Preface to the first edition “The purpose of this textbook is to present a broad overview on the fundamentals of welding retallurgy to graduate students, investigators and engineers who already have a good back process optiaalisation and microstructure control inthe light of the receat advances th taken place within the field of materials processing and alloy design, “The preseat textbook describes a novel approach to the modelling of dynamic processes in ‘welding metallurgy, not previously dealt with. Tn particular, atlempis have been made to ra~ tionalise chemical, strcturel and mechanical changes in weldments in tems of models based ‘on well established concepts from ladle refining, casting, rolling and heat weatmeat of steels snd aluminium alloys, The judicious construction ofthe constiative equations makes full use of both dimensionlese parameters and calibration techniques to eliminate poorly known ki netic constants, Maay of the models presented are thus generic inthe sense thet they ean be ‘generalised to a wide range of materials and processing. To belp the reader understand and apply the subjects and models tested, numerous example problems, exercise problems and cease studies have been worked out and integrated in te text. These are meant 0 ilastate the ‘basi physical principles that underline the experimental observations and to‘provide a way of veloping the ideas futher. ‘Over the years, I bave benefited from interaction and collaboration with numerous people within the scientific community. In particular, I would like to acknowledge the contribution from my father Professor Tor Grong who is partly responsible for my prof pbringing and development as a metallurgist through his posive influence on search work Secondly, Lam very grateful to the late Professor Nils Chri introduced rae to the fascinating field of welding metallurgy and lat stbye who has helped me to convert my origina] manuscript into a readable text and Me. ‘Roald Skjasvs who is responsible forall line drawings in tis textbook. Their contributions are gratefully acknowledged, Trondheim, 1 December, 1993 ystein Grong | ieal grounds itis nevertheless conv 1 Heat Flow and Temperature Distribution in Welding LI Introduction “Weldivg metallurgy is concenoed with te application of well-Amown metallurgical for assessment of chemical snd physical reactions town because of the characteristic novi of the process. In welding the reac Seas ae forced to take place within seconds ina small volume of metal where the thermal cemitions are highly different from those prevailing in production, refining an fabeication of tnotals and alloys. For example, stel welding is characterised by: High peak temperatures, upto several thousand °C. High temperature gradients, locally of the order o Rapid temperenare Huctaations, locally ofthe or ru éllows theta quantitative analysis of metallurgieal reactions in welding equines detailed jeformation about the weld thermal history. From a practical point of view the analytical pproach tthe solution of heat flow problems in welding is preferable, since this makes it possble to derive reladvely simple equations which provie th required background for Piterstanding of the temperane-time patter, However, because ofthe complexity of the beat low phenomena it is always necessary to check the validity of such pres ore reliable data obvained from pumerical calculations and in situ thesrtocouple meastre Tments Although the analytical models suffer from a numberof simplifying assumptions itis ‘oviows that those solutions in many casos are sufficiently accurate fo provide at least qual- tative descripion of the weld thermal programme. "An important aspect of the present treatment isthe use of diferent dimensionless groups the temporeture distbution in welding. Although this practice in- eat way to reduce the total number of variables to or R>9) Fotin Ofor 0- 0), the temperature rise will be smaller