Module: Research Methods and Dissertation

Lesson: Understanding Research and the Research Process

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Understanding Research and the Research Process

Introduction

Welcome to this module on research methods and the dissertation. This is a compulsory
module for all students taking the BA (Honours) Business programme. The purpose of the
module is to introduce you to business and management research methods and assess your
ability to conduct independent research. For this module, you are required to prepare a
10,000-word dissertation on an applied topic of your choice. This involves the application of
managerial concepts and research techniques to a significant organisational issue or problem.

Throughout this module, you will be expected to communicate with your supervisor in a
constructive and proactive manner and at the start of the module to develop a clear and
workable modus operandi for supervision. You must identify and obtain your own research
resources as an integral part of the dissertation requirement. However, supervisors may
recommend particular papers, books and articles that are appropriate to the field and topic in
question. You will be expected to use online databases to retrieve relevant journal articles, to
make judicious and critical use of any unpublished literature and to use other sources of
evidence as appropriate to the dissertation (e.g. technical reports, government reports).

As well as being allocated a supervisor you will receive additional support including: a
comprehensive student guide; online material on undertaking a research project and how to
write a dissertation (e.g. narrated PowerPoint presentations; pod casts); and tutor-led seminars
on specific topics (e.g. designing data collection instruments; analysing quantitative and
qualitative data; presentation of findings).

The lessons in this module are structured as follows:

Lesson One: Understanding Research and the Research Process

Lesson Two: Deciding on a Topic and Setting Research Objectives

Lesson Three: Using Literature and Other Sources of Information to Underpin and Inform
Research

Lesson Four: Methodological Considerations

Lesson Five: Gathering and Analysing Quantitative Data

Lesson Six: Gathering and Analysing Qualitative Data

Lesson Seven: Research Ethics

Lesson Eight: Writing a Research Proposal

Lesson Nine: Getting Started with the Dissertation Process

Lesson Ten: Writing your Dissertation

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In this lesson, we will be exploring the concept of research and several of the philosophical
assumptions and principles that underpin research. As with any area of academic and applied
study, there can be a lot of terminology and jargon associated with this topic. One of the
purposes of this lesson will be to review some of this terminology to assist with your
understanding of the conceptual and philosophical underpinning of research. This should help
with further reading that you will need to undertake to understand and make decisions about
the type of research that you choose to engage in for your dissertation.

At the end of this lesson you will be able to:

Identify and critically evaluate key philosophical considerations that underpin the research
process.

Engage with appropriate research terminology and have a critical understanding of these
concepts.

Identify and justify the ontological and epistemological approaches that are likely to
influence your approach to research.

The narrated PowerPoint, which can be accessed via the link below will give you a brief
overview of some of the content contained in this lesson.

https://vimeo.com/203969163/6fc3794b7c

Transcript of Lecture 1: Understanding Research

Word Game

Figure 1.01 - Research Wordcloud

Using the words epistemology, constructivism, realism and phenomenology, see how many
words you can create that could be applied to research.

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Here are three examples to get you started:

Construct

Positivism

Phenomena

What is Business Research?

A logical starting point for this module would to begin with a definition of what we
mean by ‘business research’. In the context of this module we mean the study of
academic research into business activities. In other words, how, as students or tutors
of business studies and its constituent disciplines such as marketing, accounting,
organisational behaviour, human resource management etc., we might best research
how business is conducted and how management decision making might be
enhanced.

Therefore, it is not the purpose of this module to focus upon how commercial research
projects are undertaken in the business world. They vary too much in their technical
requirements across the range of business disciplines to do anything other than take a
superficial look. Instead we seek to develop those research skills relevant to business
in general and to prepare you specifically for the academic work required in completing
the assessment of this module and your dissertation. That said, much of what we
discuss in this module, combined with any previous work on statistics you have
completed, is just as relevant in the commercial world as it is in the academic. The
skills you acquire here will support research activities you conduct elsewhere. The
main difference between commercial and academic research is that the reporting and
publication of academic research requires a discipline and presentational format
somewhat different from that of the commercially written report, and it is this more
academic format that provides the structure for this module.

