Rl Introduction ‘The basic building blocks of all the electronic circuits are those devie flow of electrons can be obtained. Before uses of transistor such device tubes (also called valves) like the vacuum diode which has two valled plate) and cathod riode which has thre cathode, and pentode (respectively with 4 and 5 electro : Jonsume high power, operate generally at high voltage Jow reliability. “the development o f modern solid-state semiconductor electronics showed thi state semiconductors and their junctions offer the possibility of controlling the the direction of flow of charge carriers through them. Simple © itations aoe applied voltage can change the number ‘of mobile charges in hode ray tubes (CRT) used in tel t oF jon and computer > Due to this development the cat aepnitors are replaced by liquid crystal display (LCD) monitors. Here, # will study Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors id On the basis of ‘conductivity ’ Metals Insulators (High conductivity) (intermediate conductivity) (Low conductivity WA 10S me! g~ 109-106Sm* o~ 10" -10%Sm p-102- 10% 2m p~107-10°a2m p- 10-10" 2m Energy Bands of Solids or Band Theory of Solids > Valence band :‘This band contains valence electrons. This band may be partially oF completely filled with electrons. Electrons in this band do not contribute toda ide . This band is either emPLY mons are carly pesent TBS PT pes electrons known as free * Conduction band : In this band, partially filled, Electrons in the con eae to the electric current. orbidden energy gap or forbidden band forbidden enerBy 64? 7 Conduction band is known as energy band BaP. Prevent in this gap. It is a measure of duction band are vale d and 1 between the valence ban the enerey Ha ee and. No electrons a6 forbidde!e Web Objective n 290 CERT If A is the wavelength of radiation used in shifting the electron from valence band to Conduction gy : i: iy Lt, constant and cis the speed of light. pon temperature. energy band gap where fis called Plane! The forbidden energy gap F, in a semiconductor depends ty Fermi energy’: It isthe maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a materials gh, ea temperature (i.c.,0 K) ‘ On the Basis of Energy Bands » In metals ether the conduction band is partially filled or conduction band and valence band party each other, In metals, there is no forbidden energy gap between the valence and conduction bande.” Overlapping 4 euucs onduction band pl band | (E,=0) E| &<$——————_ : | &,_——H—————_ 3| Ev 3 Valence §| Fe a band a Valence Gsbsestnastinaisenssnesseiainid 0 i) > In insulators, valence band is completely filled and conduction ee band is completely empty. In insulators, there is a very wide | & = forbidden energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. Itis of the order of 5 eV or more. i Bpaev > In semiconductors, valence band is completely filled and the | gy, conduction band is empty. In semiconductors, there is a small 3 tae forbidden energy gap between the valence and the conduction = bare bands. It is of the order of 1 eV. For silicon, it is 1.1 eV and for germanium itis 0.72 eV. : At absolute zero, semiconductors behave as a perfect insulator. 3] Hole : It is a seat of positive charge which is produced when an electron 2 Byc3e¥ breaks away from a covalent bond in a semiconductor. Hole has positive rs charge equal to that of electron, Mobility of hole is smaller than that of £ electron. a — Intrinsic Semiconductor > A pure semiconductor free from every impurity is known as intrinsic semiconductor. Germanium (Geant silicon (Si) are the important examples of intrinsic semiconductors. In intrinsic semiconductor, , = n,, = n, i saencebaab where n,, m, are number density of electrons in conduction band and number density of holes in 1, is the intrinsic carrier concentration, os When an electric field is applied across an intrinsic semiconductor, electrons and holes move i9 7 directions so that total current (J) through the pure semiconductor is given by ! =, +1, where I, isthe free electron current and J, is the hole current. © Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor, o = nye(U, + Hy) e Resistivity of intrinsic semiconductor, p = 1/o = Ven, Au, os Hy) © Current, I= 1, +1,=nje A(v, + ¥,) Ds eos) avis . re, thee > Effect of temperature on conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor : With increasing te MPC" inc st of hole-electron pairs increases and hence the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor increase in temperature. In other words, the resistivity (inverse of conductivity) decreases 2s the te™P*™ oe ncnt Erni atria Deve rd Simple Cts | sere c9 a gqdycirs have negative temperate coin f resistance 291 os schematic two-dimensional represe ; are (2) OWS 5 : presentation of Si or Ge structure showing covalent bonds at Fis ture (all bonds intact). +4 symbol indicates inner cores of Si or Ge. saute (b) Shows § mplified representation of possible thermal motion of a hole. The electron from the lower fa orale bond (site 2) goes tothe earlier hole ste 1, eaving a hole at its site indicating an apparent i othe oe fom site 110 site 2 we? sa pve orGe Covalent ‘bonds Bonding electrons nergy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductors. at T = 0 K, the valence band of a semiconductor