nd the cooling, oe rate lower than that calculated from equations (1-38) and (1-39). x= 36mma MewaucencicaL Mopeumve oe Watpie Inthis particular case, it is posible to check the accuracy ofthe calculations against in sine thermocouple measurements carried out on friction welded components made under similar conditions. A comparison with the data in Fig 1.15 shows thatthe anode is quite successful in predicting the HAZ peak temperature diswibution. Ta contrast, the weld beating and cooling ‘yee cannot be reproduced with the same degree of precision, This has to do withthe fact ‘that the preseat analytical solution omits a consideration of the plastic straining occuring during fiction welding, which displaces the coordinates and alters the heat alas forthe system, 1.9 Moving Heat Sources and Psendo-Steady State In most fasion welding procestes the heat source does not remain stationary. Inthe following ‘we shall assume thatthe source moves at constant speed along straight line, and tbat the net ‘power supply from the source is constant. Experience shows that such conditions lead to 2 fused zone of constant width, Ths is easily verified by moving atungsten are across a sheet of steel or aluminium, or by moving a soldering iron across a piece of lead or tin. Moreover, zones of tecperares below the melting point also emain at constant width, as indicated by the pattem of temper colours developed on welding ground or polished sheet. follows from the definition of pseado-steady stae thatthe temperate will not vary with source, Under such conditions the tem perature field around the source can be desc temperature ‘mountain’ moving in the im Ref. 1). For points along the weld centr-line, the from the heat source (which for a constant welding ‘in a two-dimensional plot as indicated ia Fi. 1.16, Specifically, this figuce ‘elding from the base plate ahead are, If we considera fixed point on to well into the solidified weld metal trailing the rapidly daring the initial period, reaching 2 maximum of about 2000-2200°C for postions ‘immediately beneath the root of te are!” When the are has passed, the temperature will start to fall, and eventually (after long times) approach thar of the base plate. Tn contrast, an ob- server moving along with the best source will always see the same temperature landscape, ‘since this will nos change with time according to the presuppositions. twill be shown below thatthe assumption of pseudo-steady state largely slmplifies the mathematicel reatmeat of heat flow during fusion welding, although it imposes certain re- strictions on the options of the models 110 Are Welding Are welding is a colletve tezm which includes the following processes: ~ Shielded metal arc (SMA) welding. ~ Gas tungsten are (GEA) welding. ~ Gas metal arc (GMA) welding. ‘he terminology sab ar ein acorance with be Amescan tng Sac’ reocunendtoas. "= \d ceate-line, the temperature wil increase very” exe Frow sip Texgcasrune Disrasuron =v Weis — Flux cored are (FCA) welding. = Submerged are (SA) welding, “The main purpose ofthis section is o review the classical models forthe pseudo-steady save temperature distribution azcund moving heat sources, The analytical solutions to the ‘Giferential beat flow equations under conditions appliesble tore welding were first presented Poaictomperaiue, " From Fig. 1.21 we have: Va 145 ‘which gives bvn=15-( aad 85q = 22 yy = 2a. Cooling time from 800 t0 500°C ‘This value is also valid for positions outside the weld centre-tin, since the cooling curves ‘at such low temperatures are reasonably parallel down to T, = 910°C (see Fig. 1.19(@)). Cooling rate at 650°C ‘Tae cooling rate ara specific temperature is given by equatir tion start temperature equal to 650°C, we get ‘Teking the wansforma- ty (2 eof 222002523) emcer y= (28) err eco OD 20FCS = 108°C Hear Fiow xp Tinaerscues Disrassumion 8 WELDING a 23 Simplified solution fora fast-moving high power source vit