OC Unit 3 Without 2 Marks and Problems

UNIT
3
Fiber Optic Sources
and Coupling
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we shall study about the basics of optical sources, principles of light propagation
and various types of optical sources normally used in fiber optic communication systems. In the
electromagnetic spectrum, the human eye can detect only a very narrow segment of light frequencies.
For example, blue light occupies higher wavelengths of visible light and red occupies the lower
wavelengths. The light wavelengths distribution produced from a tungsten lamp and the range of
wavelengths perceivable by the human eye.
Wavelengths of light sources must be chosen in such a way that they are efficient for the
propagation through optical fiber. Also the range of wavelengths must be considered because wider
the range, the more likely the chance the chromatic dispersion will occur. Light sources must also
produce sufficient power to allow the light to propagate through the fiber without causing any nonlinear
distortion in the fiber itself or in the receiver. Further the light source must be constructed so that its
output can be effectively coupled into the fiber.
For optical communication systems, there are only two devices commonly used to generate
light source. They are; [a] LEDs and [b] Injection laser diodes [ILDs]. Both these devices are from
semiconductor materials origin and have their own advantages and disadvantages. LEDs have spectral
width of 30nm to 50nm while Injection lasers have spectral widths of only 1nm to 3nm [1nm=178GHz].
Therefore a 1320 nm light source with a spectral line width of 0.0056 nm has a frequency bandwidth
of =1GHz. Line width is the wavelength equivalent of bandwidth. Selection of LED over the other
is determined by system economics and performance requirements.
3.2 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION
The higher cost of laser diodes is offset by higher performance, while LEDs typically have a
low cost and corresponding low performance. Optical power is given as
d  energy  dQ
Power  or p   watts  ... (1)
d  time  dt
where p = optical power [watts], dQ = instantaneous charge [joules] and dt = instantaneous change
in time [seconds]. Optical power is also called as radiant flux [O] = joules/sec and is the same
power measured electrically or thermally in watts.
3.1.1 Requirements of Optical Sources

Properties of optical sources are important factors while configuring optical communication
system. They are primarily related to wavelength, output power delivering capability, efficiency
spectral width, focusing effect, modulation capability and of course size, weight, and cost besides
reliability. We shall summarise the requirements in a tabular form as shown below in table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Properties of optical sources
Sl.No. Parameter Requirement Target

1. Wavelength Operating wavelength must be chosen such that 0.85, 1.3, 1.6
it gives low loss and low dispersion in fibers. micron bands
2. Modulation Direct modulation must be possible or it must
be easy to couple for an external modulation
3. Output power System demand must be met. It must operate > one milliwatt
and power with an electric power supply requiring only a
efficiency low power and low voltage and the amount
of waste heat generated must be small. > 10%
4. Reliability Long life, good stability of operation and good Life of 10 hrs must
reproducibility of output chs. are necessary. be minimum.
5. Focusing It should be possible to focus the output onto
effect [spatial the fiber and to obtain higher coupling efficiency
coherence]
6. Size and It must be small in size and light in weight.
weight
7. Cost Mass production and low cost are desirable
Fiber Optic Sources and Coupling 3.3
In the above tabulation 1, 3 and 4 are primary considerations while 2, 5, 6 and 7 desirable
parameters. Now we shall discuss them in brief.
1. Wavelength
It is necessary that optical source to emit light at wave lengths around 0.85 micron or
1.05 to 1.6 micron where the fiber has a low transmission loss and in particular at a wavelength near
1.3 micron where the fiber is free from material dispersion and hence has a large potential bandwidth.
The wavelengths that can be generated by various semiconductor photo emissive materials are
shown in figure 3.1.
GalnAs
CdSSe GaAlAs GaAsSb
GalnAsP
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3
Figure 3.1: Luminescence efficiency of some semiconductor materials.
2. Reliability
A long operating life is desirable. 10 hrs of life corresponds to 100years. Such high figure is
desirable because in a system where 10 optical sources are operating, the life comes down to 10 hrs
even if one of them fails causing total failure of systems.
3. Output Power
Minimum optical power required from the source is determined from the transmission loss of
fiber and the minimum detectable power, P average of the detector. For  = 45 db and Pmin = - 45 dbm
required source output power is more than 1mw.
4. Power Efficiency
If Pd is the dc input power required to generate a given output power P0, the device efficiency
P0
d is given by d = 100%. Power efficiency of > 50% should be the aim. In addition, electrical
Pdx
power supply must be capable of operating at low voltage.
5. Spectral Width
Spectral width can strongly affect the magnitude of the transmission bandwidth. In a low
capacity system having a bandwidth of several MHz, the spectral width of the source can be several
tens of nanometers but generally it must be reduced if larger bandwidth is required, although this also
depends on the wavelength of operation. Spectral width is given by
 = A10/L  f [nm] ... (4.2)
where L is transmission distance in km f the bandwidth in GHz. Here A is constant of proportionality
which is determined by the pulse shape itself and the pulse regenerative circuit or equalizer.
For the case of A = 1, spectral width of source must be less than 1nm for L = 10km and f =
1GHz. This explains the statement that required spectral width is the characteristics of the system.
6. Focusing Effect
Longer the coherent length lc, smaller the size of the focused spot produced by the lens.
Diameter Df is related to lens focal length f by
Df = k [/lc ] x f ... (4.3)
where k is constant and  is wavelength. [It is assumed that condition of coherence within the lens
plane is 2a=lc] On the other hand spot size two of the fundamental mode of the optical fiber
depends on the type of fiber, but the light source into optical fiber is a maximum when focused D1is
approximately eqt. to 2 Wo. Therefore required coherence length
lc = k  f/2Wo ... (4.4)
For Wo = 10m,  =0.85m, f = 2mm and k = 1 we require Lc = 85/um. Hence temporal
coherence as well as spatial coherence determines the performance of the fiber.
7. Modulation
For both direct modulation and modulation of emitted light outside the source, it is important
that the modulator and the optical source can be easily coupled to one another.
8. Shape and Weight

Volume, weight and size of components must satisfy power supply regulation of constructing
transmitter/repeater etc.
9. Cost and economy

Cost must be economical; system must be reliable and reproducible.
3.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT BANDGAP MATERIALS

Direct band gap materials is the one in which a conduction band electron can recombine
directly with a hole in the valance band. So emission of light is possible in the direct band gap
materials. Unlike Direct band materials, Indirect band gap materials there is no emission.
Direct band gap materials having minimum energy of conduction band and maximum energy
of valance band are having the same value of wave vector but indirect band gap materials having the
different value of wave vector.
The energy of the photon is h in direct bandgap materials and in this type life time of charges
carries is very less. Indirect bandgap materials having longer life time of charge carriers. These are
used to fabricate the rectifier diodes and transistors which are used to make amplifiers, switches and
integrated circuits. Example for direct band gap material is InP, GaAs and for indirect band gap
materials Si, Ge.
Direct Band Gap Material
Conduction band
electrons
Electron
Direct band Electron transition

gap energy photon energy, h = E dir
Edir
Hole
+ + + +
+ + + + Valence band
Figure 3.2
Indirect Band Gap Material
Conduction band
Photon energy, h  = Eind + E ph

Photon h  = Eph Photon energy, h = E ind – E ph
+ + + +
+ + + +
Valence band
Figure 3.3
3.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a p-n junction diode, usually made from a semiconductor
material such as aluminum-gallium-arsenide (AlGaAs) or gallium-arsenide- phosphide (GaAsP).
LEDs emit light by spontaneous emission, light is emitted as a result of the recombination of
electrons and holes. When forward biased, minority carriers are injected across the p-n junction.
Once across the junction, these minority carriers recombine with majority carriers and give up
energy in the form of light. This process is essentially the same as in a conventional semiconductor
diode except that in LEDs certain semiconductor materials and dopants are chosen such that the
process is radiative; that is, a photon is produced.
A photon is a quantum of electromagnetic wave energy. Photons are particles that travel at the
speed of light but at rest have no mass. The energy gap of the material used to construct an LED
determines the color of light it emits.
To produce LEDs, semiconductors are formed from materials with atoms having either three
or five valence electrons. To produce light wavelengths in the 800-nm range, LEDs are constructed
from Group III atoms such as gallium (Ga) and aluminum (AI) and a Group IV atom such as
arsenide (As). The junction formed is commonly abbreviated GaAlAs for gallium-aluminum-arsenide.
For longer wavelengths, gallium is combined with the Group III atom indium (In) and arsenide
is combined with the Group V atom phosphate (P) which forms a gallium-indium-arsenide-phosphate
(GalnAsP) junction.
Table 3.2: Semiconductor material wavelengths
Sl.No. Material Wavelengths (nm)
1. AlGaInP 630-680
2. GaInP 670
3. AlGaAs 620-895
4. GaAs 904
5. InGaAs 980
6. InGaAsP 1100-1650
7. InGaAsb 1700-4400
Emitted light Diffused p region

rays
P-epitaxial layer
n-epitaxial layer
n-type substrate n substrate
Emitted light
rays
(a) (b)
(a) Silicon-doped gallium arsenide; (b) Planar diffused
Figure 3.4: Homojunction LED Structures
3.4 TYPES OF LED

3.4.1 Homojunction LEDs
A p-n junction made from two different mixtures of the same types of atoms is called a
homojunction structure. A typical wavelength of light emitted from this construction is 940 nm, and
a typical output power is approximately 2 mW (3 dBm) at 100 mA of forward current.
Light waves from homojunction sources do not produce a very useful light for an optical fiber.
Light is emitted in all directions equally; therefore, only a small amount of the total light produced is
coupled into the fiber.
Homojunction devices are often called surface emitters. Planar diffused homojunction LEDs
(Figure 3.4) output approximately 500 W at a wavelength of 900 nm. The primary disadvantage
of homojunction LEDs is the non-directionality of their light emission, which makes them a poor
choice as a light source for optical fiber systems.
3.4.2 Heterojunction LEDs

Heterojunction LEDs are made from a p-type semiconductor material of one set of atoms
and an n-type semiconductor material from another set. Heterojunction devices are layered (usually
two) such that the concentration effect is enhanced.
This produces a device that confines the electron and hole carriers and the light to a much
smaller area. The junction is generally manufactured on a substrate backing material and then
sandwiched between metal contacts which are used to connect the device to a source of electricity.
With heterojunction devices, light is emitted from the edge of the material and are therefore
often called edge emitters. A planar heterojunction LED is quite similar to the epitaxially grown LED
except that the geometry is designed such that the forward current is concentrated to a very small
area of the active layer.
Heterojunction devices have the following advantages over homo junction devices.
1. The increase in current density generates a more brilliant light spot.
2. The smaller emitting area makes it easier to couple its emitted light into a fiber.
3. The small effective area has a smaller capacitance, which allows the planar heterojunction
LED to be used at higher speeds.
3.5 LED STRUCTURE

