice introspection through participating in the appraisal of * their own performances. Videotaping makes self-criticism ,eyen, more beneficial and objective. Stet (d) The free-wheeling nature of role playing is conducive to generating new ideas and approaches. Defects inherent in stereotyped solutions become apparent. (e) In role-playing sessions for mixed groups, junior people have a chance to learn valuable tricks, and experienced personnel are kept alert as a matter of personal pride. it (f) Role players gain acting experience, which may help later in handling selling situations. segexecutive Developnient tone Role playing is a useful method of developing Interpersonal or human relations skills, It helps to bring about desired changes in attitudes and behaviour. Trainees jnicres( and involvement trends to be high due to learning by doing and immediate fecdback. There is a high degree of learning by observing and listening, Each trainee trics (0 excel due to the competitive atmosphere. Role playing involves simulation, je., creating an environment similar to real work situation. Two other methods bascd on simulation are inbasket and management games. 13. Inbasket Exercise. In this method, the trainee is provided with a basket or tray of papers and files related to his functional area. He is expected to carefully study these and make his own recommendations on the problem situation. The recommendations/observations of different trainees are compared and conclusions are arrived at. These are put down in the form of a report. Inbasket method offers the following advantages: (i) The method is simple and in-expensive. (ii) The trainees get a better appreciation of different functional areas. (iii) The participants learn problem-solving skills due to their active interest and involvement. (iv) Inter-departmental conflicts can be reduced. This method suffers from the following disadvantages: (i) The solution arrived at by the participants tend to be abstract devoid of real life problems. (ii) The learners may find it difficult to adapt themselves to rigid situations and may lack originality. An inbasket exercise is appropriate as a selection tool if the vacancy is at a high level, involving policy decisions and for promotions from within. An “in-basket” is a set of papers which might come to an executive desk. The candidate is expected to record his discussion on each of those papers. These decisions may be discussed Jater, between the candidates themselves or with the selectors. The decisions are expected to indicate executive competence as well as values. 14. Management Games. Management or business games are designed to be representative of real life situations. These are classroom simulation exercises in which teams of individuals compete against one another or against an environment in order to achieve a given objective. In these exercises, the participants play a dynamic role, and enrich their skills through involvement and simulated exercise. Management games can be of interacting or non-interacting types. In the interacting types of games, the decisions of one team influence the performance of other teams. In the non-interacting games, each team is independent and its performance entirely depends upon its own competence. India Inc Uses Games Companies are playing games with their employees, literally. After simulations, StoBls and activity-based war games, it's now the turn of software-based games to enter the training workshops. While earlier, games were essentially associated with team-building and enhancing communication skills, they are now being used to teach employees specific skills, at various levels.prcentive Development 1915 Management games offer the following advantages: (1) It helps to analyse and select the relevant data from a mass of information and also helps to decide with incomplete data. (t) IMs useful in developing problem-solving skills. (111) It helps in developing leadership skills and in fostering teamwork. This method suffers from the following drawbacks: (1) It 19 very difficult and expensive to develop and implement good games; ({l) The games are artificial because in real Iife executives are rewarded for creating new alternatives rather than for choosing from a given list of alternatives. (iti) The trainees who are successful in hese games May not be successful on the job. Work Role * Regular Job * Special Projects * Job Rotations Unusual Job Events or Demands Formal Training and Development * In-house Courses * External Short Courses MANAGERIAL, LEARNING Work Relationships * Coach, Mentor © Expert * Role Model + Networks Fig. 10.2. How Managers Learn Source: Cynthia D. Fisher, op. cit., p. 407. 15. Programmed Instruction. This method incorporates a pre-arranged and proposed acquisition of some specific skills or general knowledge. Information is broken into meaningful units and these units are arranged in a proper way to form a logical and requiential learning package. Each package is built upon the earlier ones and knowledge is imparted with the help of a textbook or a teaching machine. The package involves presenting questions, allowing learners to respond and instant feedback is given to indicate the accuracy of answers. This method provides the following advantages: (i) Trainees learn at their pace as the materials are broken into small units. (ii) Learners take active part in the programme. (iii) Individual differences can be taken into consideration. (iv) The motivation to learn is high. (v) The teaching material is prepared by an expert and his expertise can be made available to a large number of trainees. (vi) Individuals can be trained more economically and at the most convenient times. (vii) The instructor incharge can have accurate and quick measure of the rate of learning. (viii) Learners are given regular feedback on their progress and are encouraged to learn further through appropriate reveals. The disadvantages of this method are: (i) The learning atmosphere is impersonal. (i) Only factual topics can be programmed. (iii) Attitudinal and behavioural skills cannot be taught. (iv) The cost and time involved in creating such programmes is very high, (v) The more efficient trainee may get bored if he feels the programme is too easy. This method is mainly used in teaching factual knowledge such as mathematics, physics, a foreign language, etc. 16. Sensitivity Training. This method is also called T-Group training and .voratory training, The purpose is to increase self-awareness, develop interpersonal12 Human Resource Management A career is a sequence of positions or jobs held by a person during the course of his working life. According to Flippo, “a career is a sequerice of separate but related work activities that provide continuity, order and meaning to a person's life."