Inventing the Classics AND JAPANESE LITERATURE Edited by Haruo Shirane and Tomi Suzuki| Introduction: Issues in Canon Formation “Today when we speak af he Jpancs terry clases, we think of texts such athe Menjasa (Cllection of Ten Thossand Leaves lat thc) the Kak (Record of Ancient Marrs, 72), Ge monogatari (The Tle of Genji ely "ith e), Makin: nv ssi (The Pillow Book, lat roth c), Heike moncgatr (The Tale of the Heike, ca 14th), and Taresurepu (Essays in Ilene, cauly th c) and of authors such a Matsuo Basho, Ihara Seka and (Chikamatsu Mozzaemon. These xs and authors are repeatedly antholo- Gee in textbooks in Japan and abroad and are widely though¢ be the ‘epository of Japanese culture, spin, and taste. This sats, howeres, i a much 2 fesul of reeprion inthe medieval period, when the vernacular ‘anon was fr formed, aici ofthe radical configuttion of naions of i+ ‘erature and learning shat occusted inthe netecnth and gwen centres ‘The objective ofthis volume of essays ist historicize this complex sociopo> lial proces, pariclsya rears tothe emergence of linguistic and cl- ‘ural nationalism, by which thse tet and authors were pevileged and be ‘ame the catual icons of Japan “adion”aki een tt See Tee cs ocean ee espe Pn nll Lora aoe merece acon goa Sogn ac han nie Sets ser oer wig andor Sect tec minctge arracest! sco pl ed i se ase ee Eaten teguine sli oe taiege nae rss be andi tates comet ee Boa etme es ecole se hee slp cere eri ia ptosis secnorce naan Cpe i ee re pnt so een frye cu se an We tm oe ren ce emai crane stuns 1 CANON FoRMATION 3 ‘museums, publishing houses) that produce or m-produce the value ofthe text and that crete the consumers and audiences capable of ecognizing and esting that value. Key questions, then, are how by whom, and for what Purposes hs value generted, mained, and raamied In concace to literary canons, which are in consent flux scripeual éanons in Europe have tended tobe stale and ae often closed, since x {pous intutions (eg, the Chorch) usally contol dhe choice of eanonical fests limi ther interpeeaion, and tain thoee who interpre: and reach the texts. The Bible, for example, sno longer open to change or expansion. La Japan, however, the seriprural canons, which were primarily Buddis: but ‘which incladed Shinto, Confucian, and other synerei forms, showed cone Sdrable diversity and fui. The Shine canon, which emerged inthe mes dra period and became lozly associated wid koa aati exenig) in de eighteenth century before being adapred form of naional rion in the Mei pesiod, had eh remashable airy to claim vasous txts—such as the 'Age ofthe Gods" volume ofthe Nihon sols (Chronicles of Japan, ‘ao whi had eter bean sate histony—assxpeue (inn). The rod tm etc Sacle Shochi has even claimed thc vernacala Japanese leat 184 whole the Shinto eanon: the Kyi, The Tale of Gey, monet (Tiles of le, late oth ©), md deams, and other Japanese leary texts em body and tanamit Shinto beliefs (uch 2 worship ofthe sii ofthe dead ‘orth desire for purification) fom one generation tothe next How then wete canons established in Japan? In wha ways did these rents ‘become canonical’ The broad range of orelapping institutional practie ex: amined in the fllowing essays include () the preservation collation, and ‘ranemission of texto is vines, which was rial rie to printing in the seventeenth century; (2) extensive commentary, exegesis, and criticisms 6) the se ofa ext ina school curriclua; (4) the employment ofa exc as 2 mode for diction, syle, or grammar, o a2 soure of allusion and refer- nee both of hich were erie to the medieval construction ofthe poetic ‘anon: () che use ofa txt at a source for knowledge of soil and inte tational precedens (yoku hj), which was of crcl imponance for both cour and wart administrations (6) he adoption of tea as the em Sodiment ofa set of elgious bel (7) the inclusion of text in antholo {Ber (@) the construction of genedogis and ines of descent, an imporeane Technique fr schools and scholarly Fai; () the writing of iterary his tore, which occured rom the Mei period: and (20) the incorporation of {text into insitwbonal discourse, artical sate ideology a wich the ‘oj. In any ofthese instances, there ia prominene sess on geneslogyand “origins,” which become a fiequene source of author, ranging fom ‘he origins of a clan (ui 2 family house (i), a school (men), 0 national origin Anoher key ise in canon formation is tha of gene configurations. The ory of canon formation, a least in the( Europe waitin, has ofen Ieenscon a story ofthese and fl of difeen gees ot modes. The Ganj gp ys (Ges One Volume Str, 76), «Bus tet writen by Prise Chen in the ate velth cnr. eves thatthe gee hierarchy 28 icexted in hele Heian and ex media periods was. oughly speaking from op co booms () Buddhist sxipares, (©) Confaian ex) his fier such ashe Reo he Hisorizn Sb ci, Sits (a) Chines belle teres) sch the Ahly of eran bien Manz acl lesion of Chinese poetry and ferry prose: () Japanese dasa poetry (aa) and (6) vera les (monger) and ons Gs), aswell adie ites (n) and elated wings fn he ans yaar. The genre erry ter lows the Chinese model wid eligouphilsopicl texts hiss, tnd poy