The requirements for an LED to be used for fiber transmission are
a) High radiance output
b) High quantum efficiency and
c] Fast emission response time.
LEDs radiance or brightness is a measure in watts of the optical power radiated into a unit
solid angle per unit area of the emitting surface.
Higher brightness is required to couple sufficiently large output power levels into the fiber.
Emission response time can be reckoned as the time delay between the application of a current
pulse and the onset of optical em ission. Time delay is the factor lim iting
the bandwidth with which the source can be modulated directly by varying the injected current.
The quantum efficiency is related to the fraction of the injected electron hole pairs that recombine
radiatively. LED structure has to be designed to provide a means of confining the charge carriers
and the stimulated optical emission to the active region of the pn junction where radiative recombination
takes place. This enables to achieve high radiance and high quantum efficiency.
To achieve a high level of radiative recombination in the active region of the device, carrier
confinement is used. With this approach high quantum efficiency is achieved. Optical confinement is
very important for preventing absorption of the emitted radiation of the material surrounding the pn
junction.
Electron
barrier
Injected
electrons
–
–
Electron hole recombination
1.51 eV h = 820 nm
+ Injected holes
barrier
Hole
Active region
Refractive
index
Figure 3.5
LED configuration such as homojunction and single and double heterojunction have been
identified as potential candidates of achieve carrier and optical confinement. This is double hetro
structure or heterojunction device because of the two different alloy layers on each side of the active
region.
It is possible for both carriers and the optical field in confinement in the central active layer,
due to this sandwich structure of differently compound alloy layers. It is the band gap differences of
the adjacent layers that confine the charge carriers while the difference in the indices of refraction of
adjoining layers confine the optical field in the central active layer. Both high efficiency and high
radiance is due to this dual confinement.
Optical absorption in the active region (self absorption), carrier recombination at the hetro
structure interfaces doping concentration of the active layer, injection carrier density and active layer
thickness are the various other parameters influencing the device performance. The effects of these
parameters will be discussed now.
Two basic LEDs configurations used in fiber optics are surface emitters [and these are called
as Burrus or front end emitters as discussed earlier] and edge emitters. In the surface emitter, the
plane of active LED region is oriented perpendicularly to the axis of the fiber as shown in figure.
In this configuration a well is etched through the substrate of the device, into which a fiber is
then cemented in order to accept the emitted light .In practical surface emitters the circular active
area is normally 50 m in diameter and upto 2.5 m in thick.
Fiber
Bo
Circular etched well Metalization
Confinement GaAlAs Double heather

layers GaAs junction layer
Ga Al As
SiO 2 isolation SiO 2 isolation
Metalization
Heat sink
Active region Circular metal contact
Figure 3.6: Schematic of a high radiance surface-emitting LED
The emission pattern is essentially isotropic with a 120º half power beam width. This isotropic
pattern from a surface emitter is called lambertian pattern. In this pattern the source is equally bright
when viewed from any direction.
However the power diminishes as cos, where  is the angle between the viewing direction
and the normal to the surface. (This is because the projected area one sees decreases as cos)
Therefore the power is down by 50% of its peak value when  = 60º so that the total half power
beam width is 120º.
Stripe contact
(Defines active area)
Light-guideing
layers
Active area
Substrate
Metalization
(for electric contact)
SiO2 isolation layer
Metalization Double heather
(for electric contact) junction layer
Heat sink
Incoherent optical
output beam
Figure 3.7: Edge Emitter
The edge emitter shown in figure. Consists of an active junction region, which is of the source
of incoherent light and two guiding layers. The refractive index of both guiding layers is lower than
that of the active region but higher than the index of the surrounding material. This structure forms a
waveguide channel that directs the optical radiation toward the fiber core.
To match the typical fiber core diameters (50-100 m) the contact stripes for the edge emitter
are 50-70 m wide. Lengths of active regions usually range from 100 to150 m. Edge emitter's
emission pattern is more directional than that of the surface emitter as illustrated in the figure 3.7.
In the plane parallel to the junction where there is no waveguide effect, the emitted beam is
lambertian (varying as cos) with a half power width of 11=120º. In the plane perpendicular to the
junction the half power beam width  perpendicular has been made as small as 25 to 35º by a
proper choice of waveguide thickness.
3.5.1 Light Source Materials

The requirement of an (optical) semiconductor material for the active layer of optical source
must have a direct band gap [DBG].{Both energy and momentum must be conserved for electron
transitions to or from the conduction band with the absorption or emission of photon. Though photon
has considerable energy its momentum hv/c is very small.
Semiconductors are classified as direct band or indirect band gap materials depending upon
the shape of band gap as a function of momentum k as shown in figure 3.8 (a) & (b).
Conduction band electron
Electron transition
Direct band gap
energy EDir Photon energy
hv = EDir
++++++
++++++++++
valance band
(a) Electron recombination and the associated photon emission for a direct band gap
Figure 3.8
Photon energy Conduction band electron

Eph
Photon energy
Photon energy Direct band gap
hv = Eind+Eph
hv = Eind+Eph energy Eind
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
valance band
Momentum k
(b) Electron recombination for indirect band gap material

requires a phonon of energy momentum kph
Figure 3.8
Diode emission wave length (m)
4.0 1.6 1.0 0.7 0.55
6.2
InAs
6.0
Lattice parameter (A)
InP
5.8
AlAs
5.6 GaAs
5.4
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Figure 3.9: Relationships between the crystal lattice spacing, energy gap,
and diode emission wavelength at room temperature
Consider the recombination of an electron and hole accompanied by a emission of a photon.

The simplest and best possible recombination process will be that where the electron and hole have
the same momentum value figure 3.8 (a) & (b). This is a direct band gap value.
In a DBG semiconductor electrons and holes can recombine directly across the BG without
needing a 3rd possible to conserve the momentum. Only a DBG material is the radiative recombination
sufficiently high to produce an adequate level of optical emission. Many binary compounds are
DBG where normal single element semiconductors are not. The most important of these are the so
called III-V materials. These are made from compounds of a group III elements [such as Al, Ga or
In] and a group V elements (such as P, As or Sb). Various ternary and quaternary combinations of
binary compounds of these elements are also DBG materials and are suitable candidates for optical
sources.
The principal material used is ternary alloy Ga l–x AlxAs for operation in the
800-900nm band. Emission spectrum of a Gal–xAlxAs LED with x = 0.08 is shown in figure 3.9.
Quaternary alloy Inl–xGax AsyPl–y is one of the primary material candidates for longer wavelengths.
LEDs with peak powers at any  between 1 and 1.7 m can be constructed by varying the mole
fractions x and y in the active area.
The alloys GaAlAs and InGaAsP are preferred to make semiconductor light sources because
it is possible to match lattice parameters of the hetro structure interfaces by using a proper combination
of binary, ternary and quaternary materials.
To reduce interfacial defects and to minimize strain in the device as the temperature varies, a
very close match between crystal lattice parameters of the adjoining hetrojunction is required. These
factors directly affect the radiative efficiency and lifetime of a light source. From fundamentalquantum
mechanical relationship between energy E and frequency v, we have E = h = hc/. The peak emission
wavelength  in micro emission can be expressed as a fn of the band gap energy Eg in electron hole
by the equation
[m] = 1.24 / Eg[ev] ... (1)
A plot of the BG energy Eg versus crystal lattice spacing ao for various III-V Compounds is
shown in figure 3.9. By choosing two material compositions having same lattice constant but different
band gap energies (band gap difference are used to confine the charge carriers) a hetro junction with
matching lattice parameters is created.
In the ternary alloy GaApAs the band gap energy Eg and the crystal lattice spacing ao are
determined by the dashed line in figure 3.9.
Connecting the materials GaAs (Eg = 1.43ev and a0 = 5.64A) and AlAs[Eg = 2.16ev and
a0 = 5.66A] The energy gap in the electron volts for values of x between zero and 0.37 [the direct
band region] can be found from the empirical equation
Eg = 1.424 + 1.266x + 0.266x ... (2)
1.0 810nm peak

Relative output power
0.5 36nm
750 770 790 810 830 850 870

Emission wave length (nm)
Figure 3.10: Spectral emission pattern of a representative

Ga1–zAlzAs LED with x = 0.08
The band gap energy and lattice constant range for the quaternary alloy InGaAsP are much
larger as shown by the shaded area in figure 4.7,
These materials are generally grown on an InP substrate so that lattice matched configuration
are obtained by selecting a compositional paint. Along the top dashed line in figure 3.10, which
passes through the InP point. Along this line the compositional parameters x and y follow the relationship
y = 2.20 with 0  x  0.47 For Inl–x Gax Asy Pl–y composites that are lattice matched to InP, the band
gap in ev varies as
Eg = 1.35 – 0.72y + 0.12y2 ... (3)
Band gap wavelengths from 0.92 to 1.65 m are covered by this material system.
3.6 QUANTUM EFFICIENCY AND LED POWER

In a semiconductor LED, an excess of electrons and holes are created in P and n type material.
These excess carriers can recombine radiatively or nonradiatively. The total generated carriers is the
sum of the externally supplied carriers and the thermally generated carriers.
The externally supplied carrier rate over the recombination region is,
J
... (1)
qd
J = Current density in A/cm2
q = Electron charge
d = Thickness of the recombination region.
The thermally generated carrier rate is
n
... (2)

n = Excess carrier density
 = Carrier life time
The rate equation for carrier recombination
dn J n
= –
dt qd 
dn
At equilibrium condition =0
dt
J
n
qd
Internal Quantum Efficiency ( int)
The internal quantum efficiency (int) is defined as the ratio of radiative recombination rate
tothe total recombination rate
Rr
 int =
R r  R nr
Rr = Radiative recombination rate
Rnr = Non radiative recombination rate
The radiative recombination life time is given by
n
r =
Rr
The non radiative recombination lifetime is given by
n
nr =
R nr
Now the internal quantum efficiency equation becomes
1
int =
Rr R
 nr
Rr Rr
1
=
R
1  nr
Rr
1
=
n
 nr
1
n
r
1
int =
r
1
nr
1
=
 nr   r
nr
 nr
int =
r  nr
The total recombination lifetime  is given by

1 1 1
= 
 r nr
1 nr   r
=
  r nr
 nr   r
=
r  nr
 nr 
=
r  nr r
Now the internal quantum efficiency is

int 
r
When the I amount of current is injected into the LED, the total number of recombination per
second
I
Rr + Rnr =
q
Rr
 int =
R r  R nr
Rr R rq
I = I
q
int I
Rr =
q
Rr = Total number of photons generated per second. The initially generated optical power is
given by
P int = Rr h V
int I
Pint  hV
q
3.7 LED POWER