afer Ryan?) (clows froma Fig, 119(b) that the isotherms behind the beat source become incressinsly ‘ongated as the a power gy and the weldiog speed» ineease. Tn the limiting case, wea Gu, y-—>eoand ge M0 remains finite the isotherms will egenerate into surfaces which ae ‘arte othe welding x direction as shown in Fig. 1.25(). Conduction of boat wil then oecur Exclusively in directions normal tothe x-axis “Ina shor te interval dt, the arout of beat released per unit length of the weld is equal to: fot 0 Bet an “According to the assumptions this amount of heat will remain in slice of thickness dx due tothe lack of a tezaporature gradient in the weldiog direction. Since symmetry demands that the isotherms ia the y-z plane ar semicircles", the situation becomes identical tothe temipera- ‘round ¢ Linear instantaneous heat source in a thin plate, provided thatthe space we alabis replaced by solid material andthe strength of the source is doubled (see Fig. ‘The solution is then givea by equation (1-6) if we replace O/@ by 2g, Lal cnt] (cr? 4] where 7 is the two-dimensional radius vector i the ~c plane. ‘Equation (1-73) represents the simplified solution for fast moving high gower source on & ‘emi infinite slab, and is valid within a limited range of the more general Rosenthal equation ion (I-45)). By introdacing the dimensionless radius 73) 078) 'A graphical presentation of equation (1-74) gives a family of curves which resembles the thermal eycles sbown in Fig, 1,19(@). Although the cooling conditions close to the weld cen ‘ae line are similar to those calculated from the Roseathal equation the predicted widih/depth (ofthe isotherms will always be greater than that inferred from the genetal thick plate solution -D heat flow. The parameter 0yq in Fi. aFig. 123.Fas: moviag high power souce oo a semi-infinite sab (a) Sketch of model, (0) Analogy be- ‘oreen a fastmoving high power source and an nsartanecus ine source, Hear Fiow asp Tesoricons Distemirion ¢ WELDING 8 ann o Leu i eee cnn eneen nore ASYMBIONE. eae T T Po vt ot " seady state (ick plate welding). ‘which gives an! flow primarily in dzections normal to the ‘A general graphical representation of combiaing equations (1-74) and (1-75): e a 1 10 +100 ein, ——— es ig L24 Taccetcal width ofiothers wndor 2D ant3-D hat low conitons,respesively at preudo- Ya2tm Substituting this into equation (1-74) gives: is interesting to note thatthe dimensionless width Oy will approach Wy, when the @, ns ‘ato becomes sufficiently small (Le. less than about 0.1). Under such conditions the isotherms willbe strongly elongated i the welding direction (see Fig. 1.19(b), which fores the beat 9 the weld thermal programme can be ebtained by [S| 76) ‘Equation (1-76) has been plotted ia Fig. 1.25, This graph provides a basis for calculating ‘he retention time within specific tempersture intervals under various welding conditions.46 “Merctuncica Moose oF WELDING 22(0,,,)° ——r— ig, 1.25-Teapeatucetine pater ia ick pate welding at igh ae power sad high welding sped. Bangle (1.8) ‘Consider SA welding ona thick plate of low alloy steel unde he folowing conditions: 1=400A, U=25V, v=Smms*, 7,=20°C Calculate the retention time within the austenite regime (T2910°C) for points located Lua ‘outside the fasion boundary. Sokion [we use the melting point ofthe steel asa seference temperature, the parameter ny becomes: ‘A comparison with Fig. 1.24 shows that the assumption of 2-D heat flow is justified when 9,51. Hence, the width of the fusion zone (9, = 1) can be calculated from equation (1-75); wich gives ext Frow ap Teswenruns Distaetios ne WELDING 45 yw Meeig PSs s5mere'. 