is completely filled with electrons while the conduction band is empty. Hence, an intrinsic semiconductor behaves like an insulator aT=0K, At higher temperatures (T> 0K) some electrons of the valence bend gain sufficient thermal energy and _ Intrinsic semiconductor Intrinsic semiconductor jump to the conduction band, creating an. (at absolute zer0) (at room temperature) qual number of holes in the valence band. These thermally excited electrons occupy the lowest possible energy levels in the conduction band. Clearly number of electrons in CB is equal to number of holes in valence band. ‘Thermally generated El Extrinsic Semiconductor > An impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. When pure semiconductor material is mixed with small amounts of certain specific impurities with valency different from that of the parent material, the umber of mobile electrons/holes drastically changes. This process of addition of impurity is called doping Extrinsic Semiconductor (Semiconductor is doped with trivalent or pentavalent to nerease conductivity) inivee Eaacenicie petype Semiconductor (Dentavalent impurity, P, As etc.) i (rivalent impurity, B, Al, In ete.) + Blecton Acvepior Hoe Ns, n= Ns Me2>WAGE Objertioe HEEL es 292 or Ge (etravalent) i doped with 4 > metype semiconductor : When a pare sc ns (Pee, We obtain a n-type sean ee x .), antimony (Sb), pho seperti Mey pentavalent impurities ik arsenic (Asay teams, I is called -t7PE sermcndctn berg 9 The pentavalent impurity atoms ate known 8 CO i uf elec i, eve charg conduction of electricity in such semicond or, because It is called donor type semiconductor, be semiconductor for conduction. In ntype semiconductor electrons ae majority carriers are minority carriers. The representation of m-tyPe semieont is as shown in the igre. type semiconductor is neulra e densi In n-type semiconductor n, = Nj> > Me where N, is the density of donor atoms : aoe " conductor of Si or G > p-type semiconductor : When a pure semicon} ; ae ten impurities like aluminium (Al), boron (B), indiusn (In) ete, we obtain a p-type seamen The trivalent impurity atoms are known 28 aceplor atoms be condi clectricity in such semiconductor is due to motion of holes i ve charge, ald accep tp semiconductor because the doped impurity atom creates a hole in semicon ch accepts thee resulting conduction in p-type semiconductor. Sette it e minority carriers. The representasing In p-type semiconductor, holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority c presenta of p-type semiconductor is as shown in the figure. he doped impurity atomn donates one free eler riers and holes ¢ (tetravalent) i doped with a yrrvy toms. It is called p-type because the conducting ue positive charges. It So pe p| tamu p-type semiconductor is neutral. Bey ee ollie carp, oes S Elst epee In p-type semiconductor, n, = N, >>", @ ple oa,|siun ee where N, is the density of acceptor atoms. p-n Junction > When p-n junction is formed, then at the junction, free electrons from n-type diffuse over to p-type, thereby filling in the holes in p-type, Due to this, a layer of positive charge is built on n-side and a layer of negative charge is built on p-side of the p-n junction. This layer sufficiently grows up within a very short time of the junction being formed, preventing any further movement of charge carriers (,, electrons and holes) across the p-n junction. * Blea Thus, 2 potential difference V, of the order of 0.1 t0 0.3 V is set up across the p-n junction called “potential barrier” or “junction barrier” Sic ids ae The thin region around the junction containing TE PT immobile positive and negative charges is known Depletion region Transition reper L A coe as ‘depletion layer. Say > Diffusion current: Because of high charge carrier wal ple - concentration difference, hole diffuse from p-side yy Cathode ead ation ids ot 5 90 to n-side (p> n) and electron diffuse from n-side "1 *Me fatten ide oe to p-side (n — p), produces diffusion current. > Drift current : Because of barrier potential, minority charge carriers are forced to move to other side f junction and such movement produces drift current, Semiconductor Diode > [tis basically ap. ‘de 'Y@ Pm junction with metallic contacts provided at the ends for the application of an centernalconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and simple Circuits 3" ‘fhe aon of atow indicates the conventional direction of curren i i (when thi barrier potential can be al ; ¢ diode is under forward eS equilibrium altered by applying an external v ‘a sis ™ cos plying an external voltage V across the diode. P " | ral e600 Metalic ’ al pon oe Depletion region contact, © @ Figure (a) Semiconductor diode, (b) Symbol for p-n junction diode acing of p-n junction | Biasing Unbiased 4, o||- Fall wave rectifier: It rectifes both halves of ac input signals. The circuit diagram, input and output wayef, for a full wave rectifier are as shown in the figure. ms Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes > Zener diode : It is heavily doped p-n junction and operated in reverse bias. — Zener voltage remains constant, even though current through the zener diode varies over a wide rene. = Zener diode as a voltage regulator : Any increase/decrease in the input voltage results