External Quantum Efficiency (est)
It is defined as the ratio of photons emitted from the LED to the total number of photons
generated internally.
Power due to the internal quantum efficiency
I
P int = int . .h
q
1 I c    c 
= . .h.
1  Trr Tnr q   
Power in the LED is not only depends on the internal quantum efficiency, it is also depends on
the external quantum efficiency.
The external quantum efficiency is given by

Qc
1
ext 
4  T  Q  2 sin Q dQ
0
T (Q)  Fresnel transmission co-efficient
4 n1 n 2
where Q = 0  T 0 
 n1  n 2 2
Let us take n1 n2 = n
4n
 T (0) =
 n  12
Qc
1
ext =
4  T  Q 2 sin Q  dQ 
0
2 4n Q
2 
=  cos Q 0 c
4 1  n 
2n
= 2  cos Qc  1
1  n 
2n
ext = 1  cos Q c 
1  n 2
[From acceptance angle Q c    Qc  sin 1  n 2 n1  ]

2
2n
ext 
1  n 
2
1  cos   Q 
 2 c
 
2n
 2 1  sin Q c 
1  n 
2n   1 n 2 
 2 1  sin  sin 
1  n    n1 
2n  n2  2n  n1  n 2 
 2 1     
1  n   n1  1  n 2  n1 
2n  n1  n 2  n 2
 2  
1  n   n1  n 2

2n n n
1 2  n 22 

1
2 2
1  n  n n  n  1
1
 n1n 2  n 22  
2
The total power P  ext .Pint ... (3)

3.8 MODULATION OF A LED

To transmit data, the property of the light is modulated with respect to the information signal.
The properties are intensity, frequency, phase or polarization.The frequency response of an LED
should be known. It depends on the following factors.
1. Doping level in the active region
2. Carrier lifetime
3. Parastic capacitance of the LED.
The drive current modulated at a frequency w.
I (w) = I0 [1+(weff)2] –1/2
I0 = Current intensity without modulation
The output optical power
P(w) = P0 (1 + (weff)2)–1/2
The modulation bandwidth of a LED can be defined in either electrical or optical terms.
Electrical 3-dB Point and Electrical Bandwidth
The electrical 3-dB point is the point of frequency at which the output electrical power is
reduced by 3dB with respect to the input electrical power.
The ratio of the electrical output power to the electrical input power
Electrical output power
RE = 10 log10
Electrical input power
I2out | R out
= 10 log10
I2in | R in
Where Rin = Rout = R
2
I 
RE = 10 log10  out 
 Iin 
The electrical 3 dB point occurs when
2
 Iout  1
I  = 2
 in 
Iout 1
= = 0.707
Iin 2
The electrical bandwidth is defined as the frequency at which the output current has dropped
1
to 0.707 or of the input current.
2
Optical Bandwidth
The ratio of the output optical power to the input optical power is given by
Output optical power

R0 = 10 log10
Input optical power
Iout
= 10 log10
I in
The optical 3dB point occurs at which the power ratio is equal to 1/2.
Iout 1
= or 0.5
Iin 2
1.0
Current ratio Iout / Iin
0.707
0.5
Electrical bandwidth Frequency

Optical bandwidth
Figure 3.11
3.9 LASER DIODE

Laser is acronym for light amplification by simulated emission of radiation. Laser is a coherent
source since it emits coherent light which maintains a coherent phase difference along its propagation
w.r.t space and time. Lasers in general are the coherent light sources with additional properties such
as high intensity, high monochromacity, high coherence and directionality and hence more suitable
for a point to point focusing applications.
Laser action can be explained as follows:
“Laser action means the production of high intense, monochromatic and coherent light through
stimulated emission”. Laser functioning is based on the principle of emission of light by the stimulator
emission such that the energy of the stimulating photon should be equal to the energy difference between
the transition levels. There are certain conditions to be fulfilled to achieve laser action. These are
a) The atomic system should have population inversion. Population inversion means the state
of the atomic system at which the number of atoms in the higher [excited] state is more than
the number of atoms in the lower or ground state. Population inversion is achieved by
pumping the atoms from lower state to higher state
b) There should be photons with proper energy to start the stimulated emission.
c) There should be an arrangement for multiple reflections to increase the intensity of laser beam.
When there is an EM radiation through a laser material, following physical process takes
place depending upon the nature of EM radiation and the level of material that is interacting with it
i) Absorption
ii) Spontaneous emission
iii) Stimulated emission
Lower level state of the matter still continue to exist in that level unless it is disturbed by an
external agency like an EM energy [E] having a frequency f impinging on it. According to Quantum
theory of matter, E = hf where h is the Plank's constant. Using their energy, the atomic states in the
matter will move from the lower level to the higher energy level E2 directly. This process is called as
stimulated absorption.
The high energy level E2 will have a certain lifetime II associated with it, which means that after
spending a time r in this energy state, the atoms tend to return to the lower level spontaneously. This
process is known as spontaneous emission which takes place on its own without an aid of any
external agency. This process becomes more and more probable at higher frequencies and is very
crucial for laser action.
E2 E2 E2
Energy
E2-E1 =hf12 hf hf2
hf12 2 hf21
hf21 = E2-E1 hf21
E1 E1 E1
(a) absorption (b) spontaneous emission (c) Stimulated emission

Figure 3.12: Basic process involved in laser generation
The simulated action ideally follows the classical physical concepts. If a photon interacts with
matter which is in an excited state, it acts as a stimulant to cause the transition from the higherenergy
state to the lower level. In such case, the differential energy released due to the transition from the
higher energy state E2 to the lower level E1 will be added to the stimulating photon in phase, leading
to amplification. This process of quantum amplification is utilized in the ammonia maser action. This
process will lead to ‘coherence’ and light amplification in the case of a laser.
3.9.1 Differences between Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated

Emission
Spontaneous emission
i) During the transition of atoms higher energy level to lower energy level, emission of photons
takes place immediately without any inducement.
ii) This is a polychromatic [many wavelengths] radiation.
iii) Less intensive.
iv) Has more angular spread during propagation meaning less directivity. Ex; light from sodium
vapour lamp/bulb.
v) Incoherent radiation.
Stimulated emission
i) Emission of light photon takes place through an inducement given by a photon having
energy level equal to the emitted photon’s energy level.
ii) Monochromatic radiator [meaning single wavelength].
iii) High intensive.
iv) High directionality and less angular spread during propagation. Ex; light from laser source.
v) Coherent radiation.
3.10 LASER DIODE RATE EQUATIONS

The relationship between optical output power and the diode drive current can be determined
by examing the rate equations that govern the interaction of photons and electrons in the action
region. The total carrier population in determined by carrier injection, spontaneous recombination
and stimulated emission.
For a PN junction with a carrier-confinement region of depth d, the rate equation are given by
d 
= Cn   Rsp  ... (1)
dt ph
= stimulated emission + spontaneous emission – photon loss
dn J n
=   Cn  ... (2)
dt qd s p
= injection + spontaneous recombination + stimulated emission
which governs the number of electrons N.
e – coefficient describing the strength of the optical absorption and emission interaction.
Rsp – rate of spontaneous emission in the lasing diode.
 ph – photon life time
s – spontaneous recombination life time
J – injection current density
Solving the equation (1) and (2) for a steady-state condition will yield an expression for the
output power, d dt , dr dt are being equal to zero. Assume Rsp is negligible. d dt must be
positive when  is small.

cn   0
ph
 
  cn  1   0
  ph 
 1 
 cn  ph   0
 
This shows that n must exceed a threshold value nth in order for  to increase.
Equation (2) the threshold value can be expressed in terms of the threshold current Jth. In the
steady state when the number of photons  = 0. n = nth.
J th n th
  0 ... (3)
qd sp
n th J
 th ... (4)
sp qd
Next, consider the photon and electron rate equation in the steady-state condition at lasing
threshold.
The equation (1) and (2)
s
0 = e n th s  Rsp  ... (5)
ph
J n th
0 =   C nth s ... (6)
q d  sp
n th
where  is the steady-state photon density. Adding (5) and (6) using equation (4) for the term
sp
and solving for s.
ph
s =  J  J th    ph Rsp
qd
The first term represents the number of photons resulting from stimulated emission.
The second term represents the spontaneously generated photons.
3.11 EXTERNAL QUANTUM EFFICIENCY

The external differential quantum efficiency (ext) is defined as the number of photons emitted
per radiative electron-hole pair recombination above threshold.
ext is given by
i  g th   
ext =
g th
where,  i – internal quantum efficiency.
Experimentally, ext is calculated from the straight line portion of the emitted optical power ‘P’
versus drive current I,
q dp dp
ext = = 0.8065 
Eg dI dI
Where Eg – band gap energy in eV

dp – incremental change in the emitted optical power
dI – incremental change in the drive current
 – emission wavelength
3.12 RESONANT FREQUENCIES

The condition in e–jL = 1 holds when
2L = 2 m
where m is an integer
2n
Using  = for the propagation constant

2 L 2n L L 2Ln
m= = = = V
2   e
2n
where e = v. This states that the cavity resonates when an integer number m of half-
wavelength spans the region between the mirror.
All lasers, the gain in a function of frequency. Each of these of these frequencies corresponds
to a mode of oscillation of the laser. The relationship betwen gain and frequency can be assumed to
have the gaussian form
    0 2 
g     g  0  exp  
 2 2 
where  0 – wavelength at the center of the spectrum

 – spectral width of gain
g(0) – maximum gain.
Consider the frequency or wavelength spacing between the modes of a multimode laser. We
consider only the longitudinal modes. For each longitudinal mode these may be several transverse
modes that arise from one or more reflection of the propagating wave at the sides of the resonator
cavity.
To find the frequency spacing, consider two successive modes of frequencies fm–1 and fm
represented by the integer m–1 and m.
2L n
m – 1= f m 1
c
2L n
m = fm
n
Substracting these two equations yields
2L n 2L n
1 =  f m  f m1  = f
c c
From which we have the frequency spacing
c
f =
2L n
This can related to the wavelength spacing  through the relationship
f 
=
f 
f 
 =
f
2
 
2L n
The output spectrum of a multimode laser follows the typical gain-versus-frequency plot given
in figure, where the exact number of modes, their heights, and their spacing depend on the laser
construction.