7000 ‘The peak temperate num ouside he ‘Toe total time speat in the thermal cycle from @=0.59 (T= S10" again to @ =0.59 can now be read from Fig. 125. Taking the ordinate of the beat source at time 1, we sball expect ¢ solution state, Ths is achieved by changing the coordinate sy5- YR Yo Kak Dh Syne ax hE SE OF46 Merauncicat Monee oF Wise % Ku) Kt) = Via execu) Ke (Uh K(&) —oe ‘0 os 10 45 20 25 30 ue Fig. 1.27. Graphical representation of he Beselfuncons Ku) and KW) 35 Hear Fiow aw Texoeearus Distausuriox 1s WaLpive a Hence, we may write: oad | stare a. gam| | at gf ve] 1% dpetanar) "| 2a tar” de | ae where oF For integration of all consibutions from” = 9, we introduce: from which ratty, ae” =e ¥ far aw. Substituting thece paramoters into equation (1-78) give rat, 2Seld gl 2 = Jol -S {is well-known that: oP z.,| le a7) jel |e =24,(on.e2K (22) ee othe modi Bel enon of be eon Kind sn ao ede. Arphic Jafate-4 is) oa large (Le. when welding bas besa performed over 2 suficient pe- sod), we obtain the pseudo-steady state temperature disuibution:processes (including electron beam, plasma ar and laser welding), thickness penetration is achieved in one pass, res (TQIT pe 4.103.1 Transient heating period Jn thin plate welding the duration of te transient heating period is determined by the inte- ‘alin equation (1-80). Taking the ratio between the real and pseudo-steady state tempera. ~ tare equal to, We obtain: ° 7 8 opera tts! «se sie esa (T=T) OT): 82) Fig. 1.28, Ratio between real and peeude-steady state temperature in thin plate welding for citfrent combizations of acd. where w="2, and d= de, ‘Equation (I-82) has been solved numerically fora limited range of and, The results are presented graphical nig 1.28, rangle (13) Consider but welding of a thin aluminium plate at a constant travel speed of Stamm s*. Cal late the duration of dhe transient heating period when the distance from the heat source i point of observation is 7mm. 9). Consequently, the duration of the transient heating period is significantly longer in thin ‘welding than in thick plate welding due the pestinett differences in the heat flow condi- Solution ‘Taking a= 85 mm? the dimensionless radius vector becomes: ‘Pots of this equation are shown in Fig. 1.28. I follows that the peoudo-steady state tem ‘erature distibutiou in thin plate welding depends on the parameter @6/ny In practice this ‘means that the shape ofthe isothezas isnot influenced by the welding speed, since both 8 and Ikfollows from Fig. 1.28 thatthe pseudo-steady state temperature disuibutionis approached Isothermal zone widths when t= 5, which gives: ‘The maximum width ofan iothermal enclosure is obtained by setting 2(08 (ny) [06 =0. Not ing that (®/0u)K,(u) = -Ky(u), where K(x) isthe modified Bessel function ofthe second Kind ‘nd frst order (hown and ae In=ve=5 x 3am= 170mm ‘This minimum bead length is nearly ewice as large as tht calculated for 3-D heat flow for the same combination of welding speed, thermal diffusivity and radius vector (see Exampleig. 129.Dimensionles temperature maps fr ine sonees i thin plates fr diferent anges oF OB. Fig. 30.Grapieal representation of Roses thin plate solution (schematic), “This gives: (1-85) and 89) Equation (1-86) can be used for calculations of isothermal zone widths (Yq) and cross sectional areas (A) in thin plate Welding. Referring to Fg. 1.30, we have: (6, asp Ay /8=2Y pq #265994 1-[K. (sq), 4-88) Wn = {Gen Ea = S5q Yt“ [K,| and Figur 131 shows a graphical presentation of equations (I-86), (I-87) and (1-8). Length of leothermal enclosures ‘The distance from the beat source to the front (£) and the rear (¢' ofan isothermal enclo- sure is obtained by substituting @, = + finto equation (183). "This gives: and2 ‘a 1 10 100 ‘1000 99,8 Fig, 131 Dimensionless distance oq balf width, 204 eros secdonal area Ay’ vs m9. n L ae v 0 100 1,68 ——me Fig, 132,Dimeasionless stance from beat source to Font (and rear (6°) of otermalexcloeare v8 88 (hin plate welding) Hing Flow aso Terexrcns Dorm x WELDS 5 ‘A graphical presentation of equations (1-85) and (10) is shown ix Fig, 132. Included is also plot ofthe total length of te enclosure vs the parameter 88 Cooling conditions close to weld cesr-ine i ‘ine behind the heat source os =—€ =. When tis larger fair approximation 1 set, (0) ~expe-ay/3/2 (ee PS 8. ara an ture interval (eg. from 8, 108} 192) ‘The dimensionless cooling tine fom 800 to SOO i thus given by: & ieee =m /p| 193) Mug 0 lee ar oe ‘rom witch the real cooling time is obtained: ‘Taking as average values b= 0.025 W mmm-!