ein igh ep whe Bevon logue othe boom. “The mos highly regarded canon, at eat om te Buddhist press pinc of view, nat the Budd fllowed by the Confucian canon, Ne ame the ‘wo highess Chines literary genres history and poet. At he bom were thew genes inh Japanese ylabary waa and monoatat wits wake of Inch higher eat han prose Bxon in kana. Cua identy was also 2 Inj clement nthe gee leach. The op four eter che ms pre {gious gente, wee of foreign origi, iesied primary with China {Kara The ow bottom genres by contrast were iene wih ative cl tute, with pan (ama). Th de chen eng, dhe schol of olga, who stacked what they perceived 0 be foreign influences and created an alternative spre of lean bed on what they preted robe prey Japanese et ated toimerche gene hese ound intext sch athe Gon por They Paco waka ti monogtrtexsin theJapance abr athe top, while temting to denon the ober four categorie, Bad and Confucian ‘ext and Chines poetry and histori. Teas not, however, unt the ide Mei period, withthe eof mode nana, the infuence of Westen [phonocenricsm, the empha ona national language” (hobo) based 02 resuee in canon sommarton 5 tana, and he defeat of Chin in he Sino Jpanese Ws that ths iverson fnaly became inevrble, Throughout the premodern pid, aku, the Japanese word for lexng, meant the ay of Chine ei (henge ich war the center of aio premodern dco, and was noun the eset of fobungee (aatond lneante sade) in che mi “Mei prod that Japanese erate was conceived ley, bough note they ts kana based lace “The waters or commentors of gente of teat Bed in low sogard fqn asempred to clove that geno text by ging is borrowed fom higher gente or canoe. nce ana prc to the Kaki (Calle ton of Ol and New Jpanee Poss 909) for example, Ko Tt {ez 864-04)axempeed ose the suo of wal, hitherto considered low” fr, by deving of Chinese poetry and pot. The Tle of Gent and Tks of ew the op ofthe ery canon though tha ‘ocktion with wala, which was amore canonical geore chan monag 4d evoughreconguation sx hry (soppy); which was, along with poety aod scp considered the highest genre: Reg, o lik vee, (ich began a marginal, popular genre arempred o cae il by {revigon the ao of the ortodony represented by the Ni school of ‘our wala. Baht lewis drew hewy on dsc poetry as wells ‘Chines poe nan efor ro make haa considered lowly enersinment patcof high poe wadion. “Te nb of ext to abr ats of moe highly reared gene or take on nw fttbone could wie rein devannizaon at inthe ce SF Soporar monet (The Tale of Sageromoy tose) and Fara os Waton roca Gapanese and Chinese Paro Sng, 0). The Tle of Sxoromo, vena cour le considered by media poe wl Elo sigs scholars tobe of rest mporance sand ony to Ge and ze, was va by both waka an tenga poet ich Sure of post and tc mage but ced salient inns incre ose a9 work prove iain the modern psd” Asn aed Wek tb, {colecion of wae mutced wth ines fom noted Chinese poems, ich tered a mulpiciy of funciona collcoa of song” (apo ance smenearycenbook for aig, and aligaphy handbook. Wid the dip patos of thee pedagogies and vocal fncione andthe denigaon of Chinese poetry ans in the modern prod i ost its wide appeal. By conta, Tt mongeert Tae of the Bemioo Cater, 30), which wat consieed the grander ofthe mnogu in The Tle of Gn, wa ‘ually ignored ding the medieval period. Une Taso, which bese6 mano suumane. {he objec of masive commentary, The Bambve Cater was not closely ss0- ‘Sted wich poetry, hry or separ, che thre mst highly valued genes. Inthe modem period, however, the foreanc of The Bamboo Cer os with shore ofthe novel hives), and the wext has become one of the most pop- lar clase. In Kobubungat zens Heian ben (Complete History of. Japanese Lterarre: The Hetan Cour, 1905), the fist fllengsh sudy of. Heian literary history, Fujioka Sakstao (1870-r910)—referring to the shoves 3 “occupying the highest licerarypostion”—prases The Bamboo Gut “our county’ ise nove” Perhaps the eso imporeine genre change occurced ia theWeSiniton of Liercure ie Prior to the eghtecth cencury ia Europe, lieratre inthe broadest sense meant anything that was related ‘rn nation- na. In similar vein, Shinada Yoshikazu shows nis paper that in the mid- Mei period the Manjasha was canonized a5 a“ational poewy anuhalogy” (obumin Aueha), an achology of poems wecen by everyone fiom the emperor co the lowest commoner. In this view, che Manjosba, hich wat acai edited and compose by Naa arisocrats elec the Unity ofthe new nation, in which the emperor and the people were per ‘ved a belonging to the same body ‘On the othe side ofthe con, canon formation has als been a means of testing culurl hegemony of rablishing separate etic, national, and gender idetes Many f the new fel in North America, such as “Cana- dan Sead,” “Avcan-American Suis” "Native American Std,” and “Women’s Seudies” ae deliberately engaged in building new leary canons (for example inthe form of new anthologies) asa means ofsengshening their own ethnic, national, oF gender ideneies ami a lager Eurocentc, androcentric discourse that bas uaditonally marginalized these groups or consuniis, Siar the koktgaes movement hich came tothe fore in the eighteenth cennury snd which