Gaussian
Output profile
822 824 826 828

Wavelength (nm)
Figure 3.13: Typical spectrum from a gain equided GaAlAs/GaAs laser diode
3.13 MODES OF LASER CAVITY

Patterns of electric and magnetic field lines setup by the optical radiation within the resonant
cavity of a laser diode are called modes of the laser activity.
Laser modes are able to propagate in active area of laser, due to the discrete size of the laser
cavity. It can propagate only as a limited number of discrete and specific light waves. Inside the
cavity, these modes are specified by standing waves. All other words waves cannot exist. In the
cavity, the transmitted light will be in three orthogonal directions.
In x direction, electrode is confining the active area of the laser. Active area is used for the
injection current to provide pump energy and hence for maintaining required population inversion.
In y direction n-doped emitter layer and p-doped buried substrate are confining the active
area. The index profile of active area is greater than the refractive index of doped region for providing
wave guiding structure in the case of gain guided laser.
For best optical wave guiding the index guided laser is preferred. In both the type of lasers,
the optical power is emitted only from the mirrors (or) facets. In optical communication link the full
optical power is coupled with the fiber.
The rear laser facet is having some dielectric coating so that it will behave as reflecter. This is
necessary to reduce the optical loss in the cavity. Modes of the cavity can be separated into TE
modes and TM modes. Modes can be described in terms of longitudinal lateral and transverse half
sinusoidal variations of the electromagnetic fields along x, y and z axes of the cavity.
y
Stripe contact
X
n doped layer
Z
P doped layer
Active laser
medium (cavity)
Figure 3.14: Mode propagation in gain guided laser
3.13.1 The Longitudinal Modes

In optical communication system the Axial mode (or) longitudinal modes in z direction are
very important. The length ‘L’of the fiber is determine the frequency spectrum of the emitted optical
radiation. If L >> , many Axial modes can exist.
a c
2L  a.  a.
n n.fa
where a  axial mode
n  refractive index
c  velocity of light in free space.
Let the frequency separation ‘fa’ between two neighbouring axial modes.
c
 fa  f a 1  f a 
2nL
Let spectral wavelength separation
 a  a 1  a2
 a   a   a 1  
2nL 2nL
 a is small for modes which are closer to the central wavelength ‘ a’ and large for modes
which are far away from the central wavelength.
3.13.2 Lateral Modes

These modes are lies along x direction. These modes depends on the side wall preparation
and the width of the cavity ‘w’ and determine the shape of the lateral profile of the laser beam, which
is in the form of broad Lorentizian line shape.
3.13.3 Transverse Mode

This is along y-direction and determine the threshold current density and the output radiation
pattern. In the case of surface emitting laser, the intensity pattern of the laser output forms a Gaussian
curve with narrow spectral width.
3.13.4 Threshold Condition

Threshold condition will exist in optical communication, when the optical gain by the laser
cavity should be greater than or at least equal to the sum of losses and useful laser output. The
propagation of electric field phasor along the longitudinal direction.
E(z, t) = I (z) ej (t – z)
I(z) - Optical field intensity,  - Propagation constant
Let  
I  z   I  0  exp  g  h    a  h  z 
where a  effective absorption constant,
  optical confinement parameter
Generally  + n + p = 1
where n, p are the fraction of the power in the n-region and p-region of the laser diode.
Assume n  p  0;
Let z = 2L (one round trip distance). R1, R2 be the fraction of light reflected from the mirrors.
 
I  2L   I  0  R1R 2 exp 2L  g  h    a  h   
Final irradiance
The round trip gain ‘G’ =
Initial irradiance

= R1 R 2 exp 2L g  h   a  h   
 Threshold condition is the state at which lasing action takes place and it occurs when

G = 1 = R1R 2 exp 2L  gth  a  h   
1  1 
gth = a  ln  
2L  R 1R 2 
= volume losses + useful laser output
Under steady state conditions, the rate at which the carriers are injected into the active regions
= electron hole recombination rate.
J Nd
i.e =
e 
I Q
where J = = Cm–2 s–1 and
A tA
J - recombination time
d - thickness of the cavity
N - injected carrier density
Nde
 Threshold current density ‘J’ = Am 2

3.14 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
The temperature variation of Ith can be expressed as
Ith (T) = I Z eT T0
where T0 – measure of the relative temperature insensitivity
IZ – constant
For strip geometry GaAlAs laser diode T0 = 120° C to 165° C.
For quantum well hetero structure laser, T0 = 437° C.
The variation of threshold current with the increase of temperature is shown in figure.
The threshold current increases about 0.25% per degree centigrade. The threshold current
changes further with the age of laser diode. So then should be temperature and age compensation
circuit to maintain constnat threshold current and hence constant laser output. To achieve this
optical feedback circuits are used. In this circuit, the laser output is monitored by a photo-detector.
Then the photo-detector compares the laser output with a reference level and adjusts the d.c bias
current automatically to maintain constant laser output irrespective of temperature and age of laser.
100
Threshold current (mA)
80
60
40
20
0 15 30 45 60 75
Temperature (°C)
Figure 3.15: Temperature effect on threshold current
3.15 QUANTUM LASER

Quantum laser is otherwise known as Quantum well lasers. Thickness of the active layer will
determine the gain and mode confinement. The thickness of active layer at normal laser is 0.1 to 0.3
m. If the thickness is reduced to 50 – 100 Å (Å = Amstrong = 10–10 m), threshold current density
will get decrease.
Lx
Ly Lz
Active region
d
Figure 3.16: Illustration of Quantum laser

In Normal laser, the active region behaves like a three dimensional box. But in a quantum well
laser, due to the smaller thickness of active region, the active region behaves like a two dimensional
thin flim. It is having high density electron at the conduction band. Population inversion is achived by
a lower injected carrier density threshold current density of normal laser is 800 A/cm2 and for
quantum well laser 600 A/cm2.
Let us take the thickness of active layer Lz and length Lx, and breadth Ly. In the three dimensional
case, the total energy of an electron is given by
h2  n12 n 22  h 2  n 32 
E   2  2    2
8 me  Lx L y  8 me  L z 
Since Lz is smaller than Lx and Ly, the lowest energy states will all have n3 = 1. This will
convert a three dimensional into two dimensional group of states having quantum number n1 and n2.
The number of states per unit energy per unit volume for a two dimensional potential well become
4 m*e
Z E 
h 2 Lz
Where ‘h’ - Planck’s constant

Single Quantum Laser
It is having a single active region.
Conduction
band
h
Valence
band
Active layer
Figure 3.17
Multiple Quantum Laser

It is having multiple active regions. It has a better optical mode confinment which results in a
lower threshold current density. The wavelength of the output light can be changed by adjusting the
layer thickness d.
Conduction
band
h
Valence
band
Figure 3.18
Modified Quantum Laser
Conduction
band
h
Valence
band
Figure 3.19
When the band gap energy of the barrier doffers from the cladding it is called modified quantum
laser.
Advantages of Quantum Laser
1. It allows high gain at low carrier density.
2. Narrow line width.
3. Higher modulation speeds.
4. Lower frequency chirp.
5. Less temperature dependence.
3.16 TYPES OF LASER DIODE

There are two types in PN junction Laser diodes
1. Homojunction laser diode
2. Heterojunction laser diode
1. Homojunction Laser Diode

If a P-N junction is formed by a single material, it is said to be homojunction laser diode.
2. Heterojunction Laser Diode

If a P-N junction is formed by two different types of material then it is said to be heterojunction
laser. Heterojunction are used to confine both the charge carriers and the optical fields in the vertical
direction.
Comparison between Homojunction and Heterojunction Laser Diode

Sl.No. Homojunction Laser Heterojunction Laser
1. Threshold current density is nearly Threshold current density is small about

400 A/mm2. 10 A/mm2.
2. Because of High threshold current High output power can be achieved with
density output power will be low. low threshold current.
3. Only pulsed mode output is obtained, Continuous wave operation is possible.
so continuous wave operation is not
possible.
4. Large beam divergence. Small beam divergence.
5. Stability and coherence are very poor. High coherence and stability are obtained.
6. Field confinement is poor. Field confinement is large.
7. Not used in communication applications. Used in communication applications.
8. Example: GaAs for both P, N layer. Example: GaAs for P layer. GaAlAs
for n layer.
3.17 LASER DIODE STRUCTURE

In Heterojunction laser, two sub classification is available (i) Edge emitting laser which give
the laser output through the mirror and (ii) surface emitting lasers which gives the laser output through
the surface of the diode. Edge emitting lasers are divided into two types (i) Gain guided lasers
(ii) Index guided laser.
3.17.1 Gain Guided Lasers

Metal
SiO2
P+ In Ga As P
P+ InP
In Ga As P active layer
n-IN P layer
n-IN P substrate
Metal
Figure 3.20: Stripe geometry laser
A layer of SiO2 has been fabricated and a narrow stripe has been etched through the SiO2
layer, followed by the deposition of metal.
The stripe can range from 5 to 20 m in width from 150 to 1500 m in length. The emitting
region in the active layer is formed with a width that is slightly larger than the stripe. The rise in the
refractive index forms a lateral waveguiding structure.
The generated light is guided both vertically and laterally and is more confined as it propagates
down the length of the diode. The mechanism of providing lateral wave guiding with the change in
the refractive index caused by the current carriers is called gain guiding. They have high spectral
width with two peaked beams. So these structures are not used in practice.
3.17.2 Index Guided Laser

The variation in the real refractive index of different materials control the lateral modes in the
laser. So they can support only the fundamental transverse mode and the fundamental longitudinal
mode.
Classification of index guided laser is
1. Multimode Laser
When the lateral or transverse modes and longitudinal modes are appearing at the laser
output.
2. Single Mode Laser

When the fundamental longitudinal mode only appearing in the output, that type is said to be
single mode laser. Index guided laser can be further subdivided into
a) Positive index waveguide
The central region has a higher refractive index. It supports only the fundamentals lateral mode.
This structure is mostly used for communication purpose as a single mode laser.
b) Negative index waveguide
Central region has a lower refractive index. At dielectric boundaries part of the light is reflected
and the remaining is refracted into the surrounding medium and is lost. Here the light beam appears
in the form of main beam with the side lobes. The main beam has laser amount of radiation.
Index guided lasers can be fabricated using any of the four fundamental structures.
i) Buried heterostructure
ii) Selectively diffused construction
iii) Varying thickness structure
iv) Bent layer configuration
i) Buried hetero structure
Positive contact
and heat sink
p+ Ga Al As InP confining P-In-p

contact layer layer contact layer
SiO2 SiO 2 SiO 2 SiO 2

p- Ga Al As
n Ga n- Ga confining layer
Al As Al As
n-Ga Al As
confining layer
p-Ga As Negative
active layer contact
Figure 3.21: Buried hetero structure