°C+, pe = 0.005 Tzu? °C4, and 7, = 20°C for welding of low alloy stels, we bave: 7 Atys #1. TI6x10°[a, /udf = 716i dP as) ‘Similarly, the cooling rate at a specific temperature is obtained by differentiating equation (1-91) with respect wo time: 408 /n,)__ ve __ 1 (8) . I 21 96) oat (2) eH By multiplying equation (1-96) with the appropriate conversion factor, we get:5 Mrrauzureicat Mooexune oF Wena Hiss Fiow avo Taxrenaroxe Dismapurion NY Wiso 55 2h pe i Intersection point with ig)-aes “Greet an) Tnthis case §= 0 and o,= y. Hence, equation For welding of low alloy stels, she cooling rate becomes which gives <-98) 20.37 y= 10.18mm) ‘similarly, the contour of the A -isodhorm can be determined by inserting n/98 = 2.08 into the same set of equations. Figure 1.33 shows a graphical representation of the calculated {isothermal contours, apie (1.10) Consider GTA butt welding of a 2mm thick sheet of cold-rolled aluminium (Al-Mg alk under the folowing conditions: T=110A, U=15V, v=4mm st, 9 =06, T,=20°C Sketch the contours ofthe fusion boundary and the A,-isotheras in the Ey (=) plane at pseudo-steady state. The reerystallisation temperature A, of the base material i taken equal to 275°C. Calculate also the cross sectional area of the fully recrystallised HAZ and the cooling, rte at 275°C fer points located within tis region. Solution [Referring t0 Fig. 1.22(a) (Example (1.6) itis sufficient to calculate the coordinates in four Tasorrscure Diamomon 3x WELD 6 ‘mode of heat flow may vary within single thermal cycle. Hence, the extension of the dier- ‘nt fields is not indicated inthe graph. The results in Fig. 1.40 provide a systematic basis for ‘calculating the retention time within specific temperature intervals under various welding con- 99% Al) T= 260A, U = 25V, v=3mms-t, T, = 20°C Based on Fig. 1.43, sketch the peak temperanre contours in the tansv ociamon Fi 14) es the transverse section of the | 4 ‘Hpxa Fiow ano Terenure DisraunuTion 1s Wate eo lution we neglect the latent beat of melting, the parameter ns atthe chosen reference temperature (I, Tq) becomes: MORI XO8%5 oy ig Le nn Seer aT) OO Similac, whea v = 3mm sand a ~ 85mm? s we obtain the following value forthe é- rmensionles plate thickness 3x12 o-2kB 2x85 Readings from Fig. 1.43 give: | 5eo Modal Sytem 5010 | 30660 | Modu tisk lotion aii=0se | W040 | Thinplateslusee @D best ou) zs +| Fig. LaeSchematie ding showing specific peak temperature coatoure within the HAZ ofan alte runiuta weld at peeudo-sesdy state (Example 1.12)@ WELD At ym) et ce ene a ane ~ Nl ) g E ©) WELD A2 y(mm) Sgt teaser eta 1 | VW 7 wy ‘ wo \e z / i : Computed peak temperature coatours in alumi welding at pscudo-steny state (Case study 141, (b) Weld A2, Black regions indicat fusion zone. ium welding {nen Gr cetinon wih fe lodems ewer en over tie of plate can be obtained from Fig. 1.38(a) and (b), akhough these maps are not sutable for precise read conditions, the temperature-time pat- tem will elso vary significantly between the respective series as indicated by the maps in Figs. 1,39 and 1.40. Hence, in the case of aluminium welding the usual procedure of reporting are ravelspeedin tenns of an equiva the weld thermal programme, In general, {the correct course would be to specify both g,, Vand 4, and compare the Weld thermal history on the bass ofthe dimensionless parameters my and 8. Steel welding If welding is performed on a stel plate of similar thickness, the operating region will be shifted to the lower ight corer of Fig. 1.43. Under such conéitions, tbe isotherms adjacent to the fusion be svonaly onexed in he Gren even at very low welling vio i uniquely