Accepted Manuscript

Investigation of groundwater in parts of Ndokwa District in Nigeria using geophysical

logging and electrical resistivity methods: Implications for groundwater exploration

Ochuko Anomohanran, Merrious Oviri Ofomola, Fredrick Ogochukwu Okocha

PII: S1464-343X(16)30406-X
DOI: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2016.12.008
Reference: AES 2752

To appear in: Journal of African Earth Sciences

Received Date: 7 October 2016

Revised Date: 21 November 2016
Accepted Date: 14 December 2016

Please cite this article as: Anomohanran, O., Ofomola, M.O., Okocha, F.O., Investigation of groundwater
in parts of Ndokwa District in Nigeria using geophysical logging and electrical resistivity methods:
Implications for groundwater exploration, Journal of African Earth Sciences (2017), doi: 10.1016/
j.jafrearsci.2016.12.008.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT
1 INVESTIGATION OF GROUNDWATER IN PARTS OF NDOKWA DISTRICT
2 IN NIGERIA USING GEOPHYSICAL LOGGING AND ELECTRICAL
3 RESISTIVITY METHODS: IMPLICATIONS FOR GROUNDWATER
4 EXPLORATION.

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7 BY

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9 Ochuko ANOMOHANRAN

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10 Physics Department, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria.

11 Email: mrochuko@yahoo.com

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Tel: +2348039488655
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13
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15 Merrious Oviri OFOMOLA

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16 Physics Department, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria.

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17 Email: ovirimerrious@yahoo.com
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18 Tel: +2348035057322

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20
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21 Fredrick Ogochukwu OKOCHA

22 Physics Department, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria.

23 Email: fred_okocha@yahoo.com

24 Tel: +2348029794469

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26 ABSTRACT

27 Groundwater study involving the application of geophysical logging and

28 vertical electrical sounding (VES) methods was carried out in parts of Ndokwa area

29 of Delta State, Nigeria. The objective was to delineate the geological situation and

30 the groundwater condition of the area. The geophysical logging of a drilled well and

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31 thirty VESs of the Schlumberger configuration were executied in this study using the

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32 Abem SAS 1000/4000 Terrameter. The result of the lithological study from the drilled

33 well showed that the subsurface formation consist of lateritic topsoil, very fine sand,

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34 clayey fine sand, fine and medium grain sand, coarse sand, medium coarse sand

35 and very coarse sand. The interpretation of the vertical electrical sounding data

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using a combination of curve matching and Win Resist computer iteration showed a
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37 close correlation with the well record. The result revealed the presence of four
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38 geoelectric layers with the aquifer identified to be in the fourth layer and having

39 resistivity which ranged from 480 to 11904 Ωm, while the depth ranged between 17.8
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40 and 38.8 m. The analysis of the geophysical logging revealed that the average value
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41 of the electrical conductivity and the total dissolved solid of the groundwater in the

42 aquifer were obtained as 229 µS/cm and 149 mg/cm3 respectively. These results
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43 indicate that the groundwater is within the permissible limit set by the Standard

Organization of Nigeria for potable water which is 1000 µS/cm for electrical
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44

conductivity and 500 mg/cm3 for total dissolved solid. The fourth layer was therefore
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46 identified as the potential non conductive zone suitable for groundwater development

47 in the study area.

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49 Keywords: Aquifer; electrical resistivity; geophysical logging; groundwater

50 quality; Ndokwa; Nigeria

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51 1. INTRODUCTION

52 Water is identified as the most important natural resource for the

53 sustenance of life on earth and can be obtained mainly from surface flow as in

54 rivers and lakes and from the subsurface in what is referred to as groundwater

(Anomohanran, 2015a). Fresh surface water can be assessed easily in most

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56 places except for areas in the desert regions. Despite this advantage of easy

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57 accessibility, surface water is often polluted by anthropogenic activities

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58 making groundwater to be a viable option in satisfying our demand for quality

59 water (Wattanasen and Elming, 2008; Anomohanran, 2015b). Various

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60 geophysical techniques or applications have been employed in groundwater
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61 exploration in many parts of the world. These include magnetic resonance

62 sounding (MRS), remote sensing, geographic information system, gravity,

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63 seismic, electrical resistivity among others (Schirov et al., 1991; Wattanasen

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64 and Elming, 2008; Kamba et al., 2012).