A narrow stripe is etched in the substrate material. The active region “slumps” into an etched
groove (formed by stripe), physically isolating the light emission portion of the active layer in the
lateral direction by the edges of the groove. The wavelength range from 800 nm to 900 nm, GaAlAs
is used as a active layer. The wavelength range from 1.3 to 1.6 m, GaAs is used as a active layer.
This is adopted to get high performance laser diodes.
ii) The selectively diffused construction
Diffusion
Lasing spot
Figure 3.22: Selectivity diffused construction
The dopant zinc is diffused into the active layer of GaAlAs lasers and it changes the refractive
index of the active layer to form a laternal waveguide channel. In InGaAsP lasers, Cadmium is used
as the dopant.
iii) The varying thickness structure
Substrate
Channel in substrate
Figure 3.23: Varying thickness structure
A channel is etched into the substrate. Layers of crystal are then regrown into the channel
using liquid phase epitaxy. Thickness of the active and confining layer is varied. The high thickness
area acts as positive index waveguide of higher refractive material.
iv) The bent layer structure
Lasing spot
Active layer
Substrate
Figure 3.24: The bent layer structure
A narrow channel is etched into the substrate. Different types are grown by vapour phase
epitaxy to fill the channel. Thus the active layer has constant thickness with lateral bends. The lower
index material outside of the bends confines the light along this laternal channel.
3.18 MODE PATTERNS

Axial modes give only a single spot of light in the laser output. The transverse modes give the
pattern of spots in the output. These are designated as TEMqr where q is the number of minima as
the light beam is scanned horizontally and r is the number of minima as it is scanned vertically.
TEM00, TEM01, TEM11 are some of the lower order modes (figure).
Among these, TEM00 mode is often called the uniphase mode, since all parts of the propagating
wavefront are in phase. A laser operating only in TEM00 mode (i.e., single mode laser) has the
greatest spectral purity and degree of coherence. But in multimode operation laser has more power
and the total spread in the laser spectrum is very large since each transverse mode will have the axial
modes associated with it.
TEM 00(uniphase) TEM 01 TEM 10 TEM11
Figure 3.25: Some lower order transverse modes of laser radiation

3.18.1 Obtaining Single Mode Operation

In optical fiber communication system, the transmission capacity is mainly determined by
dispersion produced in the fibers and spectral width of the source. When the spectral width of the
source is so small as in the case of single mode laser, the bitrate is increased to a greater extent as
well as the repeaterless transmission span also increases.
Single mode operation can be achieved in lasers either by decreasing the cavity length or
decreasing the pump power. With a short length cavity, frequency separation of the modes is
sufficiently large resulting in single mode operation. When the pump power is low, only one single
mode is able to exist. All other waves would not exist since the pump power is below its threshold
power. When the pump power is more, the laser behaves as multimode laser.
Today to achieve efficient single mode lasers, DFB (Distributed Feedback) lasers and DBR
(Distributed Bragg Reflection) Lasers and tunable DBR lasers are used.
Active, pumped region Passive Active
p-doped Passive
confining
layer
waveguide
active layer
n-doped
confining
layer
(a) (b)
IDBR I Phase IGals
Active area
Waveguide
Passive, wavelength- Passive phase- Active gain or

selective section matching amplification
section section
(c)
Figure 3.26: Structure of (a) DFB and (b) DBR lasers (c) Three section DBR laser
Strength materials such as steel, polymer, Kevlar or carbon fiber to be included so that long
length of cable is made and copper wires are also included for powering the long haul repeaters.
Design of optical fibers vary widely and a few sample examples are shown in figure 3.38 (a) to (e).
a) Cross section of a two fiber cables.
b) Cross section of an eight fiber cable with the optical fiber having no mechanical components.
c) Cross-section of possible design of cable with the optical cable axis and an outer strength
member.
d) 144 fiber cable by Bell Laboratory. The fibers are arranged in 12 ribbons each consisting
12 fibers and splicing techniques and connectors for the cable.
e) Cross-section of one of the 12 fiber ribbons.
Introduction to Optical Detector
An optical detector is an essential building block in the optical communication system design.
It is the first element in the receiver design at the output of fiber medium to convert the opticaloutput
to electrical output suitable for further signal processing . In this chapter, we shall deal with the
fundamental principles of optical detection leading to familiarization of two popular detectors used
in optical communication viz PIN diodes and Avalanche photo diodes [APD].
The major parameters of a good optical detector are; [a] spectral response [b] optical output
[c] Response time [d] noise.
The photo detector detects the light power following on it and converts the variation of optical
power into corresponding variation of electron current. Normally the optical signal is weak end and
distorted when it emerges from the end of the fiber. Therefore the photo detector must meet very
high performance requirements. Out of these stringent requirements, high performance or sensitivity
in the emission wavelength range of optical source being used, minimum additions of noise to the
system and a fast response speed or sufficient band width to handle the desired date rate are the
major requirements.
3.23 PRINCIPLES OF PHOTO DETECTION

The overall performance of an optical communication system will be determined by the efficiency
of the photo detector. As we know the photo detector converts the optical energy falling on it into
electrical signals that is further amplified and processed for extracting the information. Photo detectors
fall into two categories namely [a] photon and [b] thermal detectors. Thermal detectors are inherently
very slow and hence can not be useful for optical communications.
But photon detectors are very useful and they can be further classified into four different
categories based on the physical principle of their operation namely [a] photo emissive effect [b]
photo conductive effect [c] photo voltaic effect and [d] photo electromagnetic effect. Photo emissive
effect is found in vacuum tubes [valves] wherein the emission of electron from a vacuum ray cathode
takes place upon the fall of optical energy on it. All these effects are achieved in semiconductor
materials.
3.23.1 Requirements Specification of Optical Detectors

Optical detector’s performance is determined by the following requirements specification
adopted by the manufacturers:
1. Spectrum response
It is the parameter that describes the way the quantum efficiency or responsively of the photo
conductor changes as a function of the wave length of optical radiation.
2. Sensitivity
It is the ratio of the average photo detector current produced to the average incident optical
radiation causing it. The photometric unit of sensitivity is amp/lumens. But at specific wavelength it
can be expressed as amp/watt.
3. Quantum Efficiency
This is an important parameter that describes the ratio of the number of electrons emitted or
generated by the photoconductor to the average number of photons impinging on it. This parameter
is a mere number and always less than one.
4. Frequency Response
When the incident optical radiation is modulated sinusoidally, the electrical output from the
optical detector decreases as the frequency of modulation is increased. The frequency response of
the photo detector is often taken as the modulation frequency at which the output current of the
photo detector decreases to half the peak value, expressed in Hertz.
5. Impulse Response
When a perfect optical pulse with zero rise time and zero tail time impinges on a photo detector,
the resultant electrical output pulse will have finite rise time and tail time. This is due to the capacitive
effect of the photo detector. For an efficient semiconductor junction detector, self capacitance should
be minimum.
6. Dark Current
When the photo conductor is fully isolated from any optical radiation ,zero electrical output is
assumed but in practice a small electrical current in the photo detector output is available even under
total dark condition. This is called as dark current and is expressed in amperes.
7. Noise Equivalent Power

Even without an input optical signal across the output terminals of the photo detector, random
fluctuating voltage will appear. An RMS value of sinusoidally modulated optical radiation at 400Hz
with a reference bandwidth of 1Hz which produces the equivalent output electrical signal and is
known as noise equivalent power.
8. Detectivity
It is the reciprocal of noise equivalent power. For better detectivity noise power should be
minimum.
9. D-star
It is defined as the detectivity multiplied by the square root of the difference of the detector
area and the square root of detector bandwidth.
3.23.2 Type of Optical Detectors

We can list out a number of optical detectors as stated below;
a) Photo Conductor or LDR
b) Photo emissive detectors[vacuum photo diode and photo multiplier tubes]
c) P-N junction photo detectors
d) PIN diodes.
e) APDs
f) Traveling wave photo detectors
g) Resonant cavity photo detectors
h) Photo transistors
3.24 PIN DIODE

A pin diode is a depletion layer photodiode and is widely used as most common device as a
light detector in the receive circuit of fibre optic communication systems. Figure 3.39 shows the
basic construction details of a PIN diode.
Here a very lightly doped or almost pure or intrinsic layer of n type semi conductor material is
sandwiched between the junction of the two heavily doped n and p type contact areas. Light enters
this device through a very small optical window and falls on the carrier-void intrinsic material.
Normally the intrinsic material is made thick enough so that most of the photons that enter the
device are absorbed by this layer. PIN photo diode operates exactly opposite, to that of an LED
operation. Most of the photons are absorbed in a PIN photodiode in the valance band of the
intrinsic material. When the protons are absorbed, they add sufficient energy to generate carriers in
the depletion region and allow the current to flow through the device proportional to the light absorbed.
Absorption zone
Photon
Depletion zone Electron
Conduction band
p Intrinsic n
– +
Valence band
– Photon adds sufficient energy

+ to allow electron to move from
valence band to conduction band
Figure 3.39: PIN Photodiode construction
The light entry through the window of a PIN diode is absorbed by the intrinsic material and
adds enough energy to cause electrons to move from the valance band into the conduction band.
The increase in the number of electrons that move into the conduction band is matched by an
increase in the number of holes in the valance band. To cause sufficient current to flow in a photodiode,
light of sufficient energy must be absorbed to give valance electrons enough energy to jump the
energy gap. The energy gap for silicon is 1.12 eV (electron Volts).
Principles of PIN photo detector
Figure 3.39 shows the most common semi conductor photo detector called PIN photodiode.
It has a structure consisting of P and n regions separated physically by a very thin region of lightly
n-doped intrinsic material.
While in normal operation, a sufficiently large reverse bias voltage is applied across this device
to enable intrinsic region is fully depleted of carriers. This leads to the intrinsic n and p carrier
concentration are negligibly small in comparison with the impurity concentration in this region. When
an incident photon having energy greater than equal to the band gap energy of the semi conductor
material, the photon give up its energy and excites an electron from the valance band to the conduction
band. This process generates free electron-hole pairs, which are called photo carriers, since they
are photon generated charge carriers as shown in figure 3.41.
– +
RL Load
resistor
Photodiode Output
Ip
p i n
Hole Electron
+ –
hv
Photon
Figure 3.40: Schematic representation of a pin photodiode circuit with an applied reverse bias
Photogenerated
electron
Band gap E x p –
Conduction band
i
Photon
hv Eg + n
Photogenerated
hole
Valence band
Depletion region
Figure 3.41: Simple energy-band diagram for a pin photodiode
The photo carriers are so designed that these carriers are generated mainly in the depleted
intrinsic region where most of the incident light is absorbed. The high electric field intensity present
in the depletion region is responsible for the carriers to separate and be collected across the reverse
biased junction. This gives rise to a current flow in an external circuit with one electron flowing for
every carrier pair generated. This current flow is called as photocurrent.
3.24.1 Characteristics of Photo detectors