deine bythe net heat np mB, comespoading os eee (a) WELD S1 y(mm) ff ia ; ‘ ul a2, wy, E 1000 as T(?C)=500} 7001 aoe {b) WELD S2 — 2» 7 WT Fig. 146 Computed po texaperature costousin sel welding at pooudo-steady tte (Cave study 1.1: {@) Weld SI, (@) Weld $2, Black regions indieste fusion zone ‘Table 14 Operational coditioassesumed in Case sty (1)n MeraiseneicaL Mopeave oF WaLDaNG limiting case ofa fast moving high power source, As azesult, the calculated shape and width of the fasion boundary and neighbouring is se seen to be virally independent of choice of g, snd vas illustrated in Fi. 1.46(a) and (). 1104.2 Experimental verification ofthe medium thick plate solution ‘under various welding conditions, Inthe following, the accuracy ofthe model wil be checked. ‘aguinst extensive experimental data, as obtained from in situ thermocouple measurements and ‘numerical analyses ofa large murmber of bead-on-plate welds temperature, This, in tan, implies that the model is also capable of predicting the total time spent in a thermal cycle within a specific temperature interval as shown in Fig, 1.48 Weld cooling programme Attemperaturs representative ofthe austenite to ferrite transformation in mild and ow alloy to thin plate welding occurs (see Fg. 1.39). In such cases itis posibleto preseathe diferent solution for Acys (at y={=0) na sngle graph by ‘introducing the following groups of variables" Abscissa Fifi 04 #1/ 0c) ‘Relevant literature dite for the cooling time berween 800 and SOO'C are given in Fig. 1.49, ‘A Sor igpron of he ge evel «tose arent stvoen cere and Fe Ts also capac of predicting be cooing tie bitin specif temperate intervals (e.g fom 300 to 100°C) in aluminium weldments. ‘toss ups of ibe canbe obtained fom ogtins (1-74) ae (10) Temporature (©) ——P— ° “Tmo (660) oe Fig. 147.Compasson between measured and predicted weld thenzal oles ia aluminium welding fer fixed values of7,, Duta from Myhrand Grong” AL (0 coseNed 8 ca Athy (4, prodted ——e Fig. 1.48,Compussen berweon measured and predicted scention times in sluminiam weing for Sed values of. Data from Myr ant Grong ®™ Meraxeeratca Mopmzine or Wainnie oar or t Bats — Fig. 149.Coapsiton even need ad dies ing conn tis rm S00 SOIC tl we ‘(Golid lines represent theoretical caleuiations). Data from Mybr and Grong. a Too 240 GMAW (aloes wi a A f 2000 1 0600 0 2 teot i 4 § vor A 4 2 7 2 ool sof 4 pee eee ee : oa Boe am NO At, (G00), predicted —— ae Fg. 18. Conpason twee ered nd pei cog tines fom sto ‘welding. Data from Mybr and Grong? _ se eee Peak temperatures and isothermal contours Figure 151 shows ‘between measured and predicted HA peak temperatures in that the relative positions of the HAZ isotherms can be caleulatd wi degree of accuracy from the medium thick plate solution, pro- Sided that te equation is precaitrated ageist a koown isotherm (ie the fasion boundary). ‘Additional formation on the HAZ. peak temperance jam welding can be obiaine from the data of Koe tod Lee reproduced in Fig. 1.52, These numerical Caletlasons” showed a good coelation with experimental measurements. comparison With {he modium thick pate solution n Fig. 1S reveals fair agreement between numerically and ‘alycally computed isothermal contours. tis interesting to aot thateven though tbe plate thickness small .e.3 2mm, he mode of heat flow becomes essentially three dimensional Close tothe fusion boundary. This imporant point is often overlooked when discussing the relevance ofthe analytical beat flow models in thin sheet welding 1104.3 Practical implications ‘The following important conclusions can be drawn from the realts presented in Figs. 1-38 00 mo SCODSSCO 20 Tp. 20 precited —P Fig. 151.Compasisoa between observed and predicted HAZ peak temperttres in alminiam welding. ita from Mybr and Grong “Buse ote fie lla mead DM).Fig. 1.52.Compacson between nomeridally and analytically computed pel temperetare contours in GTA.elding of 32mm thn aluminium