! It 1s not a series of work related experiences bul a sequence of attitudes and behaviour associated with work related activitics over the span of a person's life. It represents an organised path taken by an individual across time and space. A person's career is shaped by many factors, e.g., heredity, parents, culture, age level, job experience, ete. Normally, employees want to advance and grow in their careers. Most individuals develop quite early in life an idea or a mental image of what career they would like to pursue. An individual with managerial potential joins a firm not for a job but for acareer. Unless an organisation meets these desires and aspirations of its employees it cannot make optimum use of its human resources. But organisations have their own requirements and constraints which limit their capacity to meet the employee expectations. Changing expectations of employees and organisation's inability to meet these expectations creates a conflict. If this conflict is not resolved properly, the organisation cannot attain higher levels of efficiency and effectiveness. Career planning is an important technique for productive resolution of this conflict between the individual and the organisation. According to the Peter Principle everybody rises to his/her level of incompetence in the career. But now people don't have to climb the corporate ladder to their level of incompetence anymore. Organisations are now devising career paths that allow the most talented to stay close to their expertise—and away from management. 11.]- Meaning of Career Planning Gareer Planning is the systematic process by which one selects career goals and the path to these goals) From the organisation's viewpoint(it means helping the employees to plan their caree?yin terms of their capacities within the context of organisation's needs. {it involves designing an organisational system of career movement'and growth opportunities for employees from the employment stage to the retirément stage) Gnaividuals who can fill planned future positions are identified and prepared to take up these positions/Career planning is the process of matching career goals and individual capabilities with opportunities for their fulfilmenD ‘The main characteristics of career planning are as follows: (i) Career planning is a process of developing human resources rather than an event. (ii) It is not an end in itself but a means of managing people to obtain optimum results. (ii) Career planning is a continuous process due to an ever changing environment. (iv) Basically career planning is an individual's responsibility. But it is the responsibility of an organisation to provide guidance and counselling to its employees in planning their careers and in developing and utilising their 1, Edwin B. Flippo : Op. cit., p, 248.Planning and Development 13 knowledge and skills. Goals of employees should be integrated with the organisational goals. rn) The basic aim of c needs 1.2 Career Planning and Manpower Planning er planning is an integral part of manpower planninQyhich, in turn. is an important yr of corporate planning(Manpower planning cannot be effective without proper cer planning) Similarly(manpower planning provides valuable information to areer planning)}However, there are important differences between career nd manpower planning. manpower planning provides an inventory of skills and potentials available within an organisation) On the other hand(career planning determines who (on the basis of performance and potential) could be groomed for higher level assignments, where, when and how (i.e., after what kind of training). Secondly, manpower planning rovides information on the human resources available within the organisation for expansion, growth and technological innovations. But career planning only tells us who could succeed in case of retirement, death, resignation, etc. of existing personnel er planning is integration of individual and organisational acilital planning 11.3 Career Planning and Succession Planning uccession planning is the process of ensuring that qualified persons are available to assume key managerial positions whenever these fall vacant due to untimely deaths. premature firing, resignations and retirementsj[The aim is to ensure a smooth transition and operating efficiencyBtudies reveal that executives hired from outside are more expensive than those chosen through succession planni A succession of persons to fill key positions over time is essential for the survival and success of an organisation. The purpose of succession planning is to identify and develop people to replace current incumbents in key positions in cases of | resignations, retirement, promotions, growth, expansion and creation of new positions Succession can be from within or from outside the organisation. Succession by people from within provides opportunities to employees for progress in their careers, In some professionally managed corporations, every key executive is usually asked to identify three or four best juniors who could replace him in his job should the need arise. Complete dependence on internal sources may however = stagnation in the organisation. Similarly, complete dependence on outside talent may cause stagnation in the career prospects of present employees which may in turn lead to a sense of frustration. Career planning and succession planning are similar but not synonymous. Career planning covers all levels of employees whereas succession planning is generally required for higher level executives. Generally, career planning is based on a eae ; plan for the higher