1. Cut off Wavelength of Photodiode Material
Once the carriers flow through the material, some electron-hole pairs will recombine and
hence disappear on the average, the charge carriers move a distance Ln or Lp for electron and holes
respectively. This distance is known as the diffusion length. The time it takes for an electron or hole
to recombine is known as the carrier life time and is represented by Tn and Tp respectively.
The life times and diffusion are related by the equations.
Ln = ( Dn Tn)½ and Lp= (Dp Tp )½ ... (1)
where Dn and Dp are the electron and hole diffusion co efficients (or constants) respectively which
are expressed in units of centimeters squared per second. Optical radiation is absorbed in the semi
conductor material according to an experimental law.
5 –1
10 10
4 Ge
Light absorption coefficient (cm )
Light penetration depth (m)
10
–1
GaAs
3 1
10 10
2 2
10 Si 10
1 3
10 10
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Wavelength (m)
Figure 3.42: Optical absorption coefficient as a function of wave length

for Silicon, Germanium and gallium arsenide.
–( λ) x
P(x) = Po(1– e ) ... (2)
here s (λ) is the absorption coefficient at a wave length λ, Po is the incident optical power level, and
p (x) is the optical power absorbed in a distance x.
The dependence of the optical absorption coefficient on wave length is shown in figure 3.42
for a number of photodiode materials. It can be seen from this figure that s depends strongly on
the wave length. Thus a particular semi conductor material can only be used over a limited wave
length range. The upper wave length cut off λc is determined by the band gap energy Eg of the
material. The Eg is expressed in units of electron volts (ev) then λc is given in units of micrometers
(μm) by
hc 1.24
c  m    ... (3)
Eg Eg (ev)
The cut off wavelength is about 1.06μm for Si and 1.6 μm for Ge. For longer wavelengths
the photon energy is not sufficient to excite an electron from the valance to the conduction band. At
lower wavelength end the photo response cuts off as a result of the very large values of s at the
shorter wavelengths. In this case he photons are absorbed very close to the photo detector surface
where the recombination time of the generated electron hole pairs is very short. The generated
carriers thus recombine before they can be collected by the photo detector circuit.
2. Photo Current
The total power absorbed in the distance w (w= depletion region width), according to
equation (2).

P (W )  Po 1  e  s  ... (4)
If we take into account a reflecting RF at the entrance face of the photodiode, then the primary
photo current Ip resulting from the power absorption of equation (4) is given by
q
Ip 
hv
 
Po 1  e  s 1  Rf  ... (5)
where Po is incident on the photo detector, q is the electron charge, and hv is the photon energy.
Photo current and incident power play an important role in the quantum efficiency of the photo
detector a vital parameter for optical communication system design.
3. Quantum Efficiency
Photo detector has another important characteristic namely the response speed or responsibility
which we will see next. Now the quantum efficiency of a photo detector can be defined as the ratio
of number of electron hole pairs generates to the number of incident photons expressed as
Ip q  Iphv 
   ... (6)
Po hv  Po q 
These two parameters viz Q efficiency and responsivity depends on the parameters such as
material band gap, the operating wave length and doping thickness of the p, i and n region of the
device Ip in the equation (6) is the average photo current generated by the steady static average
optical power Po incident on the photo conductor.
In photodiodes, practically 100 photon will generate between 30 to 90 electron pairs, thereby
giving a detector quantum efficiency ranging from 30 to 95 percent. For achieving high quantum
efficiency, the depletion layer is made thick enough to permit a large traction of incident light to be
absorbed. But thick depletion layer takes more time for the photo-generated carriers to differ
across the reverse biased junction. As the carrier drift time determines the response speed of photo
diodes, a compromise has to be made between response speed and Q efficiency.
4. Responsivity
Responsivity plays an important role in the performance of the photodiode. This is related to
the quantum efficiency by
R = Ip/Po = q/hv ... (7)
1.0
Quantum 90%
efficiencies
0.8
InGaAs
70%
0.6 Si
50% Ge
0.4
30%
0.2
10%
0
0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7
Wavelength (m)
Figure 3.43: Comparison of the quantum efficiency as a function of wavelength

for pin photodiodes constructed of different materials.
This specifies the photo current generated per unit optical power. Figure 3.43 shows the pin
photodiode responsivities as a function of wavelength.
Representative values for various photo diodes are given below:

Table 3.3
Sl.No. Material/device R At λ
1. Silicon Photodiode 0.65 μA/μw 900 nm
2. Germanium 0.45μA/μw 1300nm
3. In Ga As 0.6μA/μw 1300 nm
The quantum efficiency is independent of the power level falling on detector at a given photon
energy, for most of the photodiode. Therefore responsivity is lineal function of the optical power.
That is photo current. Ip is directly to the optical power Po incident upon the photo detector, so that
the responsivity R is not constant at a given wavelength (for a given value of hv). The quantum
efficiency is not constant at all wavelengths, as it varies as per photon energy.
As a result, the responsivity is a function of the wavelength and of the photodiode material
(different material have different band gap energy) for a given material as the wavelength of the
incident photon becomes energy, the photon energy becomes longer the photon energy becomes
less than that required to excite an electron from the valance band to the conduction band. The
responsivity then falls off rapidly beyond the cut off wavelength as seen in figure 3.43.
3.25 AVALANCHE PHOTO DIODE (APD)

In contrast to PIN photodiode, which has current gain of unity an APD has a better gain. It
can be around 1000 but it can go upto several hundred as typical value. This is possible manly
because of avalanche multiplication. The APD is constructed in such away that the carrier’s must
traverse a region where there is a high electric field.
A hole or electron can be imparted with sufficient energy because of the high intensity field.
When these carrier’s collide with a crystal lattice, they loose some energy to the crystal. Also if the
kinetic energy of a carrier is greater than the band gap energy of the valance electrons, the collision
can free a bound electron.
The free electron and hole so created them selves acquire enough kinetic energy to cause
further impact ionization. The result is an avalanche, with the number of free carrier’s growing
exponentially as the process continues.
A simple sketch of reach through avalanche photodiode (RAPD) is shown in

figure 3.44 alongwith the associated field distribution. This type of structure is generally used in
practice as it leads to carrier multiplication with very little excess noises.
– hf
Electric Field
+
p
Distance
Avalanche region
i( )
Figure 3.44: Avalanche photodiode (RAPD)
+ +
This consists of p - i - p-n layers. The  layer is basically intrinsic material and inadvertently
has same p doping because of imperfect purification. When the diode is reverse biased, most of the
+
applied voltage appears across the pn junction because of negligibly small photo current. With the
increase in the bias voltage, peak electric field at the junction and the width of the depletion region
increases. At a certain voltage level, the electric field is about 10% less than the avalanche break
down limit and depletion layer just reaches through to the nearly in intrinsic  region.
For this reason, it is referred to as the reach through APD. The RAPD is generally operated
+
in the fully depleted mode. Photons enter the device through the p region and are absorbed by the
high resistively intrinsic P-type layer where electron-hole pairs are generated.
The relatively weak electric field in this region then separates the carriers causing the electrons
and holes to drift into the high electric field region where avalanche multification occurs resulting in
current gain of the device.
3.25.1 Conversion Efficiency of Optical Detectors

The optical detector is characterized by its optical to electrical conversion efficiency. Either
the detector may be a simple optical device or optical device with matching amplifier electronics so
that further processing is straight forward.
1. Conversion Efficiency of PIN Diodes

Normally the PIN photodiode capability is defined by two common parameters namely (a)
Quantum efficiency and (b) Responsivity. The quantum efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
number of electrons collected at the junction over the number of incident photons. Therefore under
ideal condition, one photon releases one electron and its matching hole. Therefore perfect quantum
efficiency is 1 or 100%.
But in practical situation it could be above 0.8 depending on operating wavelength, thus it is
correct to say efficient at what wavelength. Quantum efficiency does not take account of energy
level of the incident photons, but responsivity is a measure that takes into account of photons energies.
This is output photo current of the device in amperes divided by the input optical power in watts.
Hence responsivity is quoted in amperes/watt.
For silicon photo diode it is 0.44 at 900nm wavelength. Responsivity is linked to quantum
efficiency. It is just quantum efficiency adjusted to account for the variation in energy level implied
by different wavelengths.
2. Conversion Efficiency of Avalanche Photodiodes

The APD has a gain of about 100 due to avalanche amplification, its light acceptance area is
about 100-200m in diameter and the rise time is bout 100ps. An APD made with germanium is
suitable for wave length below 1.7m while a silicon APD can be used upto 0.9 m although when
highly doped with acceptors it can operate at 1.06m.
Quantum efficiencies at  = 0.85m are  = 50% for a silicon APD and 30% for
GermaniumAPD in contrast to PIN diode (silicon) which is 90%. For silicon APD typical capacitance
is 1-3pf and gain bandwidth is given by
B
M = 450 MHz ... (8)
The disadvantage ofAPD is that it demands high biasing voltage and it is more noisy compared
to a PIN diode. For long haul communications where received signal is weak, APD is preferred
over PIN diode.
3.25.2 Noise Characteristics of Optical detectors

The detector output should be associated with a minimum of noise either in the form of its
dark current or due to the excess multiplication noise associated with the avalanche multiplication
powers in avalanche photodiodes. PIN diode is comparatively less noisy.
1. Noise in PIN Diode

*
Specific Directivity D of a PIN diode is given by
 e
D*  DA1/ 2  1/ 2 ... (9)
 I 
hc  2e d 
 A
1
D = Detectivity = ... (10)
NEP
NEP = Noise equivalent power
A = Area
e = Quantum efficiency
 = Wave length
hc = Plank’s current
Id = Dark current
Optical communication system that uses wide band width detectors often work into a low
resistance and requires a minimum signal current which excess Id heavily. Then the components like
load, resistor, amplifier and also the signal current itself all introduce additional source of noise. This
complicates the parameters. Therefore noise limited detection is the way to deal with design of
communication system for practical use.
2. Noise in Avalanche photo Diodes

In practice it is preferable to have only one type of carrier for impact ionisation. Electron is
the generally that carrier. Although presence of both type of carriers increases the gain of the
device (APD), it also causes some undesirable device properties. The continual cascading caused
by both the carriers could lead to instability and precipitate avalanche breakdown. The random
process of collision increases the noise in the device and takes more time than a single multiplication
process leading to reduction in the bandwidth.
The photo detectors generally exhibit different ionisation rates for electron 1 and holes  i.
The ionisation rate is defined as the average no. of electron-hole pair created by the carrier limit
i
distance traveled.  k = of the two ionisation rates is the measure of the photo diode
1
performance.
The APDs constructed of materials where one type of carrier largely dominates impact ionization
exhibit low noise and large gain band width products. Multiplication factors of all carriers generated
in the photo diode is defined as
IM ... (11)
M 
IP
Where IM = average value of multifier output current

IP = primarily unmultiplied current
3.25.3 Responsivity
One measure of photo diodes sensitivity is the responsivity Ro which is defined as the ratio of
detector current to the input optical power level. It is normally expressed as A/W or µA/µW.
Responsivity is given by