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65 The electrical resistivity survey method is one of the oldest geophysical

66 exploration techniques that has been extensively employed in environmental,

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67 engineering, hydrological, archaeological and mineral exploration surveys

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68 (Reynolds, 2011; Loke, et al., 2013). The vertical electrical sounding (VES)
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69 has been the most frequently used electrical resistivity tool in groundwater

70 investigation due to its ability to provide useful information about the

71 subsurface structure and lithology at reasonable depths (Araffa et al., 2015). It

72 is also comparatively cheaper than other methods and uncomplicated. The

73 procedure for VES survey involves two current electrodes and two potential

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74 electrodes in which the current is introduced into the subsurface by means of

75 the two current electrodes. The two potential electrodes are then used to

76 determine the potential built-up in the subsurface as a result of the introduced

77 current (Loke et al., 2013). The information from the field is interpreted first by

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78 manual means to obtain the apparent resistivity and thickness of the

79 subsurface layers. These initial parameters are then fed into a computer-

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80 based software and interpreted through an iterative method that successively

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81 improves the initially given model or those obtained by curve matching

82 technique. This is carried out until the root mean square error between the

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apparent resistivity and the true resistivity observed through iteration is stable
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84 or when there is no further change in layer parameters (Kumar et al., 2007).

The basis of the VES is anchored on the fact that current can only be
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86 transmitted by the subsurface layer because of the presence of water since

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87 the rock in itself is considered an insulator (Anomohanran, 2013). Geological

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88 formations which are able to store water are targets of groundwater

exploration (Kayode et al, 2016). This geological formations are investigated

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90 for the following properties hydraulic conductivity, transmissivity, storativity

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91 and storage capacity (Tizro et al., 2012).

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92 Geophysical logging of boreholes utilizing the spontaneous potential

93 and resistivity loggings is commonly used for formation evaluation. The

94 resistivity log is capable of estimating the resistivity of a subsurface formation

95 and helps in the identification of subsurface geological strata (Kamble et al.,

96 2012; Anomohanran, 2013). The spontaneous potential log measures the

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97 chemical differences between two adjacent formations and the formation

98 water. The spontaneous potential log is able to distinguish between clay, sand

99 or gravel in a geological formation (Kamble et al., 2012).

100 One major problem facing the people of the area is knowing the depth

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101 to good quality groundwater to replace the available contaminated water

102 (Osinowo, 2016). This study was carried out to investigate the geologic setting

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103 and groundwater condition of the area in order to delineate the structural

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104 elements and identify subsurface formations and depths suitable for

105 groundwater development in the study area.

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107 2. Location and geology of the study area

The study area is in the northern part of Ndokwa area in Delta State,
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109 Nigeria between longitude 6.16o and 6.23o E and latitude 5.85o and 5.94o N in
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110 the northeast of the Gulf of Guinea (Fig. 1). Geologically, subsurface geology
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111 of the Niger Delta area consists of three lithostratigraphic units referred to as

the Benin, Agbada and the Akata Formations (Short and Stauble, 1967). The
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113 Benin Formation is about 2000m thick and consists primarily of sand with
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114 about 5% clay. The Agbada Formation, which is about 3700 m thick, is
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115 considered the reservoir for oil and gas with very highly porous sand and

116 shale interbeds. The Akata Formation is 7000 m thick and consists

117 predominatly of shales and is considered the source rock for petroleum and

118 gas in this formation (Short and Stauble, 1967). The lithostratigraphic unit of

119 the Niger Delta is overlain by various types of Quaternary deposits consisting

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120 mainly of coastal plain sands and deltaic plain deposits overlain by freshwater

121 swamp and coastal alluvium (Fig. 2) (Orji and Egboka, 2015). Hydro

122 geologically, the Benin Formation is the main water-bearing zone in the area.

123

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124 3. Field Techniques

125 In this study, one well was drilled and rock cuttings were collected at an

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126 interval of three metres to determine the lithology of the subsurface with

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127 respect to depth. Spontaneous potential (SP) and resistivity logging of the

128 drilled well was also performed by connecting the logging probe to a

129
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Terrameter. The result of the logging was used for the evaluation of the
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130 subsurface geology and the state of the groundwater through the

determination of the electrical conductivity and the total dissolved solid in the
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132 groundwater.
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133 The geoelectrical method was adopted in this study because it is an

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134 effective tool for ascertaining the subsurface geology of an area (Tizro et al.,

2012). In this study, thirty VESs were conducted with a Schlumberger

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136 configuration to determine the groundwater aquifers and delineate the

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137 structural elements in the study area. The ABEM Terammeter SAS 1000/4000
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138 was used with current electrode spacing kept between 100 and 150 m. The

139 data obtained were manually curved match to obtain the values of the

140 apparent resistivity and thickness, which were again used in the computer

141 interpretation to obtain the true resistivity and thicknesses of the various layers

142 encountered. The result of the geoelectric survey was used to establish the

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143 depth to the aquifer layer and to construct a geoelectric section for the study

144 area. These results were then used to describe the geological framework for

145 the study area (Tizro, et al., 2012).