exalished the foundation ofthe modern okubunga canon, was not only an attempt wo fee Japan from is postion ssa cultural colony of China, bar aso amoverenc by one group of scholars, ‘mainly ofdnin or urban commoners, 9 establish dai own identity visi, rot only Dojo poet, who belonged to an arora, cour-centeed wa fae caision, but also kangal schol, who dominated ce incellectwal sword and uy zlearygorernment) ideology atthe ime. Inthe nine teenth and nwenieth entries, dhe formation of nationalistic “radios,” pariully those based on vernacular terature, has ao been ruc in de- ‘oloialinstion, in movements of nana liberation—in India, Kove and ‘hewhere—which had to forge new national idenies separate from that imposed by the colonizers. Canon formation, in shor, has served asa vehi- de bot for contra and fr liberation, ‘As Eri Holbbswen and scholars of nationalism have show, seemingly ronpoitil epheres rich as aesthetics, Iterature, and ethics have ben it teal ifpoteven more powerful than pla nsteions—in the proces of constricting nation sates, whose members had robe unified though the renuet iN caMON sonMAtION 35 evelopment of alsommon culo! ideany§ One consequence was that ‘ull phenomena tha had been specifi 0 parccular region social ‘community ofen with che pasage of time became identied with the max ‘ioe. Kabuki, fr example, which had been viewed 3:2 vulgar, popular en- ‘ernment for urban commoners eventualy became a respecale form of ‘atonal cheater. In the Meiji period, works of art fom various historical pe riods were deciared robe “national easures” (foul) and aranged ia xu Seums a the embodiment of "Japanese calare” Uk which had been garded at diposble decortons, were suddenly treasured as works of are ‘epresenaive of Japanese culture ara whole. As Karatani Kojin ha argued, cities such af Olakura Tenshin (1862-191) saw Japanese at parcalaly ‘wadional ar uninflunced by the West aa sign of superiority ofboth Japan and the “Ea,” but che canon of Japanese visual art, which came co ‘represent Japan abroad at dhe turn ofthe century, was in Bt lrely deer ‘mined, 2 in the case of ule, by ie desiabilsy aa comm in the ‘ese, bythe ates and demands of Japnimz ln ober words, the identcy ofthe cultural ation, which was intended distinguish Japa from other nations and give ita sens of historical and social unity, was consteuced in Sapien pain sponte Ween olor ates Fran ery iramatie model had similar impact on the formation ofthe Japanese Tera “uaton.” ‘Ac theidelogical hear ofthe national liearure movement was Lingus ‘icmationalism, che ble thatthe nation was found on & common lan igunge, the “national language” based primariy on spoken Japanese” In arope, che phenomenon of national lierature emerged at eatly at che Renasance, withthe use of Romance guages, bur itd not come to che fore unt the ise of nationals inthe eighrenth and nineteenth centre. In England, for crample, the rudy of erature generally meane che stay of the Greek and Lain class, and English iterate was noc acepted into he ‘utialum at Oxford and Cambridge until World Wat I, an event tha, aroused nationalistic sentiments vie‘-vis other, eval, European satons. sore his pine, Engl lerarute war regarded ara poor mas dase, seudied by those without the means or ability wo study Greek and Latin, much as dhe sudyof Japanese texts of waka and monopatr, was the cur ‘calm for women who did no have the opporcunicy ro cd kangak, a the Mefjipeiod, Ueda Kazutoshi (1867-1937), the leading advocate of lokugo and one ofthe pioneers of modern kokugpe oationa language seudy), argued in 1894 dat loyalty co che sovereign an love of the nation” (chaluwnaidola) and common language were te ovo fore that iced Japan asa nation, thatthe ‘national ence” (luz) was embodied inthe14 wanvo sumass Japan linguage® This ein ofa national agua, whch wa suengsh- {ed bythe poration of Ween phonocente nos and the gene ‘ti (ion of spoken and wren languages) movement was conrad “Tah tanbunretten language sociated with China county chat wa Indecent woud sub oop the Sino Japanese Wa Te ‘Salwar cdamatic pedagogical shit avay from he Confocan cass and {he deaaon of pense wing in nbs, which had Deen the langage ‘igon, germina schlaship. ‘Tae count of 2 mata ier and of aca lnguage ws ciel the Foxman of rong ncn paral in the ace of wef ener nations whic prsened mtel fo modeezation ut Tce for encblshng 2 maton enti Bren ashy modeaiaed, = tars ha to dngash themches lm othe natons by etal i ‘Sng wn maton charset, which were prev to be mine “debe xed over ane especialy pion oFriainunce. One ti hich es om kn rato oan in ape “Sion, war he emergence in Japan of tv Forms of national, Jpanse Sh steer tan rE Aa nara, Tay bene ‘rash wy lanbun wile diminished by he cof Japan atonal, ‘onocaomplenlyshandonel arpa sorl ert oe anal cl eA Kemi Mako reve nhs ey, both the Chios wing Sn ane of Cc is anit he gm it Sn apanee cle, proclay aea means of ei andmteleduaton, Seperate olmotkm nado oiling In ont se asp Thole who looked buck to the ance pesiod to Bind « pre frm of Spun eve, Mel schol, flowing che erltonry Ele ‘Penerdel of hisory ses pores arsine ping vale to medi Tad Takugios tx