sheet, Broken nas: numerical model oid lines: anlyicl model) Data Zor welding parameters and weal propesies are given a Ref.21, 1. Considering heat flow and temperature distibution infusion welding, there exists no defined plate thickness which can be regarded as ‘thick’ or ‘hin’. Accordingly, in a real ‘welding situation, te mode of heat low will vary continuously with increasing distance ‘rom the heat source 2, Close to the centre ofthe weld, the thermal conditions will be similar to those in a ‘heavy slab, This meens thatthe temperature diseibution is approximately described by the Rosenthal thick plate solution 3. Atintermediate distances from the heat source, the temperature distribution will e- state temperature disibution can only be made 4, For poins located sufi cents in the throngh- thickness tions, the weld thermal programme solution, veay from the heat soue, the empecetregras= 9 the plate bocome negligible. Under such cond- proximately defined by the Roseutal thin plate 5. In general, a full description of the weld thermal history requires that both the are ‘equation is calibrated against a known isotherm (eg. the fusion boundary) duc to the sim= plifying assumptions inherent in the model. Hexs Foow aso Tevesncune Desmasuion 1x WeDo n 1.10.5 Distribuced heat sources 1105.1 General solution ote ier ont Gr) i sul the wld erie fing formation is shows Tonal fere we consider two discreate distributions of elementary fo Beet fie plas espeivey. Tecmo cope on incn tly put esas wine pes soe) a oo(-Za)| 306) \Fa where Raley eee ig, 1.53 Schematic disram spowing te weld eatexweld finger format during stings: bead Wk ing,Hear Fiow aso Terensrvee Disramumion as WELDING 8 i © ig. 1L54.Genecl heat flow model fr welding on medinm ek plates(coninsed): 6) Method for cal- cultng the emperanze field arouod an elemeatary(sobmerge) point source dspace slag hes. ‘Silay, fora submerged poiat source located along the z-axis (ig. 1.54(@)), we obtain: ra)=d o siz aay o@(-24) # a ae ‘Fig, 1.54.General heat ow model for welding on medium thick pates; iv on medi thick plates) Physical epreentton ofthe ‘eon ty Sesay put ae bod fred te eapioe Lem oo -Za) clementary point source displaced along the axis. ae ereeeeeeeeeee : ae =80 ‘Meatunaica, Mone. oF WELDING where Raa G2 OF aod Rye Pay nea 2d ay ‘Note that equation (1-107) comrectly reduces to equation ‘The total temperature rise in point P is thea ficlds from the different elementary heat sour -106) when & approaches 20, saperposition ofthe temperature Twety+ where to= Dedy=nur In practice, we can subdivide the heat distribution into a relatively small number of el- ‘ementary point sources, and usually Figure 1.55 shows the results from such calculations, caried at for a single pass (bead-in- sgoove) GMA steel weld. Itis evident thatthe important effect ofthe weld crater/wveldfiage formation.on the HAZ, peak temperature distributions adequately accounted for by the presen ‘model. A wealmess ofthe models, of couse, that the shape and location ofthe Fusion bound ‘ary must be determined experimentally before a prediction can be made. 110.52 Simplified solution . Similar to the situation described above, the point héat source will clearly not be a good heats supplied over alarge area. Welding with a weaving technique and sur- ip electrodes are prime examples ofthis kind. Grong and Christensen”) AAs a first simplification, the Rosenthal thick plate solution is considered forthe limiting ease of ahigh are power q, and 2 high welding specd v, maintaining the rao g, /v within @ range se acpate cea ate adeno aaccce ta ae cacti ec where (°)={G= VIE, day = (aye)! 2Land = ape, ‘Aeutely, me ca we a Gaon hex dsb, s sbownin Appendix 14. Hear Flow as Texexarvge Distascrion px WELDON 8 wece eon fa GMA ses wee (OP 1. ese psp como ets Ti des Sag: 50RD aN 9 am ha Sm. —_ Fig, 1.56.Distibate beat source of net power density g/L on a semi-ininite body (2D best flow),