146

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147 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

148 4.1 Formation Characterization

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149 4.1.1 Borehole Log

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150 The rock cuttings from drilling were collected and described at an

151 interval of three metres. The lithology obtained from the drilled well is

152
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presented as shown in Fig. 3. The lithological log shows that the top layer
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153 consists of lateritic soil extending from 0 to 3 m depth. The lateritic soil is

typical of the Benin Formation exposed in the area. The lateric layer is
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155 immediately followed by reddish very fine sand layer which is followed by a
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156 mixture of predominantly fine sand and clay.

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157 The formation intersected between a depth of 12 and 15 m is a reddish

coarse sand unit. This unit is interpreted as the first aquifer in the area.
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159 Between a depth of 15 and 23 m, the subsurface formation changes from red
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160 coarse sand to a yellow fine sand and then to a brownish medium grain sand.
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161 This brown colouration of the sand becomes lighter between a depth of 23

162 and 25 m. The sand in turn becomes finer in grain size. The fine sands

163 continue to a depth of 27 m but become whitish.

164 The lithology at depths between 27 and 30 m comprised whitish

165 medium grain sand that becomes coarse and brownish to a depth of 32 m;

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166 whereas between 32 and 36 m the sands become medium coarse and

167 whitish. However, at a depth of between 36 to 40 m, the sand change to very

168 coarse white sand. The depth range between 30 and 40 m is regarded as the

169 second aquifer, which is thought to be more prolific than the first aquifer

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170 because, the grain size of the second aquifer which is very coarse sand is

171 larger than that of the first aquifer layer that is just coarse. The lithological log

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172 shown in Figure 3 indicates that there are two aquifer systems confirming that

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173 many areas of the Niger Delta are characterized by more than a single aquifer

174 system (Anomohanran and Akporido, 2015).

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176 4.1.2 Geophysical Logging

Spontaneous potential and formation resistivity logging were carried out

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178 in the drilled well to evaluate the lithology, electrical conductivity and the total
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179 dissolved solid of the water content of the layers penetrated by the well. The
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180 result of the down-hole logging is presented in Figure 4. The analysis of the

spontaneous potential log shows that the formation is relatively the same at
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182 the depth of between 8 and 12 m with spontaneous potential of -23 mV which
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183 is in accordance with information from the lithological log (Fig. 3) showing that
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184 the layer in this interval is composed of very fine sand interbedded with minor

185 clay beds.

186 Beyond this layer, the SP log has reported a value of -36 mV indicating

187 a change in lithology from the mixture of fine sand and clay to one that is free

188 of clay. This layer is made up of coarse sands as shown in Figure 3 and is a

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189 unit that can be able to contain a large amount of water. At a depth of 16 m,

190 the SP log shows that the sand is fine sand. The SP log also shows that the

191 lithology becomes sandier with depth with an SP value that reduced from -33

192 to -38 mV between 18 and 34 m depth. The depth range from 36 to 40 m in

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193 Figure 4 shows that the formation at this level is, even more, sandier and

194 correspond to the very coarse sand layer in Figure 3, which is regarded as the

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195 best depth to intersect water in this area.

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196 The formation resistivity log indicated in Figure 4 shows the resistivity

197 values of the water in the various formations. The value of the resistivity

198
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ranges from about 18 Ωm at a depth of 8 m to 160 Ωm at a depth of 40 m.
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199 This shows that the formation becomes sandier with higher hydraulic

conductivity and porosity with depth. The resistivity of the formation water of
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201 the first aquifer layer at depth of 12 and 15 m is 23 Ωm. This is different from
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202 the resistivity of the formation water of the second aquifer layer which has an
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203 average value of 160 Ωm within a depth of 36 and 40 m. This implies that the

groundwater in the second aquifer is less conductive than that of the first
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205 aquifer.
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206 The formation resistivity values were used to determine the electrical
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207 conductivity and the total dissolved solid in the water. The values of the

208 electrical conductivity and the total dissolved solid were plotted against the

209 borehole depth as shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 indicates that electrical

210 conductivity of the fluid ranges from 62 to 672 µS/cm with an average value of

211 229 µS/cm. On the other hand, the total dissolved solids ranged from 40 to

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212 437 mg/cm3 with an average value of 149 mg/cm3. These values of electrical

213 conductivity and total dissolved solid fall within the permissible limit set by the

214 Standard Organization of Nigeria which is 1000 µS/cm for electrical

215 conductivity and 500 mg/cm3 for total dissolved solid (SON, 2007).