mich had never een pare ofthe canon and sig, {he peice mised Chine apne (fk) sje hich hy sae wating more avengdh ante einine syle of Flan kaa feu Gmc cnsqucne what both the arora enperoentered erate Gf caer pes andthe poplar terse of the medieval and ‘Tagan pein were eared pera prof sol national eae BLITS AND POPULAR CULTURES Another ceurl sein canon formation has een is function 2 an exch ‘onary and controling force, ssa means of proseting or enhancing li resurs i canon FORMATION 15 ‘ulate aginst che encroachments of popular ot mas culate. The know: ‘dge of or aces ro the canon, particulary ro dhe language embodied inthe ‘anon, hav offen been wid aa means of maintaining sol disincsions and Iirarchies For example lie aristocrat culate, represented by the Dos swaeapoes such as Nijo Yoshimoto (1320-988), che founder of orthodax renga, drew stimulus fiom popular culture, fom commoner jg) renga poets, whether tbe for new talent or inspiration, Ax che same ime, the no- Biliy drew sharp boundaries around the clasial canon— Tales of he, Kokindh, The Tle of Ges ere ~in onder to contol, nance, and canst, invlue ae calcul capital, che ultimate example being the Katindej, he sectettrantmisions of the Rakin. ‘One ofthe key dsincons beeween canonized texts and noncanonical texte chat canonied exe ate che objec of extensive commentary and ex ‘gui or ae used widely in schoo tetbooks, whereas noncanonical texts of genres, no rater how popular ae noc The same applies othe moder di- Tintin, which came tothe fre in the ate Taisho period (1912-1926), be- ‘ween “pure teraute” Gunbungeky), 2 notion aurazed by eli erry ce ‘des bund and “popula trata” (ich bungohs). A cael distinction ‘must be made here benwen popu, which impli accessibility and wider dienes, and authori, which implies peg and pedigree. Equally x Portane isthe distinction berseen economic eapcl the commercial value that may rest fom populaity an wider audiences, and cultural ap, “which often grows precisely because its dstibuton is limited. Chikamatsy Monzaemon may have ben popular inthe Gentle period (688-1703) and his plas may have made money fo him and hssponsor, but hey Were ‘nota sign af cultural privilege or aucosiy unt hey were canonized in the modern period, (Canons ate generally comprehended today as che instruments of en- teenched interests reproducing the values or ideology of dominant groups, However, as Barbara Hernstein Sich has pointed out, the nesde neers, and purporer of caltrally and otherwise dominant ‘member ofthe community do nor exdsvely o oly drei which sto survive. The snaquy and longenty of damerc proven, popular ‘es, children’s verbal gazes, andthe entire phenomenon of what we call “flor”... may be mor or les independent of nsttionsconelled by «hose wih poll power™ “Tio very diferent kinds of canon formation occured in the ate medieval period The fist was the one-to-one tansmision of texts and knowlege by16 manvo staan ariocratc pocey fies inked wo the imperial cour, which culminated in the screr tenamision of the Koti. Ae the same time, we wines the popularization of Hein court cultuze and Ine Sgues trough various medi, chrough such performance ats sno drama, renga, aia and omg ‘shi Tansmied by taveling minstrels, artis, and performers, che stores Sand figures of Heian clasclitestre ar wel athe classi asciaton of {seasons snd frous places, spead, often in abbreviated or reduced form, 19 ‘aroas socal eases nd othe provinces. In contrast the closed narre oF the Kakindew, che populazation of casical gues and associations was, fan open process, cresting endlest variations, many of which were apoc- ‘yphal. Legendary personae such a Kaldnometo no Hivomazo, Ono Komachi,Arwara no Narhirs, Imi Shkibu, Sei Shonagon, aig, and ‘others owe dee popuarsy not only to canonized texts preserved by court nobility but also ro noncanonical genres, sucha sets, otogi-z0chi, and Fibs (ection of The Tle of the Heike co the accompaniment of the luce including visual or aural mda, which are afen sympathetic woward those deprived of power or acted by saciery Ae we can se here, popu ‘alr, often deven by Buddhist proslyne who wsed noncanonical gea- tex and media to preach t iliterate audiences, had a profound impact on ‘anon formation process that wat diametrically opposed t the asis- tional strempr o enhance and preserve canonical vale, a exemplified a the secre tansmisions ofthe Kaiba. ‘A salen characte of European cucu aationalsm, particlly in Germany during the period of nineteenth century Romantic, wat ecnic rationalism (he sense of nation bound by blood and kinship ies) based on the idea ofthe fell A similar phenomenon occuted belay in Japan in the late Mei and eal Tio periods with she emergence ofthe sation of ‘mina (ll), based on che bei shat the spst ofthe people could be found in commoner culture often prior co wetng Incontast rhe etl ‘mid-Meji national lierure movement, which sw the emperor snd the people a one body his national erature movement, entered om leary Journals such as Teihoku bungatw (lmperal Lieraare, 1895-1917) and Influenced by such nineteent-century Geman Romantics and follcins 5 Heinrich Heine (1797—1856) and the Brothers Grime (Jacob, 1785-186, ‘Wilheln,1786-1859), saw se lzratue ofthe nation sing up fom below ‘There was an increasing surge of ines in fl literature ok songs eg ends, and myth, ll of which were ehought to embody the esence ofthe Japanese people from ancient ines Through much ofthe Hein period, the ‘Mansasba was kzown fortwo court poets, Hitomare and Aksbito, but in che ae Maj and eal Tash pcs, the Manan was nonin ‘SinadaYosutans real in hc oper, wth enon etd fore Be ute Aeama i Song of th a) and Setar Song of the Border Gud which wee gad mine ksong he sng to lite Mei period (868~1912) under the inBuence of tssuae im canon roneation 9 fsbal nationals, was the nosion that the Majeh embodied she watary Caracter of the mation Uolunitc) a view espoused by the bureaucratic dle and closely associated with the needs ofthe imped sytem and mod- ‘a nacion-bulding, The second view, which appeared from the late Mei through the ely Tasha period and which inverted che top-down emphasis ofthe it view, wat che nion ofthe Manabu asthe eobodiment ofthe ‘alka of che “fall (minzoku) and of the “populace” (nuh, an idea sup- pored bythe followers of the Tttu bugate (lmpeial itera) jurcal land by thei “discovery” of so-called min o folk songs notion desived fiom the Gecman concep ofthe Velie (lsong)—which they ound in the Azuma-uta and Sekimori-no-ita sions of the Marjasha. The fist, view ofthe Menba was sviouly attenuated afer World War I withthe ‘eduction ofthe emperor co symbol but the second, populis, al view ‘contin to sustain the view pevaling co this day ofthe Manish asa na- ‘onl song anthology. Tihs esy, “Constructing imperial Myhology: Kai and Nikon shot,” ‘Konak Takami reveals the deren ways in which the Nion sob and the Kaj, wo of the mos imporans Japanese lass the vwentet-ce- tury canon, were repented teconstucted in the attempt to legiimize _moness, who floceed co them in large numbers. Matsuo Basho (144-1634), the emow of oa ofthese shook, was eventually transformed int a god, Aue to the ingenuity and industousnew of hit disciple, who ciated branch schools ll around the councry. Halal maser sich as Matsnags CURRICULUM AND COMPETING CANONS 235 ‘Teco (571-163), the founder of Teimon baka school, were concerned primarily with wht have ile the “writealy” canon, texts necessary forthe ppactice of particular at, but they also contributed to formation of the reader” canon. These hua: pets, eho were genecaly urban commoner, ceaploted The Pillow Book and Tearecuregs, idee of which bad received ‘ulbetantil noice by arintocratc wala poets and had consequently noe be ‘ome dhe object of screttansmisons and aristocrat family tadtions. I tree due in large measure tothe atention ofthese Edo period haikal poets And cholace hat The Pillow Bok and Taree became to taj: xs inthe Japanese enon. Tireurepu i fact became the mos widely pub- lied Japanese casi inthe Fo period, achieving the status ofthe “Anales cof pan” Daring his period the diferent eld flaring, each with es respecive ‘autres and canon, gave rset private academies ij) foe move ad- ‘anced mudent, the equivalent of modern middle shoal through college “Those private academies generaly tool ident repels of social back- round (long a they paid), including women, and often ofered a difer- ‘nt iceolopcal perspective than that expoused a the han or bakufu schools (OF the roughy 300 difeen private academies though to have exited in the Ed petid, the greatest amber were Confcia academies, fllowed by ‘asvis elegake) academies, and chen Wester leering agaty schools 1 Jnsals(1627~1703) Kogido (Hoskawa School, exablished in Kyoro in 1662), one ofthe mis atable Chinese sedis academies, is said to have had $000 eeudents—samursi, nobility, and chonin—fom all over the counery. By the end ofthe Edo pesod,chere were 107 Western learning academics in Edo alone, not to mention thse in Nagasld and Osa Ta the Ed period, the caretakers of wagaku, the aritocratccoure (Daa) pees, were gradually dipaced by hokugaka scholars, peimarly of eom- {none Background, wha oka mor atonal, ingeisie approach to ancient ‘tex and ejeced the medical notion of sce ransmisions based on house Iincage. Arte Sununoya at Matszaka (se Province), ve af the most f- ‘mous kokugaku sealemies, Motori Nosiaaga (1730-1801) lectured over a peti of years on che Manoba (which eit Kokgaku scholars had ran formed into 2 major kakgals text, the Kolin, Tae of le, The Tle of Gey, anc Koji (Record of Ancioe Matters, 72), a hitherto reaively minor history that Novinaga incorporate neo the center of he Japanese canon and ‘hac would consequently overshadow the Nikon shi, Nocinaga also caught ‘on a more sporadic basis ents soch as she Shinkokinh, Tse Diary The ‘Pile Book, iahunin isha, Tale of Hovering Forans, Tle of Segoromo,2 waRUO swreane and Shokugensho. Significantly the kokugalu canoa, which was based manly on texts from the Heian and Nar periods, id nt incade medieval and Bdo kana-based tes, not even Thurezirepst, which no doubt revealed ‘oo much Buddhise ftegn) influence for kokugak scholars. In cones 0 the medieval wagsks canon, which was primarily "wie" canon created by