level executives. A succession plan involves identification ; vacancies that are likely to occur in the higher levels and locating the probable successors, Succession planning motivates employees and facilitates continuity of areer planning may consist of charts showing the carecr paths the org: sation. Ci "tL lj oe categories of employees showing how they can advance up (Table 11.1) of different| | | ol continuous _ ent. 1.6 Process of Career Planning e career planning process generally involves the fol 1. Identifying Individual Needs and Aspiratio: alysis of the hopes and aspirations of different categories of employees is done. It necessary (0 identify and communicate the career Goals, as) rations and career hors of every employee because most individuals may not a aclear idea about se. For this purpose, a human resource inventory of the organisation and employee ential are ascertained. Human resource inventory will reveal the age, qualifications, perience and aptitude of present employees. Appraisal of employees is. then carried it to identify the employees having the necessary potential for climbing up the der and are willing to be promoted and to take up higher responsibilities. Such ppraisal may reveal three categories of employees: (a Employees who are already fit and willing to take up higher responsibilities. These can be promoted to fill the higher level vacancies; b| Employees who have the potential and willingness to take up higher responsibilities but require more training and experience; and c) Employees who have the capacity to take higher responsibilities but Jack the interest or desire. 2. Analysing Career Opportunities. The organisational set up, future plans d carecr system of the employees are analysed to identify the career opportunities vailable within it. Career paths can be determined for each position. It is also ecessary to analyse career demands in terms of knowledge, skills, experience, ptitude, etc. Long-term and short-term career goals can be defined after relating pecilic jobs to different career opportunities. At a particular level, there may be jung direct recruits as well as older persons who have risen to the level through jie former aspire for quick career progress due to their better education lowing steps: ms. First of all, an objective romotions. T118 Human Resource Managemen, and training. The latter cannot be expected to move up very high due to limiteg professional education. Therefore, promotions and direct recruitment at every leve] must be so planned as to ensure a fair share to each group. This is called age balance in career paths. 3. Identifying Match and Mismatch. A mechanism for identifying congruence between individual current aspirations and organisational career system is developed to identify and compare specific areas of match and mismatch for different categories ofemployees. For this purpose, specific jobs are related to different career opportunities, Such matching helps to develop realistic career goals for both long-term anid short- term. 4, Formulating and Implementing Strategies. Alternative strategies and action plans for dealing with mismatch are formulated and implemented. Some of the strategies used are given below: (a) Changes in the career system by creating new career paths, by providing opportunities for lateral movements through jobs redesign, ete... (b) Changing employee needs and aspirations by helping them to scale down unrealistic goals and aspirations or by creating new aspirations. (c) Seeking new basis of integration through problem-solving, negotiations and compromises, etc. t (d) Training and development of suitable people, so as to:meet the needs of both the individuals and the organisation. ‘abi 5. Reviewing Career Plans. [A periodic review of career plans'is necessary to know whether the plans are contributing to effective utilisation of human resources by matching employee objectives to job needs, Review will also indicate to employees in which direction the organisation is movin what changes are likely to take place and what skills are needed to adapt to the changing needs of the organisation. The following questions may be asked during the review process: sto ponsitr (a) Was the classification of the existing employees correct? obt « (b) Are the job descriptions proper? brs 198 (c) Is there any employee unsuited to his job? epteere (d) Are the future manpower projects still valid? a (e) Is the team pulling on well as a whole? THAT. (f) Are the training and development programmes adequately designed to enable the employees to climb up the career ladder and fit into higher positions? Answers to these and other similar questions may be sought through brainstorming session. Surveys may also be conducted to judge the impact of career planning activities on the working of the organisation. Fig. 11.1 illustrates'the planning process. 11.7 Career Counselling 46 Career planning may require advising and guiding employees in their possible career paths and the direction in which they ought to be heading, Such advising and guiding is called career counselling. The need for such counselling arises when employees12.2 Human Resource Management Haman resource development is a newly emerging field of study. Although development of human beings has been in existence in some form or other since the beginning of civilization. A planned and systematic approach to HRD in the corporate sector emerged in the later half of the 20th century. In the past, training was the only planned way of developing human resources. But now HRD has emerged as an inter- disciplinary and integrated approach to the development of human resources. 