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216

217 4.2 Geoelectric Assessment

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218 Thirty vertical electrical soundings carried out in the field yielded values

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219 of apparent resistivity which were plotted against half the current electrode

220 separation in a process known as curve matching. The values of the resistivity

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and thickness obtained from the curve matching were used as input values in
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222 computer iteration using Win Resist software. Four curves obtained from the

iteration are shown in Figure 6. From the computer iteration, the true resistivity
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224 of the various layers and their corresponding thickness were obtained and are
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225 shown in Table 1. Table 1 revealed that the formation is made of four layers
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226 consisting of topsoil, clayey sediments, sands and gravel.

The summarized analysis of the geoelectric interpretation is as shown in

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228 Table 2. Table 2 shows the minimum and maximum depth and thickness of
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229 the various layers and the type of sediments/rocks identified from the various
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230 VESs in the study area. Table 2 shows clearly that the geoelectric formations

231 identified correlate well with the findings from the lithological analysis carried

232 out in this study.

233 Analysis of the resistivity values obtained from the vertical electrical

234 sounding interpretation shows that fifty seven percent of the curves are KH

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235 type (ρ1<ρ2>ρ3<ρ4) while the HA curve type (ρ1>ρ2<ρ3<ρ4) makes up twenty

236 seven percent of the curves. Four percent of the curves are HK type curve

237 (ρ1>ρ2<ρ3>ρ4) and the remaining three percent is the QH (ρ1>ρ2>ρ3<ρ4) curve

238 type.

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239 The VES record was used to construct a geoelectric section of the

240 various regions of the study area which includes Obiaruku, Obinomba, Owah-

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241 Abbi, Obionyeomicha, Ebedei and Umutu and the results are shown in Figure

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242 7. Figure 7a shows the geoelectric section of Obiaruku subsurface consisting

243 of topsoil, clayey sand, and fine sand. The aquifer is located in the region of

244
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the fine sand at a depth range of between 18.9 and 27.7 m. The geoelectric
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245 section of Obinomba as depicted in Figure 7b consists of topsoil, sandy clay,
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246 clayey sand and fine sand with the aquifer lying in the fine sand layer at a

247 depth of between 19.2 and 29.1 m.

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248 The geoelectric section of Owah-Abbi as shown in Figure 7c consist of

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249 topsoil, clayey sand, fine sand, medium coarse sand and very coarse sand.
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250 The aquifer lies in the fine sand and the coarse sand formation at a depth of

251 18.8 to 27.7 m. The geoelectric section obtained for Obionyeomicha is shown
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252 in Figure 7d with formation type consisting of topsoil, clayey sand, fine sand,
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253 coarse, medium coarse and very coarse sand across the various VES. The

254 aquifer is located within the coarse sand, medium coarse sand and very

255 coarse sand. The depth to the aquifer table ranges from 17.8 to 34.4 m.

256 The geoelectric section for Ebedei is shown in Figure 7e and consists of

257 topsoil, clayey sand, fine sand, very coarse sand and gravelly sand. The

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258 aquifer is situated in the fine sand, very coarse sand and gravelly sand

259 formation. The depth to the aquifer table ranges from 19.9 to 38.8 m. The

260 geoelectric section identified across the various VESs for Umutu consists of

261 topsoil, clay, sandy clay, clayey sand, fine sand, coarse sand and medium

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262 coarse sand. The aquifer is situated in the fine sand, coarse and medium

263 coarse sand with a depth range of 18.6 to 38.2 m. This depth range of the

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264 aquifer in Umutu almost corresponds to the depth to the aquifer in Ebedei.