medieval poets forthe purpose of composing oct, kokugaku scholars, while concerned about the canon asa key to composing waka, contracted largely “easy” canon in which many ofthe same texts were reconfigured to provide moral, eligious, social, and political alrnacves co the text i the Confucian and Buddhist canons. Signfcandy the eae canonnere of wa ‘ku woas—such 5 Shunze, Teta, Sogi—mer major poet of waka ot renga ‘while olga scholars such ar Motoai Notinags(e730-18at) ended ‘eachother dan poe, “The olga school ear be seen at least in par, aa atempe by one group, mainly urban commoness, a compete with the arocraiccoute {Dja) poets the Buddhis clergy. and the Confucian kangal scholars, who Ina dominated che spheres of laring inthe medieval period. However, 3¢ the modem scholar Odaka Michiko has pointed out, many ofthe eater, forms of learning and reaching, especially che secret transmissions of che ‘Dojo coure poets, continued t thrive in the Edo peviod.” The sett wane mission ofthe Kotinca passed fiom Hosokawa Yast (534-160) 0 Prince ‘oshiito (acho a0 mia) co Emperor GoMizunoo (396-2680), who formed the center ofa group of court wakes posts Therion ofthe Koki dnju—vhich centered om a “writely” canon very diferent fous the one ‘onsructed by kokugaku scholrs—continued to be paciced tthe Gost, the imperial palace, until as lace as 1840 By associating ive withthe em _peror and the imperial court, the Doj schoa was able wo maintain is 38- ‘horigy—regarded as che highest in the poetic world—unil he end ofthe Edo period. “The han (ef cuticalum, which varied great fom choo wo schol and ‘which viewed eduction fom the poin of view ofthe ruling cls of war- is ntl fecused almost exclusively os kangak,patculaly Confcian sudies, concentrating on the Four Books and Five Class a well as ‘Chinese histories Inthe le eighteen century, asthe ned for more pri tical hls became evident, limited numberof han shoals ade clligra- phy, wagak, arthmeti, and astonomy to the curiam. By the 1808 and 18)05, han schools, pariculaly those i contae withthe Dusch or threat ned by Western miisry power (uch a chose in aothern and western ‘Kytsho), abo inciuded Western leaning (pata) new Fld chat encom Me canons 335 pase peaical areas uch as cence, medicine, lary ai, shibld- tng and wesen gues (Dutch and Engi). By she ine of he Mei Ratoraon, bof te sp han soc aught ga and 92 wage which insome school appeared i the om of ge Gp sa,te sady ef open scraeyof the empeoc” Genel span, the an schools did tot che Jpunce ior inthe eurcakim, bute si athe od {he Edo paiod bough abot some change The woken span Chine) tur te Manan Glan) fan sol for ap ad Japanese hts in kab sch onc tngun Mor of encom ped by Hayashi Razan and othe), Kokua (Dien of National “isn Rc sea (igen of he Imperial Gar), a Suny's Nib us (Prine His of Japan, 9).* Te curclum tf Galathokan, shan sho! Funded a 375 bythe Kish (Ki ha, had inally ben ied wo anga, but by ce e605 had shied oa three prongedcarriclu of Klaaa, nongaty (Dutch earing) and mi tee adrand then athe change othe pcre ten in (Me aed gta the for of Bag, Pench an German we oo Sting weaned amount of leg inthe fxm of uch ee the Hale Shogo, Mion st Ryo ne ie (3), Maxie, ad otisba® in thw there was sever &sngle dena canon, bu rer dient ype of cons, which ovdpped, Kanbun hineis of Japa, ‘hich begun in imiason of Chins hiergraphy grad enced ito {he Bede kolagaka ad bokugaka moved mote an cian ‘movement reflected in he ely Mei dacaoral cuca MODELS TO NATIONALISM. ‘The Gakusei Educational gotem) edict of 1872 created an elementary schoo! (heal), dal school (cg) and univers (daa) sscem ‘om a nacional basi, bute would be many years before the system was ctu tly consuucted.* The 186 Middle School ice (Chigablire) divided che rida school, which was intended to provide higher education for boys, Jno ovo levels a five-year, prefectural jigs chigabho (oormal middle schol) and-arwo-yet state ha cg (higher mide school). In x86 ‘the Meiji government aso exalished che Telok daigaku (imperial uni- ses) sytem, evenuallyceacing nine universities for advanced learning snd research, each with five elds, nv medicine, engineering, humanities236 manuo seine dette nce mire een siemens pe bee ave Se = eR menage deer Seances one epee ers aeoe ene SS ae Seo acne Zoeteere ears Pope putin eremerncacs a Soe ——— Se eeepc ere oe peer {et las ngage hich wt gh yang See a oe ee eee Sa ee ee eee eee Siren ee pe cece ee esr eel eo 2 ee 22a ees ee Spas Shenae amos cunnicutum ano comparing canons 237 uation (ih as) ws promulgte,exablshnga ations ec afflict emperor hn snd lee fr he ation ilo baseon nfo ne flowing yest ee mde erry hires rate att moder antes of desl apse Ierte—sich Bila tach (ite-ign7) ant Tachibana. Senburo'(867-9e0) Kotubengbn ator (A oper Lira Rene, 190)—wee ub- lished, esublishing a new literary paradigm based on European genre mod: tif daa, onl pie, ee). The re of he et atonal educational pele andthe new ea hoses an nologies the evabbnene Fa mile cool cacalm th: was highly Confucian in onan, dep iniueced by ey rary pigs ad oie by he ew tion ofa tonal langage los) ted on Kr Higa Yih an icra Sobor Kouba