The Nature of Business Research

A simple dictionary based definition of the word research states that it is:

“The systematic investigation into, and study of, materials and sources in order to
establish facts and reach new conclusions.” (Oxford Dictionary, 2009)

This definition raises several useful concepts. Firstly, research is systematic. Secondly, it is
about establishing facts. Thirdly, it is about reaching conclusions. So, for new research to add
value to our existing stock of knowledge it must have these three qualities. The purpose of this
module is, therefore, to establish what we mean by systematic and to ensure that in

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completing research projects you are able to identify relevant facts so that your conclusions
are valid.

This definition does also raise the question as to what is a ‘fact’ and can all research be said
to identify what we might all agree is a ‘fact’? When dealing with human beings in the
workplace, for example, rather than chemicals or the laws of physics in a laboratory, much
research simply identifies the opinions of the respondents to its surveys or interviews. Clearly
if you gather enough opinions then statistically one might argue that the results represent facts
about a specific situation. But if only a few interviews are conducted, or if a case study is
written about a single company, can we truly say we have discovered facts that will be of any
relevance to anyone else, or even that the results would be the same if we undertook the
same interviews the following month?

Perhaps therefore, different types of research might have a different purpose, and a single,
simple definition that tries to explain the purpose of all research is always going to have its
limitations.

Exploring ways of knowing - Research and Knowledge

Research is essentially concerned with working with knowledge and either validating or
extending what we know through the application of systematic and sometimes scientific
approaches to investigation and inquiry. Research, however, can be a challenging process as
the very concept of knowledge and what we know and what we perceive to be real is often
contested. Willy Wonka, the fictional owner of a Chocolate Factory, created by Ronald Dahl,
perhaps summarises some of the challenges associated with this in the following transcript
taken from the film below:

There’s no earthly way of knowing

Which direction they are going!

There’s no knowing where they’re rowing,

Or which way they river’s flowing!

Not a speck of light is showing,

So, the danger must be growing,

For the rowers keep on rowing,

And they’re certainly not showing

Any signs that they are slowing…

(Charlie and The Chocolate Factory, Dahl)

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For a more detailed consideration and discussion of ways of knowing watch this short podcast
from Dr Naomi Goulder and Dr David Mitchel at the New College of Humanities.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hw8EU0vNvyg

As you watch the video try to identify the various processes that the two presenters discuss as
sources from which we gain knowledge.

Research Philosophy

The notion of research philosophy is primarily concerned with the source, nature and
development of knowledge. The values, beliefs and assumptions that we hold about
knowledge and its creation are likely to influence the way in which we approach research
questions and conduct research.

In business and computing dissertations at undergraduate level, you are not expected to
discuss research philosophy in a great level of depth, however, you will be expected in your
methodology chapter to demonstrate an awareness of debates around research philosophy
and justify the approach that you have adopted to your research.

Discussion of research philosophy in your dissertation should include the following:

Specifying the research philosophy of your study. Your research philosophy can be
pragmatism, positivism, realism or interpretivism as discussed below.

The reasons behind philosophical classifications of the study need to be provided.

A discussion of the implications of your research philosophy on the research strategy in

general and your choice of primary data collection methods.

Saunders et al (2015) have produced a useful visual representation of the research process
and some of the key choices and decisions that are involved dependent on the approach
chosen. This has been termed the research onion and is shown below in Figure 1.02:

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 Figure 1.02 - Research Onion

In the following sections of this lesson we will explore issues related to research philosophies
and approach. In later lessons, we will focus more on concerns related to methodological
choices, research strategies and techniques and procedures for data gathering and analysis.

Before we consider the four main research philosophies we will first give some consideration
to notions of what constitutes reality and theories relating to knowledge creation. These are
termed ontology, epistemology and axiology. These do not form part of the research onion,
but as we will see from below, can exert a significant influence on the values and approaches
that we bring to research activity.

Reading Exercise

Before you proceed, read a short article by Mark Saunders and Paul Tosey. it is about the
concept of the research onion and covers, in more depth, some of the material that we have
introduced.