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265 The interpretation of the geoelectric data also shows that the aquifer resistivity

266 range between 480 and 11904 Ωm while the aquifer depth range between

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17.8 and 38.8 m. The aquifer depth values are in the same range with the
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268 depth obtained in Abraka, a locality which is close to the study area and

having an aquifer depth range of between 31.5 and 45.9 m (Anomohanran,

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270 2015b).
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271 The generalized geoelectric section representing the entire study area
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272 is presented as shown in Figure 8. This figure clearly shows the lithological

variation between the various parts of the study area. This section shows that
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274 the groundwater has some level of protection from pollutants. This protection
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275 comes from the clayey sand and very fine sand formation. Why the clayey
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276 sand protect the aquifers in Obiaruku, Obinomba, Ebedei and Umutu, the very

277 fine sand acts as the filter in Owah Abbi and Obionyeomicha meaning that the

278 latter will be less protected. Analysis of the geoelectric result revealed that the

279 average depths to the aquifer layers in the study area with respect to the

280 generalized lithology as shown in Figure 8 are Obiaruku 23.1 m; Obinomba

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281 24.2 m; Owah Abbi 19.6 m; Obionyeomicha 24.6 m; Ebedei 28.9 m and

282 Umutu 27.1 m. Figure 8 is a guide to groundwater exploration in the area as it

283 will help in the understanding of the subsurface layering of the area and the

284 depth to which potable water can be sourced.

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285

286 CONCLUSION

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287 Vertical electrical sounding and geophysical logging surveys were

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288 performed to assess the geological settings and groundwater condition in

289 parts of Ndokwa area in Delta State, Nigeria. The result of the vertical

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electrical sounding was interpreted via computer iteration while the down-hole
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291 logging and well cuttings were evaluated and analysed. The study revealed

the presence of four geological formations with the aquifer lying in the fourth
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293 layer and having a depth range of between 17.8 and 38.8 m across the study
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294 area. The fourth layer is therefore identified as the potential non conductivie
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295 zone suitable for groundwater development in the study area.

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296

297 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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298 The authors wishes to thank the leaders and people of Ndokwa District in
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299 Nigeria for the assistance received during the period of the field work. The

300 authors are also grateful to the editor and reviewers for the useful suggestions

301 which have helped in improving the quality of the article.

302

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303 REFERENCES

304 Anomohanran, O., 2013. Evaluation of aquifer characteristics in Echi, Delta

305 State, Nigeria using well logging and pumping test method. American

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307 Anomohanran, O., 2015a. Hydrogeophysical and hydrogeological

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309 Journal of Taibah University for Science, 9: 57-68.

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310 Anomohanran, O., 2015b. Hydrogeophysical investigation of aquifer

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312 Earth Sciences, 102: 247-253.

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313 Anomohanran, O., Akporido, S. O., 2015. Hydro-geophysical investigation of

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315 International Journal of Hydrology Science and Technology, 5(2): 149-

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316 162.
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317 Araffa, S. A. S., Sabet, H. S., Gaweish, W. R., 2015. Integrated geophysical

interpretation for delineating the structural elements and groundwater

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319 aquifers at central part of Sinai Peninsula, Egypt. Journal of African

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320 Earth Sciences, 105: 93-106.

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321 Kamble, R. K., Panvalkar, G. A., Bhowmick, S., 2012. Electrical resistivity

322 logging for assessing nature of foundation at Kaiga nuclear power plant.

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324 Kayode, J. S., Adelusi, A. O., Nawawi, M. N. M., Bawallah, M., Olowolafe, T.

325 S., 2016. Geo-electrical investigation of near surface conductive

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326 structures suitable for groundwater accumulation in a resistive

327 crystalline basement environment: A case study of Isuada,

328 southwestern Nigeria. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 119: 289-302.

329 Kumar, D., Ahmed, S., Krishnamurthy, N. S., Dewandel, B., 2007. Reducing

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330 ambiguities in vertical electrical sounding interpretations: A

331 geostatistical application. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 62: 16-32.

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332 Loke, M. H., Chambers, J. E., Rucker, D. F., Kuras, O., Wilkinson, P. B., 2013.

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333 Recent developments in the direct-current geoelectrical imaging

334 method. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 95: 135-156.

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Orji, E. A., Egboka, B. C. E., 2015. The hydrogeology of Delta State, Nigeria.
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336 The Pacific Journal of Science and Technology, 16(2): 257-269.

Osinowo, O. O., 2016. Water quality assessment of the Asata River

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338 catchment area in Enugu Metropolis, Southeast Nigeria. Journal of

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339 African Earth Sciences, 121: 247-254.

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340 Reynolds, J. M., 2011. An introduction to applied and environmental

geophysics, 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons, England.