12.1 Concept of Human Resource Development (HRD) In simple words, HRD is an organised learning experience aimed at matching the organisational need for human resource with the individual need for career growth and development. It is a system and process involving organised series of learning activities designed to produce behavioural changes in human beings in such a way that they acquire desired level of competence for present or future role. According to Prof. TV. Rao the best known Indian HRD expert, “HIRD is a process in which the employees of an organisation are continually helped in a planned way to: (a) acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions associated with their present or expected future roles. (b) develop their general capabilities so that they may be able to discover their own inner potentialities and exploit them to full for their own’and organisational development purpose, and (c) to develop an organisational culture where superior-subordinate relation- ships, teamwork and collaboration among different sub-units are strong and contribute to organisational wealth (or professional well-being) and motivation and pride of the employees.”! On the basis of definition, the following features of HRD may be identified: () Human resource development is a planned and systematic approach to the development of people. It is not a fragmented or piece-meal approach but a total system of interacting elements designed to improve the total personality. (ii) Human resource development is a continuous process of developing the competencies, motivation, dynamism and effectiveness of employees. It is based on the belief that there is no end to the development of an individual and learning continues throughout life. (iii) Human resource development is an interdisciplinary concept. Experts belonging to different disciplines tend to adopt a compartmentalised approach to HRD. But HRD involves confluence of ideas from many sciences. Sociology provides new insights in the growth and development of human system through the study of families, communities and other groups. Psychology provides explanation of human behaviour in terms of perception, motivation, morale, etc. It provides instruments for use in selection. induction, training, counselling, etc. of employees. Anthropology focuses on traditions, kinship, culture, etc. which is helpful in conflict management, intercultural relationships, etc. Political science provides conceptual base 1. TV. Rao : Recent Experiences in HRD, Oxford & IBH, New Delhi, 1988, p. 4,jan Resonree Development 123 for power, status, politics, ete. Economics and management also contribute (o HIRD in their own ways. (in) Human resource development has both micro and macro aspects. At the micro level, HRD is concerned with improving the skills, attitudes and behaviour of employees in organstational settings for the benefit of both the individual and the organisation. At the macro level, HRD involves improving the quality of life of people in a country. Development of people is done by providing the right environment wherein the individual may grow to his tullest stature and realise his fullest potential. HRD is a part of educational and developmental planning for nation’s welfare. HRD is a process not merely a set of mechanisms and techniques. The tech- niques like performance appraisal, counselling, training and organisation development are used to initiate, facilitate and promote this process. The process has no limit and, therefore, the techniques have to be reviewed and revised periodically. ]2.2 Difference between HRM and HRD “he discipline of HRD was developed because the human resource management tunction failed to meet the new challenges of the 20th century. Some organisations have merely re-designated their personnal departments as HRD departments. But are some fundamental differences between human resource management and HRD. These are given below: (i) Human resource management is viewed as a set of independent sub- functions. On the other hand, HRD is seen as a subsystem of a larger system, i.e., the organisation. It is assumed to be made up of mutually dependent parts. (ii) Human resource management is considered to be mainly a service function responding to the demands of the organisation as and when they arise. But HRD is considered a proactive function which does not merely cope with organisational needs but anticipates them and acts on them in advance ina planned and continuous manner. (iii) Human resource management is narrow in scope and aims at developing and administering people only. HRD is wider in scope and aims at developing the total organisation. The focus of human resource management is on increasing the efficiency of people. But the focus of HRD is on building the right organisational culture that can continuously identify, nurture and use human capabilities. (iv) In human resource management, salary, wage incentives and job simpli- fication are considered to be the main motivations.On the other hand, HRD relies on job enrichment, job challenge, informal organisation, autonomous work groups, and creativity for motivating people. (v) Human resource management is supposed to be the exclusive responsibility of the human resource department. But HRD is regarded as the responsibility of all managers in the organisation. In fact, HRD aims at developing theoll iscover, devel lop and use his/h an » In order to further both individual and al organisational cooree: TV, Rao : Recent Experiences in HRD, Op. cit., p. 59. In order to achieve these objectives, an HRD system es or sub systems. sysi may include the following |. Performance appraisal. . Potential appraisal and development. Feedback and performance counselling, Career planning. ‘Training. Organisation development—creating a shared mindset. Rewards and employee welfare. Quality of work life. NOTRONd wo All these mechanisms are based on the following assumptions: ({) Human resources are the most valuable assets in the organisation. (ii) Unlike other resources, human resources can be developed and increased to an unlimited extent. (iii) A healthy climate, characterised by openness, enthusiasm, trust, mutuality and collaboration is essential for developing human resources. (iv) HRD can be planned and monitored in ways that are beneficial both to the individual and to the organisation. (v) Employees feel committed to their work and the organisation if the organisation perpetuates a feeling of “belonging”. (vi) Employees are likely to have this feeling if the organisation provides for their basic needs and for their higher needs through appropriate manage- ment styles and systems. (vii) Employee commitment is increased with the opportunity to discover and use one’s capabilities and potential in one’s work.12.14 Human Resource Management takes place in day-to-day work relationship between a manager and his subordinates without any plan or schedule, é Formal Counselling involves a planned and systematic programme of advistn and assisting employees by their subordinates and/or by professional/expert counsellers. 