You can access the article here: Research Onion Layers

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Ontology, Epistemology and Axiology

These are key philosophical constructs that underpin beliefs, values and approaches to
research. Ontology is concerned with what is true and epistemology is about methods of
figuring out those truths. Axiology is a branch of philosophy that studies judgements about the
value. Specifically, axiology is engaged with assessment of the role of researcher’s own value
on all stages of the research process.

Ontology

The word ontology derives from the Greek onto (being) and logia (written or spoken
discourse). Although ontology is concerned with truth, what knowledge is and ways of
discovering it, the ontological positions that we adopt can often be contested and subjective.
Blaikie (2010) suggests that ontological claims are ‘claims and assumptions that are made
about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make
it up and how these units interact with each other. In-short, ontological assumptions are
concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality’ (Blaikie, 2000, p.8). An individual’s
ontological position is their answer to the question: what is the nature of the social and political
reality to be investigated?

So, ontology is:

‘The science or study of being.’

Our view about what is 'real'

Our beliefs of what exists? what is 'real'? and what is not 'real'

Ontology is the starting point of all research, after which one’s epistemological and
methodological positions logically follow. Ontology is concerned with the values, attitudes and
systems of belief that reflect an interpretation of an individual about what constitutes a fact.
Ontology is therefore critically concerned with a central question of whether social entities
need to be perceived as objective or subjective. Accordingly, objectivism (or positivism) and
subjectivism can be specified as two important aspects of ontology. We will explore these two
constructs briefly below:

Objectivism ‘portrays the position that social entities exist in reality external to social actors
concerned with their existence’ Saunders et al (2012). Alternatively, objectivism ‘is an
ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence
that is independent of social actors’. Bryman (2012).

Subjectivism, also often referred to as constructionism or interpretivism by contrast on based

on the belief that social phenomena are created from perceptions and the consequent actions
of social actors concerned with their existence. Bryman (2012) has defined constructionism as
the ‘ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are
continually being accomplished by social actors.’

At bachelor’s level, you will not be expected to engage in an in-depth analysis of the

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ontological position and considerations that you are adopting for your research. You should
however, in your methodology chapter, specify whether you are adopting objectivism or
constructivism as the ontological stance underpinning your research. This should be followed
by an explanation of the rationale for your choice. You should also note in your methodology
chapter how the ontological stance that you have adopted has influenced your choices in
terms of epistemology, research approach, research strategy, data collection and analysis and
the type of conclusions that you have reached.

This table illustrates the ontology of four major research philosophies related to business
studies:

Figure 1.03 - Research Paradigms and Ontological Perspectives

You can find out more about ontology at this site: http://www.ontology.co/ontology-definitions-
one.htm

Epistemology

Epistemology is concerned with sources of knowledge and where we derive this knowledge
from and how we come to know what we know. The epistemological assumptions that
underpin a research investigation have an impact on how we discriminate the warranted from
the unwarranted, the rational from the non-rational, the scientific from the non-scientific.

In research philosophy, there are many different sources of knowledge. Sources of knowledge
related to business research can be divided into the following four categories:

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 Intuitive knowledge, which is based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc. Human feelings play a
greater role in intuitive knowledge compared to reliance on facts.

Authoritarian knowledge relies on information that has been obtained from books,
research papers, experts, supreme powers etc.

Logical knowledge is a creation of new knowledge through the application of logical

reasoning.

Empirical knowledge relies on objective facts that have been established and can be
demonstrated.

Research that we undertake may integrate more than one of these sources of knowledge and
some studies may integrate all four forms. Intuitive knowledge can have an influence in our
selection of a particular area for study. We may, for example, perceive that there is a problem
or issue that is worth exploring or may have an idea that approaching a research problem with
a new set of questions might help to generate new knowledge or extend our understanding of
a specific research area further. As most approaches to research require a grounding and
positioning in the literature and previous studies about the area under investigation in
accessing this data and information we are using authoritarian knowledge. As we undertake
our study logical knowledge is likely to be created as we review and analyse our data. Finally,
the conclusions that we reach as a result of the research process can be seen as adding to
empirical knowledge.