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341

342 Schirov. M., Legchenko, A., Creer, G., 1991. A new direct noninvasive
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343 groundwater detection technology for Australia. Exploration

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344 Geophysics, 22: 333-338.

345 Short, K. C., Stauble, A. J., 1967. Outline of geology of Niger Delta. American

346 Association of Petroleum Geology Bulletin, 51: 761-779.

347 Standard Organization of Nigeria, 2007. Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water

348 Quality. Nigerian Industial Standard, 554.

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349 Tizro, A. T., Voudouris, K., Basami, Y., 2012. Estimation of porosity and

350 specific yield by application of geoelectrical method – A case study in

351 western Iran. Journal of Hydrology, 454-455: 160-172.

352 Wattanasen, K., Elming, S., 2008. Direct and indirect methods for

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353 groundwater investigations: A case-study of MRS and VES in the

354 southern part of Sweden. Journal of Applied Geophysics, 66: 104-117.

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356 5.94
Source
KEYS of River
To Agbor
357 o Ethiope
5.93 Express Road
Street
358 NIGERIA 29 30
o
River Police
5.92 VES Point 27 28
359 Station
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Well Location 25
o
360 5.91
24

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361 o Umutu
5.90 River Ethiope

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362 Study Area Ezhike Primary
o
5.89 School 22
19
363 21
Market Well

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St George 17 20 Ebedei Flow
o
364 5.88 13 14 18 Station
Secondary School 8 11
12 16 15 Ebedei
365 7 9
o

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5.87
5 Sapele Agbor
366 6 10
Obionyeomicha Road
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367
5.86
o

Obiaruku
2

1
3 4

Obinomba
Owah
Abbi N
o
368 5.85
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o o o o o o o o
6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23
369
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370 Fig. 1: Map of the study area showing the various communities and the
vertical electrical sounding positions.
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371

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373
9o
374 River Niger
N Abuja
375 o River Benue
8
376
Lagos Lokoja
377 7o Anambra Basin

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378
Benin Flank
6o Enugu
LEGEND

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379
Study Area
Study Area
380 Gulf of Guinea
5o Crystalline Area

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Port Harcourt Coastal Sedimentary
381 Lowlands
Coastal Alluvium and
Freshwater Swamps
382 4o

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4o 5o 6o 7o 8o
383
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384 Fig. 2: Map of Southern Nigeria showing the hydrogeology of the study
385 area (Modified from Anomohanran and Akporido, 2015)
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387
Lithology Lithological description
388 0
Lateritic Topsoil

389 5 Reddish Very Fine Sand

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10 Reddish Clayey Fine Sand
391 Reddish Coarse Sand

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Depth, metres

392 Yellowish Fine Grain Sand

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393
Brownish Medium Grain Sand

394 Brownish Fine Grain Sand

25

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Whitish Fine Grain Sand
395 Whitish Medium Grain Sand
30 Brownish Coarse Sand
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Whitish Medium Coarse Sand
397 35
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White Very Coarse Sand
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40
399
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400 Fig. 3: Lithological log from a borehole drilled in the study area.
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Spontaneous Potential (mV) Formation Resistivity (Ohm m)

-40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
8

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Depth, metres

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28

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32

36

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403 Fig. 4: Downhole logs plotted against borehole depth.

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Total Dissolved Solid (mg/cm^3) Electrical Conductivity (mS/m)

500
Water Quality Parameters

450
400
350
300
250

PT
200
150
100

RI
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

SC
Depth (m)
405

406 Fig. 5: Plot of total dissolved solid and electrical conductivity of the

U
407 water formation against borehole depth, showing that the groundwater
AN
408 quality increases with respect to the depth of the well.
409
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VES 6 (HA Type Curve)

410

PT
411
VES 15 (QH Type Curve)

RI
U SC
412
AN
413
VES 26 (HK Type Curve
M
D
TE

414
EP

415
VES 27 (KH Type Curve)
C
AC

416

417 Fig. 6: Example of vertical electrical sounding curves obtained from

418 computer interpretation showing the four curve types obtained from this
419 study

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420 (a) (b) (c)
VES 1 VES 2 VES 3 VES 4 VES 5 VES 6 VES 7 VES 8 VES 9 VES 10
421 0 0 0

422 10 10 10
Depth, metres

Depth, metres
Depth, metres
423
20 20 20
424

PT
425 30 30 30

RI
426
40 40 40
Obiaruku Obinomba Owah Abbi
427 (d) (e)