in, increase/decrease of voltage drop across R, without any change in voltage across the zener diode. im) Time Input voltage Time Output voltage Reverse bias ve Forward bias my Load Regulated Ry voltage (V) erie ro) vehi > Photodiode: A photodiode is a special type of p-nt junction diode fabricated with a transparent windo light to fall on the diode. Iti operated under reverse bias ‘When itis illuminated with light of photon energy greater than the energy gap of the semiconductos He hole pairs are generated in near depletion region. The symbol ofa photodiode is shown in the figure “ — on ics of Figure shows (2) an illuminated photodiode under reverse bias and figure (b) shows the -V characte" s a photodiode for different illumination intensity 1, > I, > I, > I, we wy to allow mA Reverse bias volsJectronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits g diode : converts el c 295 ating div electrical energy int light ene Hema bias emits spontaneous radiation”. Night energy. It isa heavily doped p-n junction which (iiparaetetistis of a LED is similar to that of Si slightly ditierent for each colour, The rev ugh et junction diode. But the threshold oe en res voltages are much 18e breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, typically ike and 3V oul 3 a ine compound semiconductor gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) is used for * i * LEDs of ditferent colours, GaAs is used for making infrared LED. The D+ . The g own in the figure. lar energy into electri y ‘ical energy. A solar ce h 2 ans he pee gy ellis basically a p-n junction which generates itvorks on the same principle (photovoltaic effect) 4 b and the junction area is kept large, ) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is i 1 making ‘ Jambol of a LED i t convert applied Vp, (Open circuit voltage) y Short circuit current Depletion region @ © igure (a) Atypical illuminated p-n junction solar cli; (b)I-V characteristics ofa solar cel Junction Transistor It is a semiconductor device obtained by growing either a very thin layer of n-type (p-type) crystal between two thicker p-type (n-type) layers. Emitter : Supply a large number of majority charge cariers forthe flow of current through the transisiox Base : Control the flow of majority charge carriers from emitter to collector. of the majority carriers supplied by emitters for the circuit Collector : Collects a major portion operation. Transistor (Transfer of resistor) Action I; = ly + Ley Ue >? In) ¥ ¥ mA ep poe lel oe ao. EES . ce rel cee Lt P a miter couesor Emer cage Ven Mee m fs © @ “ n Basu a emitter-base is forward biased and base collector is reverse biased. (active region) re Transistor Configuration — Ingeneral rlletor (CC) ‘Common Emitter (CE)296 ZB) Digital Electronics and Logic Gates > A time varying continuous signal is known as analog signal as shown in the & digital signals figure (b) are used. how Input characteristic : inj Output characteristic: 0: - Power gain = 0 ‘Transistor as a switch Operated in cut off region or saturation region. Von = Ike + Veg Ver = Verbeke When V,=00r<6.7 V.,=0 Hence, I, Veg = Veg (open circuit) when V, 7 0.7 V, then this is similar to 2 closed switch. Transistor as an Oscillator ‘An oscillators works on positive feedback ea ~AB Voltage with feedback 4 y A open voltage gain fs feedback factor. Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillation, AB = 1 vy iy if Votage amie Leler qniondctor Electronics : Materials Devices and Simple Circuits 297 ogic Bates * A digital circuit with one or more input signals but only one output signal is known as logic gate > Mrelogc gates are the building blocks ofa digital system, Each logic gate follows a certain logical relationship peewee inpul and output voltage. There are three basic logic gates : OR gate, AND gate and NOT gate. 5 Truth Table: Iisa table that shows all possible input combinations and the corresponding output combinations jor a logic gate | on gate: An OR gate has two oF more inputs but only one output. It is called OR gate because the output jehgh itany oral he inputs are high, |The logic symbol of OR gate is Input Output AB Y po “0 0 0 r _ 1 1 | the truth table for OR gate is shown here. 7 _ ‘The Boolean expression for OR gate is Y= A +B. dt ‘D gate: An AND gate has two or more inputs but only one output. It is called AND gate because output is high only when all the inputs are high. = The logic symbol of AND gate is Input Output 7 [ately ry are — o - The truth table for AND gate is shown here. o 1 ~The Boolean expression for AND gate is Y= A:B. LLil » NOT gate: The NOT gate is the simplest of all logic gates. It has only one input and one output NOT is also called inverter because it inverts the input. ~ The logic symbol of NOT gate is oo ~ The truth table for NOT gate is shown here. ~The Boolean expression for NOT gate is > NAND gate : It is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. L ~ The logic symbol for NAND gate is 4 ; to 7 — 1 ~ ‘The truth table for NAND gate is shown here. 1 ~ “The Boolean expression for NAND gate is Input | Output > NOR gate : It is an OR gate followed by # NOT gate. eo Om ~The logic symbol of NOR gate is as : 10 0 ' , ojo. o is ere, ai $ ~The truth table for NOR gate 8 shown here, ~ The Boolean expression for NOR gate wre