obo, gound- trelagantslogypesemed hor history of panes eae ollowed Spree abd tex om xh of ch mejor histo periods Iling pony (lyin Rotini, Sn, hae) ema (08 thoeen rar. prove Son (Th Tle of Gen Tae of she Ha, Jot ‘hth Teter), and a numberof Edo ce by shar nd pes (eg. Nowor Norns, Asi Hake, Maro ya, In conta 0 te fair cunuum, wich seed kan text, he goverment ‘ale shel exools cm the yer onward no dubs nied the ‘ewan Ireare model and ory peste by Haga Tachibana Ilother solar anlage! many of he anlage et nom ‘Shaded to be par of he cmon of ipunse canine. Che fotagetbulon Mile School Navonal Language Rear, eticed by Nakata All, 859), forerample nid Manjah, Tle, Teo the Bamboo Cue, Toa Dry Rothe, The Pil Bol, The Ta of es ‘Sarashina Diary, Okegami, Tale of Flowering Fortunes, Konjaku menogatari (eof Times Now Pu 2), Hi, Hest mone Tes of Hi np) Hien mnogo Hagen, 2, Uj te moragtar Cal Ieston of Ta fom Ua), Jb 29), ani Diary fe teh Nght 07), Tecra, sak (Chronicle of Gods and Songs yl oft ke, Mago Gee Mo, 378, 298 Tait Whe tbe Edo pes Kage anon was revi ln Gyo ann and Hel ss che textbooks nled ex om ey tse prod prc adic ay nares (ion) ch Toe oft ean Tis, mec allen oferta ch 1 Kinch mowed Up chs mortars nd ese ey ch Ft and Toncargn, soe of which ad be prof he Eo psday anvo surzane elas canon (probably due to theft that, ike most medical popular ‘ext, they showed heavy Buddhist influence), In contrast wo the medieval ‘wag canon which had centered on pocery and poetyclated text, this, curriculum was heavily weighted oward hire in kana including Heian histories. In Nihon bung (Hisory of Japancse Liste, 1890), the firs flHleagh literary history, Mikami Sanji (1865-1939) and Taeeu Kawasabus (864-121) note that Heian histories suchas the Gree Miror and Tale of lowering Fortune ase good examples of national lreratute ot ‘only Because dey ar writen in ana, but also because they eerble ia sje and presentation the “novel” (ties), now considered the most advanced oflirary genres ‘Kokgo textbooks fom dhe 50s selected ents or the praca purpose cof serving 2s models for woking the national language (koko) Inthe pref 2c 0 Chu oluburtluhon (Middle School Japanese Reade, Mei shoin, 1996), one of the most widely used retbooks of thie petod, Ochi Naobumi (861-1909) the editor, writes “In the Bs year, the student should imitate the syle of the Meiji period, inthe second year dhe student Should imitate che syle of the Tokugawa period, and inthe third yee the suden should imitate exs ofthe clasial chtd) period, In al cases, ets Ihave been elected that are hythmical and elegant and that re suficiene ro serve as models for student composition.“ Following this policy, te rst wo volumes drew togeher fifty pices by contemporary Meiji authors {many of whom wrote in iterary Japanese, or Bago) the thd cough sth volumes gathered roughly fy pieces fom acolasial ey fom the Edo prod; and the seventh through the ath valumes bruh ogee Bien, ‘medieval and Heian texts The volumes, inshore, wereazzanged in order of Alfie, begining with Mei writings, proceaing to Edo wings, and then ending with medieval and Heian rene athe moet advanced etage, The Meiji tetbook editors viewed medieval and Edo pered writing particultly {he won konko (mined epanese Chinese eye, which combined Chinese raphe wich clawical Japanese grammat, atthe suitable mode! for cotem- porary wing, The Mei canonization of Genpt aut, which Flga aici prises fr fsing che "snes of wabun wich the strength of kanbun in ac bod ch odo wih eng rege an caer ofthe wa ots ‘One ofthe mosesriking aspects of middle school extooks inthe 18908 isin fee che extremely heswy ute of Edo peciod eisty in the neccasicl syle (Gobun), a style that combined cascal grammar with Chinese ‘graphs These globun essays were writen by both kangais and kokugdea consicevem ane courarina canons 39 scholars and poss and other bun or pocepsincer men of lees ‘According oone count, Mei textbook ncade ss many 3570 diferent ‘rls Edo wx, of which uate dwn on wo or mote nes” The {now widely wed ofthe eye ineude Ono suk (Vous Rests of Clouds apd Gras, 54, stlbuted wo Yanaiawa Kies), Kan Chaar (Gyaf-s8tr) Fade no abs (Wanderings of Brosh), Ban Kak O733~ 1800 Kine! Rjndes (Biographies of Eocetic Pople of the Edo Ped, 1790), Ara Hakusdes Oricusibe ob (Record of Brushwood For Boring 1716) and Tub yron (Dicasions fio 171), Matin Sadanobu Kae ta (eres of Flowers and Moo, 188), Tahara ‘Nan 755-to Sept ad Pou lees We, Tvl ar), Vans Jena 708-i7h) Joon Eden (Sores by Joan, 1739), Maso Kyat (t-1750) Send! extn (Cat TA a Saga, 175), Motos Novnagis Temata veld Bast, 2795-18), and Mira Bales (ay-i7s) vos writings Balen ath) Tn Kotubungaa bo, which ‘ko drawe hel on ety by Edo inclu, Hage praises kangal Scholars nch a Ari Hae 67-1739 for developing mized Japanese inet (wala Kok) ale hat Could commune Canican tought to “the evrage pon, hat was even ety for women 0 understand” and prefs ds wring othe pe (lion enn lar) aco wy of Keg cholaywhich ad limited vocabulary” One consqurnce of Chis Kad of ew was that hes Japanese cays sich at Oat nH nd Takis yrn by Ari Haksei—besame among the mos widely a ‘ext in Mei idles venboos, These