Epistemology has many branches and includes essentialism, historical perspective,

perennialism, progressivism, empiricism, idealism, rationalism, constructivism and others. In
research related to business, management and computing there are three main
epistemological stances that are commonly adopted. These are:

Positivism: Interested in causes and predicting likelihood of incidences, seeks to explain,

creates social ‘facts’.

Phenomenology: Interested in social meanings, seeks to interpret, uses direct involvement,

creates data on social interactions.

Critical: Interested in understanding social phenomena in their social context, seeks out
structural relationships, data is historical, structural and ideological.

In this table, adapted from Saunders et al (2012), describes important aspects of

epistemologies of the main research philosophies related to business research.

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Figure 1.04 - Epistemology of popular research philosophies in business research (Saunders
et, 2012)

Axiology

Axiology is the study of values (or of one’s own values). Our values affect how we do
research and what we value in the results of our research. The bigger question in axiology is,
what do I value in research? That is, what is the purpose in research? For some people
research is about developing an understanding about how something works, or how people
behave. It is to investigate some phenomenon. For some research is an internal process, a
desire to answer some burning internal curiosity.

Exercise: Challenging Ontological and Epistemological Assumptions

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What happened on 11th September 2001?
What is your theory?

What do you assume to be the reality?

http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x1dpio_what-happened-to-wtc-building-7-on_news

What is your theory now? (Has it changed?)

What is your reality now? (Has it changed?)

What is the connection between your theory of reality (epistemology) and reality itself
(ontology)?

The Main Philosophical Traditions in Research

In our exploration of the concepts of ontology and epistemology we have already started to
review the effect that these constructs can have on the research process. The four main
traditions in research philosophy are:

Positivist: The positivist approach requires the use of the scientific method. A researcher
makes an observation about a social behaviour or condition, constructs a hypothesis as to
the reason or outcome of the observation, tests the hypothesis and then analyses the
results. Positivists believe that this method removes researcher bias and provides
legitimate causality for the research study. Experimental designs are an important part of
positivist study, as it creates controls to remove further bias from the results. The analysis
of results takes the form of data analysis in which researchers employ statistics to derive
succinct answers of causality or correlation.

Pragmatists: Pragmatism research philosophy accepts concepts to be relevant only if

they support action. Pragmatics “recognise that there are many different ways of
interpreting the world and undertaking research, that no single point of view can ever give
the entire picture and that there may be multiple realities” Saunders (2012).

Realist: Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from
the human mind. As a branch of epistemology, this philosophy is based on the assumption
of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. Realism can be divided into two
groups: Direct and Critical.

Interpretivist: The interpretivist approach views reality as something subjective and based
on meanings and understanding. Interpretivists believe that just as people cannot be
separated from their knowledge, researchers cannot be separated from their research
subject. The goal of the research is understanding, rather than making predictions.
Interpretivist researchers do not consider the knowledge generated from the research to

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 be permanent, but accept it as relative to the time, context or culture in which the study
was conducted.

The table below contrasts the impact that these approaches can have on strategies and
approaches to research.

Figure 1.05 - Source: Wilson, J. (2010) “Essentials of Business Research: A Guide to Doing
Your Research Project” SAGE Publications

Exploring Research Terminology

As with any field of academic inquiry research, and the study of research methodology, it has
developed a language which can, to those new to this process, appear daunting and difficult to
engage with. In this section of the lesson we will review some of the terminology that is used in
discourses and literature relating to research. You will become familiar with these as you
engage with further lessons and embark on your research study. At this stage, it is important
that you develop an understanding of what these concepts, terms and approaches mean.

Pure (Basic) and Applied Research

Pure (Basic) research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, without regard for
a specific problem and may be carried out to simply gain a better understanding of the overall
concepts. Pure research is a term used for research that often has no immediate practical
implication. In other words, it has no obvious use above and beyond satisfying an intellectual
nagging doubt. Research of this type becomes valuable usually only when it is attached to
further research and begins to find a niche within a practical application.