I P e  m A
RO   e
Pr h f (or) RO  h  1.24 W ... (12)
c
 = 1.0
1.2
Responsivity R0 (A/W)
1.0 0.8
0.8 0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2 0.2
0
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Wavelength  (m)
Figure 3.45: Variation of responsivity Ro with wavelength 

for different quantum efficiencies 
Responsivity is a function of λ, and photodiode material. Linear increase of Ro with λ for a

fixed value of  is shown in figure 3.45  is not constant in practice but depends on many functions
like λ detector material etc. Variations of Ro with λ for four typical devices are shown in figure 3.46.
1.0 =1.0
0.8 0.5
Responsivity R 0 (A/W)
0.6
0.4 InGaAs
InGaAsP
0.2
Si Ge
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Wavelength  ( m)
Figure 3.46: Responsivity Ro versus wavelength  for some typical device
The dotted lines are for constant . The long wavelength fall off is due to energy defficiency
of the photons while the short wave length full off is due to increased absorption effect. The quantum
effiency curve differs from that of a responsivity curve because photon energy changes with wave
length.
Sensitivity of an APD is decreased by its responsivity
M
RAPD  e  Ro M ... (13)
hf
where Ro - Responsivity at unity multiplication
3.26 RESPONSE TIME OF DETECTORS

a) Depletion Layer current:
Consider the reverse biased pin photo diode shown in figure 6.10 to understand the frequency
response of photodiodes. Here light enters the device thorough the P layer and produces electron-
hole pairs as it is absorbed in the light material. Those electron-hole pairs that are generated in the
depletion region or within the diffusion length of it will be separated by the reverse biased voltage
included electric field, thereby leading to a current flow in the external circuit as the carriers drift
across the depletion layer.
b) Derivation of Expression for total current density through reverse biased depletion
region
Total current density Jtot flowing through the reverse biased depletion range in under steady
state condition is given by
Jtot = Jdr +Jdiff ... (14)
where Jdr - drift current density resulting from carriers generation inside the depletion region.
Jdiff - diffusion current density arising in the carriers that are produced outside the depletion
layer in the bulk of the semi conductor (n and p region) and diffuse into the reverse
biased junction.
The drift current density can be found from equation (5)
Ip
A
 QO 1  e  s
Jdr    ... (15)
where A is the photo diode area and o is the incident photon flux per unit area given by
Po 1  Rf 
O  ... (16)
Aho
The surface P layer of pin photodiode is usually very thin. The diffusion current is thus principally
determined by hole diffusion from the buck n region. The hole diffusion in this material can be
determined by the one directional diffusion equation.
d 2 pn Pn  Pno
Dp   G  x  0 ... (17)
d 2 Tp
where Dp - Hole diffusion coefficient
Pn - Hole concentrating in the n type material
Tp - Excess hole lifetime
Pno - Equilibrium hole density
G(x) - Electron hole generation rate, which is given by
–sx
G (x) = o s e ... (18)
From equation (11) the diffusion current density is found to be
 sLp  s Dp
J diff  qo e  qPno ... (9)
1   sLp Lp
Submitting equation (9) and (13) into equation (8)
 e  s  Dp
we get J Tot  q o  1    qpno ... (20)
 1   sLp  Lp
The term involving Pno is normally small so that the total photo generator current is proportion
in the photon flux o
3.26.1 Response Time

The response time of a photodiode along with its output circuit shown in figure 3.47(a) and
figure 3.47(b) depends mainly on the following factors:
i) The transient time of the photo carriers in the depletion region.
ii) The diffusion time of the photo carriers generated outside the depletion region.
The RC time constant of the photo diode and its associated circuit.
Bias Voltage Rs
Photodiode
Photodiode
hv Output Cd RL Ra Ca AMP
AMP hv
RL
(a) (b)
Figure 3.47: (a) Simple model of photo detector receiver and (b) its equivalent circuit
The photo diode parameters responsible for the above factors are the absorption coefficient,
the depletion region width w, the photo diode junction and package capacitance, amplifier capacitance,
detector load resistance, amplifier input resistance and photo diode series resistance. The photodiode
series resistance is usually only a few ohm and hence it can be neglected in comparison with large
load resistance and the amplifier input resistance.
1. Transit Time
We shall examine the transit time of the photo carriers in the depletion region. The response
speed o a photo diode is basically limited by the time it takes photo generated carriers to travel
across the depletion region. This transit time td depends on the carrier drift velocity vd and the
depletion layer width w and is given by
w
td  ... (21)
vd
In general, the electric field in the depletion region is large enough so that the carriers have
reached their scattering limited velocity. For silicon the maximum velocities for electron and holes
6 6 4
are 8.4 × 10 and 4.4 × 10 cm/s respectively. When the field strength is of the order of 2 × 10
V/cm. A typical high speed silicon photo diode with a 10µm depletion layer width thus has a
response time limit of about 0.1ns.
2. Diffusion Time
Diffusion processes are slow compared to the draft of carriers in field. Therefore to have a
high-speed photo diode, the photo carriers must be generated in the depletion region or so close to
it that the diffusion times are les than or equal to the carrier drift time. The effect of long diffusion
times can be seen by considering the photo diode response time. Response time is derived by the
rise time and fall time of the detector o/p when the detector is illuminated by a step input of optical
radiation. The rise time Tr is typically measured from the 10 to 90% points of the leading edge of the
output pulse as shown in figure 3.48.
Photodiode voltage response
90% 90%
50%
10% 10%
TF Tf Time
Figutr 3.48: Typically measured from the 10 to 90% points

of the leading edge of the output pulses
For fully depleted photo diodes the rise time Tr and fall time Px are usually the same. But they
can be different at low bias levels where the photodiode is not fully depleted, since the photon
collection time then starts to become a significant contributor to the rise time. In this case, the charge
carriers produced in the depletion region, are separated and collected quickly. Whereas electron-
hole pairs generated in the n and p region must slowly diffuse to the depletion region before they can
be separated and located. A typical response time of partly depleted photo diode is shown in
figure 3.49. The fast carriers allow the device o/p to rise to 50% of its maximum value in approximately
1ns, but the slow carriers cause a relatively long delay before the output reaches its maximum value.
100%
Percent of total output
Response from
slow carriers
50%
Response from
fast carriers
2 3
1 10 10 10
Time (ns)
Figure 3.49: Typical response time to diode that is not pleted
3. Depletion Layer Width

For best quantum efficiency the depletion layer width must be much larger than 1/s (the
increase of absorption coefficient) so that most of the light will be absorbed. The response to a
rectangular input pulse of a low capacitance photo diode having w >> 1/s is shown in
figure 3.50(b).
Rectangular w >> 1/s

input pulse Small Cj
(a) (b)
Slow Diffusion component

w >> 1/s component Fast
Large Cj w  1/s
components
Small Cj
(c) (d)
Figure 3.50: Photodiode pulse responses under various detector parameters
The rise and fall times of the photo diode follow the input pulse quite well. If the photo diode
capacitance is larger, then response time becomes limited by the RC time constant of the load
resistor RL and the photo diode capacitance. The photo diode response then begins to appear as
shown in figure 3.50(c).
If the depletion layer is too narrow, any carrier created in the undepleted material would have
to diffuse back into the depletion region before they could be collected. Devices with very thin
depletion region thus tend to show distinct slow and fast response as shown in figure 3.50(d).
The fast component in the rise time is due to carriers generated in the depletion region, the
slow component arises from the diffusion of carriers that are created within a distance ln from the
edge of the depletion region. At the end of the output pulse, the carriers in the depletion region are
collected quickly which results in the fast detector response component in the fall time. The diffusion
of carriers which are within a distance Ln of the depletion region edge appears as the slow by
decaying tail at the end of the use. Also if  is too thin the junction capacitance will become
excessive
4. Junction Capacitance
The junction capacitance Cj is given by
E A
CJ  S ... (22)

where Es - the permittivity of the semiconductor material = Bo ... (23)
where ks - the semiconductor dielectric constant
-12
Eo = 8.854x10 F/M is the free space permittivity
A - diffusion layer area
The excessiveness will then give rise to a large RC time constant which limits the detector
response time. A reasonable compromise between high frequency response and high Q efficiency is
1 1
found for absorption region thickness between and .
s 2 s
5. Circuit Bandwidth
If RT is the combination of the load and amplifier input resistance and CT is the sum of photo
diode and amplifier capacitances, the detector behaves approximately like a simple RC LPF with a
pass band given by
1
B ... (24)
2 RTCT
3.27 PHOTO DETECTOR NOISE

In the communication system the photo diode detects the very weak optical signals. For
detection of weakest optical signals, requires the photo detector and its following amplifying circuitry
are to be optimized so that a given SNR is maintained. The power SNR at the output of the optical
receiver is defined by
S Signal power from photo circuit ... (25)


N Photo det ector noise power  amplifier noise power
The noise sources in the receiver arise from the photo detector noises resulting from the
statistical nature of photon to electron conversion process and the thermal noises associated with
the amplifier circuitry. For obtaining maximum SNR, the following conditions are to be satisfied:
a) The photo detector must have a high Q efficiency to generate a large signal power.
b) The photo detector and amplifier noises should be kept as low as possible.
For most applications, it is the noise currents, which determine the minimum optical power
level that can be detected since the photo diode quantum efficiency is normally close to its maximum
possible value.
The sensitivity of a photo detector in an optical fiber communication system is described in
terms of the minimum detectable optical power. This is the optical power necessary to produce a
photocurrent of the same magnitude as the route mean square of the total noise current or equivalently
a SNR of one.
To make a reliable OFCS design and to evaluate optical receivers, clear understanding of the
source characteristics and inter relationship of various noises in a photo detector is absolutely necessary.
Now we shall see the various noise sources in the PIN diode.
3.27.1 Error Sources / Noise Sources