SC
VES 11 VES 12 VES 13 VES 14 VES 15 VES 16 VES 17 VES 18 VES 19 VES 20 VES 21 VES 22
428 0 0

429

U
10 10
Depth, metres

Depth, metres

430
AN
20 20
431

432 30 30
M

433
40 40
D

Obionyeomicha Ebedei
434 (f)
TE

435 VES 23 VES 24 VES 25 VES 26 VES 27 VES 28 VES 29 VES 30 LEGEND
0
Topsoil
436
Clay
EP

10
437 Sandy Clay
Depth, metres

Clayey Sand
438 20 Fine Sand
C

Coarse Sand
439
AC

30 Medium Coarse Sand

440 Very Coarse Sand
Gravelly Sand
40
441 Umutu

442 Fig. 7: Lithological representation of the various communities covered in

443 this study as derived from geoelectric data and showing the type of
444 formation in the various areas.

445

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446
Obiaruku Obinomba Owah Abbi Obionyeomicha Ebedei Umutu
447 0

448 5

449 10
Depth, metres

450 15

PT
LEGEND
451 20 Topsoil

25 Clayey Sand

RI
452
Sandy Clay
453 30
Fine Sand

SC
454 35 Coarse Sand
Medium Coarse Sand
455 40

456
U
AN
457 Fig. 8: A generalized lithological overview of the study area showing the
458 kinds of formations and the corresponding depth in the various
M

459 communities.

460
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461 Table 1 Result of geoelectric interpretation

Station No. of Resistivity Thickness Depth Lithology Curve

No. Layer Ωm)
(Ω (m) (m) Types
VES 1 1 378 1.0 - Topsoil KH
2 648 6.8 1 Fine grain sand
3 256 14.8 7.8 Clayey sand
4 958 - 22.6 Fine grain sand

PT
VES 2 1 431 1.0 - Topsoil KH
2 661 8.5 1.0 Fine grain sand
3 219 18.2 9.5 Clayey sand

RI
4 723 - 27.7 Fine grain sand
VES 3 1 311 1.0 - Topsoil HA
2 147 6.6 1.0 Clayey sand

SC
3 370 11.3 7.6 Clayey sand
4 858 - 18.9 Fine grain sand
VES 4 1 73 0.7 - Topsoil KH
2 231 6.7 0.7 Clayey sand
3 118 31.7
U 7.4 Sandy clay
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4 491 - 29.1 Fine grain sand
VES 5 1 164 0.9 - Topsoil KH
2 279 8.7 0.9 Clayey sand
3 201 18.7 9.6 Clayey sand
M

4 346 - 28.4 Clayey sand

VES 6 1 659 1.0 - Topsoil HA
D

2 391 6.1 1.0 Clayey sand

3 576 12.1 7.1 Fine grain sand
TE

4 1322 - 19.2 Fine grain sand

VES 7 1 650 0.9 - Topsoil HK
2 410 4.0 0.9 Fine grain sand
3 750 13.9 4.9 Fine grain sand
EP

4 729 - 18.8 Fine grain sand

VES 8 1 205 0.9 - Topsoil KH
2 375 6.7 0.9 Clayey sand
C

3 166 20.1 7.6 Clayey sand

4 526 - 27.7 Fine grain sand
AC

VES 9 1 2936 1.2 - Topsoil HK

2 1293 6.0 1.2 Fine grain sand
3 9253 19.5 7.2 Gravelly sand
4 3133 - 26.7 Medium coarse sand
VES 10 1 341 1.0 - Topsoil KH
2 562 7.5 1.0 Fine grain sand
3 280 16.0 8.5 Clayey sand
4 941 - 24.5 Fine grain sand
VES 11 1 622 1.7 - Topsoil KH
2 2904 5.2 1.7 Medium coarse sand

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3 235 17.8 6.9 Clayey sand
4 4767 - 24.7 Very coarse sand
VES 12 1 665 1.0 - Topsoil HA
2 296 6.0 1.0 Clayey sand
3 656 10.8 7.0 Fine grain sand
4 2835 - 17.8 Medium coarse sand
VES 13 1 242 1.1 - Topsoil KH
2 544 6.6 1.1 Fine grain sand

PT
3 198 17.2 7.7 Clayey sand
4 2673 - 24.9 Medium coarse sand
VES 14 1 414 1.1 - Topsoil KH

RI
2 1341 5.3 1.1 Fine grain sand
3 286 13.9 6.4 Clayey sand
4 3979 - 20.3 Very coarse sand