4 Employee counselling can be helpful in strengthening superior subordinate relationships. It improves communication and helps employees recognise their strengths and weaknesses and potential. Counselling also helps employees to prepare action plans for their own development. Thus, counselling helps to solve employee problems and to prevent future problems. It plays both curative and prevé roles. Performance counselling involves assisting the employee to understand hig own performance, factors contributing to it, contribution of his own strengths and, weaknesses, and assist him to identify the extent to which he can influenice the outcome of his work and hereby plan for improving his competence and performance, The objective of performance counselling is to identify development needs of subordinates and to draw a systematic plan of action. Counselling is the process of advising and employee so as to enable ‘him to overcome his emotional problems. According to Keith Davis, Counselling means, “discussion of an emotional problem with an employee with the general objective of minimising it.”! This definition reveals that counselling involves discussion in) which the counsellor listens sympathetically to the problem of the employee. It is a’ method of understanding and helping people who are upset emotionally. As counselling involves discussion, it forms a process of communication. Effective counselling requires communication skills. re Counselling is concerned with emotional problem. It has no concern with other job problem such as technical. The main objective of counselling is to understand and minimise émotional difficulty of an employee. Emotional problems have an adverse impact on both work life and personal life of an employee. An employee who feels his progress is very low and he has no chance of promotion in the company is for example facing an emotional problem. 12.8.1 Need for Counselling Several on-the-job and off-the-job conditions may necessitate for counselling: 1. Conflict. An organisation consists of several people. The attitudes, feces needs and perceptions differ from person to person. These individual differ may cause misunderstanding and conflicts between individuals and groups. Interpersonal and intergroup conflicts result in emotional disorder. Counselling 1 required to resolve conflicts and maintain emotional balance otherwise em morale and organisational performance may suffer. , 2. Frustration. When the motivation drive is blocked and the individual 1s prevented from reaching a desired goal, frustration occurs. Frustration may result 1. Keith Davis : Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 1977. is}uman Resource Development 12.15 iy ageression. apathy, withdrawal, physical disorders and other such behaviour tun frustration causes harm both to the individual employee and his orgamsation. Counselling can help the employce to overcome his frustration so as to restore emotional balance. 3. Stress. Counselling is an important technique to prevent and treat emotional problems arising out of stress at work, Work overload, Job insecurity, role ambiguity, role conflict are the main causes of stress at the Job. Off the job stress may arise from family and financial problems, Stress {s a major source of emotional disorder as well as physical disorder. Counselling is necessary to deal with emotional disorders a d by stress. It helps the employee to develop self-confidence, self-control and understanding, 12.8.2 Functions of Counselling According to Keith Davis counselling performs the following functions: 1. Advice. Counselling is not merely advice giving activity. Advice is only one of the functions of counselling. In giving advice, the counsellor makes judgment about an employee's emotional problems and suggests the necessary course of action. Problem arises when the counsellor is unable to understand the individual's emotional problem and suggest a solution for it. It also provides an inferior status to the individual who remains dependent on the counsellor. 2. Reassurance. Reassurance is a way of providing courage to an individual to deal with the problem and develop confidence. For example, the counsellor may say “Don't worry, go ahead” or “Well, you are making good progress.” However, the difficulty with such assurance is that the counsellor’s reassurance fades away as the | problem re-emerges. Despite its weakness, reassurance can be helpful provided it is handled carefully. 3. Communication. Counselling facilitates both upward and downward ‘ communication. It provides an opportunity to the employee to express his feelings to ] the counsellor. The counsellor should keep in confidence the identity of the employee and interpret logically the statement of his feelings. Counselling also facilitate. downward communication whereby the counsellor helps the individual to interpret company policies and programmes. 4. Release of Tension. Another important function of counselling is to release the emotional tension or catharsis of the employee. As the employee explains his emotional problem to a sympathetic counsellor, his frustration and allied problems gel reduced. The release of tension may not necessarily solve the employee's problems. But it removes mental barriers and enables the employee to face the Problem boldly and think constructively, 5. Clarified Thinking. Counselling facilitates clarified thinking by removing mental blocks and encouraging rational thoughts. During the counselling process. the individual tends to accept responsibility for solving his emotional problems in a cealistic way. 6. Reorientation. Lastly, counselling performs the function of reorientation Which involves a change in the employee's psychic self through change in basic goals 1 values. The individual's level of aspiration is shifted towards reality. Counselling