We can examine the interrelationship of different type of noises affecting the SNR. The photo
diode has a small series resistance Rs, a total capacitance Cd consists of junction and packaging
capacitances and a bias resistor R. Amplifier following the photo diode has an input capacitance
Ca and a resistance Ra. Rs is much smaller than the load resistance Rl in practice and hence it can
be neglected.
The primary photo current generated Iph(t) when a modulated signal of optical power P[t]
falls on the detector is
q
Iph  t    P t  ... (26)
hv
This primary current consists of a dc value Ip which is the average photo current due to the
signal power and a signal component ip(t). For PIN photo diodes the mean square signal current,
2 2 2
 is <is > = ... (27)
For Avalanche photo detectors
2 2 2
 = M ... (28)
where M is the average statistic ability varying avalanche gain. For a sinusoidally varying input
signal the modulation index m.
2
The signal component is of the form
m2 2
i 2 p  t   I p ... (29)
2
I
where m is called modulation index or modulation depth.
'B
1. Shot Noise (Quantum)
The principal noises associated with photo detectors having no internal gain are quantum
noise, dark current noise generated in the bulk material of the photo diode and surface leakage
current noise. The shot noise or quantum arises from the statistical nature of the production and
collection of photo electrons when an optical signal is incident on a photo detector. These statistics
follow a Poisson process.
Since the fluctuations with number of photo carriers created from the photoelectric effect
are a fundamental property of the photo detection process, they set the lower limit on the receiver
sensitivity when all other conditions are optimized. The quantum noise current has a mean square
value in a bandwidth B. B is proportional to the average value of the photo current Ip,
2 2
 = 2q Ip BM F(M) ... (30)
where F(M) is a noise figure associated with the random nature of the avalanche process. From
x
experimental results F[M] = M where x (with 0  x  1) depends on the material. For pin photo
diodes M and F[M] are unity.
2. Dark Current
This is the current that continues to flow through the bias circuit of the device when no light is
falling on the photo diode. This is a combination of bulk and surface currents. The bulk current iDB
arises from electrons and or holes, which are thermally generated in the pn junction of the photo
diode. In APDs these liberated carriers also get accelerated by the highly electric field present at the
pn junction. Therefore this is multiplied by the avalanche gain mechanism. Mean square value of the
current is
2 2
 = 2qID M F[M]B ... (31)
where ID is the primary un multiplied detector bulk dark current.
3. Surface Current
This is referred to as a surface leakage current or simply the leakage current. It is dependent
on surface defects, cleanliness bias voltage and surface area.
10–1
10–2
Ge
10–3
In0.31Ga0.69As
In0.17Ga0.83 As
Current density (A/cm )
2
10–4
In0.15Ga0.85 As
10–5
GaAs
10–6
Si
–7
10
–8
10
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(Normalized bias voltage (V/VB)
Figure 3.51: Comparison of dark currents for Si, Ge, GaAs

and InGaAs photodiodes as a function of normalized bias voltage
An effective way of reducing surface dark current is through the use of guard ring structure,
which shunts surface leakage currents away from the load resistor. Mean square value of surface
dark current is given by
2
 2qILB ... (32)
where IL is surface leakage current [since avalanche multiplication is a bulk effect, surface dark
current is not affected by that effect.
4. Comparison of Dark Currents

Now we shall compare the dark walls for various materials such as Si, Ge,
In-Ga1-xAs and Ga As photo diodes. This is illustrated in figure 3.51. Here current density versus
normalized bias voltage are plotted for these materials.
Normalisation is w.r.t break down voltage Vb. For Inx Ga-xAs photo diodes the dark current
increases with the composition x. Under a reverse bias, both dark currents also increase with area.
The surface current increases in proportion to the square root of the active area and the bulk current
is directly proportional to the area.
As dark currents and signal current are not correlated the total mean square photo detector
2
noise current can be written as
2 2 2 2 2
= ++ = 2q (Ip+ID) M F [M]B +2qILB ... (33)
For simplicity of analysis we will assume that amplified input impedance is much greater than
the load resistance so that its thermal noise is much smaller than that of RL.
The photo detector load resistor contributes a mean square thermal noise current
4 K BT ... (34)
 i 2T   B
RL
where KB is Boltzman‘s constant and T is absolute temperature. This noise can be reduced by
using a load resistor which is large but still consistent with the receiver bandwidth requirements.
3.27.2 SNR
S  i 2 p M 2
 ... (35)
N 2q  I p  I D  M 2 F  M  B  2qI L B  4 K BTB / RL
When PIN photo diodes are used, usually the dominating noise currents are those of the
detector load resistor (thermal current iT) and the active elements of the amplifier circuitry (iamp).
For APDs thermal noise is of lesser importance and photo detector noise usually dominates.
It can be seen from equation (29) that the signal power is multiplied by M and the quantum noise
2
plus bulk dark current is multiplied by M F [M] .
The surface leakage current is not altered by the avalanche gain mechanism. Since the noise
figure F(M) increases with M, there always exists an optimum value of M that maximizes the SNR.
The optimum gain at the maximum SNR can be found by differentiating equation (29) with respect
to M, setting the result equal to zero and solving for M. Doing so for a sinusoidally modulated signal,
x
with m=1 and FM approximated by M , yields
x 2 2qI L  4 KBT / RL
M opt  ... (36)
xq  IP  I D 
3.27.3 Avalanche Multiplication Noise

APDs are very sensitive to temperature variations and as a result their gain is not uniform and
varies w.r.t temperature variations. This kind of temperature dependence is particularly critical at
higher bias voltages where small changes in temperature can cause a large variation in gain.
For example if the operating temperature decreases and the applied bias voltage is constant
the ionization rates for electrons and holes will increase and as a consequence the Avalanche gain
also increases.
In order to maintain a constant gain as the temperature changes, the electric field in the multiplying
region of the pn junction must also be changed. This leads to the fact that the receiver is incorporated
with a compensation circuit, which adjusts the applied bias voltage on the photo detector when the
temperature changes.
A simple temperature expression can be obtained from the empirical relationship
1
M  ... (37)
V 
1  n
 VB 
where VB is the breakdown voltage at which M goes to infinity, the parameter n varies between 2.5
and 7 depending on the material and V = Va – ImRm with Va being the reverse bias voltage applied
to the detector, Im is the multiplied photo current and Rm accounts for the photo diode series
resistance and the detector load resistance.
As the breakdown voltage is known to vary with respect to temperature as
VB  T   VB  TO  1   T  TO   ... (38)
The temperature difference dependence of the avalanche gain can be approximated by

substituting this equation into above equation
n  T   n TO  1  b T  TO   ... (39)
The constants a and b are positive for reach through Avalanche photo diodes and can be
determined from experimental curves of gain versus temperature.
3.27.4 Comparison of Photo Detectors

All commercial Fiber Optic Communication System (FOCS) installation use either PIN or
APD. These devices differ in that the PIN basically converts out photon to one electron and has a
conversion efficiency of less than unity. Carrier multiplication takes place in APD and as a result it
detects multiple electrons at the output per incident photon. Choice of PIN or APD is a matter of
cost and required receiver sensitivity.
The avalanche process in APD has a sharp threshold, which is sensitive to ambient temperature
and may require dynamic control of a relatively high bias voltage. Control and driver circuits of APD
are more expensive than those of PIN detector. Also APD itself is more expensive than PIN. APD
with minimum gain however provides about 15 db more receiver sensitivity than that achieved with
PIN diode.
Ideal spectral match exists between GaAlAs sources operating in the 0.8 to 0.9 m wavelength
range. And photo diodes made of silicon [spectral range 0.5 to 1.1 m], where receiver sensitivity
is not a critical parameter, silicon PIN photo diodes having n o gain but with low dark current
-9
[<10 A] and large bandwidth of approximately 1GHz is best suited. Where the applications
demand high sensitivity silicon APDs are preferred choice. Also these are employed in communication
-10 -11
installations the device where current gains of about 100 and primary dark current of 10 to 10
ampere range are acceptable.
For larger wavelength region of 1.3 to 1.6 m germanium photo diodes are used, since the
response of silicon decreases rapidly as  increases beyond 1 m. Germanium APDs with gain
bandwidth products of approximately 60 GHz have been made but their dark currents are high.
-8 -7
[10 to 10 A] and the excess noise factors are large.
In GaAs and InGaAsP diodes have been found useful in longer wavelength region. In GaAs
PIN diodes have been made with very low capacitance of less than 0.3 pf and acceptably low dark
-9
current of less than 5 ×10 A. but for longer wavelength APD with reduced noise factor is the
desirable feature.
Table 3.4 summarizes the characteristics of these photo detectors in brief.
Table 3.4: Typical photo detector characteristics
PIN diodes Avalanche photodiodes

Sl.No. Characteristics
Silicon Germanium InP Silicon Germanium
1. Wavelength Range m 0.4 to1.1 0.5 to 1.8 1 to 1.6 0.4 to 1.1 0.5 to 1.65
2. Wavelength of
peak sensitivity m 0. 85 1.5 1.26 0.85 1.5
3. Quantum Efficiency % 80 50 70 80 70
4. Rise time, ns 0.001 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.5
5. Bias voltage V 15 6 10 170 40
6. Responsivity A/W 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.6
7. Avalanche gain 1.0 1.0 1.0 80-150 80-150

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UNIT

3.1.1 Requirements of Optical Sources

Sl.No. Parameter Requirement Target

0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3

Figure 3.1: Luminescence efficiency of some semiconductor materials.

8. Shape and Weight

9. Cost and economy

3.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT BANDGAP MATERIALS

Direct band Electron transition

Indirect Band Gap Material

Photon energy, h  = Eind + E ph

3.3 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

Sl.No. Material Wavelengths (nm)

Emitted light Diffused p region

n-type substrate n substrate

(a) Silicon-doped gallium arsenide; (b) Planar diffused

Figure 3.4: Homojunction LED Structures

3.4 TYPES OF LED

3.4.2 Heterojunction LEDs

3.5 LED STRUCTURE

Confinement GaAlAs Double heather

Active region Circular metal contact

Figure 3.6: Schematic of a high radiance surface-emitting LED

3.5.1 Light Source Materials

Conduction band electron

Photon energy Conduction band electron

(b) Electron recombination for indirect band gap material

Diode emission wave length (m)

4.0 1.6 1.0 0.7 0.55

Consider the recombination of an electron and hole accompanied by a emission of a photon.

1.0 810nm peak

750 770 790 810 830 850 870

Figure 3.10: Spectral emission pattern of a representative

3.6 QUANTUM EFFICIENCY AND LED POWER

The radiative recombination life time is given by

The non radiative recombination lifetime is given by

Now the internal quantum efficiency equation becomes

The total recombination lifetime  is given by

3.7 LED POWER

Power due to the internal quantum efficiency

The external quantum efficiency is given by

T (Q)  Fresnel transmission co-efficient

[From acceptance angle Q c    Qc  sin 1  n 2 n1  ]

The total power P  ext .Pint ... (3)

3.8 MODULATION OF A LED

Output optical power

Electrical bandwidth Frequency

3.9 LASER DIODE

(a) absorption (b) spontaneous emission (c) Stimulated emission

3.9.1 Differences between Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated

3.10 LASER DIODE RATE EQUATIONS

3.11 EXTERNAL QUANTUM EFFICIENCY

Where Eg – band gap energy in eV

3.12 RESONANT FREQUENCIES

where  0 – wavelength at the center of the spectrum

This can related to the wavelength spacing  through the relationship

822 824 826 828

3.13 MODES OF LASER CAVITY

Figure 3.14: Mode propagation in gain guided laser

3.13.1 The Longitudinal Modes

3.13.2 Lateral Modes

3.13.3 Transverse Mode

3.13.4 Threshold Condition