cays by Confiian schol, long with ocher mined ple writing by hokogal clas, not only Bun Sioned ¢ model for terry proce compotion, but ao provided mor heavily Confucian elation well a exental Knowledge abou aos fed (nthe Meji cnigtenment mode) thee ey Rincon of che 190% okago curiam ‘hic experimen wasntly made inthe erty Mi period to cre- sea now Japanese cary syle el on asa wala tex, but a ore cil spe of rary prose ng) sing chal ramon Was S08 {eloped by contemporary wits such a Moci Og GB62-292) and Kos Rohan 867-197). Tht Me erry roe spe,wehich wa xm cf eel gobo ean poe wae avn gad soppaned by _rvbo ith oeation ofthe spoken ad writen languages) ye The ferns of the genbun ict movement were sea im tes such a Fras Shiels Utigame (leating Clouds, 87—85) and Yamada Bimyo's Musashino (1887), but it was not until 1908-10 that it began enter-yo Manvo suunane ‘ngintsexbooksnsiifcan form, ndit i noe become dominan: unl ‘hele Taso period (igi2-26.* As the lietary spe was gradual di lice bythe genbun ch se and clas Japanese os its practice Eonar writing moda, caisicl tas tonk om tke aren, which were Jncresingly ea and ideological Medieval and Fo period moral ining textbooks suck a ago and jihad esd i pie) and oy (ba ote meas by which the child pud back an eigaton (on) obs ot he pases. This idea was liked viathe lai of lal Prey (Koh), a popular Bo period Confucian textbook, oe ides at she ame Bal pry Ly should apply tothe ‘abject ltionhip othe ral The x90 Imperial Rept on Easton, ‘hich combined these rditonal Conca vues witha fay basal a0 {om af th acon, emphasised Biel othe sovereign and le fr the ton, has mandating ll achool a cary ou the Mell goverment obj tise of wasfrmingthe people ine sini jes ofthe emperoo. Ueda Kn (167-1937) the modem poner of Lugo (eal angsg) sey, ued in 894 ha “Top the wove and love of he acon” (Ghutwn alts) tnd common langage wer the ew fresh united Japan ss anaton, chat the “national esenet (lu) was embed inthe “panne langage” The undedying premise re was cath mis a carding to one pt regulon, “the dein pace of the nation sii (Gate eon shin no yada take) and thatthe Japanese dass vere ey means of underanding the “nsonaleenc." One consequence ‘ths policy was tha Meiji ebook gravitated ward medial and Eo tid arabe ware hear (ch asthe Te which ad em Phased such visues as asterice an lacy The Th sary of Kansnoki Mathie (136), who came othe aid of Eiperor GDuigo wha the emperors bused Hoje Takaki as quem weds fcample of chin” Another Tabet example was the descrip of Kasunoki Mascaras mother who suppress her own emerins and gs per cd forthe sovereign. Te idea other, in ther words wat On€ ‘ho sce heel nox ony fr he fay, bt al force nation.” By the ps Hanbun ao took oan icesngly Melo function. From che bepnning of he Meiji prod, lag hal been enabled ard idee in oppstiono kanbun, whch was of ig eran. The cx tended confice in the early Meiji pend beowen the kokgs schol (fom the Kogasho) apd he kang scholar fom he ore Shoko and han schoo} with ear othe rope balance beeen bout and ‘Chinese tet ince og crcl reed inte oka chor CURRICVLUM AND COMPETING CANONS — 241 ventualy subordinatng kangal ro koala. Despice various subsequent trtemps to degrade or eliminate kasbus, hoveves, it remained an integra, pate ofthe kokugo cusealum, primary because Chinese graphs were seen { inegal to kaligo and because kangal, particularly the study of the Confucian css, ws egaded az een to moc education, ey func tion of the kokuge curcslum ” As leary or clasica Japanese (nbn) ‘gradually became epurated from contemporary Japanese prose (gendsibun), ‘which became che cencal language of che koko curiculum, both kobun tnd kanbun cme togethe under the ubtic ofthe “lasics™ en, where they remain together today in the posevar curriculum. In the prewar period they began to shar simular ideologiel and ecbical functions. AS the reaches suide to the 993 gorerament middle school textbook nos, “Trough Joga pre th lac ater.one should mae the stds trate tana and epresonf einer cour and cule he Tie ofthe nation (nbs as well a he ceve clue ofthe pei unt Tongs lab che clase, on shold make the suena ferthecalure hough and expresions ofthe impeti couney and of Es ‘Bua (loa, aad one shld cooebre fo the tlvation of Seana one “The government texcbook on kanbun published in 193, for example, draws on Rai Sanyo's Nikon gis, a kanbun wartioe hscory that had been used inthe han school, ro demonstae such nocion x nationl sii, (ota), lyalry (hai), and miliary valor (yu). Thus, kanbun of both Japanese and Chinese origin eered 3 a important means of clivating the sonal pct, inching a ens of the Greater East Asa Co-Prspesity Sphere THE POSTWAR CURRICULUM: DEMILITARIZING Shorty after te end of the Pace War, when Jpan came under the conte cf he Aled Ocspatio fre he Minty of Eduction dsr hatch bjec of posvar education wa the ctablishmene of peaceful country a ‘tdered the eiminacon of ll ebook pages dealing with muita life “Id nationalist ideology. Even passges such a "Karlazacoge” (Yoshinaka AX Kiuikara Pas) end "Yar maga” Yosisune's Lost Bow), which de- serbe the actions of brave soldiers in The Tle af he Hck, were exis