Applied research, on the other hand, is directed towards the solution of a specific problem and
will have been undertaken with the sole intention to provide an answer to a specialised
question. It is common for this type of research to be funded by industry or government with
the intention to gain advancement or profit from its output. Applied research is undertaken to
solve a specific problem or provide a solution to a practical question. We summarise the key

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differences in these two approaches below:

Pure (Basic)

Pure, fundamental research

Discovery of new knowledge; theoretical in nature

Takes many years for the results of basic research to find some practical utility

Applied

Central purpose to solve an immediate problem

Improved products or processes

Infers beyond the group or situation studied

Interpretation of results relies upon Basic research

Primary and Secondary Research

Primary research refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific to
a research project, for example through using research methods such as questionnaires or
interviews. Primary research is concerned with obtaining information directly for the pursuit of
specific research objectives. It is usually obtained as a result of a direct approach.

Secondary research refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the
research project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data, for example census or archive
data. Secondary research deals with handling information that has already been obtained and
is now being re-directed to the solution of a different problem. This is usually available in a
wide range of forms, including books, statistical charts, data banks, agencies, etc.

Theoretical and Empirical Research

Theoretical research is where the research activity itself contributes to the study of intellectual
enquiry. It can involve the collection of original data but is more usually associated with
interpretation of existing data to extend both the concrete and the abstract understanding of

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observed phenomena. Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to
develop new ideas through analysing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are
not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data.

Empirical research involves the collection of original data for analysis. Empirical research will
often go together with primary research. Similarly, theoretical research often relies on
secondary research material for its foundations. Empirical research supports the development
of new ideas through the collection of data (empirical = observation or measurement rather
than theoretical reasoning).

Exploratory and Explanatory Research

Exploratory research takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of a phenomenon.

This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity with the appropriate concepts and
looks for patterns or ideas without any preconceived ideas or explanation. Explanatory
research is involved in explaining why something happens, and assessing causal relationships
between variables.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

These are what are referred to as the methodology underpinning your research. Your
methodology is concerned with the way that you gather, organise, analyse and present data.
There are three main approaches which we define briefly below.

Quantitative

Creswell (2003, p.19) defines a quantitative approach as ‘one in which the investigator
primarily uses post-positivist claims for developing knowledge, (i.e. cause and effect thinking,
reduction to specific variables and hypotheses and questions, use of measurement and
observation, and the test of theories). Methodologies based on a quantitative approach will
often exhibit many of the following characteristics:

Use numerical, measurable data

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 Adopt a traditional or positivist approach

Have clearly stated questions or a rational hypothesis

Developed research procedures

Make use of extraneous variable controls

Tend to use large samples

Rely on traditional, statistical analyses

Qualitative

Qualitative research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of

underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also
used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem.

Methodologies based on a qualitative approach will often exhibit many of the following
characteristics:

Takes place in the natural setting

Uses multiple methods that are interpretive

Is emergent rather than tightly prefigured

Fundamentally interpretive (role of researcher as interpreter)

Researcher views social phenomena holistically

Researcher systematically reflects on who he or she is in the inquiry and is sensitive to his
or her personal biography and how it shapes the study

Researcher uses complex reasoning that is multifaceted, iterative, and simultaneous

Researcher adopts and uses one or more strategies of inquiry

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Exercise: Understanding Types of Research

To confirm your understanding of the different types of research discussed earlier, give
an example of each.

There are an unlimited number of possible answers to this activity, but you should
check your ideas against the examples in the table to confirm that you are thinking
along the right lines. Note that there will inevitably be some overlap between certain
categories.

Figure 1.06 - Examples of research types

Positive or Normative Research

In addition to the eight types mentioned in Figure 1.06 we might also consider two
more:

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Positive research focuses upon discovering how the world is and seeks to make positive
statements about the way things happen. Such an approach is common in the scientific
community and works by examining what has happened previously and what is currently
happening to try and forecast what will happen in the future.

Normative research seeks to establish how things could be, or ought to be in the future, and
then works back to the present day establishing what needs to change if we are to eventually
reach that identified future state. Such an approach is common in business research (and the
social sciences more generally), where, for example a business seeks to understand more
clearly the implications of setting specific objectives or targets.