SC
VES 15 1 4740 1.0 - Topsoil QH
2 2800 7.5 1.0 Medium coarse sand
3 955 16.8 8.5 Fine grain sand

U
4 3179 - 25.3 Medium coarse sand
VES 16 1 3705 1.6 - Topsoil HK
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2 1662 8.3 1.6 Coarse sand
3 3748 24.5 9.9 Very coarse sand
4 1563 - 34.4 Medium grain sand
VES 17 1 315 1.3 - Topsoil HA
M

2 161 5.3 1.3 Clayey sand

3 580 32.2 6.6 Fine grain sand
D

4 11904 - 38.8 Gravelly sand

VES 18 1 716 1.2 - Topsoil HA
TE

2 280 5.7 1.2 Clayey sand

3 607 14.2 6.9 Fine grain sand
4 4102 - 21.1 Very coarse sand
VES 19 1 423 1.3 - Topsoil HA
EP

2 208 5.0 1.3 Clayey sand

3 443 28.0 6.3 Fine grain sand
4 9280 - 34.3 Very coarse sand
C

VES 20 1 397 1.4 - Topsoil HA

AC

2 211 5.2 1.4 Clayey sand

3 454 29.1 6.7 Fine grain sand
4 927 - 35.8 Fine grain sand
VES 21 1 347 1.0 - Topsoil KH
2 829 5.6 1.0 Fine grain sand
3 301 16.6 6.7 Clayey sand
4 1357 - 23.2 Fine grain sand
VES 22 1 349 1.2 - Topsoil KH
2 840 4.8 1.2 Fine grain sand
3 270 13.9 6.0 Clayey sand
4 822 - 19.9 Fine grain sand

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VES 23 1 923 0.9 - Topsoil KH
2 1971 5.4 0.9 Coarse sand
3 432 14.4 6.3 Fine grain sand
4 2745 - 20.4 Medium coarse sand
VES 24 1 74 0.9 - Topsoil KH
2 199 4.8 0.9 Clayey sand
3 80 17.0 5.7 Sandy clay
4 517 - 22.7 Fine grain sand

PT
VES 25 1 57 1.0 - Topsoil KH
2 392 6.2 1.0 Clayey sand
3 101 21.6 7.2 Sandy clay

RI
4 480 - 28.8 Fine grain sand
VES 26 1 271 1.2 - Topsoil HK
2 161 5.9 1.2 Clayey sand

SC
3 550 29.9 7.1 Fine grain sand
4 2133 - 37.0 Coarse sand
VES 27 1 67 1.0 - Topsoil KH

U
2 325 5.2 1.0 Clayey sand
3 117 18.2 6.2 Sandy clay
AN
4 583 - 24.3 Fine grain sand
VES 28 1 258 1.5 - Topsoil HA
2 117 4.7 1.5 Sandy clay
3 534 32.0 6.2 Fine grain sand
M

4 3404 - 38.2 Medium coarse sand

VES 29 1 59 1.7 - Topsoil KH
D

2 288 4.3 1.7 Clayey sand

3 25 12.6 6.0 Clay
TE

4 807 - 18.6 Fine grain sand

VES 30 1 256 1.2 - Topsoil KH
2 480 7.7 1.2 Fine grain sand
3 191 17.5 8.9 Clayey sand
EP

4 2612 - 26.4 Medium coarse sand

462
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464 Table 2: Summarized analysis of the geoelectic interpretation

Layers Layer Parameters

Resistivity Thickness Depth (m) Geotechnical

(Ωm) (m) Description of the
various VESs
Min Max Min Max Min Max

PT
Layer 1 57 4740 0.7 1.7 - - Topsoil

Layer 2 117 2904 4.0 8.7 0.7 1.7 Clayey sand, sandy
clay, fine sand, medium

RI
coarse sand and coarse
sand

SC
Layer 3 25 9253 10.8 32 5.7 9.9 Clay, sandy clay, clayey
sand, fine sand, very
coarse sand and

U
gravelly sand
Layer 4 346 11904 - - 17.8 38.8 Fine sand, coarse sand,
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medium coarse sand,
very coarse sand and
gravelly sand
M

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Highlights

1. The study revealed the presence of good quality and prolific aquifer at a depth of 17.8-38.8 m.

2. The down-hole logging revealed an electrical conductivity value of 229 µS/cm.

3. The total dissolved solid in the aquifer fluid was obtained as 149 mg/cm3.

4. The study has also revealed the lithological arrangement of the subsurface.

PT
RI
U SC
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