The Iterative Nature of Research Process

Most aspects of the research process demand that data is collected and turned into useful
information before it is then assessed for its value. It may well be necessary to return to the
original source of the data and re-analyse the information from a different perspective. Any
conclusions drawn in this way should then be reviewed to confirm that they are of value to the
research. It may, in some cases, be appropriate to repeat this process again to further confirm
or cement any observations.

This iterative approach to research has significant parallels with that used in elementary
algebra to solve equations. Here, an initial solution is selected and fed into the problem
scenario (or equation) to ascertain the outcome. If the outcome is acceptable then a solution
has been obtained. If the outcome does not conform to the required degree of accuracy, then
this can be re-inserted into the problem, and a further outcome obtained.

By repeating this process, it is possible to come closer and closer to the exact solution, in the
case of a mathematical problem, or to a more suitable solution, in the case of a subjective
issue. This technique has been put to considerable use throughout all areas of business and
is helpful in establishing appropriate evaluations of gathered information for research
purposes.

Exercise: Group Discussion

Give an example of the use of an iterative process in an organisation:

a) for obtaining a numerical solution

b) for subjective decision making.

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You might have considered a situation where a pricing decision needs to be made. It might,
for example, be where a new improved version of a product is being introduced. It will be
necessary to gather numerical data together so that evidence will be available to determine
what price the market will hold. Alternatively, a problem might arise regarding production
volume for the new product. In this case, it will be necessary to assimilate existing sales
figures, etc.

In the second case, the opinions of a sample of customers may be needed. This will involve
collecting feelings and impressions, and then forming an overall opinion. There will be a need
to call on the experience of many years of working in that particular industry to form such an
opinion.

The Limitations of Research

Before we get carried away with this discussion of the range of research types available to us
and the ability to discover all kinds of things about our own organisation, we need to consider
some of the limitations of research.

A piece of research is only as effective as the reliability of the data, the validity of the methods
of assessment applied, and the relevance of the findings to other groups of people or
organisations (known as its generalisability). We will return to these concepts later in this
module, but for now be aware that the usefulness of the research is only as good as the rigour
with which it is conducted.

We might also consider the scope of the research. Too often researchers, in drawing their
conclusions and recommendations, make claims for their findings that are not representative
of what they have actually done. So, for example, if you have studied the food buying habits of
18 - 25-year-old women in one small town in France by standing outside one supermarket on
one Saturday morning and asking the first 25 appropriately aged women a few questions - do
not make recommendations that are supposedly relevant to all women, in all their shopping
habits throughout the world. Don't laugh… you would be surprised how many student
dissertations do!

Research can only deliver what it is designed to do. There must be a consistency between its
title, its objectives (i.e. its intended findings), its research methods, its actual findings, and its
conclusions and recommendations.

In completing any study the process is constrained by the time, resources and expertise the
researcher has available. They are also constrained by the willingness of the planned
respondents to agree to participate. Finally, they are constrained by the availability of
secondary (already published) data / information. For a typical student, these present
problems and tend to limit the scope and generalisability of the research. However, your study
can still be based upon reliable data and valid methods of analysis. It is the intention of this

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 module to provide you with appropriate skills and knowledge to support data collection and
analysis, and to offer solutions to the problems of limited time, resources and access to data /
information.

Summary

In this lesson, we have explored in some depth issues and factors associated with research
philosophy and the research process. This should have helped you place research in a wider
context and familiarise yourself with some of the key debates and discussions that are
associated with research. In the next lesson, we will explore processes for deciding on a
research topic and setting research objectives.

Further Reading

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A., 2015. Research Methods for Business Students. 7th
edition. Pearson Education.

References

Blaikie, N., 2000. Designing Social Research: The Logic of Anticipation. Polity Press.

Blaikie, N., 2010. Designing Social Research. 2nd edition. Polity Press.

Bryman, A., 2012. Social Research Methods. 4th edition. Oxford University Press.

Creswell, J.W., 2003. Research design. Qualitative, quantitative and mixed

methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A., 2015. Research Methods for Business Students. 7th
edition. Pearson Education.

Wilson, J., 2010. Essentials of Business Research: A Guide to Doing Your Research Project.
SAGE.

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